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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123082/overview	Information Seeking Behaviour Model Overview Information seeking behaviour models are frameworks that describe how people find information to meet their needs. Information Seeking Behaviour Model Information Seeking Behaviour Model Introduction : Information can be understood as data that has been processed, contributing to decision-making, enhancing our understanding, sharpening our cognitive abilities, and ultimately elevating the societal standing of a nation. Information-seeking behavior pertains to the exploration of techniques and approaches utilized by an individual or how one traverses diverse resources to fulfill their information needs. What is Information seeking behaviour model. The concept of Information Seeking Behaviour within the realm of Information Science can be broadly articulated as the actions undertaken and channels utilized by an individual upon recognizing their information requirements and the following application of the acquired information. Some of the major models are: wilson’s Model of information seeking behavior, Dervin’s sense making theory, Ellis’s behavior model of information. 1. Wilson’s model of information seeking behavior Fig :1. Wilson’s Model of Information seeking behavior (1981) Models of information-seeking behavior are specifically focused on the searching and seeking habits of users. This pioneering model, introduced by T. D. Wilson—often hailed as the father of information-seeking behavior—in 1981, delineates the various domains that a user navigates during the information search process. It distinctly illustrates that the behavior of seeking information emerges from a user's perceived need for information. The quest for information initiates with the user’s engagement with a range of information sources and systems—whether formal or informal. This pursuit culminates in one of two outcomes: success or failure. If the user successfully retrieves the information, it is then utilized, shared, and disseminated among others; however, if the search yields no satisfactory results, the process of seeking recommences. The model emphasizes the role of other individuals in the seeking process via mechanisms of information exchange and transfer. Wilson's model can be characterized as a comprehensive representation of information-seeking behavior, illustrating how an information need manifests and outlining the straightforward steps taken to locate it. Wilson’s Second Model of Information Seeking Behavior: Fig. 2. Wilson’s Model of Information seeking behavior (1994). This model of information-seeking behavior is grounded in two primary propositions: first, that the need for information is not an essential need, but a derivative one that emerges from more fundamental requirements; and second, that to locate the information necessary to fulfill that need, the user must confront specific obstacles. Information needs develop within users due to personal situations, social roles, and the environment in which they exist. This framework was developed in 1994, integrating various aspects of Ellis’ model. It also highlighted the physiological, emotional, and cognitive requirements that stimulate information-seeking behavior. The elements that contribute to the emergence of information needs can simultaneously present as obstacles to an individual's search for information. 2. Ellis’sModel of Information Seeking Behaviour Ellis presented characteristics of information-seeking behaviors rather than stages. By using the term ‘staging,’ he suggests that these behaviors don’t necessarily unfold in a linear fashion; rather, the specific conditions surrounding the information-seeking endeavors of the seeker at any given moment shape the resulting pattern (Ellis 1989). These characteristics include: • Initiating: this signifies the commencement of information • Linking: Utilizing references as bridges between diverse materials to pinpoint appropriate information sources. • Exploring: semi-guided or semi-structured searching • Differentiating: Identifying the information sources based on their relevance • Tracking: Employing various sources to stay updated or engaged in current awareness searching • Selecting: explicitly pinpointing and extracting the pertinent material from an information source • Validating: Examining the correctness of the acquired information • Concluding: Wrapping up by resolving any outstanding issues through a final search. 3. Kuhlthou’s Model: The Kuhlthau model enhances Ellis's framework by linking specific stages of the information-seeking process with the related emotions, cognitions, and behaviors, as well as the suitable information tasks. This connection between emotions, cognitions, and behaviors distinctly showcases Kuhlthau’s viewpoint as experiential rather than purely intellectual. . The stages of information seeking behavior as per kuhlthou’s model are: 1. Initiation 2. Selection 3. Exploration 4. Formulation 5. Collection 6. Presentation Commencement: An individual realizes a gap in knowledge or comprehension, leading to prevalent feelings of uncertainty and apprehension. Selection: A broad subject, theme, or challenge is pinpointed, with initial uncertainty often shifting to a fleeting sense of hope and a willingness to embark on the quest. Investigation: Encountering conflicting, contradictory information, uncertainty, confusion, and skepticism often escalate. Development: A concentrated viewpoint emerges, coupled with an increase in confidence as uncertainty begins to diminish. Gathering: Relevant information related to the focused perspective is compiled, with uncertainty fading as engagement and enthusiasm for the endeavor intensify. Conclusion: The inquiry reaches its end with a newfound understanding that empowers the individual to articulate their insights to others or apply what they’ve learned in some manner. Users engage in the information retrieval process in a comprehensive manner, influenced by a blend of thoughts, emotions, and actions. According to his framework, the information-seeking journey from the users’ viewpoint can be envisioned as a series of decisions influenced by four primary factors: task, time, interest, and availability. During this pursuit of information, the user is focused on the task at hand, the time constraints, personal curiosity, and the extent of time available. This process of searching is described as an uncertainty principle in the realm of library and information services. Uncertainty manifests as a cognitive state that often leads to emotional symptoms like anxiety and diminished self-assurance. For instance, the initial phase of this process is marked by feelings of ambiguity, vague and broad contemplations regarding the problem area, and is linked with the pursuit of foundational information. The user tries to acknowledge a need for information. Furthermore, their task involves pinpointing and refining the general subject of the search; exploring or looking for information related to that general subject; developing and concentrating on a more specific aspect within the subject; gathering relevant data on the focused area; and ultimately concluding the information search. 4. Dervin’ model Dervin’s sense-making theory has evolved over many years and should not be viewed merely as a model for information-seeking behavior. Dervin defines it as a collection of assumptions, a theoretical lens, a methodological framework, a set of research techniques, and a practice oriented towards understanding information perceived as... a human instrument crafted to interpret a reality thought to be both chaotic and systematic. Dervin was one of the pioneering scholars to articulate the sense-making approach and apply it to the requirements of the ordinary individual. His methodology encompassed a series of conceptual foundations and corresponding methodologies for evaluating how people interpret their environments and how they utilize resources for addressing challenges. Nevertheless, sense-making is operationalized through four interconnected elements: a context in time and space, which highlights the disparities between the current context and the desired state; an outcome, representing the results of the sense-making process; and a bridge, serving as a mechanism to connect the current situation, a gap bridged, and the outcome. Dervin has illustrated these elements in the form of a triangle: context, Gap/Bridge, and outcome. In context to information usage, it can foster an inquiry approach that can uncover the characteristics of a problematic scenario, the degree to which information services can alleviate uncertainty, confusion, or any related issues, as well as the nature of the results stemming from information utilization. Conclusion: The frameworks surrounding information behavior concentrate on the subtle processes occurring in the everyday experiences of individuals within specific contexts and social environments that might shape users' information conduct. The frameworks established by Ellis and Kuhlthau emphasize the various tasks involved in the information-seeking journey. Dervin's Sense-making model and Cheuk Wai-Yi's Information seeking and utilizing process framework facilitate the examination of how individuals comprehend and address cognitive gaps to interpret their surroundings. Grasping the sense-making process is highly pertinent to investigating the information behavior of consulting engineers as they strive to acquire pertinent information that may aid in resolving issues.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.851402	12/15/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123082/overview", "title": "Information Seeking Behaviour Model", "author": "Moumita Saha" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107213/overview	OER Professional Development Agenda OER Lesson Plan Overview Proffessional Development lesson plan to present OER to teachers. includes slides and agenda handout Professional Development to Introduce OER OER Professional Development Delta Charter School Emily Dawkins and Cindy Peterman Lesson Plan Summary: Explain OER and the benefits of using OER in our school as it relates to curriculum content, differentiation, engagement and professional development. Objective: Teachers will be able to: Define OER List benefits of OER Know how to use OER Relate OER to planning, engagement, differentiation and professional development Find OER for their content areas Materials: Resources sheet Laptops Slides presentation found in google drive Tables for content teams - teachers will be directed to sit with content teams Introduction: Cindy: Good morning teachers, we have an exciting presentation for you today. Emily and I have spent most of the summer learning about OER and the benefits of OER for you in the classroom. Lesson: (5 min) Slide: Needs Emily lead teachers in activity Have teachers discuss with their content table about curriculum needs. (3 min) Emily - Discuss the needs previously discussed from the curriculum team and how they align to the content team's needs. (2 min) Slide: What is OER? Cindy - explain OER from slide (2 min) Slide: What are the benefits of OER? Emily - explain benefits from slide (2 min) Slide: How can you use OER? 5R’s. Cindy - explain the 5R’s (2 min) Slide: Creative Commons Licensing Emily - overview of Creative Commons Licensing (5 min) Slides: Planning, Engagement, Differentiation, Professional Development Cindy - explain each from slides (5 min) Slide: Where can you find OER Emily - click on each of the OER to show what the sites look like and how to navigate (15 min) Exploration time for Teachers: Cindy Explore OER Commons, Merlot, OpenStax k12 using their content area. (10 min) Teachers will share with their content table the OER resource they found and how will they use it in their lesson (2 min) Conclusion Emily - summarize OER and its benefits Ask for any questions from the teachers	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.876355	07/28/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107213/overview", "title": "OER Lesson Plan", "author": "Emily Dawkins" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62661/overview	Micro:bit intro to CS lesson Overview The lesson will be started by showing the class a Micro:bit under a document camera, pressing the side A button, and showing how the Micro:bit lights up in a specific pattern. Next, the instructor presses the side B button and shows how a new pattern lights up in a specific pattern. This will spark a discussion on what is making the Micro:bit light up, and how that program might work. The introduction is aimed at showing the students the Micro:bit and how they will be able to program theirs to light up and complete other tasks. AP CSA - Micro:bits lesson This lesson uses Micro:bit sensors to introduce Computer Science vocabulary to AP CSA students during the first few days of school. The lesson plan is attached.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.892797	02/18/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/62661/overview", "title": "Micro:bit intro to CS lesson", "author": "Kayli King" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/9976/overview	Introduction to OER Commons Overview Yes Preparation Yes OER Common Introduction Yes OER Commons Brochure Yes Yess	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.916723	07/22/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/9976/overview", "title": "Introduction to OER Commons", "author": "Mary Babcock" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105037/overview	Education Standards OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [K.NBT] Overview The intent of clarifying statements is to provide additional guidance for educators to communicate the intent of the standard to support the future development of curricular resources and assessments aligned to the 2021 math standards. Clarifying statements can be in the form of succinct sentences or paragraphs that attend to one of four types of clarifications: (1) Student Experiences; (2) Examples; (3) Boundaries; and (4) Connection to Math Practices. 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: K.NBT.A.1 Cluster: K.NBT.A - Work with numbers 11-19 to gain foundations for place value. STANDARD: K.NBT.A.1 Standards Statement (2021): Compose and decompose from 11 to 19 into groups of ten ones and some further ones using objects, drawings, or equations. Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| N/A \| 1.NBT.B.2 \| K.OA.A.2, K.OA.A.3 \| K.NBT.A.1 K.NBT.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Clarifications - Students should be able to put together (compose) and break apart (decompose) numbers into a group of ten ones and some further ones to understand that these numbers are composed of ten ones and one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, or nine ones. - Students should use strategic thinking in order to communicate quantities for authentic purposes. Terminology - Composition refers to putting numbers together, such as 10 + 2 = 12 - Decomposition refers to breaking multi-digit numbers apart, which would be into groups of tens and ones at this grade level, such as 14 = 10 + 4. - Math drawings are simple drawings that make essential mathematical features and relationships salient while suppressing details that are not relevant ot the mathematical ideas. Teaching Strategies - Compose and decompose numbers from 11 to 19 into ten and single ones (not “a ten;” this is in first grade). - Use objects or drawings to record each composition or decomposition. An example would be a student recognizing that the number 13 is made up of ten single ones and three more. This is specific to teen numbers only. - Students should be given the opportunity to use five frames, ten frames, and rekenreks with support to demonstrate each composition or decomposition. Progressions - The numerals 11, 12, 13, ..., 19 need special attention for children to understand them. The first nine numerals 1, 2, 3, ..., 9, and 0 are essentially arbitrary marks. These same marks are used again to represent larger numbers. Children need to learn the differences in the ways these marks are used. For example, initially, a numeral such as 16 looks like "one, six," not "1 ten and 6 ones." Layered place value cards can help children see the 0 "hiding" under the ones place and that the 1 in the tens place really is 10 (ten ones). (Please reference page 5 in the Progression document). Examples - Illustrative Mathematics: [What Makes a Teen Number?] - Student Acheivement Partners: [Counters & Ten Frame]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.950024	06/09/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105037/overview", "title": "OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [K.NBT]", "author": "Mark Freed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87180/overview	Sequence Teaching story retell and sequence writing Overview (All pictures courtesy of www.creativecommons.org) What is Sequencing? Sequencing is when components of a story or event are identified. - Beginning - Middle - End Sequencing is also when you have the ability to retell events of a text and the order in which they occurred. Why is sequencing important? Learning sequencing is an important skill for reading and writing. It is important to make sure that early readers are able to identify the important events of a story. Sequencing helps with comprehension and understanding of the text. As readers move to more advanced texts their sequencing skills will be useful. Adults use sequencing skills when they are using a new recipe or changing a tire in a car. There is an order that you need to follow when doing those tasks. Sequencing is important in reading in writing because students learn to identify what happens first, next, and last. As reading and writing improves there can be more added in the middle. Sequence writing can be used in all subjects. Prompts can be given for concepts that are more difficult. Story retell and Sequence writing Story retell and sequence writing work together. After a book in the classroom the teacher may ask students what they thought about the book. This prompting question will get students to think about the book and try to recall things that happened. The next thing that the teacher will ask is what happened at the beginning of the story. These questions will get students to think about retelling the story and what happened in the story. After the story has been retold students will get a chance to work on sequence writing. It is important for students to write what happened in order, they do not want to say the last thing was the first thing that happened. Example of Sequence Writing I know how a pumpkin grows. First a seed is planted. Next leaves and flowers grow on the vine. Then a small green pumpkin begins to grow. Finally the pumpkin turns orange and is ready to be turned into a jack-o-lantern.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.971381	10/28/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87180/overview", "title": "Teaching story retell and sequence writing", "author": "Sarah Melton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97801/overview	Intro to Cellular Respiration Overview A diagram of how mitochondria produces energy along with chloroplast. Stage 1 - Desired Results ESTABLISHED GOALS \| \| Transfer Students will be able to independently use their learning to… \| \| Meaning UNDERSTANDINGS \| ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS \| \| What is the role of oxygen in cellular respiration? What organelles contribute to cellular respiration? What is the role of water in cellular respiration? \| Aquistion Students will know… \| Students will be skilled at… \| The resources and products needed for cellular respiration. How to accurately describe the cycle. \| Calculating the net energy gained from the cycle. Creating/a detail description of the cycle. \| Stage 2 - Assessment Evidence Evaluative Criteria \| Assessment Evidence \| \| PERFORMANCE TASK(S): 1-2 formative assessments on the unit and 1 summative assessment on the unit. \| \| OTHER EVIDENCE: Possible extra credit being offered on the assessments along with optional case studies/other short assignments that require students to show a strong understanding of the material. \| Stage 3 - Learning Plan Learning Activities: Summary of Key Learning Events and Instruction What learning experiences and instruction will enable students to achieve the desired results? How will the design W = Help the students know Where the unit is going and What is expected? Help the teacher know Where the students are coming from (prior knowledge, interests)? H = Hook all students, and Hold their interest? E1 = Equip students, help them Experience the key ideas and Explore the issue? R = Provide opportunities to Rethink and Revise their understandings and work? E2 = Allow students to Evaluate their work and its implications? T = be Tailored (personalized) to the different needs, interests, and abilities of learners? O = Be Organized to maximize initial and sustained engagement as well as effective learning? 1. What is the importance of Cellular Respiration? (W,H) - W-Presentation, this will help the students with a general sense of whats happening. - H- Kahoot, to gauge what they know and to interest them. - Begin the discussion with why respiration is important. - Relate to photosynthesis. - Explain what goes into respiration. 2. The organelles. (H) - H- Online lab, to interest the students in the organelles. - What organelles are important? Why? - Online activity that goes through the organelles and the basic cycle. 3. The Aerobic cycle. (E1,T,O) - E1- Presentation, a quick presentation to bring them up to speed. - T- Microscopes, this will allow students to look at cells and indivdualize how they do it. - O- Presentation, an organized approach to the topic. - Describe the components of the aerobic cycle. - What goes into the cycle? - What is the process of the cycle? 4. The Anaerobic cycle. (E1, T, O) - E1- Presentation, let the students know whats happening. - T- Webquest, Lets the students take their time while learning and stay interested. - O- Presentation for the sole purpose of organization. - How does the Anaerobic cycle work? - How is it different than the aerobic? - Compare and contrast worksheet. 5. How does cellular respiration differ from photosynthesis? (E1, R, T) - E1-Presentation, yet again a very short one. - R- Blog, allows the students to think about what they learned. - T- Podcast, allows the students to take it whatever direction they want. - Question students about their knowledge of photosynthesis. - A brief generalization of photosynthesis. - Ven diagram created with the help of the students. - Educate on any missing parts that students are struggling with.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:28.995573	Hailey Gilles	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97801/overview", "title": "Intro to Cellular Respiration", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90449/overview	Animal Adaptations Chiton Christmas Anemones Cockle Dungeness Crab - juvenile Fab Four Phyla Information Sheet Green Sea Urchin Modified Intertidal Field Atlas sunflower star True stars in a tidepool Fab Four Phyla Overview The Fab Four Phyla lesson provides an introduction to the main family groups of intertidal animals found in the Alaskan coastal rocky intertidal zone. The objective of the lesson is to help students become familiar with the four most abundant marine invertebrate phyla that can be observed on a field trip experience and the defining characteristics of each. If unable to do a field trip, this lesson will provide the foundation for understanding the key marine invertebrate phyla in a rocky intertidal ecosystem and an understanding of adaptations animals have to survive living in a particular intertidal zone. The lesson includes photos of marine invertebrates for each of the phyla, downloadable information sheets and an Intertidal Field Guide Atlas, a PowerPoint presentation on marine invertebrates and an instructional video about animal adaptations in the intertidal zone. Lesson Description The intertidal zone is home to a wide variety of invertebrate organisms. In Kachemak Bay the intertidal invertebrates are dominated by four major phyla of animals known as the "Fab Four." These four groups of invertebrates are molluscs, arthropods, echinoderms, and cnidarians. The Fab Four Phyla lesson provides an introduction to the main family groups of intertidal animals found in the Alaskan coastal rocky intertidal zone. The objective of the lesson is to help students become familiar with the four most abundant marine invertebrate phyla that can be observed on a field trip experience and the defining characteristics of each. If unable to do a field trip, this lesson will provide the foundation for understanding the key marine invertebrate phyla in a rocky intertidal ecosystem and an understanding of adaptations animals have to survive living in a particular intertidal zone. By understanding the defining characteristic of each phylum, or animal division, to be observed or monitored, students will be able to identify intertidal organisms and make assumptions about where to find them in the tidal zone. They will have the tools for formulating inquiries about the organism's abundance at the site and assessing potential impacts to the species being observed or monitored. The lesson includes photos of marine invertebrates for each of the phyla, downloadable information sheets and an Intertidal Field Guide Atlas, a PowerPoint presentation on marine invertebrates and an instructional video about animal adaptations in the intertidal zone. Key learning concepts covered by this lesson include: 1. Kachemak Bay, its beaches and coastal watersheds have favorable conditions for supporting a diversity of plants and animals. 2. Plants and animals have adaptations for survival that allow them to survive best under certain conditions. a) Adaptations to the conditions in the intertidal zone. b) Adaptations to conditions in the coastal forest Objective and Concept Objective: To be able to identify at least 4 of the defining characteristics of each of the four most abundant marine invertebrate phyla observed in Kachemak Bay and where they are found in the intertidal zone. Concept: By understanding the defining characteristic of each phylum, or animal division, to be monitored, students will be able to identify intertidal organisms and make assumptions about where to find these animals in the tidal zone. They will have the tools for formulating inquiries about the organism's abundance at the site and assessing potential impacts to the species being monitored. What You Will Need You Will Need (included as a resource in each section): - PBFS Field Atlas Pages for Fab 4 Phyla (1 animal for each student) - Fab Four Information Sheet - Kachemak Bay Invertebrates PowerPoint - Kachemak Bay Invertebrates Video Clips - Paper or Student Journals Introduction Begin by asking students what an invertebrate is and what it means. Explain that most of the animals students will be seeing are animals that live between the tides. Ask students to brainstorm animals without backbones that they have seen living on the beach between the tides. Then introduce the fab four phyla as the most common groups of invertebrate animals that live between the tides. Activity 1 - Student Journals Have students divide their journal page or piece of paper into fourths and label each box with a phylum from the fab four: Cnidarians, Molluscs, Echinoderms, and Arthropods. As a class, students should fill in the four boxes with their characteristics and small drawings of examples of animals within the phylum. Then reinforce knowledge the next activity. Fab Four Phyla and the Intertidal Zones After watching the Animal Adaptations video, students will update their Fab Four Phyla information in their Science Journal to include which intertidal zone each can be found and why. Activity 2 - Intertidal Party Mixed-Pair Share Pass out PBFS Atlas animal cards. Students read their card and become this organism. They will need to know: what they eat, what they do to defend themselves from predators, who their predators are, how they avoid drying out, and which of the fab four phyla they are in. Then explain that the class is going to have an intertidal party and model what conversations at the party might look like. When the educator says "mingle," everyone wanders around the classroom until the educator says "PAIR." At this point, the intertidal animals find the nearest organism and meet them. The taller animal will introduce themselves first by telling the other organism all about themselves and acting in character. Then the other animal will introduce themselves. Partners will figure out what they have in common and how they are different. Are they in the same phylum? Organisms should beware if they find themselves paired with a predator! Ask for two or three students to share with the group what they learned about the intertidal invertebrate they met at the party. If time, mix, pair, and share again.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.040403	02/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90449/overview", "title": "Fab Four Phyla", "author": "Elizabeth Trowbridge" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/10033/overview	ppt on types of inheritance ppt on function overriding ppt on invocation of Constructor and Destructor ppt on virtual functions ppt on mechanism of virtual functions ppt on Pure Virtual Functions Inheritance and Virtual Functions Overview After watching the video and lecture notes, students are evaluated for their understanding on the concepts with a quiz and activity Quiz on Virtual Functions and Inheritance Student has to solve TPS activity and answer the quiz questions OOPS WITH c++ QUIZ QUESTIONS 1. What is the difference between c & c++? 2. What are the few advantages of Inline function? 3. When two or more classes serve as base class for a derived class, the situation is known as __________. a. multiple inheritance b. polymorphism c. encapsulation d. hierarchical inheritance e. none of these 4.When a class serves as base class for many derived classes, the situation is called: a. polymorphism b. hierarchical inheritance c. hybrid inheritance d. multipath inheritance e. none of these 5.Which symbol is used to create multiple inheritance? a)Dot b)Comma c)Dollar d) None of the mentioned 6. What are the different forms of inheritance supported by C++? 7.Which of the following advantages we lose by using multiple inheritance? a) Dynamic binding b) Polymorphism c) Both a & b d) None of the mentioned 8. \| Which of the following type of class allows only one object of it to be created? \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 9. \| Which of the following concepts means determining at runtime what method to invoke? \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \| 10 \| .Which of the following statements is correct? \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.068039	07/25/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/10033/overview", "title": "Inheritance and Virtual Functions", "author": "Lalitha vp" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15441/overview	A Vibrant Capitalist Republic Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the process of selling western land - Discuss the causes of the Panic of 1819 - Identify key American innovators and inventors By the 1840s, the United States economy bore little resemblance to the import-and-export economy of colonial days. It was now a market economy, one in which the production of goods, and their prices, were unregulated by the government. Commercial centers, to which job seekers flocked, mushroomed. New York City’s population skyrocketed. In 1790, it was 33,000; by 1820, it had reached 200,000; and by 1825, it had swelled to 270,000. New opportunities for wealth appeared to be available to anyone. However, the expansion of the American economy made it prone to the boom-and-bust cycle. Market economies involve fluctuating prices for labor, raw materials, and consumer goods and depend on credit and financial instruments—any one of which can be the source of an imbalance and an economic downturn in which businesses and farmers default, wage workers lose their employment, and investors lose their assets. This happened for the first time in the United States in 1819, when waves of enthusiastic speculation (expectations of rapidly rising prices) in land and commodities gave way to drops in prices. THE LAND OFFICE BUSINESS In the early nineteenth century, people poured into the territories west of the long-settled eastern seaboard. Among them were speculators seeking to buy cheap parcels from the federal government in anticipation of a rise in prices. The Ohio Country in the Northwest Territory appeared to offer the best prospects for many in the East, especially New Englanders. The result was “Ohio fever,” as thousands traveled there to reap the benefits of settling in this newly available territory (Figure). The federal government oversaw the orderly transfer of public land to citizens at public auctions. The Land Law of 1796 applied to the territory of Ohio after it had been wrested from Indians. Under this law, the United States would sell a minimum parcel of 640 acres for $2 an acre. The Land Law of 1800 further encouraged land sales in the Northwest Territory by reducing the minimum parcel size by half and enabling sales on credit, with the goal of stimulating settlement by ordinary farmers. The government created land offices to handle these sales and established them in the West within easy reach of prospective landowners. They could thus purchase land directly from the government, at the price the government had set. Buyers were given low interest rates, with payments that could be spread over four years. Surveyors marked off the parcels in straight lines, creating a landscape of checkerboard squares. The future looked bright for those who turned their gaze on the land in the West. Surveying, settling, and farming, turning the wilderness into a profitable commodity, gave purchasers a sense of progress. A uniquely American story of settling the land developed: hardy individuals wielding an axe cleared it, built a log cabin, and turned the frontier into a farm that paved the way for mills and towns (Figure). A New Englander Heads West A native of Vermont, Gershom Flagg was one of thousands of New Englanders who caught “Ohio fever.” In this letter to his brother, Azariah Flagg, dated August 3, 1817, he describes the hustle and bustle of the emerging commercial town of Cincinnati. DEAR BROTHER, Cincinnati is an incorporated City. It contained in 1815, 1,100 buildings of different descriptions among which are above 20 of Stone 250 of brick & 800 of Wood. The population in 1815 was 6,500. There are about 60 Mercantile stores several of which are wholesale. Here are a great share of Mechanics of all kinds. Here is one Woolen Factory four Cotton factories but not now in operation. A most stupendously large building of Stone is likewise erected immediately on the bank of the River for a steam Mill. It is nine stories high at the Waters edge & is 87 by 62 feet. It drives four pair of Stones besides various other Machinery as Wool carding &c &c. There is also a valuable Steam Saw Mill driving four saws also an inclined Wheel ox Saw Mill with two saws, one Glass Factory. The town is Rapidly increasing in Wealth & population. Here is a Branch of the United States Bank and three other banks & two Printing offices. The country around is rich. . . . That you may all be prospered in the world is the anxious wish of your affectionate Brother GERSHOM FLAGG What caught Flagg’s attention? From your reading of this letter and study of the engraving below (Figure), what impression can you take away of Cincinnati in 1817? Learn more about settlement of and immigration to the Northwest Territory by exploring the National Park Service’s Historic Resource Study related to the Lincoln Boyhood National Memorial. According to the guide’s maps, what lands were available for purchase? THE PANIC OF 1819 The first major economic crisis in the United States after the War of 1812 was due, in large measure, to factors in the larger Atlantic economy. It was made worse, however, by land speculation and poor banking practices at home. British textile mills voraciously consumed American cotton, and the devastation of the Napoleonic Wars made Europe reliant on other American agricultural commodities such as wheat. This drove up both the price of American agricultural products and the value of the land on which staples such as cotton, wheat, corn, and tobacco were grown. Many Americans were struck with “land fever.” Farmers strove to expand their acreage, and those who lived in areas where unoccupied land was scarce sought holdings in the West. They needed money to purchase this land, however. Small merchants and factory owners, hoping to take advantage of this boom time, also sought to borrow money to expand their businesses. When existing banks refused to lend money to small farmers and others without a credit history, state legislatures chartered new banks to meet the demand. In one legislative session, Kentucky chartered forty-six. As loans increased, paper money from new state banks flooded the country, creating inflation that drove the price of land and goods still higher. This, in turn, encouraged even more people to borrow money with which to purchase land or to expand or start their own businesses. Speculators took advantage of this boom in the sale of land by purchasing property not to live on, but to buy cheaply and resell at exorbitant prices. During the War of 1812, the Bank of the United States had suspended payments in specie, “hard money” usually in the form of gold and silver coins. When the war ended, the bank continued to issue only paper banknotes and to redeem notes issued by state banks with paper only. The newly chartered banks also adopted this practice, issuing banknotes in excess of the amount of specie in their vaults. This shaky economic scheme worked only so long as people were content to conduct business with paper money and refrain from demanding that banks instead give them the gold and silver that was supposed to back it. If large numbers of people, or banks that had loaned money to other banks, began to demand specie payments, the banking system would collapse, because there was no longer enough specie to support the amount of paper money the banks had put into circulation. So terrified were bankers that customers would demand gold and silver that an irate bank employee in Ohio stabbed a customer who had the audacity to ask for specie in exchange for the banknotes he held. In an effort to bring stability to the nation’s banking system, Congress chartered the Second Bank of the United States (a revival of Alexander Hamilton’s national bank) in 1816. But this new institution only compounded the problem by making risky loans, opening branches in the South and West where land fever was highest, and issuing a steady stream of Bank of the United States notes, a move that increased inflation and speculation. The inflated economic bubble burst in 1819, resulting in a prolonged economic depression or severe downturn in the economy called the Panic of 1819. It was the first economic depression experienced by the American public, who panicked as they saw the prices of agricultural products fall and businesses fail. Prices had already begun falling in 1815, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, when Britain began to “dump” its surplus manufactured goods, the result of wartime overproduction, in American ports, where they were sold for low prices and competed with American-manufactured goods. In 1818, to make the economic situation worse, prices for American agricultural products began to fall both in the United States and in Europe; the overproduction of staples such as wheat and cotton coincided with the recovery of European agriculture, which reduced demand for American crops. Crop prices tumbled by as much 75 percent. This dramatic decrease in the value of agricultural goods left farmers unable to pay their debts. As they defaulted on their loans, banks seized their property. However, because the drastic fall in agricultural prices had greatly reduced the value of land, the banks were left with farms they were unable to sell. Land speculators lost the value of their investments. As the countryside suffered, hard-hit farmers ceased to purchase manufactured goods. Factories responded by cutting wages or firing employees. In 1818, the Second Bank of the United States needed specie to pay foreign investors who had loaned money to the United States to enable the country to purchase Louisiana. The bank began to call in the loans it had made and required that state banks pay their debts in gold and silver. State banks that could not collect loan payments from hard-pressed farmers could not, in turn, meet their obligations to the Second Bank of the United States. Severe consequences followed as banks closed their doors and businesses failed. Three-quarters of the work force in Philadelphia was unemployed, and charities were swamped by thousands of newly destitute people needing assistance. In states with imprisonment for debt, the prison population swelled. As a result, many states drafted laws to provide relief for debtors. Even those at the top of the social ladder were affected by the Panic of 1819. Thomas Jefferson, who had cosigned a loan for a friend, nearly lost Monticello when his acquaintance defaulted, leaving Jefferson responsible for the debt. In an effort to stimulate the economy in the midst of the economic depression, Congress passed several acts modifying land sales. The Land Law of 1820 lowered the price of land to $1.25 per acre and allowed small parcels of eighty acres to be sold. The Relief Act of 1821 allowed Ohioans to return land to the government if they could not afford to keep it. The money they received in return was credited toward their debt. The act also extended the credit period to eight years. States, too, attempted to aid those faced with economic hard times by passing laws to prevent mortgage foreclosures so buyers could keep their homes. Americans made the best of the opportunities presented in business, in farming, or on the frontier, and by 1823 the Panic of 1819 had ended. The recovery provided ample evidence of the vibrant and resilient nature of the American people. ENTREPRENEURS AND INVENTORS The volatility of the U.S. economy did nothing to dampen the creative energies of its citizens in the years before the Civil War. In the 1800s, a frenzy of entrepreneurship and invention yielded many new products and machines. The republic seemed to be a laboratory of innovation, and technological advances appeared unlimited. One of the most influential advancements of the early nineteenth century was the cotton engine or gin, invented by Eli Whitney and patented in 1794. Whitney, who was born in Massachusetts, had spent time in the South and knew that a device to speed up the production of cotton was desperately needed so cotton farmers could meet the growing demand for their crop. He hoped the cotton gin would render slavery obsolete. Whitney’s seemingly simple invention cleaned the seeds from the raw cotton far more quickly and efficiently than could slaves working by hand (Figure). The raw cotton with seeds was placed in the cotton gin, and with the use of a hand crank, the seeds were extracted through a carding device that aligned the cotton fibers in strands for spinning. Whitney also worked on machine tools, devices that cut and shaped metal to make standardized, interchangeable parts for other mechanical devices like clocks and guns. Whitney’s machine tools to manufacture parts for muskets enabled guns to be manufactured and repaired by people other than skilled gunsmiths. His creative genius served as a source of inspiration for many other American inventors. Another influential new technology of the early 1800s was the steamship engine, invented by Robert Fulton in 1807. Fulton’s first steamship, the Clermont, used paddle wheels to travel the 150 miles from New York City to Albany in a record time of only thirty-two hours (Figure). Soon, a fleet of steamboats was traversing the Hudson River and New York Harbor, later expanding to travel every major American river including the mighty Mississippi. By the 1830s there were over one thousand of these vessels, radically changing water transportation by ending its dependence on the wind. Steamboats could travel faster and more cheaply than sailing vessels or keelboats, which floated downriver and had to be poled or towed upriver on the return voyage. Steamboats also arrived with much greater dependability. The steamboat facilitated the rapid economic development of the massive Mississippi River Valley and the settlement of the West. Virginia-born Cyrus McCormick wanted to replace the laborious process of using a scythe to cut and gather wheat for harvest. In 1831, he and the slaves on his family’s plantation tested a horse-drawn mechanical reaper, and over the next several decades, he made constant improvements to it (Figure). More farmers began using it in the 1840s, and greater demand for the McCormick reaper led McCormick and his brother to establish the McCormick Harvesting Machine Company in Chicago, where labor was more readily available. By the 1850s, McCormick’s mechanical reaper had enabled farmers to vastly increase their output. McCormick—and also John Deere, who improved on the design of plows—opened the prairies to agriculture. McCormick’s bigger machine could harvest grain faster, and Deere’s plow could cut through the thick prairie sod. Agriculture north of the Ohio River became the pantry that would lower food prices and feed the major cities in the East. In short order, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois all become major agricultural states. Samuel Morse added the telegraph to the list of American innovations introduced in the years before the Civil War. Born in Massachusetts in 1791, Morse first gained renown as a painter before turning his attention to the development of a method of rapid communication in the 1830s. In 1838, he gave the first public demonstration of his method of conveying electric pulses over a wire, using the basis of what became known as Morse code. In 1843, Congress agreed to help fund the new technology by allocating $30,000 for a telegraph line to connect Washington, DC, and Baltimore along the route of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In 1844, Morse sent the first telegraph message on the new link. Improved communication systems fostered the development of business, economics, and politics by allowing for dissemination of news at a speed previously unknown. Section Summary The selling of the public domain was one of the key features of the early nineteenth century in the United States. Thousands rushed west to take part in the bounty. In the wild frenzy of land purchases and speculation in land, state banks advanced risky loans and created unstable paper money not backed by gold or silver, ultimately leading to the Panic of 1819. The ensuing economic depression was the first in U.S. history. Recovery came in the 1820s, followed by a period of robust growth. In this age of entrepreneurship, in which those who invested their money wisely in land, business ventures, or technological improvements reaped vast profits, inventors produced new wonders that transformed American life. Review Questions Most people who migrated within the United States in the early nineteenth century went ________. - north toward Canada - west toward Ohio - south toward Georgia - east across the Mississippi River Hint: B Which of the following was not a cause of the Panic of 1819? - The Second Bank of the United States made risky loans. - States chartered too many banks. - Prices for American commodities dropped. - Banks hoarded gold and silver. Hint: D Robert Fulton is known for inventing ________. - the cotton gin - the mechanical reaper - the steamship engine - machine tools Hint: C What did federal and state governments do to help people who were hurt in the Panic of 1819? Hint: The federal government passed laws allowing people to sell back land they could not pay for and use the money to pay their debt. States made it more difficult to foreclose on mortgages and tried to make it easier for people to declare bankruptcy.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.097218	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15441/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Industrial Transformation in the North, 1800–1850, A Vibrant Capitalist Republic", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15447/overview	The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the factors that contributed to the Nullification Crisis - Discuss the origins and creation of the Whig Party The crisis over the Tariff of 1828 continued into the 1830s and highlighted one of the currents of democracy in the Age of Jackson: namely, that many southerners believed a democratic majority could be harmful to their interests. These southerners saw themselves as an embattled minority and claimed the right of states to nullify federal laws that appeared to threaten state sovereignty. Another undercurrent was the resentment and anger of the majority against symbols of elite privilege, especially powerful financial institutions like the Second Bank of the United States. THE NULLIFICATION CRISIS The Tariff of 1828 had driven Vice President Calhoun to pen his “South Carolina Exposition and Protest,” in which he argued that if a national majority acted against the interest of a regional minority, then individual states could void—or nullify—federal law. By the early 1830s, the battle over the tariff took on new urgency as the price of cotton continued to fall. In 1818, cotton had been thirty-one cents per pound. By 1831, it had sunk to eight cents per pound. While production of cotton had soared during this time and this increase contributed to the decline in prices, many southerners blamed their economic problems squarely on the tariff for raising the prices they had to pay for imported goods while their own income shrank. Resentment of the tariff was linked directly to the issue of slavery, because the tariff demonstrated the use of federal power. Some southerners feared the federal government would next take additional action against the South, including the abolition of slavery. The theory of nullification, or the voiding of unwelcome federal laws, provided wealthy slaveholders, who were a minority in the United States, with an argument for resisting the national government if it acted contrary to their interests. James Hamilton, who served as governor of South Carolina in the early 1830s, denounced the “despotic majority that oppresses us.” Nullification also raised the specter of secession; aggrieved states at the mercy of an aggressive majority would be forced to leave the Union. On the issue of nullification, South Carolina stood alone. Other southern states backed away from what they saw as the extremism behind the idea. President Jackson did not make the repeal of the 1828 tariff a priority and denied the nullifiers’ arguments. He and others, including former President Madison, argued that Article 1, Section 8 of the Constitution gave Congress the power to “lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises.” Jackson pledged to protect the Union against those who would try to tear it apart over the tariff issue. “The union shall be preserved,” he declared in 1830. To deal with the crisis, Jackson advocated a reduction in tariff rates. The Tariff of 1832, passed in the summer, lowered the rates on imported goods, a move designed to calm southerners. It did not have the desired effect, however, and Calhoun’s nullifiers still claimed their right to override federal law. In November, South Carolina passed the Ordinance of Nullification, declaring the 1828 and 1832 tariffs null and void in the Palmetto State. Jackson responded, however, by declaring in the December 1832 Nullification Proclamation that a state did not have the power to void a federal law. With the states and the federal government at an impasse, civil war seemed a real possibility. The next governor of South Carolina, Robert Hayne, called for a force of ten thousand volunteers (Figure) to defend the state against any federal action. At the same time, South Carolinians who opposed the nullifiers told Jackson that eight thousand men stood ready to defend the Union. Congress passed the Force Bill of 1833, which gave the federal government the right to use federal troops to ensure compliance with federal law. The crisis—or at least the prospect of armed conflict in South Carolina—was defused by the Compromise Tariff of 1833, which reduced tariff rates considerably. Nullifiers in South Carolina accepted it, but in a move that demonstrated their inflexibility, they nullified the Force Bill. The Nullification Crisis illustrated the growing tensions in American democracy: an aggrieved minority of elite, wealthy slaveholders taking a stand against the will of a democratic majority; an emerging sectional divide between South and North over slavery; and a clash between those who believed in free trade and those who believed in protective tariffs to encourage the nation’s economic growth. These tensions would color the next three decades of politics in the United States. THE BANK WAR Congress established the Bank of the United States in 1791 as a key pillar of Alexander Hamilton’s financial program, but its twenty-year charter expired in 1811. Congress, swayed by the majority’s hostility to the bank as an institution catering to the wealthy elite, did not renew the charter at that time. In its place, Congress approved a new national bank—the Second Bank of the United States—in 1816. It too had a twenty-year charter, set to expire in 1836. The Second Bank of the United States was created to stabilize the banking system. More than two hundred banks existed in the United States in 1816, and almost all of them issued paper money. In other words, citizens faced a bewildering welter of paper money with no standard value. In fact, the problem of paper money had contributed significantly to the Panic of 1819. In the 1820s, the national bank moved into a magnificent new building in Philadelphia. However, despite Congress’s approval of the Second Bank of the United States, a great many people continued to view it as tool of the wealthy, an anti-democratic force. President Jackson was among them; he had faced economic crises of his own during his days speculating in land, an experience that had made him uneasy about paper money. To Jackson, hard currency—that is, gold or silver—was the far better alternative. The president also personally disliked the bank’s director, Nicholas Biddle. A large part of the allure of mass democracy for politicians was the opportunity to capture the anger and resentment of ordinary Americans against what they saw as the privileges of a few. One of the leading opponents of the bank was Thomas Hart Benton, a senator from Missouri, who declared that the bank served “to make the rich richer, and the poor poorer.” The self-important statements of Biddle, who claimed to have more power that President Jackson, helped fuel sentiments like Benton’s. In the reelection campaign of 1832, Jackson’s opponents in Congress, including Henry Clay, hoped to use their support of the bank to their advantage. In January 1832, they pushed for legislation that would re-charter it, even though its charter was not scheduled to expire until 1836. When the bill for re-chartering passed and came to President Jackson, he used his executive authority to veto the measure. The defeat of the Second Bank of the United States demonstrates Jackson’s ability to focus on the specific issues that aroused the democratic majority. Jackson understood people’s anger and distrust toward the bank, which stood as an emblem of special privilege and big government. He skillfully used that perception to his advantage, presenting the bank issue as a struggle of ordinary people against a rapacious elite class who cared nothing for the public and pursued only their own selfish ends. As Jackson portrayed it, his was a battle for small government and ordinary Americans. His stand against what bank opponents called the “monster bank” proved very popular, and the Democratic press lionized him for it (Figure). In the election of 1832, Jackson received nearly 53 percent of the popular vote against his opponent Henry Clay. Jackson’s veto was only one part of the war on the “monster bank.” In 1833, the president removed the deposits from the national bank and placed them in state banks. Biddle, the bank’s director, retaliated by restricting loans to the state banks, resulting in a reduction of the money supply. The financial turmoil only increased when Jackson issued an executive order known as the Specie Circular, which required that western land sales be conducted using gold or silver only. Unfortunately, this policy proved a disaster when the Bank of England, the source of much of the hard currency borrowed by American businesses, dramatically cut back on loans to the United States. Without the flow of hard currency from England, American depositors drained the gold and silver from their own domestic banks, making hard currency scarce. Adding to the economic distress of the late 1830s, cotton prices plummeted, contributing to a financial crisis called the Panic of 1837. This economic panic would prove politically useful for Jackson’s opponents in the coming years and Van Buren, elected president in 1836, would pay the price for Jackson’s hard-currency preferences. WHIGS Jackson’s veto of the bank and his Specie Circular helped galvanize opposition forces into a new political party, the Whigs, a faction that began to form in 1834. The name was significant; opponents of Jackson saw him as exercising tyrannical power, so they chose the name Whig after the eighteenth-century political party that resisted the monarchical power of King George III. One political cartoon dubbed the president “King Andrew the First” and displayed Jackson standing on the Constitution, which has been ripped to shreds (Figure). Whigs championed an active federal government committed to internal improvements, including a national bank. They made their first national appearance in the presidential election of 1836, a contest that pitted Jackson’s handpicked successor, Martin Van Buren, against a field of several Whig candidates. Indeed, the large field of Whig candidates indicated the new party’s lack of organization compared to the Democrats. This helped Van Buren, who carried the day in the Electoral College. As the effects of the Panic of 1837 continued to be felt for years afterward, the Whig press pinned the blame for the economic crisis on Van Buren and the Democrats. Explore a Library of Congress collection of 1830s political cartoons from the pages of Harper’s Weekly to learn more about how Andrew Jackson was viewed by the public in that era. Section Summary Andrew Jackson’s election in 1832 signaled the rise of the Democratic Party and a new style of American politics. Jackson understood the views of the majority, and he skillfully used the popular will to his advantage. He adroitly navigated through the Nullification Crisis and made headlines with what his supporters viewed as his righteous war against the bastion of money, power, and entrenched insider interests, the Second Bank of the United States. His actions, however, stimulated opponents to fashion an opposition party, the Whigs. Review Questions South Carolina threatened to nullify which federal act? - the abolition of slavery - the expansion of the transportation infrastructure - the protective tariff on imported goods - the rotation in office that expelled several federal officers Hint: C How did President Jackson respond to Congress’s re-chartering of the Second Bank of the United States? - He vetoed it. - He gave states the right to implement it or not. - He signed it into law. - He wrote a counterproposal. Hint: A Why did the Second Bank of the United States make such an inviting target for President Jackson? Hint: Many people saw the Second Bank of the United States, the “monster bank,” as a tool for the privileged few, not for the public good. To Jackson, who saw himself as a spokesman for the common people against a powerful minority elite, it represented the elites’ self-serving policies. Fighting to dismantle the bank increased his popularity among many American voters. What were the philosophies and policies of the new Whig Party? Hint: Whigs opposed what they viewed as the tyrannical rule of Andrew Jackson. For this reason, they named themselves after the eighteenth-century British-American Whigs, who stood in opposition to King George. Whigs believed in an active federal government committed to internal improvements, including the establishment of a national bank.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.125945	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15447/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840, The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15444/overview	Introduction Overview - A New Political Style: From John Quincy Adams to Andrew Jackson - The Rise of American Democracy - The Nullification Crisis and the Bank War - Indian Removal - The Tyranny and Triumph of the Majority The most extraordinary political development in the years before the Civil War was the rise of American democracy. Whereas the founders envisioned the United States as a republic, not a democracy, and had placed safeguards such as the Electoral College in the 1787 Constitution to prevent simple majority rule, the early 1820s saw many Americans embracing majority rule and rejecting old forms of deference that were based on elite ideas of virtue, learning, and family lineage. A new breed of politicians learned to harness the magic of the many by appealing to the resentments, fears, and passions of ordinary citizens to win elections. The charismatic Andrew Jackson gained a reputation as a fighter and defender of American expansion, emerging as the quintessential figure leading the rise of American democracy. In the image above (Figure), crowds flock to the White House to celebrate his inauguration as president. While earlier inaugurations had been reserved for Washington’s political elite, Jackson’s was an event for the people, so much so that the pushing throngs caused thousands of dollars of damage to White House property. Characteristics of modern American democracy, including the turbulent nature of majority rule, first appeared during the Age of Jackson.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.141274	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15444/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840, Introduction", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15484/overview	Homesteading: Dreams and Realities Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the challenges that farmers faced as they settled west of the Mississippi River - Describe the unique experiences of women who participated in westward migration As settlers and homesteaders moved westward to improve the land given to them through the Homestead Act, they faced a difficult and often insurmountable challenge. The land was difficult to farm, there were few building materials, and harsh weather, insects, and inexperience led to frequent setbacks. The prohibitive prices charged by the first railroad lines made it expensive to ship crops to market or have goods sent out. Although many farms failed, some survived and grew into large “bonanza” farms that hired additional labor and were able to benefit enough from economies of scale to grow profitable. Still, small family farms, and the settlers who worked them, were hard-pressed to do more than scrape out a living in an unforgiving environment that comprised arid land, violent weather shifts, and other challenges (Figure). THE DIFFICULT LIFE OF THE PIONEER FARMER Of the hundreds of thousands of settlers who moved west, the vast majority were homesteaders. These pioneers, like the Ingalls family of Little House on the Prairie book and television fame (see inset below), were seeking land and opportunity. Popularly known as “sodbusters,” these men and women in the Midwest faced a difficult life on the frontier. They settled throughout the land that now makes up the Midwestern states of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. The weather and environment were bleak, and settlers struggled to eke out a living. A few unseasonably rainy years had led would-be settlers to believe that the “great desert” was no more, but the region’s typically low rainfall and harsh temperatures made crop cultivation hard. Irrigation was a requirement, but finding water and building adequate systems proved too difficult and expensive for many farmers. It was not until 1902 and the passage of the Newlands Reclamation Act that a system finally existed to set aside funds from the sale of public lands to build dams for subsequent irrigation efforts. Prior to that, farmers across the Great Plains relied primarily on dry-farming techniques to grow corn, wheat, and sorghum, a practice that many continued in later years. A few also began to employ windmill technology to draw water, although both the drilling and construction of windmills became an added expense that few farmers could afford. The Enduring Appeal of Little House on the Prairie The story of western migration and survival has remained a touchstone of American culture, even today. The television show Frontier Life on PBS is one example, as are countless other modern-day evocations of the settlers. Consider the enormous popularity of the Little House series. The books, originally published in the 1930s and 1940s, have been in print continuously. The television show, Little House on the Prairie, ran for over a decade and was hugely successful (and was said to be President Ronald Reagan’s favorite show). The books, although fictional, were based on Laura Ingalls Wilder’s own childhood, as she travelled west with her family via covered wagon, stopping in Kansas, Wisconsin, South Dakota, and beyond (Figure). Wilder wrote of her stories, “As you read my stories of long ago I hope you will remember that the things that are truly worthwhile and that will give you happiness are the same now as they were then. Courage and kindness, loyalty, truth, and helpfulness are always the same and always needed.” While Ingalls makes the point that her stories underscore traditional values that remain the same over time, this is not necessarily the only thing that made these books so popular. Perhaps part of their appeal is that they are adventure stories, with wild weather, wild animals, and wild Indians all playing a role. Does this explain their ongoing popularity? What other factors might make these stories appealing so long after they were originally written? The first houses built by western settlers were typically made of mud and sod with thatch roofs, as there was little timber for building. Rain, when it arrived, presented constant problems for these sod houses, with mud falling into food, and vermin, most notably lice, scampering across bedding (Figure). Weather patterns not only left the fields dry, they also brought tornadoes, droughts, blizzards, and insect swarms. Tales of swarms of locusts were commonplace, and the crop-eating insects would at times cover the ground six to twelve inches deep. One frequently quoted Kansas newspaper reported a locust swarm in 1878 during which the insects devoured “everything green, stripping the foliage off the bark and from the tender twigs of the fruit trees, destroying every plant that is good for food or pleasant to the eye, that man has planted.” Farmers also faced the ever-present threat of debt and farm foreclosure by the banks. While land was essentially free under the Homestead Act, all other farm necessities cost money and were initially difficult to obtain in the newly settled parts of the country where market economies did not yet fully reach. Horses, livestock, wagons, wells, fencing, seed, and fertilizer were all critical to survival, but often hard to come by as the population initially remained sparsely settled across vast tracts of land. Railroads charged notoriously high rates for farm equipment and livestock, making it difficult to procure goods or make a profit on anything sent back east. Banks also charged high interest rates, and, in a cycle that replayed itself year after year, farmers would borrow from the bank with the intention of repaying their debt after the harvest. As the number of farmers moving westward increased, the market price of their produce steadily declined, even as the value of the actual land increased. Each year, hard-working farmers produced ever-larger crops, flooding the markets and subsequently driving prices down even further. Although some understood the economics of supply and demand, none could overtly control such forces. Eventually, the arrival of a more extensive railroad network aided farmers, mostly by bringing much-needed supplies such as lumber for construction and new farm machinery. While John Deere sold a steel-faced plow as early as 1838, it was James Oliver’s improvements to the device in the late 1860s that transformed life for homesteaders. His new, less expensive “chilled plow” was better equipped to cut through the shallow grass roots of the Midwestern terrain, as well as withstand damage from rocks just below the surface. Similar advancements in hay mowers, manure spreaders, and threshing machines greatly improved farm production for those who could afford them. Where capital expense became a significant factor, larger commercial farms—known as “bonanza farms”—began to develop. Farmers in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota hired migrant farmers to grow wheat on farms in excess of twenty thousand acres each. These large farms were succeeding by the end of the century, but small family farms continued to suffer. Although the land was nearly free, it cost close to $1000 for the necessary supplies to start up a farm, and many would-be landowners lured westward by the promise of cheap land became migrant farmers instead, working other peoples’ land for a wage. The frustration of small farmers grew, ultimately leading to a revolt of sorts, discussed in a later chapter. Frontier House includes information on the logistics of moving across the country as a homesteader. Take a look at the list of supplies and gear. It is easy to understand why, even when the government gave the land away for free, it still took significant resources to make such a journey. AN EVEN MORE CHALLENGING LIFE: A PIONEER WIFE Although the West was numerically a male-dominated society, homesteading in particular encouraged the presence of women, families, and a domestic lifestyle, even if such a life was not an easy one. Women faced all the physical hardships that men encountered in terms of weather, illness, and danger, with the added complication of childbirth. Often, there was no doctor or midwife providing assistance, and many women died from treatable complications, as did their newborns. While some women could find employment in the newly settled towns as teachers, cooks, or seamstresses, they originally did not enjoy many rights. They could not sell property, sue for divorce, serve on juries, or vote. And for the vast majority of women, their work was not in towns for money, but on the farm. As late as 1900, a typical farm wife could expect to devote nine hours per day to chores such as cleaning, sewing, laundering, and preparing food. Two additional hours per day were spent cleaning the barn and chicken coop, milking the cows, caring for the chickens, and tending the family garden. One wife commented in 1879, “[We are] not much better than slaves. It is a weary, monotonous round of cooking and washing and mending and as a result the insane asylum is a third filled with wives of farmers.” Despite this grim image, the challenges of farm life eventually empowered women to break through some legal and social barriers. Many lived more equitably as partners with their husbands than did their eastern counterparts, helping each other through both hard times and good. If widowed, a wife typically took over responsibility for the farm, a level of management that was very rare back east, where the farm would fall to a son or other male relation. Pioneer women made important decisions and were considered by their husbands to be more equal partners in the success of the homestead, due to the necessity that all members had to work hard and contribute to the farming enterprise for it to succeed. Therefore, it is not surprising that the first states to grant women’s rights, including the right to vote, were those in the Pacific Northwest and Upper Midwest, where women pioneers worked the land side by side with men. Some women seemed to be well suited to the challenges that frontier life presented them. Writing to her Aunt Martha from their homestead in Minnesota in 1873, Mary Carpenter refused to complain about the hardships of farm life: “I try to trust in God’s promises, but we can’t expect him to work miracles nowadays. Nevertheless, all that is expected of us is to do the best we can, and that we shall certainly endeavor to do. Even if we do freeze and starve in the way of duty, it will not be a dishonorable death.” Section Summary The concept of Manifest Destiny and the strong incentives to relocate sent hundreds of thousands of people west across the Mississippi. The rigors of this new way of life presented many challenges and difficulties to homesteaders. The land was dry and barren, and homesteaders lost crops to hail, droughts, insect swarms, and more. There were few materials with which to build, and early homes were made of mud, which did not stand up to the elements. Money was a constant concern, as the cost of railroad freight was exorbitant, and banks were unforgiving of bad harvests. For women, life was difficult in the extreme. Farm wives worked at least eleven hours per day on chores and had limited access to doctors or midwives. Still, they were more independent than their eastern counterparts and worked in partnership with their husbands. As the railroad expanded and better farm equipment became available, by the 1870s, large farms began to succeed through economies of scale. Small farms still struggled to stay afloat, however, leading to a rising discontent among the farmers, who worked so hard for so little success. Review Questions What specific types of hardships did an average American farmer not face as he built his homestead in the Midwest? - droughts - insect swarms - hostile Indian attacks - limited building supplies Hint: C What accounts for the success of large, commercial “bonanza farms?” What benefits did they enjoy over their smaller family-run counterparts? Hint: Farmers who were able to invest a significant amount of capital in starting up large farms could acquire necessary supplies with ease. They also had access to new, technologically advanced farm machinery, which greatly improved efficiency and output. Such farmers hired migrant farmers to work their huge amounts of land. These “bonanza farms” were often quite successful, whereas family farms—unable to afford the supplies they needed for success, let alone take advantage of the technological innovations that would make their farms competitive—often failed. How did everyday life in the American West hasten equality for women who settled the land? Hint: Women who settled the West were considered by their husbands to be more equitable partners in the success or failure of the homestead. Because resources were so limited and the area so sparsely settled, women participated in work that was typically done only by men. Due in part to these efforts, women were able to inherit and run farms if they became widowed, rather than passing the farms along to male relations as they would in the East. The first states to begin granting rights to women, including the right to vote, were in the Pacific Northwest and Upper Midwest, where women homesteaders worked side by side with men to tame the land.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.165353	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15484/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900, Homesteading: Dreams and Realities", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15475/overview	1863: The Changing Nature of the War Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain what is meant by the term “total war” and provide examples - Describe mobilization efforts in the North and the South - Explain why 1863 was a pivotal year in the war Wars have their own logic; they last far longer than anyone anticipates at the beginning of hostilities. As they drag on, the energy and zeal that marked the entry into warfare often wane, as losses increase and people on both sides suffer the tolls of war. The American Civil War is a case study of this characteristic of modern war. Although Northerners and Southerners both anticipated that the battle between the Confederacy and the Union would be settled quickly, it soon became clear to all that there was no resolution in sight. The longer the war continued, the more it began to affect life in both the North and the South. Increased need for manpower, the issue of slavery, and the ongoing challenges of keeping the war effort going changed the way life on both sides as the conflict progressed. MASS MOBILIZATION By late 1862, the course of the war had changed to take on the characteristics of total war, in which armies attempt to demoralize the enemy by both striking military targets and disrupting their opponent’s ability to wage war through destruction of their resources. In this type of war, armies often make no distinction between civilian and military targets. Both the Union and Confederate forces moved toward total war, although neither side ever entirely abolished the distinction between military and civilian. Total war also requires governments to mobilize all resources, extending their reach into their citizens’ lives as never before. Another reality of war that became apparent in 1862 and beyond was the influence of combat on the size and scope of government. Both the Confederacy and the Union governments had to continue to grow in order to manage the logistics of recruiting men and maintaining, feeding, and equipping an army. Confederate Mobilization The Confederate government in Richmond, Virginia, exercised sweeping powers to ensure victory, in stark contradiction to the states’ rights sentiments held by many Southern leaders. The initial emotional outburst of enthusiasm for war in the Confederacy waned, and the Confederate government instituted a military draft in April 1862. Under the terms of the draft, all men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five would serve three years. The draft had a different effect on men of different socioeconomic classes. One loophole permitted men to hire substitutes instead of serving in the Confederate army. This provision favored the wealthy over the poor, and led to much resentment and resistance. Exercising its power over the states, the Confederate Congress denied state efforts to circumvent the draft. In order to fund the war, the Confederate government also took over the South’s economy. The government ran Southern industry and built substantial transportation and industrial infrastructure to make the weapons of war. Over the objections of slaveholders, it impressed slaves, seizing these workers from their owners and forcing them to work on fortifications and rail lines. Concerned about the resistance to and unhappiness with the government measures, in 1862, the Confederate Congress gave President Davis the power to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, the right of those arrested to be brought before a judge or court to determine whether there is cause to hold the prisoner. With a stated goal of bolstering national security in the fledgling republic, this change meant that the Confederacy could arrest and detain indefinitely any suspected enemy without giving a reason. This growth of the Confederate central government stood as a glaring contradiction to the earlier states’ rights argument of pro-Confederate advocates. The war efforts were costing the new nation dearly. Nevertheless, the Confederate Congress heeded the pleas of wealthy plantation owners and refused to place a tax on slaves or cotton, despite the Confederacy’s desperate need for the revenue that such a tax would have raised. Instead, the Confederacy drafted a taxation plan that kept the Southern elite happy but in no way met the needs of the war. The government also resorted to printing immense amounts of paper money, which quickly led to runaway inflation. Food prices soared, and poor, white Southerners faced starvation. In April 1863, thousands of hungry people rioted in Richmond, Virginia (Figure). Many of the rioters were mothers who could not feed their children. The riot ended when President Davis threatened to have Confederate forces open fire on the crowds. One of the reasons that the Confederacy was so economically devastated was its ill-advised gamble that cotton sales would continue during the war. The government had high hopes that Great Britain and France, which both used cotton as the raw material in their textile mills, would ensure the South’s economic strength—and therefore victory in the war—by continuing to buy. Furthermore, the Confederate government hoped that Great Britain and France would make loans to their new nation in order to ensure the continued flow of raw materials. These hopes were never realized. Great Britain in particular did not wish to risk war with the United States, which would have meant the invasion of Canada. The United States was also a major source of grain for Britain and an important purchaser of British goods. Furthermore, the blockade made Southern trade with Europe difficult. Instead, Great Britain, the major consumer of American cotton, found alternate sources in India and Egypt, leaving the South without the income or alliance it had anticipated. Dissent within the Confederacy also affected the South’s ability to fight the war. Confederate politicians disagreed over the amount of power that the central government should be allowed to exercise. Many states’ rights advocates, who favored a weak central government and supported the sovereignty of individual states, resented President Davis’s efforts to conscript troops, impose taxation to pay for the war, and requisition necessary resources. Governors in the Confederate states often proved reluctant to provide supplies or troops for the use of the Confederate government. Even Jefferson Davis’s vice president Alexander Stephens opposed conscription, the seizure of slave property to work for the Confederacy, and suspension of habeas corpus. Class divisions also divided Confederates. Poor whites resented the ability of wealthy slaveholders to excuse themselves from military service. Racial tensions plagued the South as well. On those occasions when free blacks volunteered to serve in the Confederate army, they were turned away, and enslaved African Americans were regarded with fear and suspicion, as whites whispered among themselves about the possibility of slave insurrections. Union Mobilization Mobilization for war proved to be easier in the North than it was in the South. During the war, the federal government in Washington, DC, like its Southern counterpart, undertook a wide range of efforts to ensure its victory over the Confederacy. To fund the war effort and finance the expansion of Union infrastructure, Republicans in Congress drastically expanded government activism, impacting citizens’ everyday lives through measures such as new types of taxation. The government also contracted with major suppliers of food, weapons, and other needed materials. Virtually every sector of the Northern economy became linked to the war effort. In keeping with their longstanding objective of keeping slavery out of the newly settled western territories, the Republicans in Congress (the dominant party) passed several measures in 1862. First, the Homestead Act provided generous inducements for Northerners to relocate and farm in the West. Settlers could lay claim to 160 acres of federal land by residing on the property for five years and improving it. The act not only motivated free-labor farmers to move west, but it also aimed to increase agricultural output for the war effort. The federal government also turned its attention to creating a transcontinental railroad to facilitate the movement of people and goods across the country. Congress chartered two companies, the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific, and provided generous funds for these two businesses to connect the country by rail. The Republican emphasis on free labor, rather than slave labor, also influenced the 1862 Land Grant College Act, commonly known as the Morrill Act after its author, Vermont Republican senator Justin Smith Morrill. The measure provided for the creation of agricultural colleges, funded through federal grants, to teach the latest agricultural techniques. Each state in the Union would be granted thirty thousand acres of federal land for the use of these institutions of higher education. Congress paid for the war using several strategies. They levied a tax on the income of the wealthy, as well as a tax on all inheritances. They also put high tariffs in place. Finally, they passed two National Bank Acts, one in 1863 and one in 1864, calling on the U.S. Treasury to issue war bonds and on Union banks to buy the bonds. A Union campaign to convince individuals to buy the bonds helped increase sales. The Republicans also passed the Legal Tender Act of 1862, calling for paper money—known as greenbacks—to be printed Figure). Some $150 million worth of greenbacks became legal tender, and the Northern economy boomed, although high inflation also resulted. Like the Confederacy, the Union turned to conscription to provide the troops needed for the war. In March 1863, Congress passed the Enrollment Act, requiring all unmarried men between the ages of twenty and twenty-five, and all married men between the ages of thirty-five and forty-five—including immigrants who had filed for citizenship—to register with the Union to fight in the Civil War. All who registered were subject to military service, and draftees were selected by a lottery system (Figure). As in the South, a loophole in the law allowed individuals to hire substitutes if they could afford it. Others could avoid enlistment by paying $300 to the federal government. In keeping with the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford, African Americans were not citizens and were therefore exempt from the draft. Like the Confederacy, the Union also took the step of suspending habeas corpus rights, so those suspected of pro-Confederate sympathies could be arrested and held without being given the reason. Lincoln had selectively suspended the writ of habeas corpus in the slave state of Maryland, home to many Confederate sympathizers, in 1861 and 1862, in an effort to ensure that the Union capital would be safe. In March 1863, he signed into law the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act, giving him the power to detain suspected Confederate operatives throughout the Union. The Lincoln administration also closed down three hundred newspapers as a national security measure during the war. In both the North and the South, the Civil War dramatically increased the power of the belligerent governments. Breaking all past precedents in American history, both the Confederacy and the Union employed the power of their central governments to mobilize resources and citizens. Women’s Mobilization As men on both sides mobilized for the war, so did women. In both the North and the South, women were forced to take over farms and businesses abandoned by their husbands as they left for war. Women organized themselves into ladies’ aid societies to sew uniforms, knit socks, and raise money to purchase necessities for the troops. In the South, women took wounded soldiers into their homes to nurse. In the North, women volunteered for the United States Sanitary Commission, which formed in June 1861. They inspected military camps with the goal of improving cleanliness and reducing the number of soldiers who died from disease, the most common cause of death in the war. They also raised money to buy medical supplies and helped with the injured. Other women found jobs in the Union army as cooks and laundresses. Thousands volunteered to care for the sick and wounded in response to a call by reformer Dorothea Dix, who was placed in charge of the Union army’s nurses. According to rumor, Dix sought respectable women over the age of thirty who were “plain almost to repulsion in dress” and thus could be trusted not to form romantic liaisons with soldiers. Women on both sides also acted as spies and, disguised as men, engaged in combat. EMANCIPATION Early in the war, President Lincoln approached the issue of slavery cautiously. While he disapproved of slavery personally, he did not believe that he had the authority to abolish it. Furthermore, he feared that making the abolition of slavery an objective of the war would cause the border slave states to join the Confederacy. His one objective in 1861 and 1862 was to restore the Union. Lincoln’s Evolving Thoughts on Slavery President Lincoln wrote the following letter to newspaper editor Horace Greeley on August 22, 1862. In it, Lincoln states his position on slavery, which is notable for being a middle-of-the-road stance. Lincoln’s later public speeches on the issue take the more strident antislavery tone for which he is remembered. I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored the nearer the Union will be “the Union as it was.” If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time save Slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy Slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy Slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that. What I do about Slavery and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save this Union, and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views. I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty, and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men, everywhere, could be free. Yours, A. LINCOLN. How would you characterize Lincoln’s public position in August 1862? What was he prepared to do for slaves, and under what conditions? Since the beginning of the war, thousands of slaves had fled to the safety of Union lines. In May 1861, Union general Benjamin Butler and others labeled these refugees from slavery contrabands. Butler reasoned that since Southern states had left the United States, he was not obliged to follow federal fugitive slave laws. Slaves who made it through the Union lines were shielded by the U.S. military and not returned to slavery. The intent was not only to assist slaves but also to deprive the South of a valuable source of manpower. Congress began to define the status of these ex-slaves in 1861 and 1862. In August 1861, legislators approved the Confiscation Act of 1861, empowering the Union to seize property, including slaves, used by the Confederacy. The Republican-dominated Congress took additional steps, abolishing slavery in Washington, DC, in April 1862. Congress passed a second Confiscation Act in July 1862, which extended freedom to runaway slaves and those captured by Union armies. In that month, Congress also addressed the issue of slavery in the West, banning the practice in the territories. This federal law made the 1846 Wilmot Proviso and the dreams of the Free-Soil Party a reality. However, even as the Union government took steps to aid individual slaves and to limit the practice of slavery, it passed no measure to address the institution of slavery as a whole. Lincoln moved slowly and cautiously on the issue of abolition. His primary concern was the cohesion of the Union and the bringing of the Southern states back into the fold. However, as the war dragged on and many thousands of contrabands made their way north, Republicans in Congress continued to call for the end of slavery. Throughout his political career, Lincoln’s plans for former slaves had been to send them to Liberia. As late as August 1862, he had hoped to interest African Americans in building a colony for former slaves in Central America, an idea that found favor neither with black leaders nor with abolitionists, and thus was abandoned by Lincoln. Responding to Congressional demands for an end to slavery, Lincoln presented an ultimatum to the Confederates on September 22, 1862, shortly after the Confederate retreat at Antietam. He gave the Confederate states until January 1, 1863, to rejoin the Union. If they did, slavery would continue in the slave states. If they refused to rejoin, however, the war would continue and all slaves would be freed at its conclusion. The Confederacy took no action. It had committed itself to maintaining its independence and had no interest in the president’s ultimatum. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln made good on his promise and signed the Emancipation Proclamation. It stated “That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free.” The proclamation did not immediately free the slaves in the Confederate states. Although they were in rebellion against the United States, the lack of the Union army’s presence in such areas meant that the president’s directive could not be enforced. The proclamation also did not free slaves in the border states, because these states were not, by definition, in rebellion. Lincoln relied on his powers as commander-in-chief in issuing the Emancipation Proclamation. He knew the proclamation could be easily challenged in court, but by excluding the territories still outside his control, slaveholders and slave governments could not sue him. Moreover, slave states in the Union, such as Kentucky, could not sue because the proclamation did not apply to them. Slaveholders in Kentucky knew full well that if the institution were abolished throughout the South, it would not survive in a handful of border territories. Despite the limits of the proclamation, Lincoln dramatically shifted the objective of the war increasingly toward ending slavery. The Emancipation Proclamation became a monumental step forward on the road to changing the character of the United States. Read through the full text of the Emancipation Proclamation at the National Archives website. The proclamation generated quick and dramatic reactions. The news created euphoria among slaves, as it signaled the eventual end of their bondage. Predictably, Confederate leaders raged against the proclamation, reinforcing their commitment to fight to maintain slavery, the foundation of the Confederacy. In the North, opinions split widely on the issue. Abolitionists praised Lincoln’s actions, which they saw as the fulfillment of their long campaign to strike down an immoral institution. But other Northerners, especially Irish, working-class, urban dwellers loyal to the Democratic Party and others with racist beliefs, hated the new goal of emancipation and found the idea of freed slaves repugnant. At its core, much of this racism had an economic foundation: Many Northerners feared competing with emancipated slaves for scarce jobs. In New York City, the Emancipation Proclamation, combined with unhappiness over the Union draft, which began in March 1863, fanned the flames of white racism. Many New Yorkers supported the Confederacy for business reasons, and, in 1861, the city’s mayor actually suggested that New York City leave the Union. On July 13, 1863, two days after the first draft lottery took place, this racial hatred erupted into violence. A volunteer fire company whose commander had been drafted initiated a riot, and the violence spread quickly across the city. The rioters chose targets associated either with the Union army or with African Americans. An armory was destroyed, as was a Brooks Brothers’ store, which supplied uniforms to the army. White mobs attacked and killed black New Yorkers and destroyed an African American orphanage (Figure). On the fourth day of the riots, federal troops dispatched by Lincoln arrived in the city and ended the violence. Millions of dollars in property had been destroyed. More than one hundred people died, approximately one thousand were left injured, and about one-fifth of the city’s African American population fled New York in fear. UNION ADVANCES The war in the west continued in favor of the North in 1863. At the start of the year, Union forces controlled much of the Mississippi River. In the spring and summer of 1862, they had captured New Orleans—the most important port in the Confederacy, through which cotton harvested from all the Southern states was exported—and Memphis. Grant had then attempted to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, a commercial center on the bluffs above the Mississippi River. Once Vicksburg fell, the Union would have won complete control over the river. A military bombardment that summer failed to force a Confederate surrender. An assault by land forces also failed in December 1862. In April 1863, the Union began a final attempt to capture Vicksburg. On July 3, after more than a month of a Union siege, during which Vicksburg’s residents hid in caves to protect themselves from the bombardment and ate their pets to stay alive, Grant finally achieved his objective. The trapped Confederate forces surrendered. The Union had succeeded in capturing Vicksburg and splitting the Confederacy (Figure). This victory inflicted a serious blow to the Southern war effort. As Grant and his forces pounded Vicksburg, Confederate strategists, at the urging of General Lee, who had defeated a larger Union army at Chancellorsville, Virginia, in May 1863, decided on a bold plan to invade the North. Leaders hoped this invasion would force the Union to send troops engaged in the Vicksburg campaign east, thus weakening their power over the Mississippi. Further, they hoped the aggressive action of pushing north would weaken the Union’s resolve to fight. Lee also hoped that a significant Confederate victory in the North would convince Great Britain and France to extend support to Jefferson Davis’s government and encourage the North to negotiate peace. Beginning in June 1863, General Lee began to move the Army of Northern Virginia north through Maryland. The Union army—the Army of the Potomac—traveled east to end up alongside the Confederate forces. The two armies met at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, where Confederate forces had gone to secure supplies. The resulting battle lasted three days, July 1–3 (Figure) and remains the biggest and costliest battle ever fought in North America. The climax of the Battle of Gettysburg occurred on the third day. In the morning, after a fight lasting several hours, Union forces fought back a Confederate attack on Culp’s Hill, one of the Union’s defensive positions. To regain a perceived advantage and secure victory, Lee ordered a frontal assault, known as Pickett’s Charge (for Confederate general George Pickett), against the center of the Union lines on Cemetery Ridge. Approximately fifteen thousand Confederate soldiers took part, and more than half lost their lives, as they advanced nearly a mile across an open field to attack the entrenched Union forces. In all, more than a third of the Army of Northern Virginia had been lost, and on the evening of July 4, Lee and his men slipped away in the rain. General George Meade did not pursue them. Both sides suffered staggering losses. Total casualties numbered around twenty-three thousand for the Union and some twenty-eight thousand among the Confederates. With its defeats at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, both on the same day, the Confederacy lost its momentum. The tide had turned in favor of the Union in both the east and the west. Following the Battle of Gettysburg, the bodies of those who had fallen were hastily buried. Attorney David Wills, a resident of Gettysburg, campaigned for the creation of a national cemetery on the site of the battlefield, and the governor of Pennsylvania tasked him with creating it. President Lincoln was invited to attend the cemetery’s dedication. After the featured orator had delivered a two-hour speech, Lincoln addressed the crowd for several minutes. In his speech, known as the Gettysburg Address, which he had finished writing while a guest in David Wills’ home the day before the dedication, Lincoln invoked the Founding Fathers and the spirit of the American Revolution. The Union soldiers who had died at Gettysburg, he proclaimed, had died not only to preserve the Union, but also to guarantee freedom and equality for all. Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address Several months after the battle at Gettysburg, Lincoln traveled to Pennsylvania and, speaking to an audience at the dedication of the new Soldiers’ National Ceremony near the site of the battle, he delivered his now-famous Gettysburg Address to commemorate the turning point of the war and the soldiers whose sacrifices had made it possible. The two-minute speech was politely received at the time, although press reactions split along party lines. Upon receiving a letter of congratulations from Massachusetts politician and orator William Everett, whose speech at the ceremony had lasted for two hours, Lincoln said he was glad to know that his brief address, now virtually immortal, was not “a total failure.” Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. It is for us the living . . . to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us—that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion—that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain—that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. —Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863 What did Lincoln mean by “a new birth of freedom”? What did he mean when he said “a government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth”? Acclaimed filmmaker Ken Burns has created a documentary about a small boys’ school in Vermont where students memorize the Gettysburg Address. It explores the value the address has in these boys’ lives, and why the words still matter. Section Summary The year 1863 proved decisive in the Civil War for two major reasons. First, the Union transformed the purpose of the struggle from restoring the Union to ending slavery. While Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation actually succeeded in freeing few slaves, it made freedom for African Americans a cause of the Union. Second, the tide increasingly turned against the Confederacy. The success of the Vicksburg Campaign had given the Union control of the Mississippi River, and Lee’s defeat at Gettysburg had ended the attempted Confederate invasion of the North. Review Questions Which of the following did the North not do to mobilize for war? - institute a military draft - form a military alliance with Great Britain - print paper money - pass the Homestead Act Hint: B Why is 1863 considered a turning point in the Civil War? Hint: At the beginning of 1863, Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which freed all slaves in areas under rebellion. This changed the war from one in which the North fought to preserve the Union to one in which it fought to free enslaved African Americans. On the battlefield, Union forces led by Grant captured Vicksburg, Mississippi, splitting the Confederacy in two and depriving it of a major avenue of transportation. In the east, General Meade stopped a Confederate invasion of the North at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.197676	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15475/overview", "title": "U.S. History, The Civil War, 1860–1865, 1863: The Changing Nature of the War", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15455/overview	Free Soil or Slave? The Dilemma of the West Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the terms of the Wilmot Proviso - Discuss why the Free-Soil Party objected to the westward expansion of slavery - Explain why sectional and political divisions in the United States grew - Describe the terms of the Compromise of 1850 The 1848 treaty with Mexico did not bring the United States domestic peace. Instead, the acquisition of new territory revived and intensified the debate over the future of slavery in the western territories, widening the growing division between North and South and leading to the creation of new single-issue parties. Increasingly, the South came to regard itself as under attack by radical northern abolitionists, and many northerners began to speak ominously of a southern drive to dominate American politics for the purpose of protecting slaveholders’ human property. As tensions mounted and both sides hurled accusations, national unity frayed. Compromise became nearly impossible and antagonistic sectional rivalries replaced the idea of a unified, democratic republic. THE LIBERTY PARTY, THE WILMOT PROVISO, AND THE ANTISLAVERY MOVEMENT Committed to protecting white workers by keeping slavery out of the lands taken from Mexico, Pennsylvania congressman David Wilmot attached to an 1846 revenue bill an amendment that would prohibit slavery in the new territory. The Wilmot Proviso was not entirely new. Other congressmen had drafted similar legislation, and Wilmot’s language was largely copied from the 1787 Northwest Ordinance that had banned slavery in that territory. His ideas were very controversial in the 1840s, however, because his proposals would prevent American slaveholders from bringing what they viewed as their lawful property, their slaves, into the western lands. The measure passed the House but was defeated in the Senate. When Polk tried again to raise revenue the following year (to pay for lands taken from Mexico), the Wilmot Proviso was reintroduced, this time calling for the prohibition of slavery not only in the Mexican Cession but in all U.S. territories. The revenue bill passed, but without the proviso. That Wilmot, a loyal Democrat, should attempt to counter the actions of a Democratic president hinted at the party divisions that were to come. The 1840s were a particularly active time in the creation and reorganization of political parties and constituencies, mainly because of discontent with the positions of the mainstream Whig and Democratic Parties in regard to slavery and its extension into the territories. The first new party, the small and politically weak Liberty Party founded in 1840, was a single-issue party, as were many of those that followed it. Its members were abolitionists who fervently believed slavery was evil and should be ended, and that this was best accomplished by political means. The Wilmot Proviso captured the “antislavery” sentiments during and after the Mexican War. Antislavery advocates differed from the abolitionists. While abolitionists called for the end of slavery everywhere, antislavery advocates, for various reasons, did not challenge the presence of slavery in the states where it already existed. Those who supported antislavery fervently opposed its expansion westward because, they argued, slavery would degrade white labor and reduce its value, cast a stigma upon hard-working whites, and deprive them of a chance to advance economically. The western lands, they argued, should be open to white men only—small farmers and urban workers for whom the West held the promise of economic advancement. Where slavery was entrenched, according to antislavery advocates, there was little land left for small farmers to purchase, and such men could not compete fairly with slaveholders who held large farms and gangs of slaves. Ordinary laborers suffered also; no one would pay a white man a decent wage when a slave worked for nothing. When labor was associated with loss of freedom, antislavery supporters argued, all white workers carried a stigma that marked them as little better than slaves. Wilmot opposed the extension of slavery into the Mexican Cession not because of his concern for African Americans, but because of his belief that slavery hurt white workers, and that lands acquired by the government should be used to better the position of white small farmers and laborers. Work was not simply something that people did; it gave them dignity, but in a slave society, labor had no dignity. In response to these arguments, southerners maintained that laborers in northern factories were treated worse than slaves. Their work was tedious and low paid. Their meager income was spent on inadequate food, clothing, and shelter. There was no dignity in such a life. In contrast, they argued, southern slaves were provided with a home, the necessities of life, and the protection of their masters. Factory owners did not care for or protect their employees in the same way. THE FREE-SOIL PARTY AND THE ELECTION OF 1848 The Wilmot Proviso was an issue of great importance to the Democrats. Would they pledge to support it? At the party’s New York State convention in Buffalo, Martin Van Buren’s antislavery supporters—called Barnburners because they were likened to farmers who were willing to burn down their own barn to get rid of a rat infestation—spoke in favor of the proviso. Their opponents, known as Hunkers, refused to support it. Angered, the Barnburners organized their own convention, where they chose antislavery, pro–Wilmot Proviso delegates to send to the Democrats’ national convention in Baltimore. In this way, the controversy over the expansion of slavery divided the Democratic Party. At the national convention, both sets of delegates were seated—the pro-proviso ones chosen by the Barnburners and the anti-proviso ones chosen by the Hunkers. When it came time to vote for the party’s presidential nominee, the majority of votes were for Lewis Cass, an advocate of popular sovereignty. Popular sovereignty was the belief that citizens should be able to decide issues based on the principle of majority rule; in this case, residents of a territory should have the right to decide whether slavery would be allowed in it. Theoretically, this doctrine would allow slavery to become established in any U.S. territory, including those from which it had been banned by earlier laws. Disgusted by the result, the Barnburners united with antislavery Whigs and former members of the Liberty Party to form a new political party—the Free-Soil Party, which took as its slogan “Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free Men.” The party had one real goal—to oppose the extension of slavery into the territories (Figure). In the minds of its members and many other northerners of the time, southern slaveholders had marshaled their wealth and power to control national politics for the purpose of protecting the institution of slavery and extending it into the territories. Many in the Free-Soil Party believed in this far-reaching conspiracy of the slaveholding elite to control both foreign affairs and domestic policies for their own ends, a cabal that came to be known as the Slave Power. In the wake of the Mexican War, antislavery sentiment entered mainstream American politics when the new Free-Soil party promptly selected Martin Van Buren as its presidential candidate. For the first time, a national political party committed itself to the goal of stopping the expansion of slavery. The Democrats chose Lewis Cass, and the Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, as Polk had assumed they would. On Election Day, Democrats split their votes between Van Buren and Cass. With the strength of the Democratic vote diluted, Taylor won. His popularity with the American people served him well, and his status as a slaveholder helped him win the South. Visit the archives of the Gilder Lehrman Institute to read an August 1848 letter from Gerrit Smith, a staunch abolitionist, regarding the Free-Soil candidate, Martin Van Buren. Smith played a major role in the Liberty Party and was their presidential candidate in 1848. THE COMPROMISE OF 1850 The election of 1848 did nothing to quell the controversy over whether slavery would advance into the Mexican Cession. Some slaveholders, like President Taylor, considered the question a moot point because the lands acquired from Mexico were far too dry for growing cotton and therefore, they thought, no slaveholder would want to move there. Other southerners, however, argued that the question was not whether slaveholders would want to move to the lands of the Mexican Cession, but whether they could and still retain control of their slave property. Denying them the right to freely relocate with their lawful property was, they maintained, unfair and unconstitutional. Northerners argued, just as fervidly, that because Mexico had abolished slavery, no slaves currently lived in the Mexican Cession, and to introduce slavery there would extend it to a new territory, thus furthering the institution and giving the Slave Power more control over the United States. The strong current of antislavery sentiment—that is, the desire to protect white labor—only increased the opposition to the expansion of slavery into the West. Most northerners, except members of the Free-Soil Party, favored popular sovereignty for California and the New Mexico territory. Many southerners opposed this position, however, for they feared residents of these regions might choose to outlaw slavery. Some southern politicians spoke ominously of secession from the United States. Free-Soilers rejected popular sovereignty and demanded that slavery be permanently excluded from the territories. Beginning in January 1850, Congress worked for eight months on a compromise that might quiet the growing sectional conflict. Led by the aged Henry Clay, members finally agreed to the following: 1. California, which was ready to enter the Union, was admitted as a free state in accordance with its state constitution. 2. Popular sovereignty was to determine the status of slavery in New Mexico and Utah, even though Utah and part of New Mexico were north of the Missouri Compromise line. 3. The slave trade was banned in the nation’s capital. Slavery, however, was allowed to remain. 4. Under a new fugitive slave law, those who helped runaway slaves or refused to assist in their return would be fined and possibly imprisoned. 5. The border between Texas and New Mexico was established. The Compromise of 1850 brought temporary relief. It resolved the issue of slavery in the territories for the moment and prevented secession. The peace would not last, however. Instead of relieving tensions between North and South, it had actually made them worse. Section Summary The acquisition of lands from Mexico in 1848 reawakened debates regarding slavery. The suggestion that slavery be barred from the Mexican Cession caused rancorous debate between North and South and split the Democratic Party when many northern members left to create the Free-Soil Party. Although the Compromise of 1850 resolved the question of whether slavery would be allowed in the new territories, the solution pleased no one. The peace brought by the compromise was short-lived, and the debate over slavery continued. Review Questions The practice of allowing residents of territories to decide whether their land should be slave or free was called ________. - the democratic process - the Wilmot Proviso - popular sovereignty - the Free Soil solution Hint: C Which of the following was not a provision of the Compromise of 1850? - California was admitted as a free state. - Slavery was abolished in Washington, DC. - A stronger fugitive slave law was passed. - Residents of New Mexico and Utah were to decide for themselves whether their territories would be slave or free. Hint: B Describe the events leading up to the formation of the Free-Soil Party. Hint: At the party’s national convention in 1848, the majority of Democrats voted for a candidate who supported popular sovereignty. A faction of the party was dismayed by this outcome; they opposed popular sovereignty and wanted to restrict the expansion of slavery in order to protect the value of white workers’ labor. They united with antislavery Whigs and former members of the Liberty Party to form a new political party—the Free-Soil Party—which had one goal, to oppose the extension of slavery into the territories. Critical Thinking Questions Consider the role of filibusters in American expansion. What are some arguments in favor of filibustering? What are some arguments against it? What are the economic and political issues raised by having an imbalance between free and slave states? Why did the balance of free and slave states matter? How did Anglo-American settlers in Texas see themselves? Did they adopt a Mexican identity because they were living in Mexican territory? Why or why not? Consider the annexation of Texas and the Mexican-American War from a Mexican perspective. What would you find objectionable about American actions, foreign policy, and attitudes in the 1840s? Describe the place of Texas in the history of American westward expansion by comparing Texas’s early history to the Missouri Crisis in 1819–1820. What are the similarities and what are the differences? Consider the arguments over the expansion of slavery made by both northerners and southerners in the aftermath of the U.S. victory over Mexico. Who had the more compelling case? Or did each side make equally significant arguments?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.229028	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15455/overview", "title": "U.S. History, A Nation on the Move: Westward Expansion, 1800–1860, Free Soil or Slave? The Dilemma of the West", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15462/overview	An Awakening of Religion and Individualism Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the connection between evangelical Protestantism and the Second Great Awakening - Describe the message of the transcendentalists Protestantism shaped the views of the vast majority of Americans in the antebellum years. The influence of religion only intensified during the decades before the Civil War, as religious camp meetings spread the word that people could bring about their own salvation, a direct contradiction to the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. Alongside this religious fervor, transcendentalists advocated a more direct knowledge of the self and an emphasis on individualism. The writers and thinkers devoted to transcendentalism, as well as the reactions against it, created a trove of writings, an outpouring that has been termed the American Renaissance. THE SECOND GREAT AWAKENING The reform efforts of the antebellum era sprang from the Protestant revival fervor that found expression in what historians refer to as the Second Great Awakening. (The First Great Awakening of evangelical Protestantism had taken place in the 1730s and 1740s.) The Second Great Awakening emphasized an emotional religious style in which sinners grappled with their unworthy nature before concluding that they were born again, that is, turning away from their sinful past and devoting themselves to living a righteous, Christ-centered life. This emphasis on personal salvation, with its rejection of predestination (the Calvinist concept that God selected only a chosen few for salvation), was the religious embodiment of the Jacksonian celebration of the individual. Itinerant ministers preached the message of the awakening to hundreds of listeners at outdoors revival meetings (Figure). The burst of religious enthusiasm that began in Kentucky and Tennessee in the 1790s and early 1800s among Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterians owed much to the uniqueness of the early decades of the republic. These years saw swift population growth, broad western expansion, and the rise of participatory democracy. These political and social changes made many people anxious, and the more egalitarian, emotional, and individualistic religious practices of the Second Great Awakening provided relief and comfort for Americans experiencing rapid change. The awakening soon spread to the East, where it had a profound impact on Congregationalists and Presbyterians. The thousands swept up in the movement believed in the possibility of creating a much better world. Many adopted millennialism, the fervent belief that the Kingdom of God would be established on earth and that God would reign on earth for a thousand years, characterized by harmony and Christian morality. Those drawn to the message of the Second Great Awakening yearned for stability, decency, and goodness in the new and turbulent American republic. The Second Great Awakening also brought significant changes to American culture. Church membership doubled in the years between 1800 and 1835. Several new groups formed to promote and strengthen the message of religious revival. The American Bible Society, founded in 1816, distributed Bibles in an effort to ensure that every family had access to the sacred text, while the American Sunday School Union, established in 1824, focused on the religious education of children and published religious materials specifically for young readers. In 1825, the American Tract Society formed with the goal of disseminating the Protestant revival message in a flurry of publications. Missionaries and circuit riders (ministers without a fixed congregation) brought the message of the awakening across the United States, including into the lives of slaves. The revival spurred many slaveholders to begin encouraging their slaves to become Christians. Previously, many slaveholders feared allowing their slaves to convert, due to a belief that Christians could not be enslaved and because of the fear that slaves might use Christian principles to oppose their enslavement. However, by the 1800s, Americans established a legal foundation for the enslavement of Christians. Also, by this time, slaveholders had come to believe that if slaves learned the “right” (that is, white) form of Christianity, then slaves would be more obedient and hardworking. Allowing slaves access to Christianity also served to ease the consciences of Christian slaveholders, who argued that slavery was divinely ordained, yet it was a faith that also required slaveholders to bring slaves to the “truth.” Also important to this era was the creation of African American forms of worship as well as African American churches such as the African Methodist Episcopal Church, the first independent black Protestant church in the United States. Formed in the 1790s by Richard Allen, the African Methodist Episcopal Church advanced the African American effort to express their faith apart from white Methodists (Figure). In the Northeast, Presbyterian minister Charles Grandison Finney rose to prominence as one of the most important evangelicals in the movement (Figure). Born in 1792 in western New York, Finney studied to be a lawyer until 1821, when he experienced a religious conversion and thereafter devoted himself to revivals. He led revival meetings in New York and Pennsylvania, but his greatest success occurred after he accepted a ministry in Rochester, New York, in 1830. At the time, Rochester was a boomtown because the Erie Canal had brought a lively shipping business. The new middle class—an outgrowth of the Industrial Revolution—embraced Finney’s message. It fit perfectly with their understanding of themselves as people shaping their own destiny. Workers also latched onto the message that they too could control their salvation, spiritually and perhaps financially as well. Western New York gained a reputation as the “burned over district,” a reference to the intense flames of religious fervor that swept the area during the Second Great Awakening. TRANSCENDENTALISM Beginning in the 1820s, a new intellectual movement known as transcendentalism began to grow in the Northeast. In this context, to transcend means to go beyond the ordinary sensory world to grasp personal insights and gain appreciation of a deeper reality, and transcendentalists believed that all people could attain an understanding of the world that surpassed rational, sensory experience. Transcendentalists were critical of mainstream American culture. They reacted against the age of mass democracy in Jacksonian America—what Tocqueville called the “tyranny of majority”—by arguing for greater individualism against conformity. European romanticism, a movement in literature and art that stressed emotion over cold, calculating reason, also influenced transcendentalists in the United States, especially the transcendentalists’ celebration of the uniqueness of individual feelings. Ralph Waldo Emerson emerged as the leading figure of this movement (Figure). Born in Boston in 1803, Emerson came from a religious family. His father served as a Unitarian minister and, after graduating from Harvard Divinity School in the 1820s, Emerson followed in his father’s footsteps. However, after his wife died in 1831, he left the clergy. On a trip to Europe in 1832, he met leading figures of romanticism who rejected the hyper-rationalism of the Enlightenment, emphasizing instead emotion and the sublime. When Emerson returned home the following year, he began giving lectures on his romanticism-influenced ideas. In 1836, he published “Nature,” an essay arguing that humans can find their true spirituality in nature, not in the everyday bustling working world of Jacksonian democracy and industrial transformation. In 1841, Emerson published his essay “Self-Reliance,” which urged readers to think for themselves and reject the mass conformity and mediocrity he believed had taken root in American life. In this essay, he wrote, “Whoso would be a man must be a nonconformist,” demanding that his readers be true to themselves and not blindly follow a herd mentality. Emerson’s ideas dovetailed with those of the French aristocrat, Alexis de Tocqueville, who wrote about the “tyranny of the majority” in his Democracy in America. Tocqueville, like Emerson, expressed concern that a powerful majority could overpower the will of individuals. Visit Emerson Central to read the full text of “Self Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson. How have Emerson’s ideas influenced American society? Emerson’s ideas struck a chord with a class of literate adults who also were dissatisfied with mainstream American life and searching for greater spiritual meaning. Many writers were drawn to transcendentalism, and they started to express its ideas through new stories, poems, essays, and articles. The ideas of transcendentalism were able to permeate American thought and culture through a prolific print culture, which allowed magazines and journals to be widely disseminated. Among those attracted to Emerson’s ideas was his friend Henry David Thoreau, whom he encouraged to write about his own ideas. Thoreau placed a special emphasis on the role of nature as a gateway to the transcendentalist goal of greater individualism. In 1848, Thoreau gave a lecture in which he argued that individuals must stand up to governmental injustice, a topic he chose because of his disgust over the Mexican-American War and slavery. In 1849, he published his lecture “Civil Disobedience” and urged readers to refuse to support a government that was immoral. In 1854, he published Walden; Or, Life in the Woods, a book about the two years he spent in a small cabin on Walden Pond near Concord, Massachusetts (Figure). Thoreau had lived there as an experiment in living apart, but not too far apart, from his conformist neighbors. Margaret Fuller also came to prominence as a leading transcendentalist and advocate for women’s equality. Fuller was a friend of Emerson and Thoreau, and other intellectuals of her day. Because she was a woman, she could not attend Harvard, as it was a male-only institution for undergraduate students until 1973. However, she was later granted the use of the library there because of her towering intellect. In 1840, she became the editor of The Dial, a transcendentalist journal, and she later found employment as a book reviewer for the New York Tribune newspaper. Tragically, in 1850, she died at the age of forty in a shipwreck off Fire Island, New York. Walt Whitman also added to the transcendentalist movement, most notably with his 1855 publication of twelve poems, entitled Leaves of Grass, which celebrated the subjective experience of the individual. One of the poems, “Song of Myself,” amplified the message of individualism, but by uniting the individual with all other people through a transcendent bond. Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” Walt Whitman (Figure) was a poet associated with the transcendentalists. His 1855 poem, “Song of Myself,” shocked many when it was first published, but it has been called one of the most influential poems in American literature. I CELEBRATE myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. I loafe and invite my soul, I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass. My tongue, every atom of my blood, form’d from this soil, this air, Born here of parents born here from parents the same, and their parents the same, I, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin, Hoping to cease not till death. . . . And I say to mankind, Be not curious about God, For I who am curious about each am not curious about God, (No array of terms can say how much I am at peace about God and about death.) I hear and behold God in every object, yet understand God not in the least, Nor do I understand who there can be more wonderful than myself. . . . I too am not a bit tamed, I too am untranslatable, I sound my barbaric yawp over the roofs of the world. . . . You will hardly know who I am or what I mean, But I shall be good health to you nevertheless, And filter and fibre your blood. Failing to fetch me at first keep encouraged, Missing me one place search another, I stop somewhere waiting for you. What images does Whitman use to describe himself and the world around him? What might have been shocking about this poem in 1855? Why do you think it has endured? Some critics took issue with transcendentalism’s emphasis on rampant individualism by pointing out the destructive consequences of compulsive human behavior. Herman Melville’s novel Moby Dick, Or, The Whale emphasized the perils of individual obsession by telling the tale of Captain Ahab’s single-minded quest to kill a white whale, Moby Dick, which had destroyed Ahab’s original ship and caused him to lose one of his legs. Edgar Allan Poe, a popular author, critic, and poet, decried “the so-called poetry of the so-called transcendentalists.” These American writers who questioned transcendentalism illustrate the underlying tension between individualism and conformity in American life. Section Summary Evangelical Protestantism pervaded American culture in the antebellum era and fueled a belief in the possibility of changing society for the better. Leaders of the Second Great Awakening like Charles G. Finney urged listeners to take charge of their own salvation. This religious message dovetailed with the new economic possibilities created by the market and Industrial Revolution, making the Protestantism of the Second Great Awakening, with its emphasis on individual spiritual success, a reflection of the individualistic, capitalist spirit of the age. Transcendentalists took a different approach, but like their religiously oriented brethren, they too looked to create a better existence. These authors, most notably Emerson, identified a major tension in American life between the effort to be part of the democratic majority and the need to remain true to oneself as an individual. Review Questions Which of the following is not a characteristic of the Second Great Awakening? - greater emphasis on nature - greater emphasis on religious education of children - greater church attendance - belief in the possibility of a better world Hint: A Transcendentalists were most concerned with ________. - the afterlife - predestination - the individual - democracy Hint: C What do the Second Great Awakening and transcendentalism have in common? Hint: They both emphasize the power of the individual over that of the majority. Evangelists of the Second Great Awakening preached the power of personal spirituality, whereas transcendentalists were more concerned with the individual soul.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.257442	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15462/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820–1860, An Awakening of Religion and Individualism", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15468/overview	The Compromise of 1850 Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the contested issues that led to the Compromise of 1850 - Describe and analyze the reactions to the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act At the end of the Mexican-American War, the United States gained a large expanse of western territory known as the Mexican Cession. The disposition of this new territory was in question; would the new states be slave states or free-soil states? In the long run, the Mexican-American War achieved what abolitionism alone had failed to do: it mobilized many in the North against slavery. Antislavery northerners clung to the idea expressed in the 1846 Wilmot Proviso: slavery would not expand into the areas taken, and later bought, from Mexico. Though the proviso remained a proposal and never became a law, it defined the sectional division. The Free-Soil Party, which formed at the conclusion of the Mexican-American War in 1848 and included many members of the failed Liberty Party, made this position the centerpiece of all its political activities, ensuring that the issue of slavery and its expansion remained at the front and center of American political debate. Supporters of the Wilmot Proviso and members of the new Free-Soil Party did not want to abolish slavery in the states where it already existed; rather, Free-Soil advocates demanded that the western territories be kept free of slavery for the benefit of white laborers who might settle there. They wanted to protect white workers from having to compete with slave labor in the West. (Abolitionists, in contrast, looked to destroy slavery everywhere in the United States.) Southern extremists, especially wealthy slaveholders, reacted with outrage at this effort to limit slavery’s expansion. They argued for the right to bring their slave property west, and they vowed to leave the Union if necessary to protect their way of life—meaning the right to own slaves—and ensure that the American empire of slavery would continue to grow. BROKERING THE COMPROMISE The issue of what to do with the western territories added to the republic by the Mexican Cession consumed Congress in 1850. Other controversial matters, which had been simmering over time, complicated the problem further. Chief among these issues were the slave trade in the District of Columbia, which antislavery advocates hoped to end, and the fugitive slave laws, which southerners wanted to strengthen. The border between Texas and New Mexico remained contested because many Texans hoped to enlarge their state further, and, finally, the issue of California had not been resolved. California was the crown jewel of the Mexican Cession, and following the discovery of gold, it was flush with thousands of emigrants. By most estimates, however, it would be a free state, since the former Mexican ban on slavery still remained in force and slavery had not taken root in California. The map below (Figure) shows the disposition of land before the 1850 compromise. The presidential election of 1848 did little to solve the problems resulting from the Mexican Cession. Both the Whigs and the Democrats attempted to avoid addressing the issue of slavery publicly as much as possible. The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of Michigan, a supporter of the idea of popular sovereignty, or letting the people in the territories decide the issue of whether or not to permit slavery based on majority rule. The Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, a slaveholder from Louisiana, who had achieved national prominence as a military hero in the Mexican-American War. Taylor did not take a personal stand on any issue and remained silent throughout the campaign. The fledgling Free-Soil Party put forward former president Martin Van Buren as their candidate. The Free-Soil Party attracted northern Democrats who supported the Wilmot Proviso, northern Whigs who rejected Taylor because he was a slaveholder, former members of the Liberty Party, and other abolitionists. Both the Whigs and the Democrats ran different campaigns in the North and South. In the North, all three parties attempted to win voters with promises of keeping the territories free of slavery, while in the South, Whigs and Democrats promised to protect slavery in the territories. For southern voters, the slaveholder Taylor appeared the natural choice. In the North, the Free-Soil Party took votes away from Whigs and Democrats and helped to ensure Taylor’s election in 1848. As president, Taylor sought to defuse the sectional controversy as much as possible, and, above all else, to preserve the Union. Although Taylor was born in Virginia before relocating to Kentucky and owned more than one hundred slaves by the late 1840s, he did not push for slavery’s expansion into the Mexican Cession. However, the California Gold Rush made California’s statehood into an issue demanding immediate attention. In 1849, after California residents adopted a state constitution prohibiting slavery, President Taylor called on Congress to admit California and New Mexico as free states, a move that infuriated southern defenders of slavery who argued for the right to bring their slave property wherever they chose. Taylor, who did not believe slavery could flourish in the arid lands of the Mexican Cession because the climate prohibited plantation-style farming, proposed that the Wilmot Proviso be applied to the entire area. In Congress, Kentucky senator Henry Clay, a veteran of congressional conflicts, offered a series of resolutions addressing the list of issues related to slavery and its expansion. Clay’s resolutions called for the admission of California as a free state; no restrictions on slavery in the rest of the Mexican Cession (a rejection of the Wilmot Proviso and the Free-Soil Party’s position); a boundary between New Mexico and Texas that did not expand Texas (an important matter, since Texas allowed slavery and a larger Texas meant more opportunities for the expansion of slavery); payment of outstanding Texas debts from the Lone Star Republic days; and the end of the slave trade (but not of slavery) in the nation’s capital, coupled with a more robust federal fugitive slave law. Clay presented these proposals as an omnibus bill, that is, one that would be voted on its totality. Clay’s proposals ignited a spirited and angry debate that lasted for eight months. The resolution calling for California to be admitted as a free state aroused the wrath of the aged and deathly ill John C. Calhoun, the elder statesman for the proslavery position. Calhoun, too sick to deliver a speech, had his friend Virginia senator James Mason present his assessment of Clay’s resolutions and the current state of sectional strife. In Calhoun’s eyes, blame for the stalemate fell squarely on the North, which stood in the way of southern and American prosperity by limiting the zones where slavery could flourish. Calhoun called for a vigorous federal law to ensure that runaway slaves were returned to their masters. He also proposed a constitutional amendment specifying a dual presidency—one office that would represent the South and another for the North—a suggestion that hinted at the possibility of disunion. Calhoun’s argument portrayed an embattled South faced with continued northern aggression—a line of reasoning that only furthered the sectional divide. Several days after Mason delivered Calhoun’s speech, Massachusetts senator Daniel Webster countered Calhoun in his “Seventh of March” speech. Webster called for national unity, famously declaring that he spoke “not as a Massachusetts man, not as a Northern man, but as an American.” Webster asked southerners to end threats of disunion and requested that the North stop antagonizing the South by harping on the Wilmot Proviso. Like Calhoun, Webster also called for a new federal law to ensure the return of runaway slaves. Webster’s efforts to compromise led many abolitionist sympathizers to roundly denounce him as a traitor. Whig senator William H. Seward, who aspired to be president, declared that slavery—which he characterized as incompatible with the assertion in the Declaration of Independence that “all men are created equal”—would one day be extinguished in the United States. Seward’s speech, in which he invoked the idea of a higher moral law than the Constitution, secured his reputation in the Senate as an advocate of abolition. The speeches made in Congress were published in the nation’s newspapers, and the American public followed the debates with great interest, anxious to learn how the issues of the day, especially the potential advance of slavery, would be resolved. Colorful reports of wrangling in Congress further piqued public interest. Indeed, it was not uncommon for arguments to devolve into fistfights or worse. One of the most astonishing episodes of the debate occurred in April 1850, when a quarrel erupted between Missouri Democratic senator Thomas Hart Benton, who by the time of the debate had become a critic of slavery (despite owning slaves), and Mississippi Democratic senator Henry S. Foote. When the burly Benton appeared ready to assault Foote, the Mississippi senator drew his pistol (Figure). President Taylor and Henry Clay, whose resolutions had begun the verbal fireworks in the Senate, had no patience for each other. Clay had long harbored ambitions for the White House, and, for his part, Taylor resented Clay and disapproved of his resolutions. With neither side willing to budge, the government stalled on how to resolve the disposition of the Mexican Cession and the other issues of slavery. The drama only increased when on July 4, 1850, President Taylor became gravely ill, reportedly after eating an excessive amount of fruit washed down with milk. He died five days later, and Vice President Millard Fillmore became president. Unlike his predecessor, who many believed would be opposed to a compromise, Fillmore worked with Congress to achieve a solution to the crisis of 1850. In the end, Clay stepped down as leader of the compromise effort in frustration, and Illinois senator Stephen Douglas pushed five separate bills through Congress, collectively composing the Compromise of 1850. First, as advocated by the South, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act, a law that provided federal money—or “bounties”—to slave-catchers. Second, to balance this concession to the South, Congress admitted California as a free state, a move that cheered antislavery advocates and abolitionists in the North. Third, Congress settled the contested boundary between New Mexico and Texas by favoring New Mexico and not allowing for an enlarged Texas, another outcome pleasing to the North. Fourth, antislavery advocates welcomed Congress’s ban on the slave trade in Washington, DC, although slavery continued to thrive in the nation’s capital. Finally, on the thorny issue of whether slavery would expand into the territories, Congress avoided making a direct decision and instead relied on the principle of popular sovereignty. This put the onus on residents of the territories to decide for themselves whether to allow slavery. Popular sovereignty followed the logic of American democracy; majorities in each territory would decide the territory’s laws. The compromise, however, further exposed the sectional divide as votes on the bills divided along strict regional lines. Most Americans breathed a sigh of relief over the deal brokered in 1850, choosing to believe it had saved the Union. Rather than resolving divisions between the North and the South, however, the compromise stood as a truce in an otherwise white-hot sectional conflict. Tensions in the nation remained extremely high; indeed, southerners held several conventions after the compromise to discuss ways to protect the South. At these meetings, extremists who called for secession found themselves in the minority, since most southerners committed themselves to staying in the Union—but only if slavery remained in the states where it already existed, and if no effort was made to block its expansion into areas where citizens wanted it, thereby applying the idea of popular sovereignty (Figure). THE FUGITIVE SLAVE ACT AND ITS CONSEQUENCES The hope that the Compromise of 1850 would resolve the sectional crisis proved short-lived when the Fugitive Slave Act turned into a major source of conflict. The federal law imposed heavy fines and prison sentences on northerners and midwesterners who aided runaway slaves or refused to join posses to catch fugitives. Many northerners felt the law forced them to act as slave-catchers against their will. The law also established a new group of federal commissioners who would decide the fate of fugitives brought before them. In some instances, slave-catchers even brought in free northern blacks, prompting abolitionist societies to step up their efforts to prevent kidnappings (Figure). The commissioners had a financial incentive to send fugitives and free blacks to the slaveholding South, since they received ten dollars for every African American sent to the South and only five if they decided the person who came before them was actually free. The commissioners used no juries, and the alleged runaways could not testify in their own defense. The operation of the law further alarmed northerners and confirmed for many the existence of a “Slave Power”—that is, a minority of elite slaveholders who wielded a disproportionate amount of power over the federal government, shaping domestic and foreign policies to suit their interests. Despite southerners’ repeated insistence on states’ rights, the Fugitive Slave Act showed that slaveholders were willing to use the power of the federal government to bend people in other states to their will. While rejecting the use of federal power to restrict the expansion of slavery, proslavery southerners turned to the federal government to protect and promote the institution of slavery. The actual number of runaway slaves who were not captured within a year of escaping remained very low, perhaps no more than one thousand per year in the early 1850s. Most stayed in the South, hiding in plain sight among free blacks in urban areas. Nonetheless, southerners feared the influence of a vast Underground Railroad: the network of northern whites and free blacks who sympathized with runaway slaves and provided safe houses and safe passage from the South. Quakers, who had long been troubled by slavery, were especially active in this network. It is unclear how many slaves escaped through the Underground Railroad, but historians believe that between 50,000 and 100,000 slaves used the network in their bids for freedom. Meanwhile, the 1850 Fugitive Slave Act greatly increased the perils of being captured. For many thousands of fugitives, escaping the United States completely by going to southern Ontario, Canada, where slavery had been abolished, offered the best chance of a better life beyond the reach of slaveholders. Harriet Tubman, one of the thousands of slaves who made their escape through the Underground Railroad, distinguished herself for her efforts in helping other enslaved men and women escape. Born a slave in Maryland around 1822, Tubman, who suffered greatly under slavery but found solace in Christianity, made her escape in the late 1840s. She returned to the South more than a dozen times to lead other slaves, including her family and friends, along the Underground Railroad to freedom. Harriet Tubman: An American Moses? Harriet Tubman (Figure) was a legendary figure in her own time and beyond. An escaped slave herself, she returned to the South thirteen times to help over three hundred slaves through the Underground Railroad to liberty in the North. In 1869, printer William J. Moses published Sarah H. Bradford’s Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman. Bradford was a writer and biographer who had known Tubman’s family for years. The excerpt below is from the beginning of her book, which she updated in 1886 under the title Harriet, the Moses of Her People. It is proposed in this little book to give a plain and unvarnished account of some scenes and adventures in the life of a woman who, though one of earth’s lowly ones, and of dark-hued skin, has shown an amount of heroism in her character rarely possessed by those of any station in life. Her name (we say it advisedly and without exaggeration) deserves to be handed down to posterity side by side with the names of Joan of Arc, Grace Darling, and Florence Nightingale; for not one of these women has shown more courage and power of endurance in facing danger and death to relieve human suffering, than has this woman in her heroic and successful endeavors to reach and save all whom she might of her oppressed and suffering race, and to pilot them from the land of Bondage to the promised land of Liberty. Well has she been called “Moses,” for she has been a leader and deliverer unto hundreds of her people. —Sarah H. Bradford, Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman How does Bradford characterize Tubman? What language does Bradford use to tie religion into the fight for freedom? The Fugitive Slave Act provoked widespread reactions in the North. Some abolitionists, such as Frederick Douglass, believed that standing up against the law necessitated violence. In Boston and elsewhere, abolitionists tried to protect fugitives from federal authorities. One case involved Anthony Burns, who had escaped slavery in Virginia in 1853 and made his way to Boston (Figure). When federal officials arrested Burns in 1854, abolitionists staged a series of mass demonstrations and a confrontation at the courthouse. Despite their best efforts, however, Burns was returned to Virginia when President Franklin Pierce supported the Fugitive Slave Act with federal troops. Boston abolitionists eventually bought Burns’s freedom. For many northerners, however, the Burns incident, combined with Pierce’s response, only amplified their sense of a conspiracy of southern power. The most consequential reaction against the Fugitive Slave Act came in the form of a novel, Uncle Tom’s Cabin. In it, author Harriet Beecher Stowe, born in Connecticut, made use of slaves’ stories she had heard firsthand after marrying and moving to Ohio, then on the country’s western frontier. Her novel first appeared as a series of stories in a Free-Soil newspaper, the National Era, in 1851 and was published as a book the following year. Stowe told the tale of slaves who were sold by their Kentucky master. While Uncle Tom is indeed sold down the river, young Eliza escapes with her baby (Figure). The story highlighted the idea that slavery was a sin because it destroyed families, ripping children from their parents and husbands and wives from one another. Stowe also emphasized the ways in which slavery corrupted white citizens. The cruelty of some of the novel’s white slaveholders (who genuinely believe that slaves don’t feel things the way that white people do) and the brutality of the slave dealer Simon Legree, who beats slaves and sexually exploits a slave woman, demonstrate the dehumanizing effect of the institution even on those who benefit from it. Stowe’s novel proved a runaway bestseller and was the most-read novel of the nineteenth century, inspiring multiple theatrical productions and musical compositions. It was translated into sixty languages and remains in print to this day. Its message about the evils of slavery helped convince many northerners of the righteousness of the cause of abolition. The novel also demonstrated the power of women to shape public opinion. Stowe and other American women believed they had a moral obligation to mold the conscience of the United States, even though they could not vote (Figure). Visit the Documenting the American South collection on the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill website to read the memoirs of Levi Coffin, a prominent Quaker abolitionist who was known as the “president” of the Underground Railroad for his active role in helping slaves to freedom. The memoirs include the story of Eliza Harris, which inspired Harriet Beecher Stowe’s famous character. The backlash against the Fugitive Slave Act, fueled by Uncle Tom’s Cabin and well-publicized cases like that of Anthony Burns, also found expression in personal liberty laws passed by eight northern state legislatures. These laws emphasized that the state would provide legal protection to anyone arrested as a fugitive slave, including the right to trial by jury. The personal liberty laws stood as a clear-cut example of the North’s use of states’ rights in opposition to federal power while providing further evidence to southerners that northerners had no respect for the Fugitive Slave Act or slaveholders’ property rights. Go to an archived page from the Michigan Department of Natural Resources site to read the original text of Michigan’s 1855 personal liberty laws. How do these laws refute the provisions of the federal Fugitive Slave Act of 1850? Section Summary The difficult process of reaching a compromise on slavery in 1850 exposed the sectional fault lines in the United States. After several months of rancorous debate, Congress passed five laws—known collectively as the Compromise of 1850—that people on both sides of the divide hoped had solved the nation’s problems. However, many northerners feared the impact of the Fugitive Slave Act, which made it a crime not only to help slaves escape, but also to fail to help capture them. Many Americans, both black and white, flouted the Fugitive Slave Act by participating in the Underground Railroad, providing safe houses for slaves on the run from the South. Eight northern states passed personal liberty laws to counteract the effects of the Fugitive Slave Act. Review Questions What was President Zachary Taylor’s top priority as president? - preserving the Union - ensuring the recapture of runaway slaves - expanding slavery - enlarging the state of Texas Hint: A Which of the following was not a component of the Compromise of 1850? - the passage of the Fugitive Slave Act - the admission of Kansas as a free state - the admission of California as a free state - a ban on the slave trade in Washington, DC Hint: B Why did many in the North resist the Fugitive Slave Act? Hint: This federal law appeared to northerners to be further proof of a “Slave Power” conspiracy and elite slaveholders’ disproportionate influence over U.S. domestic policy. Northerners also resented being compelled to serve as de facto slave-catchers, as the law punished people not only for helping fugitive slaves, but also for failing to aid in efforts to return them. Finally, the law rankled many northerners for the hypocrisy that it exposed, given southerners’ arguments in favor of states’ rights and against the federal government’s meddling in their affairs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.288125	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15468/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Troubled Times: the Tumultuous 1850s, The Compromise of 1850", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15472/overview	Introduction Overview - The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War - Early Mobilization and War - 1863: The Changing Nature of the War - The Union Triumphant In May 1864, General Ulysses S. Grant ordered the Union’s Army of the Potomac to cross the Rapidan River in Virginia. Grant knew that Confederate general Robert E. Lee would defend the Confederate capital at Richmond at all costs, committing troops that might otherwise be sent to the Shenandoah or the Deep South to stop Union general William Tecumseh Sherman from capturing Atlanta, a key Confederate city. For two days, the Army of the Potomac fought Lee’s troops in the Wilderness, a wooded area along the Rapidan River. Nearly ten thousand Confederate soldiers were killed or wounded, as were more than seventeen thousand Union troops. A few weeks later, the armies would meet again at the Battle of Cold Harbor, where another fifteen thousand men would be wounded or killed. As in many battles, the bodies of those who died were left on the field where they fell. A year later, African Americans, who were often called upon to perform menial labor for the Union army (Figure), collected the skeletal remains of the dead for a proper burial. The state of the graves of many Civil War soldiers partly inspired the creation of Memorial Day, a day set aside for visiting and decorating the graves of the dead.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.304719	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15472/overview", "title": "U.S. History, The Civil War, 1860–1865, Introduction", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15482/overview	Introduction Overview - The Westward Spirit - Homesteading: Dreams and Realities - Making a Living in Gold and Cattle - The Loss of American Indian Life and Culture - The Impact of Expansion on Chinese Immigrants and Hispanic Citizens In the middle of the nineteenth century, farmers in the “Old West”—the land across the Allegheny Mountains in Pennsylvania—began to hear about the opportunities to be found in the “New West.” They had long believed that the land west of the Mississippi was a great desert, unfit for human habitation. But now, the federal government was encouraging them to join the migratory stream westward to this unknown land. For a variety of reasons, Americans increasingly felt compelled to fulfill their “Manifest Destiny,” a phrase that came to mean that they were expected to spread across the land given to them by God and, most importantly, spread predominantly American values to the frontier (Figure). With great trepidation, hundreds, and then hundreds of thousands, of settlers packed their lives into wagons and set out, following the Oregon, California, and Santa Fe Trails, to seek a new life in the West. Some sought open lands and greater freedom to fulfill the democratic vision originally promoted by Thomas Jefferson and experienced by their ancestors. Others saw economic opportunity. Still others believed it was their job to spread the word of God to the “heathens” on the frontier. Whatever their motivation, the great migration was underway. The American pioneer spirit was born.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.320151	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15482/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Go West Young Man! Westward Expansion, 1840-1900, Introduction", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15466/overview	Women’s Rights Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the connections between abolition, reform, and antebellum feminism - Describe the ways antebellum women’s movements were both traditional and revolutionary Women took part in all the antebellum reforms, from transcendentalism to temperance to abolition. In many ways, traditional views of women as nurturers played a role in encouraging their participation. Women who joined the cause of temperance, for example, amplified their accepted role as moral guardians of the home. Some women advocated a much more expansive role for themselves and their peers by educating children and men in solid republican principles. But it was their work in antislavery efforts that served as a springboard for women to take action against gender inequality. Many, especially northern women, came to the conclusion that they, like slaves, were held in shackles in a society dominated by men. Despite the radical nature of their effort to end slavery and create a biracial society, most abolitionist men clung to traditional notions of proper gender roles. White and black women, as well as free black men, were forbidden from occupying leadership positions in the AASS. Because women were not allowed to join the men in playing leading roles in the organization, they formed separate societies, such as the Boston Female Anti-Slavery Society, the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society, and similar groups. THE GRIMKÉ SISTERS Two leading abolitionist women, Sarah and Angelina Grimké, played major roles in combining the fight to end slavery with the struggle to achieve female equality. The sisters had been born into a prosperous slaveholding family in South Carolina. Both were caught up in the religious fervor of the Second Great Awakening, and they moved to the North and converted to Quakerism. In the mid-1830s, the sisters joined the abolitionist movement, and in 1837, they embarked on a public lecture tour, speaking about immediate abolition to “promiscuous assemblies,” that is, to audiences of women and men. This public action thoroughly scandalized respectable society, where it was unheard of for women to lecture to men. William Lloyd Garrison endorsed the Grimké sisters’ public lectures, but other abolitionists did not. Their lecture tour served as a turning point; the reaction against them propelled the question of women’s proper sphere in society to the forefront of public debate. THE DECLARATION OF RIGHTS AND SENTIMENTS Participation in the abolitionist movement led some women to embrace feminism, the advocacy of women’s rights. Lydia Maria Child, an abolitionist and feminist, observed, “The comparison between women and the colored race is striking . . . both have been kept in subjection by physical force.” Other women, including Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucy Stone, and Susan B. Anthony, agreed (Figure). In 1848, about three hundred male and female feminists, many of them veterans of the abolition campaign, gathered at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York for a conference on women’s rights that was organized by Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. It was the first of what became annual meetings that have continued to the present day. Attendees agreed to a “Declaration of Rights and Sentiments” based on the Declaration of Independence; it declared, “We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men and women are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” “The history of mankind,” the document continued, “is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations on the part of man toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her.” Read the entire text of the Declaration of Rights and Sentiments in the Internet Modern History Sourcebook at Fordham University. REPUBLICAN MOTHERHOOD IN THE ANTEBELLUM YEARS Some northern female reformers saw new and vital roles for their sex in the realm of education. They believed in traditional gender roles, viewing women as inherently more moral and nurturing than men. Because of these attributes, the feminists argued, women were uniquely qualified to take up the roles of educators of children. Catharine Beecher, the daughter of Lyman Beecher, pushed for women’s roles as educators. In her 1845 book, The Duty of American Women to Their Country, she argued that the United States had lost its moral compass due to democratic excess. Both “intelligence and virtue” were imperiled in an age of riots and disorder. Women, she argued, could restore the moral center by instilling in children a sense of right and wrong. Beecher represented a northern, middle-class female sensibility. The home, especially the parlor, became the site of northern female authority. Section Summary The spirit of religious awakening and reform in the antebellum era impacted women lives by allowing them to think about their lives and their society in new and empowering ways. Of all the various antebellum reforms, however, abolition played a significant role in generating the early feminist movement in the United States. Although this early phase of American feminism did not lead to political rights for women, it began the long process of overcoming gender inequalities in the republic. Review Questions Why did William Lloyd Garrison’s endorsement of the Grimké sisters divide the abolitionist movement? - They advocated equal rights for women. - They supported colonization. - They attended the Seneca Falls Convention. - They lectured to co-ed audiences. Hint: D Which female reformer focused on women’s roles as the educators of children? - Lydia Maria Child - Sarah Grimké - Catherine Beecher - Susan B. Anthony Hint: C How did the abolitionist movement impact the women’s movement? Hint: Women’s involvement in the abolitionist movement, where they were unable to take leadership roles in traditional male organizations, led them to create their own organizations, where they were thrust into the public sphere. Critical Thinking Questions In what ways did the Second Great Awakening and transcendentalism reflect and react to the changes in antebellum American thought and culture? What did the antebellum communal projects have in common? How did the ones most influenced by religion differ from those that had other influences? In what ways do temperance, health reforms, and phrenology offer reflections on the changes in the United States before the Civil War? What needs did these reforms fill in the lives of antebellum Americans? Of the various approaches to the problem of slavery, which one do you find to be the most effective and why? In what ways were antebellum feminists radical? In what ways were they traditional?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.345021	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15466/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Antebellum Idealism and Reform Impulses, 1820–1860, Women’s Rights", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28779/overview	The Production Possibilities Frontier and Social Choices Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Interpret production possibilities frontier graphs - Contrast a budget constraint and a production possibilities frontier - Explain the relationship between a production possibilities frontier and the law of diminishing returns - Contrast productive efficiency and allocative efficiency - Define comparative advantage Just as individuals cannot have everything they want and must instead make choices, society as a whole cannot have everything it might want, either. This section of the chapter will explain the constraints society faces, using a model called the production possibilities frontier (PPF). There are more similarities than differences between individual choice and social choice. As you read this section, focus on the similarities. Because society has limited resources (e.g., labor, land, capital, raw materials) at any point in time, there is a limit to the quantities of goods and services it can produce. Suppose a society desires two products, healthcare and education. The production possibilities frontier in Figure illustrates this situation. Figure shows healthcare on the vertical axis and education on the horizontal axis. If the society were to allocate all of its resources to healthcare, it could produce at point A. However, it would not have any resources to produce education. If it were to allocate all of its resources to education, it could produce at point F. Alternatively, the society could choose to produce any combination of healthcare and education on the production possibilities frontier. In effect, the production possibilities frontier plays the same role for society as the budget constraint plays for Alphonso. Society can choose any combination of the two goods on or inside the PPF. However, it does not have enough resources to produce outside the PPF. Most importantly, the production possibilities frontier clearly shows the tradeoff between healthcare and education. Suppose society has chosen to operate at point B, and it is considering producing more education. Because the PPF is downward sloping from left to right, the only way society can obtain more education is by giving up some healthcare. That is the tradeoff society faces. Suppose it considers moving from point B to point C. What would the opportunity cost be for the additional education? The opportunity cost would be the healthcare society has to forgo. Just as with Alphonso’s budget constraint, the slope of the production possibilities frontier shows the opportunity cost. By now you might be saying, “Hey, this PPF is sounding like the budget constraint.” If so, read the following Clear It Up feature. What’s the difference between a budget constraint and a PPF? There are two major differences between a budget constraint and a production possibilities frontier. The first is the fact that the budget constraint is a straight line. This is because its slope is given by the relative prices of the two goods, which from the point of view of an individual consumer, are fixed, so the slope doesn't change. In contrast, the PPF has a curved shape because of the law of the diminishing returns. Thus, the slope is different at various points on the PPF. The second major difference is the absence of specific numbers on the axes of the PPF. There are no specific numbers because we do not know the exact amount of resources this imaginary economy has, nor do we know how many resources it takes to produce healthcare and how many resources it takes to produce education. If this were a real world example, that data would be available. Whether or not we have specific numbers, conceptually we can measure the opportunity cost of additional education as society moves from point B to point C on the PPF. We measure the additional education by the horizontal distance between B and C. The foregone healthcare is given by the vertical distance between B and C. The slope of the PPF between B and C is (approximately) the vertical distance (the “rise”) over the horizontal distance (the “run”). This is the opportunity cost of the additional education. The Shape of the PPF and the Law of Diminishing Returns The budget constraints that we presented earlier in this chapter, showing individual choices about what quantities of goods to consume, were all straight lines. The reason for these straight lines was that the relative prices of the two goods in the consumption budget constraint determined the slope of the budget constraint. However, we drew the production possibilities frontier for healthcare and education as a curved line. Why does the PPF have a different shape? To understand why the PPF is curved, start by considering point A at the top left-hand side of the PPF. At point A, all available resources are devoted to healthcare and none are left for education. This situation would be extreme and even ridiculous. For example, children are seeing a doctor every day, whether they are sick or not, but not attending school. People are having cosmetic surgery on every part of their bodies, but no high school or college education exists. Now imagine that some of these resources are diverted from healthcare to education, so that the economy is at point B instead of point A. Diverting some resources away from A to B causes relatively little reduction in health because the last few marginal dollars going into healthcare services are not producing much additional gain in health. However, putting those marginal dollars into education, which is completely without resources at point A, can produce relatively large gains. For this reason, the shape of the PPF from A to B is relatively flat, representing a relatively small drop-off in health and a relatively large gain in education. Now consider the other end, at the lower right, of the production possibilities frontier. Imagine that society starts at choice D, which is devoting nearly all resources to education and very few to healthcare, and moves to point F, which is devoting all spending to education and none to healthcare. For the sake of concreteness, you can imagine that in the movement from D to F, the last few doctors must become high school science teachers, the last few nurses must become school librarians rather than dispensers of vaccinations, and the last few emergency rooms are turned into kindergartens. The gains to education from adding these last few resources to education are very small. However, the opportunity cost lost to health will be fairly large, and thus the slope of the PPF between D and F is steep, showing a large drop in health for only a small gain in education. The lesson is not that society is likely to make an extreme choice like devoting no resources to education at point A or no resources to health at point F. Instead, the lesson is that the gains from committing additional marginal resources to education depend on how much is already being spent. If on the one hand, very few resources are currently committed to education, then an increase in resources used can bring relatively large gains. On the other hand, if a large number of resources are already committed to education, then committing additional resources will bring relatively smaller gains. This pattern is common enough that economists have given it a name: the law of diminishing returns, which holds that as additional increments of resources are added to a certain purpose, the marginal benefit from those additional increments will decline. (The law of diminishing marginal utility that we introduced in the last section is a more specific case of the law of diminishing returns.) When government spends a certain amount more on reducing crime, for example, the original gains in reducing crime could be relatively large. However, additional increases typically cause relatively smaller reductions in crime, and paying for enough police and security to reduce crime to nothing at all would be tremendously expensive. The curvature of the production possibilities frontier shows that as we add more resources to education, moving from left to right along the horizontal axis, the original gains are fairly large, but gradually diminish. Thus, the slope of the PPF is relatively flat. By contrast, as we add more resources to healthcare, moving from bottom to top on the vertical axis, the original gains are fairly large, but again gradually diminish. Thus, the slope of the PPF is relatively steep. In this way, the law of diminishing returns produces the outward-bending shape of the production possibilities frontier. Productive Efficiency and Allocative Efficiency The study of economics does not presume to tell a society what choice it should make along its production possibilities frontier. In a market-oriented economy with a democratic government, the choice will involve a mixture of decisions by individuals, firms, and government. However, economics can point out that some choices are unambiguously better than others. This observation is based on the concept of efficiency. In everyday usage, efficiency refers to lack of waste. An inefficient machine operates at high cost, while an efficient machine operates at lower cost, because it is not wasting energy or materials. An inefficient organization operates with long delays and high costs, while an efficient organization meets schedules, is focused, and performs within budget. The production possibilities frontier can illustrate two kinds of efficiency: productive efficiency and allocative efficiency. Figure illustrates these ideas using a production possibilities frontier between healthcare and education. Productive efficiency means that, given the available inputs and technology, it is impossible to produce more of one good without decreasing the quantity that is produced of another good. All choices on the PPF in Figure, including A, B, C, D, and F, display productive efficiency. As a firm moves from any one of these choices to any other, either healthcare increases and education decreases or vice versa. However, any choice inside the production possibilities frontier is productively inefficient and wasteful because it is possible to produce more of one good, the other good, or some combination of both goods. For example, point R is productively inefficient because it is possible at choice C to have more of both goods: education on the horizontal axis is higher at point C than point R (E2 is greater than E1), and healthcare on the vertical axis is also higher at point C than point R (H2 is great than H1). We can show the particular mix of goods and services produced—that is, the specific combination of selected healthcare and education along the production possibilities frontier—as a ray (line) from the origin to a specific point on the PPF. Output mixes that had more healthcare (and less education) would have a steeper ray, while those with more education (and less healthcare) would have a flatter ray. Allocative efficiency means that the particular combination of goods and services on the production possibility curve that a society produces represents the combination that society most desires. How to determine what a society desires can be a controversial question, and is usually a discussion in political science, sociology, and philosophy classes as well as in economics. At its most basic, allocative efficiency means producers supply the quantity of each product that consumers demand. Only one of the productively efficient choices will be the allocatively efficient choice for society as a whole. Why Society Must Choose In Welcome to Economics! we learned that every society faces the problem of scarcity, where limited resources conflict with unlimited needs and wants. The production possibilities curve illustrates the choices involved in this dilemma. Every economy faces two situations in which it may be able to expand consumption of all goods. In the first case, a society may discover that it has been using its resources inefficiently, in which case by improving efficiency and producing on the production possibilities frontier, it can have more of all goods (or at least more of some and less of none). In the second case, as resources grow over a period of years (e.g., more labor and more capital), the economy grows. As it does, the production possibilities frontier for a society will tend to shift outward and society will be able to afford more of all goods. However, improvements in productive efficiency take time to discover and implement, and economic growth happens only gradually. Thus, a society must choose between tradeoffs in the present. For government, this process often involves trying to identify where additional spending could do the most good and where reductions in spending would do the least harm. At the individual and firm level, the market economy coordinates a process in which firms seek to produce goods and services in the quantity, quality, and price that people want. However, for both the government and the market economy in the short term, increases in production of one good typically mean offsetting decreases somewhere else in the economy. The PPF and Comparative Advantage While every society must choose how much of each good or service it should produce, it does not need to produce every single good it consumes. Often how much of a good a country decides to produce depends on how expensive it is to produce it versus buying it from a different country. As we saw earlier, the curvature of a country’s PPF gives us information about the tradeoff between devoting resources to producing one good versus another. In particular, its slope gives the opportunity cost of producing one more unit of the good in the x-axis in terms of the other good (in the y-axis). Countries tend to have different opportunity costs of producing a specific good, either because of different climates, geography, technology, or skills. Suppose two countries, the US and Brazil, need to decide how much they will produce of two crops: sugar cane and wheat. Due to its climatic conditions, Brazil can produce quite a bit of sugar cane per acre but not much wheat. Conversely, the U.S. can produce large amounts of wheat per acre, but not much sugar cane. Clearly, Brazil has a lower opportunity cost of producing sugar cane (in terms of wheat) than the U.S. The reverse is also true: the U.S. has a lower opportunity cost of producing wheat than Brazil. We illustrate this by the PPFs of the two countries in Figure. When a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country, we say that this country has a comparative advantage in that good. Comparative advantage is not the same as absolute advantage, which is when a country can produce more of a good. In our example, Brazil has an absolute advantage in sugar cane and the U.S. has an absolute advantage in wheat. One can easily see this with a simple observation of the extreme production points in the PPFs of the two countries. If Brazil devoted all of its resources to producing wheat, it would be producing at point A. If however it had devoted all of its resources to producing sugar cane instead, it would be producing a much larger amount than the U.S., at point B. The slope of the PPF gives the opportunity cost of producing an additional unit of wheat. While the slope is not constant throughout the PPFs, it is quite apparent that the PPF in Brazil is much steeper than in the U.S., and therefore the opportunity cost of wheat generally higher in Brazil. In the chapter on International Trade you will learn that countries’ differences in comparative advantage determine which goods they will choose to produce and trade. When countries engage in trade, they specialize in the production of the goods in which they have comparative advantage, and trade part of that production for goods in which they do not have comparative advantage. With trade, manufacturers produce goods where the opportunity cost is lowest, so total production increases, benefiting both trading parties. Key Concepts and Summary A production possibilities frontier defines the set of choices society faces for the combinations of goods and services it can produce given the resources available. The shape of the PPF is typically curved outward, rather than straight. Choices outside the PPF are unattainable and choices inside the PPF are wasteful. Over time, a growing economy will tend to shift the PPF outwards. The law of diminishing returns holds that as increments of additional resources are devoted to producing something, the marginal increase in output will become increasingly smaller. All choices along a production possibilities frontier display productive efficiency; that is, it is impossible to use society’s resources to produce more of one good without decreasing production of the other good. The specific choice along a production possibilities frontier that reflects the mix of goods society prefers is the choice with allocative efficiency. The curvature of the PPF is likely to differ by country, which results in different countries having comparative advantage in different goods. Total production can increase if countries specialize in the goods in which they have comparative advantage and trade some of their production for the remaining goods. Self-Check Questions Return to the example in Figure. Suppose there is an improvement in medical technology that enables more healthcare with the same amount of resources. How would this affect the production possibilities curve and, in particular, how would it affect the opportunity cost of education? Hint: Because of the improvement in technology, the vertical intercept of the PPF would be at a higher level of healthcare. In other words, the PPF would rotate clockwise around the horizontal intercept. This would make the PPF steeper, corresponding to an increase in the opportunity cost of education, since resources devoted to education would now mean forgoing a greater quantity of healthcare. Could a nation be producing in a way that is allocatively efficient, but productively inefficient? Hint: No. Allocative efficiency requires productive efficiency, because it pertains to choices along the production possibilities frontier. What are the similarities between a consumer’s budget constraint and society’s production possibilities frontier, not just graphically but analytically? Hint: Both the budget constraint and the PPF show the constraint that each operates under. Both show a tradeoff between having more of one good but less of the other. Both show the opportunity cost graphically as the slope of the constraint (budget or PPF). Review Questions What is comparative advantage? What does a production possibilities frontier illustrate? Why is a production possibilities frontier typically drawn as a curve, rather than a straight line? Explain why societies cannot make a choice above their production possibilities frontier and should not make a choice below it. What are diminishing marginal returns? What is productive efficiency? Allocative efficiency? Critical Thinking Questions During the Second World War, Germany’s factories were decimated. It also suffered many human casualties, both soldiers and civilians. How did the war affect Germany’s production possibilities curve? It is clear that productive inefficiency is a waste since resources are used in a way that produces less goods and services than a nation is capable of. Why is allocative inefficiency also wasteful?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.377323	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28779/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Choice in a World of Scarcity, The Production Possibilities Frontier and Social Choices", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28885/overview	How Governments Enact Trade Policy: Globally, Regionally, and Nationally Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the origin and role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) - Discuss the significance and provide examples of regional trading agreements - Analyze trade policy at the national level - Evaluate long-term trends in barriers to trade These public policy arguments about how nations should react to globalization and trade are fought out at several levels: at the global level through the World Trade Organization and through regional trade agreements between pairs or groups of countries. The World Trade Organization The World Trade Organization (WTO) was officially born in 1995, but its history is much longer. In the years after the Great Depression and World War II, there was a worldwide push to build institutions that would tie the nations of the world together. The United Nations officially came into existence in 1945. The World Bank, which assists the poorest people in the world, and the International Monetary Fund, which addresses issues raised by international financial transactions, were both created in 1946. The third planned organization was to be an International Trade Organization, which would manage international trade. The United Nations was unable to agree to this. Instead, 27 nations signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in Geneva, Switzerland on October 30, 1947 to provide a forum in which nations could come together to negotiate reductions in tariffs and other barriers to trade. In 1995, the GATT transformed into the WTO. The GATT process was to negotiate an agreement to reduce barriers to trade, sign that agreement, pause for a while, and then start negotiating the next agreement. Table shows rounds of talks in the GATT, and now the WTO. Notice that the early rounds of GATT talks took a relatively short time, included a small number of countries, and focused almost entirely on reducing tariffs. Since the mid-1960s, however, rounds of trade talks have taken years, included a large number of countries, and have included an ever-broadening range of issues. \| Year \| Place or Name of Round \| Main Subjects \| Number of Countries Involved \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 1947 \| Geneva \| Tariff reduction \| 23 \| \| 1949 \| Annecy \| Tariff reduction \| 13 \| \| 1951 \| Torquay \| Tariff reduction \| 38 \| \| 1956 \| Geneva \| Tariff reduction \| 26 \| \| 1960–61 \| Dillon round \| Tariff reduction \| 26 \| \| 1964–67 \| Kennedy round \| Tariffs, anti-dumping measures \| 62 \| \| 1973–79 \| Tokyo round \| Tariffs, nontariff barriers \| 102 \| \| 1986–94 \| Uruguay round \| Tariffs, nontariff barriers, services, intellectual property, dispute settlement, textiles, agriculture, creation of WTO \| 123 \| \| 2001– \| Doha round \| Agriculture, services, intellectual property, competition, investment, environment, dispute settlement \| 147 \| The sluggish pace of GATT negotiations led to an old joke that GATT really stood for Gentleman’s Agreement to Talk and Talk. The slow pace of international trade talks, however, is understandable, even sensible. Having dozens of nations agree to any treaty is a lengthy process. GATT often set up separate trading rules for certain industries, like agriculture, and separate trading rules for certain countries, like the low-income countries. There were rules, exceptions to rules, opportunities to opt out of rules, and precise wording to be fought over in every case. Like the GATT before it, the WTO is not a world government, with power to impose its decisions on others. The total staff of the WTO in 2014 is 640 people and its annual budget (as of 2014) is $197 million, which makes it smaller in size than many large universities. Regional Trading Agreements There are different types of economic integration across the globe, ranging from free trade agreements, in which participants allow each other’s imports without tariffs or quotas, to common markets, in which participants have a common external trade policy as well as free trade within the group, to full economic unions, in which, in addition to a common market, monetary and fiscal policies are coordinated. Many nations belong both to the World Trade Organization and to regional trading agreements. The best known of these regional trading agreements is the European Union. In the years after World War II, leaders of several European nations reasoned that if they could tie their economies together more closely, they might be more likely to avoid another devastating war. Their efforts began with a free trade association, evolved into a common market, and then transformed into what is now a full economic union, known as the European Union. The EU, as it is often called, has a number of goals. For example, in the early 2000s it introduced a common currency for Europe, the euro, and phased out most of the former national forms of money like the German mark and the French franc, though a few have retained their own currency. Another key element of the union is to eliminate barriers to the mobility of goods, labor, and capital across Europe. For the United States, perhaps the best-known regional trading agreement is the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The United States also participates in some less-prominent regional trading agreements, like the Caribbean Basin Initiative, which offers reduced tariffs for imports from these countries, and a free trade agreement with Israel. The world has seen a flood of regional trading agreements in recent years. About 100 such agreements are now in place. Table lists a few of the more prominent ones. Some are just agreements to continue talking. Others set specific goals for reducing tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers. One economist described the current trade treaties as a “spaghetti bowl,” which is what a map with lines connecting all the countries with trade treaties looks like. There is concern among economists who favor free trade that some of these regional agreements may promise free trade, but actually act as a way for the countries within the regional agreement to try to limit trade from anywhere else. In some cases, the regional trade agreements may even conflict with the broader agreements of the World Trade Organization. \| Trade Agreements \| Participating Countries \| \|---\|---\| \| Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) \| Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong, China, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Philippines, Russia, Singapore, Chinese Taipei, Thailand, United States, Vietnam \| \| European Union (EU) \| Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom* \| \| North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) \| Canada, Mexico, United States \| \| Latin American Integration Association (LAIA) \| Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela \| \| Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) \| Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam \| \| Southern African Development Community (SADC) \| Angola, Botswana, Congo, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe \| Trade Policy at the National Level Yet another dimension of trade policy, along with international and regional trade agreements, happens at the national level. The United States, for example, imposes import quotas on sugar, because of a fear that such imports would drive down the price of sugar and thus injure domestic sugar producers. One of the jobs of the United States Department of Commerce is to determine if there is import dumping from other countries. The United States International Trade Commission—a government agency—determines whether the dumping has substantially injured domestic industries, and if so, the president can impose tariffs that are intended to offset the unfairly low price. In the arena of trade policy, the battle often seems to be between national laws that increase protectionism and international agreements that try to reduce protectionism, like the WTO. Why would a country pass laws or negotiate agreements to shut out certain foreign products, like sugar or textiles, while simultaneously negotiating to reduce trade barriers in general? One plausible answer is that international trade agreements offer a method for countries to restrain their own special interests. A member of Congress can say to an industry lobbying for tariffs or quotas on imports: “Sure would like to help you, but that pesky WTO agreement just won’t let me.” If consumers are the biggest losers from trade, why do they not fight back? The quick answer is because it is easier to organize a small group of people around a narrow interest (producers) versus a large group that has diffuse interests (consumers). This is a question about trade policy theory. Visit this website and read the article by Jonathan Rauch. Long-Term Trends in Barriers to Trade In newspaper headlines, trade policy appears mostly as disputes and acrimony. Countries are almost constantly threatening to challenge other nations' “unfair” trading practices. Cases are brought to the dispute settlement procedures of the WTO, the European Union, NAFTA, and other regional trading agreements. Politicians in national legislatures, goaded on by lobbyists, often threaten to pass bills that will “establish a fair playing field” or “prevent unfair trade”—although most such bills seek to accomplish these high-sounding goals by placing more restrictions on trade. Protesters in the streets may object to specific trade rules or to the entire practice of international trade. Through all the controversy, the general trend in the last 60 years is clearly toward lower barriers to trade. The average level of tariffs on imported products charged by industrialized countries was 40% in 1946. By 1990, after decades of GATT negotiations, it was down to less than 5%. One of the reasons that GATT negotiations shifted from focusing on tariff reduction in the early rounds to a broader agenda was that tariffs had been reduced so dramatically there was not much more to do in that area. U.S. tariffs have followed this general pattern: After rising sharply during the Great Depression, tariffs dropped off to less than 2% by the end of the century. Although measures of import quotas and nontariff barriers are less exact than those for tariffs, they generally appear to be at lower levels than they had been previously, too. Thus, the last half-century has seen both a dramatic reduction in government-created barriers to trade, such as tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers, and also a number of technological developments that have made international trade easier, like advances in transportation, communication, and information management. The result has been the powerful surge of international trade. Key Concepts and Summary Governments determine trade policy at many different levels: administrative agencies within government, laws passed by the legislature, regional negotiations between a small group of nations (sometimes just two), and global negotiations through the World Trade Organization. During the second half of the twentieth century, trade barriers have, in general, declined quite substantially in the United States economy and in the global economy. One reason why countries sign international trade agreements to commit themselves to free trade is to give themselves protection against their own special interests. When an industry lobbies for protection from foreign producers, politicians can point out that, because of the trade treaty, their hands are tied. Self-Check Questions What is the difference between a free trade association, a common market, and an economic union? Hint: A free trade association offers free trade between its members, but each country can determine its own trade policy outside the association. A common market requires a common external trade policy in addition to free trade within the group. An economic union is a common market with coordinated fiscal and monetary policy. Why would countries promote protectionist laws, while also negotiate for freer trade internationally? Hint: International agreements can serve as a political counterweight to domestic special interests, thereby preventing stronger protectionist measures. What might account for the dramatic increase in international trade over the past 50 years? Hint: Reductions in tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers, improved transportation, and communication media have made people more aware of what is available in the rest of the world. Review Questions Name several of the international treaties where countries negotiate with each other over trade policy. What is the general trend of trade barriers over recent decades: higher, lower, or about the same? If opening up to free trade would benefit a nation, then why do nations not just eliminate their trade barriers, and not bother with international trade negotiations? Critical Thinking Questions Why do you think that the GATT rounds and, more recently, WTO negotiations have become longer and more difficult to resolve? An economic union requires giving up some political autonomy to succeed. What are some examples of political power countries must give up to be members of an economic union? References United States Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2015. “Employment Situation Summary.” Accessed April 1, 2015. http://www.bls.gov/news.release/empsit.nr0.htm. United States Department of Commerce. “About the Department of Commerce.” Accessed January 6, 2014. http://www.commerce.gov/about-department-commerce. United States International Trade Commission. “About the USITC.” Accessed January 6, 2014. http://www.usitc.gov/press_room/about_usitc.htm.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.410812	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28885/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Globalization and Protectionism, How Governments Enact Trade Policy: Globally, Regionally, and Nationally", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28888/overview	The Expenditure-Output Model (This appendix should be consulted after first reading The Aggregate Demand/Aggregate Supply Model and The Keynesian Perspective.) The fundamental ideas of Keynesian economics were developed before the AD/AS model was popularized. From the 1930s until the 1970s, Keynesian economics was usually explained with a different model, known as the expenditure-output approach. This approach is strongly rooted in the fundamental assumptions of Keynesian economics: it focuses on the total amount of spending in the economy, with no explicit mention of aggregate supply or of the price level (although as you will see, it is possible to draw some inferences about aggregate supply and price levels based on the diagram). The Axes of the Expenditure-Output Diagram The expenditure-output model, sometimes also called the Keynesian cross diagram, determines the equilibrium level of real GDP by the point where the total or aggregate expenditures in the economy are equal to the amount of output produced. The axes of the Keynesian cross diagram presented in Figure show real GDP on the horizontal axis as a measure of output and aggregate expenditures on the vertical axis as a measure of spending. Remember that GDP can be thought of in several equivalent ways: it measures both the value of spending on final goods and also the value of the production of final goods. All sales of the final goods and services that make up GDP will eventually end up as income for workers, for managers, and for investors and owners of firms. The sum of all the income received for contributing resources to GDP is called national income (Y). At some points in the discussion that follows, it will be useful to refer to real GDP as “national income.” Both axes are measured in real (inflation-adjusted) terms. The Potential GDP Line and the 45-degree Line The Keynesian cross diagram contains two lines that serve as conceptual guideposts to orient the discussion. The first is a vertical line showing the level of potential GDP. Potential GDP means the same thing here that it means in the AD/AS diagrams: it refers to the quantity of output that the economy can produce with full employment of its labor and physical capital. The second conceptual line on the Keynesian cross diagram is the 45-degree line, which starts at the origin and reaches up and to the right. A line that stretches up at a 45-degree angle represents the set of points (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3) and so on, where the measurement on the vertical axis is equal to the measurement on the horizontal axis. In this diagram, the 45-degree line shows the set of points where the level of aggregate expenditure in the economy, measured on the vertical axis, is equal to the level of output or national income in the economy, measured by GDP on the horizontal axis. When the macroeconomy is in equilibrium, it must be true that the aggregate expenditures in the economy are equal to the real GDP—because by definition, GDP is the measure of what is spent on final sales of goods and services in the economy. Thus, the equilibrium calculated with a Keynesian cross diagram will always end up where aggregate expenditure and output are equal—which will only occur along the 45-degree line. The Aggregate Expenditure Schedule The final ingredient of the Keynesian cross or expenditure-output diagram is the aggregate expenditure schedule, which will show the total expenditures in the economy for each level of real GDP. The intersection of the aggregate expenditure line with the 45-degree line—at point E0 in Figure—will show the equilibrium for the economy, because it is the point where aggregate expenditure is equal to output or real GDP. After developing an understanding of what the aggregate expenditures schedule means, we will return to this equilibrium and how to interpret it. Building the Aggregate Expenditure Schedule Aggregate expenditure is the key to the expenditure-income model. The aggregate expenditure schedule shows, either in the form of a table or a graph, how aggregate expenditures in the economy rise as real GDP or national income rises. Thus, in thinking about the components of the aggregate expenditure line—consumption, investment, government spending, exports and imports—the key question is how expenditures in each category will adjust as national income rises. Consumption as a Function of National Income How do consumption expenditures increase as national income rises? People can do two things with their income: consume it or save it (for the moment, let’s ignore the need to pay taxes with some of it). Each person who receives an additional dollar faces this choice. The marginal propensity to consume (MPC), is the share of the additional dollar of income a person decides to devote to consumption expenditures. The marginal propensity to save (MPS) is the share of the additional dollar a person decides to save. It must always hold true that: For example, if the marginal propensity to consume out of the marginal amount of income earned is 0.9, then the marginal propensity to save is 0.1. With this relationship in mind, consider the relationship among income, consumption, and savings shown in Figure. (Note that we use “Aggregate Expenditure” on the vertical axis in this and the following figures, because all consumption expenditures are parts of aggregate expenditures.) An assumption commonly made in this model is that even if income were zero, people would have to consume something. In this example, consumption would be $600 even if income were zero. Then, the MPC is 0.8 and the MPS is 0.2. Thus, when income increases by $1,000, consumption rises by $800 and savings rises by $200. At an income of $4,000, total consumption will be the $600 that would be consumed even without any income, plus $4,000 multiplied by the marginal propensity to consume of 0.8, or $ 3,200, for a total of $ 3,800. The total amount of consumption and saving must always add up to the total amount of income. (Exactly how a situation of zero income and negative savings would work in practice is not important, because even low-income societies are not literally at zero income, so the point is hypothetical.) This relationship between income and consumption, illustrated in Figure and Table, is called the consumption function. The pattern of consumption shown in Table is plotted in Figure. To calculate consumption, multiply the income level by 0.8, for the marginal propensity to consume, and add $600, for the amount that would be consumed even if income was zero. Consumption plus savings must be equal to income. \| Income \| Consumption \| Savings \| \|---\|---\|---\| \| $0 \| $600 \| –$600 \| \| $1,000 \| $1,400 \| –$400 \| \| $2,000 \| $2,200 \| –$200 \| \| $3,000 \| $3,000 \| $0 \| \| $4,000 \| $3,800 \| $200 \| \| $5,000 \| $4,600 \| $400 \| \| $6,000 \| $5,400 \| $600 \| \| $7,000 \| $6,200 \| $800 \| \| $8,000 \| $7,000 \| $1,000 \| \| $9,000 \| $7,800 \| $1,200 \| However, a number of factors other than income can also cause the entire consumption function to shift. These factors were summarized in the earlier discussion of consumption, and listed in Table. When the consumption function moves, it can shift in two ways: either the entire consumption function can move up or down in a parallel manner, or the slope of the consumption function can shift so that it becomes steeper or flatter. For example, if a tax cut leads consumers to spend more, but does not affect their marginal propensity to consume, it would cause an upward shift to a new consumption function that is parallel to the original one. However, a change in household preferences for saving that reduced the marginal propensity to save would cause the slope of the consumption function to become steeper: that is, if the savings rate is lower, then every increase in income leads to a larger rise in consumption. Investment as a Function of National Income Investment decisions are forward-looking, based on expected rates of return. Precisely because investment decisions depend primarily on perceptions about future economic conditions, they do not depend primarily on the level of GDP in the current year. Thus, on a Keynesian cross diagram, the investment function can be drawn as a horizontal line, at a fixed level of expenditure. Figure shows an investment function where the level of investment is, for the sake of concreteness, set at the specific level of 500. Just as a consumption function shows the relationship between consumption levels and real GDP (or national income), the investment function shows the relationship between investment levels and real GDP. The appearance of the investment function as a horizontal line does not mean that the level of investment never moves. It means only that in the context of this two-dimensional diagram, the level of investment on the vertical aggregate expenditure axis does not vary according to the current level of real GDP on the horizontal axis. However, all the other factors that vary investment—new technological opportunities, expectations about near-term economic growth, interest rates, the price of key inputs, and tax incentives for investment—can cause the horizontal investment function to shift up or down. Government Spending and Taxes as a Function of National Income In the Keynesian cross diagram, government spending appears as a horizontal line, as in Figure, where government spending is set at a level of 1,300. As in the case of investment spending, this horizontal line does not mean that government spending is unchanging. It means only that government spending changes when Congress decides on a change in the budget, rather than shifting in a predictable way with the current size of the real GDP shown on the horizontal axis. The situation of taxes is different because taxes often rise or fall with the volume of economic activity. For example, income taxes are based on the level of income earned and sales taxes are based on the amount of sales made, and both income and sales tend to be higher when the economy is growing and lower when the economy is in a recession. For the purposes of constructing the basic Keynesian cross diagram, it is helpful to view taxes as a proportionate share of GDP. In the United States, for example, taking federal, state, and local taxes together, government typically collects about 30–35 % of income as taxes. Table revises the earlier table on the consumption function so that it takes taxes into account. The first column shows national income. The second column calculates taxes, which in this example are set at a rate of 30%, or 0.3. The third column shows after-tax income; that is, total income minus taxes. The fourth column then calculates consumption in the same manner as before: multiply after-tax income by 0.8, representing the marginal propensity to consume, and then add $600, for the amount that would be consumed even if income was zero. When taxes are included, the marginal propensity to consume is reduced by the amount of the tax rate, so each additional dollar of income results in a smaller increase in consumption than before taxes. For this reason, the consumption function, with taxes included, is flatter than the consumption function without taxes, as Figure shows. \| Income \| Taxes \| After-Tax Income \| Consumption \| Savings \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $0 \| $0 \| $0 \| $600 \| –$600 \| \| $1,000 \| $300 \| $700 \| $1,160 \| –$460 \| \| $2,000 \| $600 \| $1,400 \| $1,720 \| –$320 \| \| $3,000 \| $900 \| $2,100 \| $2,280 \| –$180 \| \| $4,000 \| $1,200 \| $2,800 \| $2,840 \| –$40 \| \| $5,000 \| $1,500 \| $3,500 \| $3,400 \| $100 \| \| $6,000 \| $1,800 \| $4,200 \| $3,960 \| $240 \| \| $7,000 \| $2,100 \| $4,900 \| $4,520 \| $380 \| \| $8,000 \| $2,400 \| $5,600 \| $5,080 \| $520 \| \| $9,000 \| $2,700 \| $6,300 \| $5,640 \| $660 \| Exports and Imports as a Function of National Income The export function, which shows how exports change with the level of a country’s own real GDP, is drawn as a horizontal line, as in the example in Figure (a) where exports are drawn at a level of $840. Again, as in the case of investment spending and government spending, drawing the export function as horizontal does not imply that exports never change. It just means that they do not change because of what is on the horizontal axis—that is, a country’s own level of domestic production—and instead are shaped by the level of aggregate demand in other countries. More demand for exports from other countries would cause the export function to shift up; less demand for exports from other countries would cause it to shift down. Imports are drawn in the Keynesian cross diagram as a downward-sloping line, with the downward slope determined by the marginal propensity to import (MPI), out of national income. In Figure (b), the marginal propensity to import is 0.1. Thus, if real GDP is $5,000, imports are $500; if national income is $6,000, imports are $600, and so on. The import function is drawn as downward sloping and negative, because it represents a subtraction from the aggregate expenditures in the domestic economy. A change in the marginal propensity to import, perhaps as a result of changes in preferences, would alter the slope of the import function. Using an Algebraic Approach to the Expenditure-Output Model In the expenditure-output or Keynesian cross model, the equilibrium occurs where the aggregate expenditure line (AE line) crosses the 45-degree line. Given algebraic equations for two lines, the point where they cross can be readily calculated. Imagine an economy with the following characteristics. Y = Real GDP or national income T = Taxes = 0.3Y C = Consumption = 140 + 0.9(Y – T) I = Investment = 400 G = Government spending = 800 X = Exports = 600 M = Imports = 0.15Y Step 1. Determine the aggregate expenditure function. In this case, it is: Step 2. The equation for the 45-degree line is the set of points where GDP or national income on the horizontal axis is equal to aggregate expenditure on the vertical axis. Thus, the equation for the 45-degree line is: AE = Y. Step 3. The next step is to solve these two equations for Y (or AE, since they will be equal to each other). Substitute Y for AE: Step 4. Insert the term 0.3Y for the tax rate T. This produces an equation with only one variable, Y. Step 5. Work through the algebra and solve for Y. This algebraic framework is flexible and useful in predicting how economic events and policy actions will affect real GDP. Step 6. Say, for example, that because of changes in the relative prices of domestic and foreign goods, the marginal propensity to import falls to 0.1. Calculate the equilibrium output when the marginal propensity to import is changed to 0.1. Step 7. Because of a surge of business confidence, investment rises to 500. Calculate the equilibrium output. For issues of policy, the key questions would be how to adjust government spending levels or tax rates so that the equilibrium level of output is the full employment level. In this case, let the economic parameters be: Y = National income T = Taxes = 0.3Y C = Consumption = 200 + 0.9(Y – T) I = Investment = 600 G = Government spending = 1,000 X = Exports = 600 Y = Imports = 0.1(Y – T) Step 8. Calculate the equilibrium for this economy (remember Y = AE). Step 9. Assume that the full employment level of output is 6,000. What level of government spending would be necessary to reach that level? To answer this question, plug in 6,000 as equal to Y, but leave G as a variable, and solve for G. Thus: Step 10. Solve this problem arithmetically. The answer is: G = 1,240. In other words, increasing government spending by 240, from its original level of 1,000, to 1,240, would raise output to the full employment level of GDP. Indeed, the question of how much to increase government spending so that equilibrium output will rise from 5,454 to 6,000 can be answered without working through the algebra, just by using the multiplier formula. The multiplier equation in this case is: Thus, to raise output by 546 would require an increase in government spending of 546/2.27=240, which is the same as the answer derived from the algebraic calculation. This algebraic framework is highly flexible. For example, taxes can be treated as a total set by political considerations (like government spending) and not dependent on national income. Imports might be based on before-tax income, not after-tax income. For certain purposes, it may be helpful to analyze the economy without exports and imports. A more complicated approach could divide up consumption, investment, government, exports and imports into smaller categories, or to build in some variability in the rates of taxes, savings, and imports. A wise economist will shape the model to fit the specific question under investigation. Building the Combined Aggregate Expenditure Function All the components of aggregate demand—consumption, investment, government spending, and the trade balance—are now in place to build the Keynesian cross diagram. Figure builds up an aggregate expenditure function, based on the numerical illustrations of C, I, G, X, and M that have been used throughout this text. The first three columns in Table are lifted from the earlier Table, which showed how to bring taxes into the consumption function. The first column is real GDP or national income, which is what appears on the horizontal axis of the income-expenditure diagram. The second column calculates after-tax income, based on the assumption, in this case, that 30% of real GDP is collected in taxes. The third column is based on an MPC of 0.8, so that as after-tax income rises by $700 from one row to the next, consumption rises by $560 (700 × 0.8) from one row to the next. Investment, government spending, and exports do not change with the level of current national income. In the previous discussion, investment was $500, government spending was $1,300, and exports were $840, for a total of $2,640. This total is shown in the fourth column. Imports are 0.1 of real GDP in this example, and the level of imports is calculated in the fifth column. The final column, aggregate expenditures, sums up C + I + G + X – M. This aggregate expenditure line is illustrated in Figure. \| National Income \| After-Tax Income \| Consumption \| Government Spending + Investment + Exports \| Imports \| Aggregate Expenditure \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $3,000 \| $2,100 \| $2,280 \| $2,640 \| $300 \| $4,620 \| \| $4,000 \| $2,800 \| $2,840 \| $2,640 \| $400 \| $5,080 \| \| $5,000 \| $3,500 \| $3,400 \| $2,640 \| $500 \| $5,540 \| \| $6,000 \| $4,200 \| $3,960 \| $2,640 \| $600 \| $6,000 \| \| $7,000 \| $4,900 \| $4,520 \| $2,640 \| $700 \| $6,460 \| \| $8,000 \| $5,600 \| $5,080 \| $2,640 \| $800 \| $6,920 \| \| $9,000 \| $6,300 \| $5,640 \| $2,640 \| $900 \| $7,380 \| The aggregate expenditure function is formed by stacking on top of each other the consumption function (after taxes), the investment function, the government spending function, the export function, and the import function. The point at which the aggregate expenditure function intersects the vertical axis will be determined by the levels of investment, government, and export expenditures—which do not vary with national income. The upward slope of the aggregate expenditure function will be determined by the marginal propensity to save, the tax rate, and the marginal propensity to import. A higher marginal propensity to save, a higher tax rate, and a higher marginal propensity to import will all make the slope of the aggregate expenditure function flatter—because out of any extra income, more is going to savings or taxes or imports and less to spending on domestic goods and services. The equilibrium occurs where national income is equal to aggregate expenditure, which is shown on the graph as the point where the aggregate expenditure schedule crosses the 45-degree line. In this example, the equilibrium occurs at 6,000. This equilibrium can also be read off the table under the figure; it is the level of national income where aggregate expenditure is equal to national income. Equilibrium in the Keynesian Cross Model With the aggregate expenditure line in place, the next step is to relate it to the two other elements of the Keynesian cross diagram. Thus, the first subsection interprets the intersection of the aggregate expenditure function and the 45-degree line, while the next subsection relates this point of intersection to the potential GDP line. Where Equilibrium Occurs The point where the aggregate expenditure line that is constructed from C + I + G + X – M crosses the 45-degree line will be the equilibrium for the economy. It is the only point on the aggregate expenditure line where the total amount being spent on aggregate demand equals the total level of production. In Figure, this point of equilibrium (E0) happens at 6,000, which can also be read off Table. The meaning of “equilibrium” remains the same; that is, equilibrium is a point of balance where no incentive exists to shift away from that outcome. To understand why the point of intersection between the aggregate expenditure function and the 45-degree line is a macroeconomic equilibrium, consider what would happen if an economy found itself to the right of the equilibrium point E, say point H in Figure, where output is higher than the equilibrium. At point H, the level of aggregate expenditure is below the 45-degree line, so that the level of aggregate expenditure in the economy is less than the level of output. As a result, at point H, output is piling up unsold—not a sustainable state of affairs. Conversely, consider the situation where the level of output is at point L—where real output is lower than the equilibrium. In that case, the level of aggregate demand in the economy is above the 45-degree line, indicating that the level of aggregate expenditure in the economy is greater than the level of output. When the level of aggregate demand has emptied the store shelves, it cannot be sustained, either. Firms will respond by increasing their level of production. Thus, the equilibrium must be the point where the amount produced and the amount spent are in balance, at the intersection of the aggregate expenditure function and the 45-degree line. Finding Equilibrium Table gives some information on an economy. The Keynesian model assumes that there is some level of consumption even without income. That amount is $236 – $216 = $20. $20 will be consumed when national income equals zero. Assume that taxes are 0.2 of real GDP. Let the marginal propensity to save of after-tax income be 0.1. The level of investment is $70, the level of government spending is $80, and the level of exports is $50. Imports are 0.2 of after-tax income. Given these values, you need to complete Table and then answer these questions: - What is the consumption function? - What is the equilibrium? - Why is a national income of $300 not at equilibrium? - How do expenditures and output compare at this point? \| National Income \| Taxes \| After-tax income \| Consumption \| I + G + X \| Imports \| Aggregate Expenditures \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $300 \| $236 \| \|\|\|\|\| \| $400 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| $500 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| $600 \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| $700 \| Step 1. Calculate the amount of taxes for each level of national income(reminder: GDP = national income) for each level of national income using the following as an example: Step 2. Calculate after-tax income by subtracting the tax amount from national income for each level of national income using the following as an example: Step 3. Calculate consumption. The marginal propensity to save is given as 0.1. This means that the marginal propensity to consume is 0.9, since MPS + MPC = 1. Therefore, multiply 0.9 by the after-tax income amount using the following as an example: Step 4. Consider why the table shows consumption of $236 in the first row. As mentioned earlier, the Keynesian model assumes that there is some level of consumption even without income. That amount is $236 – $216 = $20. Step 5. There is now enough information to write the consumption function. The consumption function is found by figuring out the level of consumption that will happen when income is zero. Remember that: Let C represent the consumption function, Y represent national income, and T represent taxes. Step 6. Use the consumption function to find consumption at each level of national income. Step 7. Add investment (I), government spending (G), and exports (X). Remember that these do not change as national income changes: Step 8. Find imports, which are 0.2 of after-tax income at each level of national income. For example: Step 9. Find aggregate expenditure by adding C + I + G + X – I for each level of national income. Your completed table should look like Table. \| National Income (Y) \| Tax = 0.2 × Y (T) \| After-tax income (Y – T) \| Consumption C = $20 + 0.9(Y – T) \| I + G + X \| Minus Imports (M) \| Aggregate Expenditures AE = C + I + G + X – M \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $300 \| $60 \| $240 \| $236 \| $200 \| $48 \| $388 \| \| $400 \| $80 \| $320 \| $308 \| $200 \| $64 \| $444 \| \| $500 \| $100 \| $400 \| $380 \| $200 \| $80 \| $500 \| \| $600 \| $120 \| $480 \| $452 \| $200 \| $96 \| $556 \| \| $700 \| $140 \| $560 \| $524 \| $200 \| $112 \| $612 \| Step 10. Answer the question: What is equilibrium? Equilibrium occurs where AE = Y. Table shows that equilibrium occurs where national income equals aggregate expenditure at $500. Step 11. Find equilibrium mathematically, knowing that national income is equal to aggregate expenditure. Since T is 0.2 of national income, substitute T with 0.2 Y so that: Solve for Y. Step 12. Answer this question: Why is a national income of $300 not an equilibrium? At national income of $300, aggregate expenditures are $388. Step 13. Answer this question: How do expenditures and output compare at this point? Aggregate expenditures cannot exceed output (GDP) in the long run, since there would not be enough goods to be bought. Recessionary and Inflationary Gaps In the Keynesian cross diagram, if the aggregate expenditure line intersects the 45-degree line at the level of potential GDP, then the economy is in sound shape. There is no recession, and unemployment is low. But there is no guarantee that the equilibrium will occur at the potential GDP level of output. The equilibrium might be higher or lower. For example, Figure (a) illustrates a situation where the aggregate expenditure line intersects the 45-degree line at point E0, which is a real GDP of $6,000, and which is below the potential GDP of $7,000. In this situation, the level of aggregate expenditure is too low for GDP to reach its full employment level, and unemployment will occur. The distance between an output level like E0 that is below potential GDP and the level of potential GDP is called a recessionary gap. Because the equilibrium level of real GDP is so low, firms will not wish to hire the full employment number of workers, and unemployment will be high. What might cause a recessionary gap? Anything that shifts the aggregate expenditure line down is a potential cause of recession, including a decline in consumption, a rise in savings, a fall in investment, a drop in government spending or a rise in taxes, or a fall in exports or a rise in imports. Moreover, an economy that is at equilibrium with a recessionary gap may just stay there and suffer high unemployment for a long time; remember, the meaning of equilibrium is that there is no particular adjustment of prices or quantities in the economy to chase the recession away. The appropriate response to a recessionary gap is for the government to reduce taxes or increase spending so that the aggregate expenditure function shifts up from AE0 to AE1. When this shift occurs, the new equilibrium E1 now occurs at potential GDP as shown in Figure (a). Conversely, Figure (b) shows a situation where the aggregate expenditure schedule (AE0) intersects the 45-degree line above potential GDP. The gap between the level of real GDP at the equilibrium E0 and potential GDP is called an inflationary gap. The inflationary gap also requires a bit of interpreting. After all, a naïve reading of the Keynesian cross diagram might suggest that if the aggregate expenditure function is just pushed up high enough, real GDP can be as large as desired—even doubling or tripling the potential GDP level of the economy. This implication is clearly wrong. An economy faces some supply-side limits on how much it can produce at a given time with its existing quantities of workers, physical and human capital, technology, and market institutions. The inflationary gap should be interpreted, not as a literal prediction of how large real GDP will be, but as a statement of how much extra aggregate expenditure is in the economy beyond what is needed to reach potential GDP. An inflationary gap suggests that because the economy cannot produce enough goods and services to absorb this level of aggregate expenditures, the spending will instead cause an inflationary increase in the price level. In this way, even though changes in the price level do not appear explicitly in the Keynesian cross equation, the notion of inflation is implicit in the concept of the inflationary gap. The appropriate Keynesian response to an inflationary gap is shown in Figure (b). The original intersection of aggregate expenditure line AE0 and the 45-degree line occurs at $8,000, which is above the level of potential GDP at $7,000. If AE0 shifts down to AE1, so that the new equilibrium is at E1, then the economy will be at potential GDP without pressures for inflationary price increases. The government can achieve a downward shift in aggregate expenditure by increasing taxes on consumers or firms, or by reducing government expenditures. The Multiplier Effect The Keynesian policy prescription has one final twist. Assume that for a certain economy, the intersection of the aggregate expenditure function and the 45-degree line is at a GDP of 700, while the level of potential GDP for this economy is $800. By how much does government spending need to be increased so that the economy reaches the full employment GDP? The obvious answer might seem to be $800 – $700 = $100; so raise government spending by $100. But that answer is incorrect. A change of, for example, $100 in government expenditures will have an effect of more than $100 on the equilibrium level of real GDP. The reason is that a change in aggregate expenditures circles through the economy: households buy from firms, firms pay workers and suppliers, workers and suppliers buy goods from other firms, those firms pay their workers and suppliers, and so on. In this way, the original change in aggregate expenditures is actually spent more than once. This is called the multiplier effect: An initial increase in spending, cycles repeatedly through the economy and has a larger impact than the initial dollar amount spent. How Does the Multiplier Work? To understand how the multiplier effect works, return to the example in which the current equilibrium in the Keynesian cross diagram is a real GDP of $700, or $100 short of the $800 needed to be at full employment, potential GDP. If the government spends $100 to close this gap, someone in the economy receives that spending and can treat it as income. Assume that those who receive this income pay 30% in taxes, save 10% of after-tax income, spend 10% of total income on imports, and then spend the rest on domestically produced goods and services. As shown in the calculations in Figure and Table, out of the original $100 in government spending, $53 is left to spend on domestically produced goods and services. That $53 which was spent, becomes income to someone, somewhere in the economy. Those who receive that income also pay 30% in taxes, save 10% of after-tax income, and spend 10% of total income on imports, as shown in Figure, so that an additional $28.09 (that is, 0.53 × $53) is spent in the third round. The people who receive that income then pay taxes, save, and buy imports, and the amount spent in the fourth round is $14.89 (that is, 0.53 × $28.09). \| Original increase in aggregate expenditure from government spending \| 100 \| \| Which is income to people throughout the economy: Pay 30% in taxes. Save 10% of after-tax income. Spend 10% of income on imports. Second-round increase of… \| 70 – 7 – 10 = 53 \| \| Which is $53 of income to people through the economy: Pay 30% in taxes. Save 10% of after-tax income. Spend 10% of income on imports. Third-round increase of… \| 37.1 – 3.71 – 5.3 = 28.09 \| \| Which is $28.09 of income to people through the economy: Pay 30% in taxes. Save 10% of after-tax income. Spend 10% of income on imports. Fourth-round increase of… \| 19.663 – 1.96633 – 2.809 = 14.89 \| Thus, over the first four rounds of aggregate expenditures, the impact of the original increase in government spending of $100 creates a rise in aggregate expenditures of $100 + $53 + $28.09 + $14.89 = $195.98. Figure shows these total aggregate expenditures after these first four rounds, and then the figure shows the total aggregate expenditures after 30 rounds. The additional boost to aggregate expenditures is shrinking in each round of consumption. After about 10 rounds, the additional increments are very small indeed—nearly invisible to the naked eye. After 30 rounds, the additional increments in each round are so small that they have no practical consequence. After 30 rounds, the cumulative value of the initial boost in aggregate expenditure is approximately $213. Thus, the government spending increase of $100 eventually, after many cycles, produced an increase of $213 in aggregate expenditure and real GDP. In this example, the multiplier is $213/$100 = 2.13. Calculating the Multiplier Fortunately for everyone who is not carrying around a computer with a spreadsheet program to project the impact of an original increase in expenditures over 20, 50, or 100 rounds of spending, there is a formula for calculating the multiplier. The data from Figure and Table is: - Marginal Propensity to Save (MPS) = 30% - Tax rate = 10% - Marginal Propensity to Import (MPI) = 10% The MPC is equal to 1 – MPS, or 0.7. Therefore, the spending multiplier is: A change in spending of $100 multiplied by the spending multiplier of 2.13 is equal to a change in GDP of $213. Not coincidentally, this result is exactly what was calculated in Figure after many rounds of expenditures cycling through the economy. The size of the multiplier is determined by what proportion of the marginal dollar of income goes into taxes, saving, and imports. These three factors are known as “leakages,” because they determine how much demand “leaks out” in each round of the multiplier effect. If the leakages are relatively small, then each successive round of the multiplier effect will have larger amounts of demand, and the multiplier will be high. Conversely, if the leakages are relatively large, then any initial change in demand will diminish more quickly in the second, third, and later rounds, and the multiplier will be small. Changes in the size of the leakages—a change in the marginal propensity to save, the tax rate, or the marginal propensity to import—will change the size of the multiplier. Calculating Keynesian Policy Interventions Returning to the original question: How much should government spending be increased to produce a total increase in real GDP of $100? If the goal is to increase aggregate demand by $100, and the multiplier is 2.13, then the increase in government spending to achieve that goal would be $100/2.13 = $47. Government spending of approximately $47, when combined with a multiplier of 2.13 (which is, remember, based on the specific assumptions about tax, saving, and import rates), produces an overall increase in real GDP of $100, restoring the economy to potential GDP of $800, as Figure shows. The multiplier effect is also visible on the Keynesian cross diagram. Figure shows the example we have been discussing: a recessionary gap with an equilibrium of $700, potential GDP of $800, the slope of the aggregate expenditure function (AE0) determined by the assumptions that taxes are 30% of income, savings are 0.1 of after-tax income, and imports are 0.1 of before-tax income. At AE1, the aggregate expenditure function is moved up to reach potential GDP. Now, compare the vertical shift upward in the aggregate expenditure function, which is $47, with the horizontal shift outward in real GDP, which is $100 (as these numbers were calculated earlier). The rise in real GDP is more than double the rise in the aggregate expenditure function. (Similarly, if you look back at Figure, you will see that the vertical movements in the aggregate expenditure functions are smaller than the change in equilibrium output that is produced on the horizontal axis. Again, this is the multiplier effect at work.) In this way, the power of the multiplier is apparent in the income–expenditure graph, as well as in the arithmetic calculation. The multiplier does not just affect government spending, but applies to any change in the economy. Say that business confidence declines and investment falls off, or that the economy of a leading trading partner slows down so that export sales decline. These changes will reduce aggregate expenditures, and then will have an even larger effect on real GDP because of the multiplier effect. Read the following Clear It Up feature to learn how the multiplier effect can be applied to analyze the economic impact of professional sports. How can the multiplier be used to analyze the economic impact of professional sports? Attracting professional sports teams and building sports stadiums to create jobs and stimulate business growth is an economic development strategy adopted by many communities throughout the United States. In his recent article, “Public Financing of Private Sports Stadiums,” James Joyner of Outside the Beltway looked at public financing for NFL teams. Joyner’s findings confirm the earlier work of John Siegfried of Vanderbilt University and Andrew Zimbalist of Smith College. Siegfried and Zimbalist used the multiplier to analyze this issue. They considered the amount of taxes paid and dollars spent locally to see if there was a positive multiplier effect. Since most professional athletes and owners of sports teams are rich enough to owe a lot of taxes, let’s say that 40% of any marginal income they earn is paid in taxes. Because athletes are often high earners with short careers, let’s assume that they save one-third of their after-tax income. However, many professional athletes do not live year-round in the city in which they play, so let’s say that one-half of the money that they do spend is spent outside the local area. One can think of spending outside a local economy, in this example, as the equivalent of imported goods for the national economy. Now, consider the impact of money spent at local entertainment venues other than professional sports. While the owners of these other businesses may be comfortably middle-income, few of them are in the economic stratosphere of professional athletes. Because their incomes are lower, so are their taxes; say that they pay only 35% of their marginal income in taxes. They do not have the same ability, or need, to save as much as professional athletes, so let’s assume their MPC is just 0.8. Finally, because more of them live locally, they will spend a higher proportion of their income on local goods—say, 65%. If these general assumptions hold true, then money spent on professional sports will have less local economic impact than money spent on other forms of entertainment. For professional athletes, out of a dollar earned, 40 cents goes to taxes, leaving 60 cents. Of that 60 cents, one-third is saved, leaving 40 cents, and half is spent outside the area, leaving 20 cents. Only 20 cents of each dollar is cycled into the local economy in the first round. For locally-owned entertainment, out of a dollar earned, 35 cents goes to taxes, leaving 65 cents. Of the rest, 20% is saved, leaving 52 cents, and of that amount, 65% is spent in the local area, so that 33.8 cents of each dollar of income is recycled into the local economy. Siegfried and Zimbalist make the plausible argument that, within their household budgets, people have a fixed amount to spend on entertainment. If this assumption holds true, then money spent attending professional sports events is money that was not spent on other entertainment options in a given metropolitan area. Since the multiplier is lower for professional sports than for other local entertainment options, the arrival of professional sports to a city would reallocate entertainment spending in a way that causes the local economy to shrink, rather than to grow. Thus, their findings seem to confirm what Joyner reports and what newspapers across the country are reporting. A quick Internet search for “economic impact of sports” will yield numerous reports questioning this economic development strategy. Multiplier Tradeoffs: Stability versus the Power of Macroeconomic Policy Is an economy healthier with a high multiplier or a low one? With a high multiplier, any change in aggregate demand will tend to be substantially magnified, and so the economy will be more unstable. With a low multiplier, by contrast, changes in aggregate demand will not be multiplied much, so the economy will tend to be more stable. However, with a low multiplier, government policy changes in taxes or spending will tend to have less impact on the equilibrium level of real output. With a higher multiplier, government policies to raise or reduce aggregate expenditures will have a larger effect. Thus, a low multiplier means a more stable economy, but also weaker government macroeconomic policy, while a high multiplier means a more volatile economy, but also an economy in which government macroeconomic policy is more powerful. Key Concepts and Summary The expenditure-output model or Keynesian cross diagram shows how the level of aggregate expenditure (on the vertical axis) varies with the level of economic output (shown on the horizontal axis). Since the value of all macroeconomic output also represents income to someone somewhere else in the economy, the horizontal axis can also be interpreted as national income. The equilibrium in the diagram will occur where the aggregate expenditure line crosses the 45-degree line, which represents the set of points where aggregate expenditure in the economy is equal to output (or national income). Equilibrium in a Keynesian cross diagram can happen at potential GDP, or below or above that level. The consumption function shows the upward-sloping relationship between national income and consumption. The marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the amount consumed out of an additional dollar of income. A higher marginal propensity to consume means a steeper consumption function; a lower marginal propensity to consume means a flatter consumption function. The marginal propensity to save (MPS) is the amount saved out of an additional dollar of income. It is necessarily true that MPC + MPS = 1. The investment function is drawn as a flat line, showing that investment in the current year does not change with regard to the current level of national income. However, the investment function will move up and down based on the expected rate of return in the future. Government spending is drawn as a horizontal line in the Keynesian cross diagram, because its level is determined by political considerations, not by the current level of income in the economy. Taxes in the basic Keynesian cross diagram are taken into account by adjusting the consumption function. The export function is drawn as a horizontal line in the Keynesian cross diagram, because exports do not change as a result of changes in domestic income, but they move as a result of changes in foreign income, as well as changes in exchange rates. The import function is drawn as a downward-sloping line, because imports rise with national income, but imports are a subtraction from aggregate demand. Thus, a higher level of imports means a lower level of expenditure on domestic goods. In a Keynesian cross diagram, the equilibrium may be at a level below potential GDP, which is called a recessionary gap, or at a level above potential GDP, which is called an inflationary gap. The multiplier effect describes how an initial change in aggregate demand generated several times as much as cumulative GDP. The size of the spending multiplier is determined by three leakages: spending on savings, taxes, and imports. The formula for the multiplier is: An economy with a lower multiplier is more stable—it is less affected either by economic events or by government policy than an economy with a higher multiplier. Self-Check Questions Sketch the aggregate expenditure-output diagram with the recessionary gap. The following figure shows the aggregate expenditure-output diagram with the recessionary gap. Sketch the aggregate expenditure-output diagram with an inflationary gap. The following figure shows the aggregate expenditure-output diagram with an inflationary gap. An economy has the following characteristics: Y = National income Taxes = T = 0.25Y C = Consumption = 400 + 0.85(Y – T) I = 300 G = 200 X = 500 M = 0.1(Y – T) Find the equilibrium for this economy. If potential GDP is 3,500, then what change in government spending is needed to achieve this level? Do this problem two ways. First, plug 3,500 into the equations and solve for G. Second, calculate the multiplier and figure it out that way. First, set up the calculation. Then insert Y for AE and 0.25Y for T. If full employment is 3,500, then one approach is to plug in 3,500 for Y throughout the equation, but to leave G as a separate variable. A G value of 331.25 is an increase of 131.25 from its original level of 200. Alternatively, the multiplier is that, out of every dollar spent, 0.25 goes to taxes, leaving 0.75, and out of after-tax income, 0.15 goes to savings and 0.1 to imports. Because (0.75)(0.15) = 0.1125 and (0.75)(0.1) = 0.075, this means that out of every dollar spent: 1 –0.25 –0.1125 –0.075 = 0.5625. Thus, using the formula, the multiplier is: To increase equilibrium GDP by 300, it will take a boost of 300/2.2837, which again works out to 131.25. Table represents the data behind a Keynesian cross diagram. Assume that the tax rate is 0.4 of national income; the MPC out of the after-tax income is 0.8; investment is $2,000; government spending is $1,000; exports are $2,000 and imports are 0.05 of after-tax income. What is the equilibrium level of output for this economy? \| National Income \| After-tax Income \| Consumption \| I + G + X \| Minus Imports \| Aggregate Expenditures \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $8,000 \| $4,340 \| \|\|\|\| \| $9,000 \| \|\|\|\|\| \| $10,000 \| \|\|\|\|\| \| $11,000 \| \|\|\|\|\| \| $12,000 \| \|\|\|\|\| \| $13,000 \| The following table illustrates the completed table. The equilibrium is level is italicized. \| National Income \| After-tax Income \| Consumption \| I + G + X \| Minus Imports \| Aggregate Expenditures \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| $8,000 \| $4,800 \| $4,340 \| $5,000 \| $240 \| $9,100 \| \| $9,000 \| $5,400 \| $4,820 \| $5,000 \| $270 \| $9,550 \| \| $10,000 \| $6,000 \| $5,300 \| $5,000 \| $300 \| $10,000 \| \| $11,000 \| $6,600 \| $5,780 \| $5,000 \| $330 \| $10,450 \| \| $12,000 \| $7,200 \| $6,260 \| $5,000 \| $360 \| $10,900 \| \| $13,000 \| $7,800 \| $46,740 \| $5,000 \| $4,390 \| $11,350 \| The alternative way of determining equilibrium is to solve for Y, where Y = national income, using: Y = AE = C + I + G + X – M Solving for Y, we see that the equilibrium level of output is Y = $10,000. Explain how the multiplier works. Use an MPC of 80% in an example. The multiplier refers to how many times a dollar will turnover in the economy. It is based on the Marginal Propensity to Consume (MPC) which tells how much of every dollar received will be spent. If the MPC is 80% then this means that out of every one dollar received by a consumer, $0.80 will be spent. This $0.80 is received by another person. In turn, 80% of the $0.80 received, or $0.64, will be spent, and so on. The impact of the multiplier is diluted when the effect of taxes and expenditure on imports is considered. To derive the multiplier, take the 1/1 – F; where F is equal to percent of savings, taxes, and expenditures on imports. Review Questions What is on the axes of an expenditure-output diagram? What does the 45-degree line show? What determines the slope of a consumption function? What is the marginal propensity to consume, and how is it related to the marginal propensity to import? Why are the investment function, the government spending function, and the export function all drawn as flat lines? Why does the import function slope down? What is the marginal propensity to import? What are the components on which the aggregate expenditure function is based? Is the equilibrium in a Keynesian cross diagram usually expected to be at or near potential GDP? What is an inflationary gap? A recessionary gap? What is the multiplier effect? Why are savings, taxes, and imports referred to as “leakages” in calculating the multiplier effect? Will an economy with a high multiplier be more stable or less stable than an economy with a low multiplier in response to changes in the economy or in government policy? How do economists use the multiplier? Critical Thinking Questions What does it mean when the aggregate expenditure line crosses the 45-degree line? In other words, how would you explain the intersection in words? Which model, the AD/AS or the AE model better explains the relationship between rising price levels and GDP? Why? What are some reasons that the economy might be in a recession, and what is the appropriate government action to alleviate the recession? What should the government do to relieve inflationary pressures if the aggregate expenditure is greater than potential GDP? Two countries are in a recession. Country A has an MPC of 0.8 and Country B has an MPC of 0.6. In which country will government spending have the greatest impact? Compare two policies: a tax cut on income or an increase in government spending on roads and bridges. What are both the short-term and long-term impacts of such policies on the economy? What role does government play in stabilizing the economy and what are the tradeoffs that must be considered? If there is a recessionary gap of $100 billion, should the government increase spending by $100 billion to close the gap? Why? Why not? What other changes in the economy can be evaluated by using the multiplier? References Joyner, James. Outside the Beltway. “Public Financing of Private Sports Stadiums.” Last modified May 23, 2012. http://www.outsidethebeltway.com/public-financing-of-private-sports-stadiums/. Siegfried, John J., and Andrew Zimbalist. “The Economics of Sports Facilities and Their Communities.” Journal of Economic Perspectives. no. 3 (2000): 95-114. http://pubs.aeaweb.org/doi/pdfplus/10.1257/jep.14.3.95.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.478594	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28888/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Expenditure-Output Model, The Expenditure-Output Model", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65899/overview	Eight Limbs of Yoga Overview Eight Limbs of Yoga are very useful Eight Limbs of Yoga: Ashtanga Yoga By Dr. Pravin Dabre , Shripad Krishna Kolhatkar Mahavidyalaya Jalgaon Jamod We all are in search of peace. Almost all human beings whether they seem to be living happily or not feel restlessness all the time. Everybody is running behind some or the other materialistic things of this world and thinks that he will get happiness after achieving it, but even after achieving the most desirable object of this world, he still feels restless. This is nothing but our need of the soul to get Peace. In order still our mind, a great sage Patanjali presented a system call Ashtanga Yoga. It is also called eight limbs of the yoga. In brief the eight limbs, or steps to yoga, are as follows: - Yama: Universal morality, Attitude - Niyama: Personal observances or the rules to follow - Asanas: Body postures or stretching - Pranayama: Breathing exercises or control of prana - Pratyahar: Control of all the five senses - Dharana: Concentration and cultivating inner perceptual awareness - Dhyana: Devotion, Meditation on the Divine - Samadhi: Union with the Divine Yama and Niyama explain about our living style, out attitude. Many people believe that it is almost impractical to follow these. Asanas and Pranayama are explained in detail in this site. All the other four stages are the steps of meditation achieve God. Yama (Restraints, Abstinence or Universal Morality) The verbal meaning of "Yama" is "rein, curb, or bridle, discipline or restraints" In the present context, it is used to mean "self-control, forbearance, or any great rule or duty". It can also be interpreted as "attitude" or "behavior". Certainly a particular attitude can be expressed as discipline, which then influences our behavior. Patanjali's Yoga Sutra mentions five different yama, that is, behavior patterns or relationships between the individual and the outside world. The prescribed rules are: Ahimsa or Ahinsa (Harmlessness) The word ahimsa literally mean not to injure or show cruelty to any creature or any person in any way whatsoever. Ahimsa is, however, more than just lack of violence as adapted in yoga. It means kindness, friendliness, and thoughtful consideration of other people and things. It also has to do with our duties and responsibilities too. It could even mean that we must fight if our life is in danger. Ahimsa implies that in every situation we should adopt a considered attitude. Satya (Truthfulness) Satya means "to speak the truth," yet it is not always desirable to speak the truth on all occasions, for it could harm someone unnecessarily. We have to consider what we say, how we say it, and in what way it could affect others. If speaking the truth has negative consequences for another, then it is better to say nothing. Satya should never come into conflict with our efforts to behave with ahimsa. The Mahabharata, the great Indian epic, says: "Speak the truth which is pleasant. Do not speak unpleasant truths. Do not lie, even if the lies are pleasing to the ear. That is the eternal law, the dharma." Please note that this does not mean speak lie. Keeping quiet and saying lies are two different things. Asteya (Non-stealing) Asteya is the third yama. Steya means "to steal"; asteya is the opposite-to take nothing that does not belong to us. This also means that if we are in a situation where someone entrusts something to us or confides in us, we do not take advantage of him or her. We are to refrain from taking that which is not ours by right of consciousness and karma. Brahmacharya (Sense-control) Brahmacharya is a movement toward the essential truth. It is used mostly in the sense of abstinence, particularly in relationship to sexual activity. Brahmacharya suggests that we should form relationships that foster our understanding of the highest truths. If sensual pleasures are part of those relationships, we must take care that we keep our direction and do not get lost. Avoid relationships that makes us deviate from finding the eternal truth. On the path of serious, constant searching for truth, there are certain ways of controlling the perceptual senses and sexual desires. Brahmacharya does not necessarily imply celibacy. Rather, it means responsible behavior with respect to our goal of moving toward the truth. Aparigraha (Neutralizing the desire to acquire and hoard wealth) The last yama is aparigraha, a word that means something like "hands off" or "not seizing opportunity." Parigraha means "to take" or "to seize." Aparigraha means to take only what is necessary, and not to take advantage of a situation or act greedy. We should only take what we have earned; if we take more, we are exploiting someone else. In addition, unearned rewards can bring with them obligations that might later cause problems. The Yoga Sutra describes what happens when these five behaviors outlined above become part of a person's daily life. For example, as we develop ahimsa (kindness and consideration), our presence will create pleasant and friendly feelings in those around us. And if we remain true to the idea of satya, everything we say will be truthful. We will become trustworthy. In India, one's word is considered one's biggest asset. The Yoga Sutra also states that a person who is firmly anchored in asteya will receive all the jewels of this world. Such a person may not be interested in material wealth, but he or she will have access to the finest things in life. The more we recognize and search for the meaning of the essential truth, the less will we be distracted by other things. Certainly it requires great strength to take this path. The Yoga Sutra teaches that the more faith we have, the more energy we have. At the same time we also have more strength to pursue our goals. So the more we seek the truth in the sense of brahmacharya, the more vitality we will have to do so. Parigraha is the increasing orientation toward material things. If we reduce parigraha and develop aparigraha, we are orienting ourselves more inwardly. The less time we spend on our material possessions, the more we have to spend on investigating all that we call yoga. We will learn to enjoy what we have rather than constantly seeking things we don't have and never getting satisfied in life. It is a scientific fact that the more money and material possessions we have, the more stressful we become. Thus, the yamas are the moral virtues which, if attended to, purify human nature and contribute to health and happiness of society. Niyama (Observances, Disciplines, Devotion, Personal Observances) The verbal meaning of ‘Niyama’, is rules or laws. These are the rules prescribed for personal observance. Like the five yamas, the niyamas are not exercises or actions to be simply studied. They represent far more than an attitude. Compared with the yamas, the niyamas are more intimate and personal. They refer to the attitude we adopt toward ourselves. Sauca (Saucha) The sauca is cleanliness. Sauca has both an inner and an outer aspect. Outer cleanliness simply means keeping ourselves clean. Inner cleanliness has as much to do with the healthy, free functioning of our bodily organs as with the clarity of our mind. Practicing asanas or pranayama are essential means for attending to this inner sauca. Samtosa or Santosha Modesty and the feeling of being content with what we have. To be at peace within and content with one's lifestyle. Literally the word means happiness. There are occasions we work hard to get something. We get very disappointed when we don't get it. Some people will get into extreme depression as a result. Some people may even contemplate suicide in extreme cases. We do these things because we do not have the discipline of being content with what we have. We should accept that there is a purpose for everything - yoga calls it karma. In 'Celestine Prophecy', James Redfield calls this synchronicity. The real meaning of samtosa is 'to accept what happens'. God has a plan. Christians prays, 'Thy will be done.' Accept what God has given us with humility and happiness. Be happy with what we have rather than being unhappy about what we don't have. A commentary on the Yoga Sutra says: "Contentment counts for more than all sixteen heavens together." Instead of complaining about things that go wrong, we can accept what has happened and learn from them. Samtosa encompasses our mental activities such as study, our physical efforts, and even how we earn our living. It is about ourselves-what we have and how we feel about what God has given us. It is about our whole outlook on life. Do we look at a cup as half empty or as half full? Tapas or Tap Tapas refer to the activity of keeping the body fit or to confront and handle the inner urges without outer show. Literally it means to heat the body and, by so doing, to cleanse it. Behind the notion of tapas lies the idea that we can get rid of the rubbish in our body. Asanas and pranayama are tools we can use to keep ourselves healthy. Another form of tapas is paying attention to what we eat. Eating when we are not hungry is the opposite of tapas. Attention to body posture, attention to eating habits, attention to breathing patterns-these are all tapas that help to prevent the buildup of rubbish in the body, including excess weight and shortness of breath. Tapas makes the whole body fit and well functioning. It gives us the discipline of developing healthy eating habits and prevent us from getting high cholesterol, high blood pressure and heart diseases. Svadhyaya Sva means "self' or "belonging to me." Adhyaya means "inquiry" or "examination". The word svadhyaya literally means, "to get close to something." It means to get close to yourself, that is, to study yourself. It could also mean meditation or contemplation. It teaches us to be centered and non-reactive to the dualities, to burn out unwanted and destructive tendencies. All learning, all reflection, all contact that helps you to learn more about yourself is svadhyaya. In the context of the niyama the term is often translated as "the study of ancient texts." Yes, yoga does instruct us to read the ancient texts because we cannot always just sit down and contemplate things. We need reference points. The world is changing fast around us. We can read the Bible or a book on spiritual healing or one that is of personal significance or the Yoga Sutra. According to the Yoga Sutra, as we progress in our self-examination, we will gradually find a link with the divine laws and with the prophets who revealed them. And since mantras are often recited for this purpose, we sometimes find svadhyaya translated as "the repetition of mantras."/ Isvarapranidhana or Ishvarapranidhana Isvarapranidhana means "to lay all your actions at the feet of God." It is the contemplation on God (Isvara) in order to become attuned to god and god's will. We should accept the fact that we will not always get everything we want. Sometimes we get disappointed. Things do go wrong. This is the reason why samtosa (modesty) is so important. We have done our share. We have done the best we could under the circumstances. We can leave the rest to a higher power. In the context of the niyamas we can define Isvarapranidhana as the attitude of a person who usually offers the fruits of his or her action to God in daily prayer. Asanas (Yogic postures) The practice of physical postures is called Asana. It is the most commonly known aspect of yoga for those unfamiliar with the other seven limbs. The verbal meaning of ‘Asana’ is staying or abiding. Asana is one way in which a person can experience the unity of body and mind. Asana is defined as that which is comfortable and easy, as well as firm. In the west, asana is commonly called "posture". Yogic postures (asanas) are prescribed for the purpose of comfort and firmness during meditation and the practice of pranayama. An upright seated posture in which one can sit with comfort and no need to move is ideal for meditation. Asana is a dynamic position, in which the practitioner is perfectly poised between activity and non-activity. There is a corresponding mental balance between movement and stillness. Indeed, Patanjali teaches that each posture reflects a mental attitude, whether that attitude be one of surrender, as in a forward-bending asana, or the strengthening of the will, through backward-bending postures, or the creation of a physical prayer with the body, as in the practice of Padmasana, the well-known lotus posture. Yoga Sutra says that when we master asanas, we are able to handle opposites. To be able to handle opposites does not mean going outside naked in winter or dressing in warm woolen clothing in summer. It means that we become more sensitive. We learn to adapt because we know our body better. We know how our body reacts in different situations. Practically speaking, we should be able to stand for a few minutes with ease; we should be able to sit for a while easily as well. One advantage of asana practice is that it helps us get used to different situations and be able to cope with different demands. If we want to practice pranayama, for example, we have to be able to sit comfortably erect for a period of time. Asanas help us focus on the breath rather than the body during pranayama practice. If we can sit comfortably and effortlessly erect there is nothing to distract us from our concentration on the breath. Asana is a two-way street. Once the mental attitude has been created, it can then be spontaneously expressed as an asana; if one takes on the external form of an internal attitude, soon that attitude moves through body into mind, thus creating it there. Whichever way one works, the results are the same. Asana is thus both a preparation for meditation and a meditation sufficient in and of itself. Another advantage of asana is that it is direct. It can temporarily bring peace and quiet the mind. This quieting encourages the balancing of the mental functions of the individual, since it allows the intuitive aspects of the mind to have free play. This soothing effect on the brain has been verified by EEG data of brain during meditation. It has great healing implications. Patanjali suggests that the asana and the pranayama practices will bring about the desired state of health; the control of breath and bodily posture will harmonize the flow of energy in the organism, thus creating a fertile field for the evolution of the spirit. Pranayama (Breath Control) Pranayama is all about the breathing and concentrating the mind. It is the measuring, control, and directing of the breath. Pranayama controls the energy within the organism, in order to restore and maintain health and to promote evolution. Pranayama gives control of breathing processes and control of vital force. When the inflowing breath is neutralized or joined with the out flowing breath, then perfect relaxation and balance of body activities are realized. In yoga, we are concerned with balancing the flows of vital forces, then directing them inward to the chakra system and upward to the crown chakra. Pranayama or breathing technique is very important in yoga. It goes hand in hand with the asana or pose. In the Yoga Sutras, the practices of pranayama and asana are considered to be the highest form of purification and self-discipline for the mind and the body, respectively. The practices produce the actual physical sensation of heat, called tapas, or the inner fire of purification. It is taught that this heat is part of the process of purifying the nadis, or subtle nerve channels of the body. This allows a more healthful state to be experienced and allows the mind to become calmer. Pratyahara (Retraction of the Senses) This limb of Ashtanga Yoga deals with the preparation to meditation. Pratyahara means drawing back or retreat. The word ahara means "nourishment"; pratyahara translates as "to withdraw oneself from that which nourishes the senses." In yoga, the term pratyahara implies withdrawal of the senses from attachment to external objects. What does this mean? It means our senses stop living off the things that stimulate; the senses no longer depend on these stimulants and are not fed by them anymore. Let us look at this concept a little closely. When we see a sunset, first our eyes are drawn to it; the eyes sent a message to the brain; the brain computer will assimilate the information sent by the eyes and form the picture of the sunset. This is the way our senses function normally. But there is also the possibility that the most beautiful sunset on earth will not attract our attention, will not engage our senses, because we are deeply immersed in something else. We may be concentrating on something without any awareness of what is going around us. Normally the senses say to the mind: "Look at this! Smell this! Touch that!" The senses register an object and the mind is drawn to it at once. In pratyahara we sever this link between mind and senses, and the senses withdraw. Each sense perception has a particular quality to which it relates: the eyes relate to the form of something; the ears to the sound, the vibration it makes; the nose to its smell. In pratyahara it is as if things are spread out with all their attractions before our senses, but they are ignored; the senses remain unmoved and uninfluenced. In effect the brain will disregard all that is received by the various sensory organs and will only accept and process the signals sent by sensory organs at the command of the brain. Now we have control over our senses rather than being controlled by them. For example, when we are totally absorbed in the breath during pranayama, pratyahara occurs quite automatically. The mind is so intensely occupied with the breath that all links between mind, senses, and external objects that have nothing to do with the breath are cut off. So pratyahara is not a state of sleep. The senses are quite capable of responding, but they do not because they have withdrawn or detached. When the senses are no longer tied to external sources, the result is restraint, interiorization or pratyahara. Now that the vital forces are flowing back to the Source within, one can concentrate without being distracted by externals or the temptation to cognize externals. A person experiences this state, to a degree, just before going to sleep or upon awakening. We are aware of what is going on; but, are not overly influenced by what is going outside. We can achieve a similar condition at any time of the day by practicing pratyahara. It is easy for us to "be in the world but not of it" when we learn to practice interiorization of the sense currents. We can be aware of the world (at times other than during meditation) but not be attached to it. Practicing this restraint, one soon finds that tendencies and habits are neutralized, because "needs" are abandoned. This discipline allows us to practice meditation any time any place. Pratyahara occurs almost automatically when we meditate because we are so absorbed in the object of meditation. Precisely because the mind is so focused, the senses follow it; it is not happening the other way around. No longer functioning in their usual manner, the senses become extraordinarily sharp. Under normal circumstances the senses become our masters rather than being our servants. The senses entice us to develop cravings for all sorts of things. In pratyahara the opposite occurs: when we have to eat, we eat, but not because we have a craving for food. In pratyahara we try to put the senses in their proper place, but not cut them out of our actions entirely. Much of our emotional imbalances are our own creation. A person who is influenced by outside events and sensations can never achieve the inner peace and tranquillity. This is because he or she will waste much mental and physical energy in trying to suppress unwanted sensations and to heighten other sensations. This will eventually result in a physical or mental imbalance, and will, in most instances, results in illness. Patanjali says that the above process is at the root of human unhappiness and uneasiness. When people seek out yoga, hoping to find that inner peace which is so evasive, they find that it was theirs all along. In a sense, yoga is nothing more than a process which enables us to stop and look at the processes of our own minds; only in this way can we understand the nature of happiness and unhappiness, and thus transcend them both. Dharana (Fixation of Attention) The objective in dharana is to steady the mind by focusing its attention upon some stable entity. Dhar means "to hold." Literally, the word dharana means ‘immovable concentration of the mind’. The essential idea is to hold the concentration or focus of attention in one direction. This is not the forced concentration of, for example, solving a difficult mathematics problem; rather dharana is a form of meditation which could be called receptive concentration. For example, imagine a large reservoir of water used by farmers for watering their fields. There are channels leading away from the reservoir in different directions. If the farmer has dug all the channels the same depth, the water runs equally in all directions. But if one channel is deeper than the others, more water flows through it. This is what happens in dharana: we create the conditions for the mind to focus its attention in one direction instead of going out in many different directions. Deep contemplation and reflection can create the right conditions, and the focus on this one point that we have chosen becomes more intense. We encourage one particular activity of the mind and, the more intense it becomes, the more the other activities of the mind fall away. Before retracting one’s senses, he may practice focusing attention on a single inanimate object. After such retraction, some inner means of focusing may help. Practices such as: - Rolling the eyes upward and holding them together, as if attending to a spot in the center of the forehead, - Rolling the eyes downward, as if attending to the navel, - Rolling the eyes forward, as if attending to the tip of the nose These are quite popular in this regard. The particular object selected has nothing to do with the general purpose, which is to stop the mind from wandering -through memories, dreams, or reflective thought-by deliberately holding it single-mindedly upon some apparently static object. When the mind has become purified by yoga practices, it becomes able to focus efficiently on one subject or point of experience. Now we can unleash the great potential for inner healing. If the yogi chooses to focus on a center ("chakra") of the inner energy flow, he or she can directly experience the physical and mental blocks and imbalances that remain in his or her system. This ability to concentrate depends on excellent psychological health and integration and is not an escape from reality, but rather a movement toward perception of its true nature. Dhyana (Devotion, Fusive Apprehension) Dhyana is the seventh limb of Ashtanga Yoga. Dhyana means worship, or profound and abstract religious meditation It is perfect contemplation. It involves concentration upon a point of focus with the intention of knowing the truth about it. During dhyana, the consciousness is further unified by combining clear insights into distinctions between objects and between the subtle layers of veils that surround intuition. We learn to differentiate between the minds of the perceiver, the means of perception, and the objects perceived, between words, their meanings, and ideas, and between all the levels of evolution of the nature. We realize that these are all fused in an undifferentiated continuum. One must apprehend both subject and object clearly in order to perceive their similarities, for a clear grasp of real identity of two apparently different things requires a clear grasp of their seeming difference. Thus, dhyana is apprehension of real identity among ostensible differences. During dharana the mind is moving in one direction like a quiet river-nothing else is happening. In dhyana, one becomes involved with a particular thing - a link is established between self and object. In other words, you perceive a particular object and at the same time continuously communicate with it. Dharana must precede dhyana, because the mind needs focusing on a particular object before a connection can be made. Dharana is the contact, and dhyana is the connection. Obviously, to focus the attention to one point will not result in insight or realization. One must identify and become "one with" the object of contemplation, in order to know for certain, the truth about it. In dhyana, the consciousness of the practitioner is in one flow; it is no longer fixed on one subject as in dharana. Samadhi (Fully Integrated Consciousness) Smadhi is last step of Ashtanga yoga. When we succeed in becoming so absorbed in something that our mind becomes completely one with it, we are in a state of samadhi. Samadhi means "to bring together, to merge." In samadhi our personal identity-name, profession, family history, social security number, driver's license number etc.-completely disappears. In the moment of samadhi none of that exists anymore. Nothing separates us from the object of our choice; instead we blend and become one with it. During samadhi, we realize what it is to be an identity without differences, and how a liberated soul can enjoy pure awareness of this pure identity. The conscious mind drops back into that unconscious oblivion from which it first emerged. The final stage terminates at the instant the soul is freed. The absolute and eternal freedom of an isolated soul is beyond all stages and beyond all time and place. Once freed, it does not return to bondage. Thus, samadhi refers to the union of the contemplating being with the object of contemplation. Here, the object of the meditation and the meditator become one. This is like the unity of process; it is like the union of function and structure. The polarity of viewer and viewed, like the polarity of opposites, is no longer relevant; the mind does not distinguish between self and non-self, or between the object contemplated and the process of contemplation. There are various stages of samadhi, depending upon whether one is identified with the object while yet conscious of the object, or whether one has transcended the object of meditation and is resting in the experience of being, without conceptual support or without support of any aspect of Consciousness. Pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi cannot be practiced. A person cannot simply sit down and say, "Right now I am going to do dharana." All the person can do is to create the right conditions to help bring about a state of dharana; For example, he or she can practice asanas and pranayama that, according to the Yoga Sutra, create favorable conditions for the mind to enter these states. In order to experience dharana and dhyana, the mind must first be in a particular condition. Allow the many things that are going on in the mind to settle so that it becomes quiet. If the mind is too busy responding to external stimuli, it cannot enter into a state of dharana. Forcing dharana when your mind is not ready for it can get you into trouble. For this reason, the Yoga Sutra suggests the practice of asanas and pranayama as preparation for dharana, because these influence mental activities and create space in the crowded schedule of the mind. Once dharana has occurred, dhyana and samadhi can follow. The perfection of samadhi embraces and glorifies all aspects of the self by subjecting them to the light of understanding. The person capable of samadhi retains his or her individuality and person, but is free of the emotional attachment to it. <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"><img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png" /></a><br />This work is licensed under a <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License</a>.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.529028	05/02/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65899/overview", "title": "Eight Limbs of Yoga", "author": "Pravin Dabre" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89524/overview	Synonym and Antonym Sentences Synonym and Antonym Worksheet Synonyms and Antonyms Overview This is a simple synonym and antonym lesson. It is appropriate for middle to upper elementary, and can be used or adapted for ELL. The lesson includes a slideshow with synonym and antonym definitions, as well as 2 practice skills sheets for application. Synonyms and Antonyms - How do you know the difference? What are synonyms and antonyms? How do you tell the difference? - Knowing how to use synonyms can help you with your writing and speaking, as you will know different words to use for the same meaning. This helps you to not use the same words all the time. - Knowing how to use antonyms will help you choose good words when you write, and will help you improve your language skills. See the attached slide show to learn more about antonyms and synonyms - look at definitions and study examples. Practice writing your own sets! Practice What You Have Learned! There are 2 skills sheets attached. - On the first sheet you will look at the words and write a synonym and an antonym for each word. There is a word bank to help you. - On the second sheet you will write 2 sentences using synonyms and 2 sentences using antonyms. Get creative! Have fun writing! Don't forget! All sentences begin with a capital letter and end with a punctuation mark.*	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.551596	01/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89524/overview", "title": "Synonyms and Antonyms", "author": "Jennifer Poore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83285/overview	https://youtu.be/KsDMOJbWt_Y Phonics First 1-34 Day 1 Letters and Their Sounds Overview This is a Phonics First lesson that teaches students about the letters in the alphabet and the sounds that they make. Students will watch the letter sound song, then a video lesson of our Three-Part Drill, followed by letter slide show for practice, finishing with reading practice of our dictation sentences. Letter Song Video Phonics First Video Lesson Phonics First Lesson 3 Part Drill Phonemic Awareness: Identifying sounds: ask students to listen for the /qu/ sound at the beginning of the word and bend their forefinger into a question mark sign and hold it in the air. Blending: ask students to listen to the onset and rime of the words (containing the /qu/ sound) and blend it together, saying the word (qu-iz, qu-it, qu-ag, qu-ill). Slide Presentation of Letters and their Sound Pictures Practice saying the letter name and sound as the slideshow plays. https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1zY3JwEh9JdaDM7dCiwLFsOLaSSJkxeahPgO6Ts8qlEE/edit?usp=sharing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.573788	07/07/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83285/overview", "title": "Letters and Their Sounds", "author": "Brandy George" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73385/overview	Untitled drawing (1) Life Cycle of a Butterfly Overview This lesson provides an outline for teaching young learners all about the lifce cycle of a butterfly! Stages of A Butterfly's Life Cycle Lessons Topic: Stages of A Butterfly's Life Cycle Grade Range: 1st Grade Learning Goals & Objectives: - Students will learn the all four stages of a butterfly's life cycle. - Egg - Butterfly her lays eggs on a plant. - Caterpillar (Larva) - Caterpillar hatches from the egg and eat lots of plants so they can grow. - Chrysalis (Pupa) - The caterpillar hangs upside down and makes a chrysalis. - Butterfly (adult) - Out of the chrysalis comes an adult butterfly! - Students will be able to put each stage in the correct sequence (with guidance). - Students will be able to draw a picture to go with each stage. Lesson Overview: (Intro) Start lesson by playing the animated film for "The Very Hungry Catepillar" by Eric Carle on YouTube for students to watch. Then, we will read "The Very Impatient Caterpillar" by Ross Burach. Explain that there are four stages in a butterfly's life. Then, as class try to identify what the stages are based on what they learned from the video and story (lightly guide students to the correct answers as needed). Draw a diagram on the whiteboard and complete it as you move through each stage. I will split students into pairs and give each pair the four images that represents each stage (attached, and will be cut so that they are seperated) and a separate blank paper. The pairs will be instructed to discuss what they learned about each stage, to put the pictures in the correct sequence that they occur in. Then, I will go by and check to make sure they have it in the correct order. Once this is done, they will glue the pictures in order onto the paper and write at least one scentence to describe each stage. I will also have written some of the vocabulary words from the lesson on the whiteboard to help them write their sentences. For the second activity, the students will be given a paper (attached) that has a box correlating with each stage, they will individually draw their own picture that represents each stage.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.594083	Callie Camp	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73385/overview", "title": "Life Cycle of a Butterfly", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99243/overview	Russia and the Western Republics: Today and Yesterday Overview This is an enrichment or remediation mini lesson about Russia for my HS Human Geography Virtual Class. Students have the option to complete this lesson for fun or to earn a "retake" on their Russia Unit test. The top 5 scores on the review game at the end get 5 bonus points added to their Unit test grades. Your assignment: Read and review each section by visiting the provided links. Complete the Kahoot! review that is linked at the end of this module. Purpose: Enrichment, Remediation Goal: Read all of these resources and complete the Kahoot! review to earn an extra attempt on your Unit Test, should you need it. Bonus: The top 5 scorers on the game will receive 5 bonus points added to their Unit test grade. A Little Russian History and Russia’s Interactions With the Rest of the World Objective 1: Describe the key features of the human geography of Russia and its Western Republics. Objective 2. Describe the major challenges that Russia and the Republics face today. Russia Today - The Chameleon in the Kremlin: Contemporary Russia under Putin https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88115/student/ On page 2, read the following sections: New Millennium, New President: the Rise of Vladimir Putin, 1999-2004 President Putin's First Term Russsia Engages the World: Putin and Foreign Affairs On page 3, read the following sections: Mr. Putin's Wars Putin's Crackdowns: The Media and Political Opponents Putin's Changing Attitude toward the West On page 4, read the following sections: The Cozy President and the Glacial Prime Minister: Dmitry Medvedev and Vladimir Putin (2008-2012) The Forgotten President? On page 5, read: Return of President Putin: 2013-Present 2. St. Petersburg, Russia Explore: The City of Palaces and White Nights Discovering the capital of culture and gastrobars - Saint Petersburg https://artsandculture.google.com/story/DQUxazMsLztq7w 3. Aspects of Culture: Russia A Little Russian History and Russia’s Interactions With the Rest of the World The US and Russia: Space Race The Space Race https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-space-race/ 2. What was the Cold War? USA vs USSR Fight! The Cold War: Crash Course World History #39 https://youtu.be/y9HjvHZfCUI You can view the video or read the transcript here: https://nerdfighteria.info/v/y9HjvHZfCUI/ Interested in learning more about the Cold War? (Will not be included in review game.) - Here is a resource that lists music, films and fiction about The Cold War. Check out this spreadsheet. Be sure to look at all three tabs! https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76226/student/?section=0 This is a short and entertaining video cartoon, produced and aired by the US Federal Civil Defense Administration in 1952, after the USSR had begun nuclear testing. It was shown in classrooms across the United States to raise public awareness of what to do in the event a nuclear bomb hit the U.S. Classrooms viewed this video from 1952 until 1991, when the Cold War ended. It was especially viewed by millions of schoolchildren in the 50’s, according to the Library of Congress. It has been declared “historically significant “ and was preserved in the National Film Registry as of 2004. (Sources: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/; Duck_and_Cover_(film) and the YouTube video page itself.) Duck and Cover: Bert the Turtle Food for thought: With all the knowledge we have gained since this video was produced, do you think this is an effective means of protection in the event of a nuclear explosion? Kahoot! Review Here's the link to the Kahoot! review of these resources. https://create.kahoot.it/share/russia-and-the-republics-game-with-enrichment-materials/ad5240d3-18e1-4935-b22b-47e0f8bf7836	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.622262	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99243/overview", "title": "Russia and the Western Republics: Today and Yesterday", "author": "World History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121361/overview	Create flipbooks to better understand motion graphs Overview This is essentially just an idea for a lesson or sequence of lessons in a physics classroom. Main lesson idea Materials: - thick paper - pencils - a way of cutting the paper efficiently into small rectangles of the same size. Each student should get around 30 pieces of paper Instructions for students: Have the students imagine the movement of an object, for example a Basketball bouncing up and down or have them observe such a motion. They will now have to draw a sequence of images showing the changing position of the object. For simplicity the motion of the object should be in a straight line an the "movie" should keep a fixed observer position, so no panning or zooming. To keep a good reference of the previous position of the object, students can overlay a blank sheet and a drawn object and put it on a window. This should simplify the drawing of the next step in the animation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.635258	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121361/overview", "title": "Create flipbooks to better understand motion graphs", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85971/overview	Lecture Overview Martin Luther and his «The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences». Martin Luther Word power «The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences» - «95 тез або Пропозиції проти індульгенцій» to outline – відзначатися, окреслювати; salvation by faith alone – порятунок лише своєю вірою; doctrine – учення; to obtain – отримувати; merit – заслуга; value – ціна, цінність; to spread – поширювати. His name is associated with the beginning of the Reformation movement in Germany. On October 31 1517, Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg Martin Luther published «The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences» (Indulgences - charters of absolution).The theses outlined the basics of the new doctrine: 1. salvation by faith alone; 2. salvation is obtained only by the grace of God and does not depend on any merit of human; only God knows the true value of good works; 3. the only authority of faith is the Scripture, the Word of God. Luther's speech had a big support of the population in Germany. The Reformation began and it covered all groups of the population in the country, and some time later it spread to other European countries. After these events the new religions appeared in Europe, such as Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, which have separated from the Catholic Church and nowadays they still exist. As a result, there was formed one more branch of Christianity - Protestantism . Europe was divided into Catholic and Protestant countries. - When did Martin Luther publish «The Ninety-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences»? - Did Luther's speech have a big support of the population in Germany? - What religions appeared in Europe? - Was Protestantism formed as one more branch of Christianity? - What do Indulgences mean? Are these sentences “True” or “False”?: - Martin Luther is associated with the beginning of the Reformation movement in Germany. - Doctor of Theology at the University of Wittenberg published «The Eighty-five Theses or Disputation on the Power of Indulgences». - Luther's speech didn’t have a big support of the population in Germany. - The Reformation gave rise to new religions in the USA. - Europe was divided into Catholic and Protestant countries.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.676861	09/19/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85971/overview", "title": "Lecture", "author": "Zhenia Sydorenko" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64304/overview	The Laramie Project Lesson Overview This activity asks students to think about prejudices before they begin to read The Laramie Project. Stereotypes vs. Prejudices This lesson asks students to write in journals. If students do not keep journals for your class, they could easily record information on a blank piece of paper or a digital document. Webster Dictionary defines a stereotype as "a standardized mental picture that is held in common by members of a group and that represents an oversimplified opinion, prejudiced attitude, or uncritical judgment." It defines prejudice as " injury or damage resulting from some judgment or action of another in disregard of one's rights." In your journal, reflect on these two terms. What is the difference between a stereotype and a prejudice? How are the two terms connected? Also, reflect on what examples of stereotypes and/or prejudices you see presented in media (film, television, literature, video games, etc.). Do you see stereotypes and/or prejudices in your own life (family, community, self, etc.)? Strive to answer each of these questions as fully as possible. Hate Crime Webster Dictionary defines a hate crime as "any of various crimes (such as assault or defacement of property) when motivated by hostility to the victim as a member of a group (such as one based on color, creed, gender, or sexual orientation)." In your journal, reflect on this term. Put this definition in your own words. Is it easy to define a violent act as a hate crime? Why or why not? What motivates a hate crime? Is hate speech a precursor or an aggravator of hate crimes? What is the severity of a hate crime? What should the punishment of a hate crime be? Can you think of any real-world examples of hate crimes? Strive to answer each of these questions as fully as possible. “It Can’t Happen Here” The Laramie Project is an experimental play in which a theatre group goes into Laramie, Wyoming to interview town's residents after a tragic hate crime was committed in their town. "It can't happen here," was a common response when asked if people thought such a violent act could have happened in their community. But it did happen in their community. It did happen there. Could it happen here? In your journal, reflect on this quote. What are the attitudes towards American minorities in our community? Which minorities are more widely accepted? Are there any that are widely rejected? Do you think a hate crime could happen in our community? Why or why not? Strive to answer each of these questions as fully as possible. Share Out When having the circle discussion, it is advised to break into multiple smaller groups if there is more than one adult in the room to help facilitate these discussions. We are going to get into circles shortly and you will be asked to share out one thought, idea, or question you have from today's journaling activities. Pick two or three ideas to share out with the group just in case someone has the same share out idea as you. After everyone shares out, we will have time to discuss and comment on the ideas brought up in the circle. Reflection Now, you will log in to our LMS and complete a reflection writing assignment. The following instructions are also available there. Reflect on the thinking and conversations we have had today. Strive to write a solid academic paragraph or two. (I would suggest at least ten sentences in your reflection document.) You do not have to answer all of the following questions but you should pick at least a couple to get you started. - How did the conversation we had make you feel? - What about this lesson made you think differently? - Have these topics related to any of the stories we've read so far this semester? - How do you predict these topics will apply to the story we are about to read? - Why are these topics so important to discuss? - How do these topics tie in with American history? If you take the time to answer this prompt fully, you will earn full points.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.696021	03/23/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64304/overview", "title": "The Laramie Project Lesson", "author": "Charles Carter" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15413/overview	Charles II and the Restoration Colonies Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Analyze the causes and consequences of the Restoration - Identify the Restoration colonies and their role in the expansion of the Empire When Charles II ascended the throne in 1660, English subjects on both sides of the Atlantic celebrated the restoration of the English monarchy after a decade of living without a king as a result of the English Civil Wars. Charles II lost little time in strengthening England’s global power. From the 1660s to the 1680s, Charles II added more possessions to England’s North American holdings by establishing the Restoration colonies of New York and New Jersey (taking these areas from the Dutch) as well as Pennsylvania and the Carolinas. In order to reap the greatest economic benefit from England’s overseas possessions, Charles II enacted the mercantilist Navigation Acts, although many colonial merchants ignored them because enforcement remained lax. CHARLES II The chronicle of Charles II begins with his father, Charles I. Charles I ascended the English throne in 1625 and soon married a French Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria, who was not well liked by English Protestants because she openly practiced Catholicism during her husband’s reign. The most outspoken Protestants, the Puritans, had a strong voice in Parliament in the 1620s, and they strongly opposed the king’s marriage and his ties to Catholicism. When Parliament tried to contest his edicts, including the king’s efforts to impose taxes without Parliament’s consent, Charles I suspended Parliament in 1629 and ruled without one for the next eleven years. The ensuing struggle between the king and Parliament led to the outbreak of war. The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to 1649 and pitted the king and his Royalist supporters against Oliver Cromwell and his Parliamentary forces. After years of fighting, the Parliamentary forces gained the upper hand, and in 1649, they charged Charles I with treason and beheaded him. The monarchy was dissolved, and England became a republic: a state without a king. Oliver Cromwell headed the new English Commonwealth, and the period known as the English interregnum, or the time between kings, began. Though Cromwell enjoyed widespread popularity at first, over time he appeared to many in England to be taking on the powers of a military dictator. Dissatisfaction with Cromwell grew. When he died in 1658 and control passed to his son Richard, who lacked the political skills of his father, a majority of the English people feared an alternate hereditary monarchy in the making. They had had enough and asked Charles II to be king. In 1660, they welcomed the son of the executed king Charles I back to the throne to resume the English monarchy and bring the interregnum to an end (Figure). The return of Charles II is known as the Restoration. Charles II was committed to expanding England’s overseas possessions. His policies in the 1660s through the 1680s established and supported the Restoration colonies: the Carolinas, New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania. All the Restoration colonies started as proprietary colonies, that is, the king gave each colony to a trusted individual, family, or group. THE CAROLINAS Charles II hoped to establish English control of the area between Virginia and Spanish Florida. To that end, he issued a royal charter in 1663 to eight trusted and loyal supporters, each of whom was to be a feudal-style proprietor of a region of the province of Carolina. These proprietors did not relocate to the colonies, however. Instead, English plantation owners from the tiny Caribbean island of Barbados, already a well-established English sugar colony fueled by slave labor, migrated to the southern part of Carolina to settle there. In 1670, they established Charles Town (later Charleston), named in honor of Charles II, at the junction of the Ashley and Cooper Rivers (Figure). As the settlement around Charles Town grew, it began to produce livestock for export to the West Indies. In the northern part of Carolina, settlers turned sap from pine trees into turpentine used to waterproof wooden ships. Political disagreements between settlers in the northern and southern parts of Carolina escalated in the 1710s through the 1720s and led to the creation, in 1729, of two colonies, North and South Carolina. The southern part of Carolina had been producing rice and indigo (a plant that yields a dark blue dye used by English royalty) since the 1700s, and South Carolina continued to depend on these main crops. North Carolina continued to produce items for ships, especially turpentine and tar, and its population increased as Virginians moved there to expand their tobacco holdings. Tobacco was the primary export of both Virginia and North Carolina, which also traded in deerskins and slaves from Africa. Slavery developed quickly in the Carolinas, largely because so many of the early migrants came from Barbados, where slavery was well established. By the end of the 1600s, a very wealthy class of rice planters who relied on slaves had attained dominance in the southern part of the Carolinas, especially around Charles Town. By 1715, South Carolina had a black majority because of the number of slaves in the colony. The legal basis for slavery was established in the early 1700s as the Carolinas began to pass slave laws based on the Barbados slave codes of the late 1600s. These laws reduced Africans to the status of property to be bought and sold as other commodities. Visit the Charleston Museum’s interactive exhibit The Walled City to learn more about the history of Charleston. As in other areas of English settlement, native peoples in the Carolinas suffered tremendously from the introduction of European diseases. Despite the effects of disease, Indians in the area endured and, following the pattern elsewhere in the colonies, grew dependent on European goods. Local Yamasee and Creek tribes built up a trade deficit with the English, trading deerskins and captive slaves for European guns. English settlers exacerbated tensions with local Indian tribes, especially the Yamasee, by expanding their rice and tobacco fields into Indian lands. Worse still, English traders took native women captive as payment for debts. The outrages committed by traders, combined with the seemingly unstoppable expansion of English settlement onto native land, led to the outbreak of the Yamasee War (1715–1718), an effort by a coalition of local tribes to drive away the European invaders. This native effort to force the newcomers back across the Atlantic nearly succeeded in annihilating the Carolina colonies. Only when the Cherokee allied themselves with the English did the coalition’s goal of eliminating the English from the region falter. The Yamasee War demonstrates the key role native peoples played in shaping the outcome of colonial struggles and, perhaps most important, the disunity that existed between different native groups. NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY Charles II also set his sights on the Dutch colony of New Netherland. The English takeover of New Netherland originated in the imperial rivalry between the Dutch and the English. During the Anglo-Dutch wars of the 1650s and 1660s, the two powers attempted to gain commercial advantages in the Atlantic World. During the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1664–1667), English forces gained control of the Dutch fur trading colony of New Netherland, and in 1664, Charles II gave this colony (including present-day New Jersey) to his brother James, Duke of York (later James II). The colony and city were renamed New York in his honor. The Dutch in New York chafed under English rule. In 1673, during the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–1674), the Dutch recaptured the colony. However, at the end of the conflict, the English had regained control (Figure). The Duke of York had no desire to govern locally or listen to the wishes of local colonists. It wasn’t until 1683, therefore, almost 20 years after the English took control of the colony, that colonists were able to convene a local representative legislature. The assembly’s 1683 Charter of Liberties and Privileges set out the traditional rights of Englishmen, like the right to trial by jury and the right to representative government. The English continued the Dutch patroonship system, granting large estates to a favored few families. The largest of these estates, at 160,000 acres, was given to Robert Livingston in 1686. The Livingstons and the other manorial families who controlled the Hudson River Valley formed a formidable political and economic force. Eighteenth-century New York City, meanwhile, contained a variety of people and religions—as well as Dutch and English people, it held French Protestants (Huguenots), Jews, Puritans, Quakers, Anglicans, and a large population of slaves. As they did in other zones of colonization, native peoples played a key role in shaping the history of colonial New York. After decades of war in the 1600s, the powerful Five Nations of the Iroquois, composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, successfully pursued a policy of neutrality with both the English and, to the north, the French in Canada during the first half of the 1700s. This native policy meant that the Iroquois continued to live in their own villages under their own government while enjoying the benefits of trade with both the French and the English. PENNSYLVANIA The Restoration colonies also included Pennsylvania, which became the geographic center of British colonial America. Pennsylvania (which means “Penn’s Woods” in Latin) was created in 1681, when Charles II bestowed the largest proprietary colony in the Americas on William Penn (Figure) to settle the large debt he owed the Penn family. William Penn’s father, Admiral William Penn, had served the English crown by helping take Jamaica from the Spanish in 1655. The king personally owed the Admiral money as well. Like early settlers of the New England colonies, Pennsylvania’s first colonists migrated mostly for religious reasons. William Penn himself was a Quaker, a member of a new Protestant denomination called the Society of Friends. George Fox had founded the Society of Friends in England in the late 1640s, having grown dissatisfied with Puritanism and the idea of predestination. Rather, Fox and his followers stressed that everyone had an “inner light” inside him or her, a spark of divinity. They gained the name Quakers because they were said to quake when the inner light moved them. Quakers rejected the idea of worldly rank, believing instead in a new and radical form of social equality. Their speech reflected this belief in that they addressed all others as equals, using “thee” and “thou” rather than terms like “your lordship” or “my lady” that were customary for privileged individuals of the hereditary elite. The English crown persecuted Quakers in England, and colonial governments were equally harsh; Massachusetts even executed several early Quakers who had gone to proselytize there. To avoid such persecution, Quakers and their families at first created a community on the sugar island of Barbados. Soon after its founding, however, Pennsylvania became the destination of choice. Quakers flocked to Pennsylvania as well as New Jersey, where they could preach and practice their religion in peace. Unlike New England, whose official religion was Puritanism, Pennsylvania did not establish an official church. Indeed, the colony allowed a degree of religious tolerance found nowhere else in English America. To help encourage immigration to his colony, Penn promised fifty acres of land to people who agreed to come to Pennsylvania and completed their term of service. Not surprisingly, those seeking a better life came in large numbers, so much so that Pennsylvania relied on indentured servants more than any other colony. One of the primary tenets of Quakerism is pacifism, leading William Penn to establish friendly relationships with local native peoples. He formed a covenant of friendship with the Lenni Lenape (Delaware) tribe, buying their land for a fair price instead of taking it by force. In 1701, he also signed a treaty with the Susquehannocks to avoid war. Unlike other colonies, Pennsylvania did not experience war on the frontier with native peoples during its early history. As an important port city, Philadelphia grew rapidly. Quaker merchants there established contacts throughout the Atlantic world and participated in the thriving African slave trade. Some Quakers, who were deeply troubled by the contradiction between their belief in the “inner light” and the practice of slavery, rejected the practice and engaged in efforts to abolish it altogether. Philadelphia also acted as a magnet for immigrants, who came not only from England, but from all over Europe by the hundreds of thousands. The city, and indeed all of Pennsylvania, appeared to be the best country for poor men and women, many of whom arrived as servants and dreamed of owning land. A very few, like the fortunate Benjamin Franklin, a runaway from Puritan Boston, did extraordinarily well. Other immigrant groups in the colony, most notably Germans and Scotch-Irish (families from Scotland and England who had first lived in Ireland before moving to British America), greatly improved their lot in Pennsylvania. Of course, Africans imported into the colony to labor for white masters fared far worse. John Wilson Offers Reward for Escaped Prisoners The American Weekly Mercury, published by William Bradford, was Philadelphia’s first newspaper. This advertisement from “John Wilson, Goaler” (jailer) offers a reward for anyone capturing several men who escaped from the jail. BROKE out of the Common Goal of Philadelphia, the 15th of this Instant February, 1721, the following Persons: John Palmer, also Plumly, alias Paine, Servant to Joseph Jones, run away and was lately taken up at New-York. He is fully described in the American Mercury, Novem. 23, 1721. He has a Cinnamon coloured Coat on, a middle sized fresh coloured Man. His Master will give a Pistole Reward to any who Shall Secure him, besides what is here offered. Daniel Oughtopay, A Dutchman, aged about 24 Years, Servant to Dr. Johnston in Amboy. He is a thin Spare man, grey Drugget Waistcoat and Breeches and a light-coloured Coat on. Ebenezor Mallary, a New-England, aged about 24 Years, is a middle-sized thin Man, having on a Snuff colour’d Coat, and ordinary Ticking Waistcoat and Breeches. He has dark brown strait Hair. Matthew Dulany, an Irish Man, down-look’d Swarthy Complexion, and has on an Olive-coloured Cloth Coat and Waistcoat with Cloth Buttons. John Flemming, an Irish Lad, aged about 18, belonging to Mr. Miranda, Merchant in this City. He has no Coat, a grey Drugget Waistcoat, and a narrow brim’d Hat on. John Corbet, a Shropshire Man, a Runaway Servant from Alexander Faulkner of Maryland, broke out on the 12th Instant. He has got a double-breasted Sailor’s Jacket on lined with red Bays, pretends to be a Sailor, and once taught School at Josephs Collings’s in the Jerseys. Whoever takes up and secures all, or any One of these Felons, shall have a Pistole Reward for each of them and reasonable Charges, paid them by John Wilson, Goaler —Advertisement from the American Weekly Mercury, 1722 What do the descriptions of the men tell you about life in colonial Philadelphia? Browse a number of issues of the American Weekly Mercury that were digitized by New Jersey’s Stockton University. Read through several to get a remarkable flavor of life in early eighteenth-century Philadelphia. THE NAVIGATION ACTS Creating wealth for the Empire remained a primary goal, and in the second half of the seventeenth century, especially during the Restoration, England attempted to gain better control of trade with the American colonies. The mercantilist policies by which it tried to achieve this control are known as the Navigation Acts. The 1651 Navigation Ordnance, a product of Cromwell’s England, required that only English ships carry goods between England and the colonies, and that the captain and three-fourths of the crew had to be English. The ordnance further listed “enumerated articles” that could be transported only to England or to English colonies, including the most lucrative commodities like sugar and tobacco as well as indigo, rice, molasses, and naval stores such as turpentine. All were valuable goods not produced in England or in demand by the British navy. After ascending the throne, Charles II approved the 1660 Navigation Act, which restated the 1651 act to ensure a monopoly on imports from the colonies. Other Navigation Acts included the 1663 Staple Act and the 1673 Plantation Duties Act. The Staple Act barred colonists from importing goods that had not been made in England, creating a profitable monopoly for English exporters and manufacturers. The Plantation Duties Act taxed enumerated articles exported from one colony to another, a measure aimed principally at New Englanders, who transported great quantities of molasses from the West Indies, including smuggled molasses from French-held islands, to make into rum. In 1675, Charles II organized the Lords of Trade and Plantation, commonly known as the Lords of Trade, an administrative body intended to create stronger ties between the colonial governments and the crown. However, the 1696 Navigation Act created the Board of Trade, replacing the Lords of Trade. This act, meant to strengthen enforcement of customs laws, also established vice-admiralty courts where the crown could prosecute customs violators without a jury. Under this act, customs officials were empowered with warrants known as “writs of assistance” to board and search vessels suspected of containing smuggled goods. Despite the Navigation Acts, however, Great Britain exercised lax control over the English colonies during most of the eighteenth century because of the policies of Prime Minister Robert Walpole. During his long term (1721–1742), Walpole governed according to his belief that commerce flourished best when it was not encumbered with restrictions. Historians have described this lack of strict enforcement of the Navigation Acts as salutary neglect. In addition, nothing prevented colonists from building their own fleet of ships to engage in trade. New England especially benefited from both salutary neglect and a vibrant maritime culture made possible by the scores of trading vessels built in the northern colonies. The case of the 1733 Molasses Act illustrates the weaknesses of British mercantilist policy. The 1733 act placed a sixpence-per-gallon duty on raw sugar, rum, and molasses from Britain’s competitors, the French and the Dutch, in order to give an advantage to British West Indian producers. Because the British did not enforce the 1733 law, however, New England mariners routinely smuggled these items from the French and Dutch West Indies more cheaply than they could buy them on English islands. Section Summary After the English Civil War and interregnum, England began to fashion a stronger and larger empire in North America. In addition to wresting control of New York and New Jersey from the Dutch, Charles II established the Carolinas and Pennsylvania as proprietary colonies. Each of these colonies added immensely to the Empire, supplying goods not produced in England, such as rice and indigo. The Restoration colonies also contributed to the rise in population in English America as many thousands of Europeans made their way to the colonies. Their numbers were further augmented by the forced migration of African slaves. Starting in 1651, England pursued mercantilist policies through a series of Navigation Acts designed to make the most of England’s overseas possessions. Nonetheless, without proper enforcement of Parliament’s acts and with nothing to prevent colonial traders from commanding their own fleets of ships, the Navigation Acts did not control trade as intended. Review Questions To what does the term “Restoration” refer? - the restoration of New York to English power - the restoration of Catholicism as the official religion of England - the restoration of Charles II to the English throne - the restoration of Parliamentary power in England Hint: C What was the predominant religion in Pennsylvania? - Quakerism - Puritanism - Catholicism - Protestantism Hint: A What sorts of labor systems were used in the Restoration colonies? Hint: Since the proprietors of the Carolina colonies were absent, English planters from Barbados moved in and gained political power, establishing slave labor as the predominant form of labor. In Pennsylvania, where prospective servants were offered a bounty of fifty acres of land for emigrating and finishing their term of labor, indentured servitude abounded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.726777	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15413/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763, Charles II and the Restoration Colonies", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15416/overview	Great Awakening and Enlightenment Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the significance of the Great Awakening - Describe the genesis, central ideas, and effects of the Enlightenment in British North America Two major cultural movements further strengthened Anglo-American colonists’ connection to Great Britain: the Great Awakening and the Enlightenment. Both movements began in Europe, but they advocated very different ideas: the Great Awakening promoted a fervent, emotional religiosity, while the Enlightenment encouraged the pursuit of reason in all things. On both sides of the Atlantic, British subjects grappled with these new ideas. THE FIRST GREAT AWAKENING During the eighteenth century, the British Atlantic experienced an outburst of Protestant revivalism known as the First Great Awakening. (A Second Great Awakening would take place in the 1800s.) During the First Great Awakening, evangelists came from the ranks of several Protestant denominations: Congregationalists, Anglicans (members of the Church of England), and Presbyterians. They rejected what appeared to be sterile, formal modes of worship in favor of a vigorous emotional religiosity. Whereas Martin Luther and John Calvin had preached a doctrine of predestination and close reading of scripture, new evangelical ministers spread a message of personal and experiential faith that rose above mere book learning. Individuals could bring about their own salvation by accepting Christ, an especially welcome message for those who had felt excluded by traditional Protestantism: women, the young, and people at the lower end of the social spectrum. The Great Awakening caused a split between those who followed the evangelical message (the “New Lights”) and those who rejected it (the “Old Lights”). The elite ministers in British America were firmly Old Lights, and they censured the new revivalism as chaos. Indeed, the revivals did sometimes lead to excess. In one notorious incident in 1743, an influential New Light minister named James Davenport urged his listeners to burn books. The next day, he told them to burn their clothes as a sign of their casting off the sinful trappings of the world. He then took off his own pants and threw them into the fire, but a woman saved them and tossed them back to Davenport, telling him he had gone too far. Another outburst of Protestant revivalism began in New Jersey, led by a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church named Theodorus Frelinghuysen. Frelinghuysen’s example inspired other ministers, including Gilbert Tennent, a Presbyterian. Tennant helped to spark a Presbyterian revival in the Middle Colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey), in part by founding a seminary to train other evangelical clergyman. New Lights also founded colleges in Rhode Island and New Hampshire that would later become Brown University and Dartmouth College. In Northampton, Massachusetts, Jonathan Edwards led still another explosion of evangelical fervor. Edwards’s best-known sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” used powerful word imagery to describe the terrors of hell and the possibilities of avoiding damnation by personal conversion (Figure). One passage reads: “The wrath of God burns against them [sinners], their damnation don’t slumber, the pit is prepared, the fire is made ready, the furnace is now hot, ready to receive them, the flames do now rage and glow. The glittering sword is whet, and held over them, and the pit hath opened her mouth under them.” Edwards’s revival spread along the Connecticut River Valley, and news of the event spread rapidly through the frequent reprinting of his famous sermon. The foremost evangelical of the Great Awakening was an Anglican minister named George Whitefield. Like many evangelical ministers, Whitefield was itinerant, traveling the countryside instead of having his own church and congregation. Between 1739 and 1740, he electrified colonial listeners with his brilliant oratory. Two Opposing Views of George Whitefield Not everyone embraced George Whitefield and other New Lights. Many established Old Lights decried the way the new evangelical religions appealed to people’s passions, rather than to traditional religious values. The two illustrations below present two very different visions of George Whitefield (Figure). Compare the two images above. On the left is an illustration for Whitefield’s memoirs, while on the right is a cartoon satirizing the circus-like atmosphere that his preaching seemed to attract (Dr. Squintum was a nickname for Whitefield, who was cross-eyed). How do these two artists portray the same man? What emotions are the illustration for his memoirs intended to evoke? What details can you find in the cartoon that indicate the artist’s distaste for the preacher? The Great Awakening saw the rise of several Protestant denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, and Baptists (who emphasized adult baptism of converted Christians rather than infant baptism). These new churches gained converts and competed with older Protestant groups like Anglicans (members of the Church of England), Congregationalists (the heirs of Puritanism in America), and Quakers. The influence of these older Protestant groups, such as the New England Congregationalists, declined because of the Great Awakening. Nonetheless, the Great Awakening touched the lives of thousands on both sides of the Atlantic and provided a shared experience in the eighteenth-century British Empire. THE ENLIGHTENMENT The Enlightenment, or the Age of Reason, was an intellectual and cultural movement in the eighteenth century that emphasized reason over superstition and science over blind faith. Using the power of the press, Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire questioned accepted knowledge and spread new ideas about openness, investigation, and religious tolerance throughout Europe and the Americas. Many consider the Enlightenment a major turning point in Western civilization, an age of light replacing an age of darkness. Several ideas dominated Enlightenment thought, including rationalism, empiricism, progressivism, and cosmopolitanism. Rationalism is the idea that humans are capable of using their faculty of reason to gain knowledge. This was a sharp turn away from the prevailing idea that people needed to rely on scripture or church authorities for knowledge. Empiricism promotes the idea that knowledge comes from experience and observation of the world. Progressivism is the belief that through their powers of reason and observation, humans could make unlimited, linear progress over time; this belief was especially important as a response to the carnage and upheaval of the English Civil Wars in the seventeenth century. Finally, cosmopolitanism reflected Enlightenment thinkers’ view of themselves as citizens of the world and actively engaged in it, as opposed to being provincial and close-minded. In all, Enlightenment thinkers endeavored to be ruled by reason, not prejudice. The Freemasons were a fraternal society that advocated Enlightenment principles of inquiry and tolerance. Freemasonry originated in London coffeehouses in the early eighteenth century, and Masonic lodges (local units) soon spread throughout Europe and the British colonies. One prominent Freemason, Benjamin Franklin, stands as the embodiment of the Enlightenment in British America (Figure). Born in Boston in 1706 to a large Puritan family, Franklin loved to read, although he found little beyond religious publications in his father’s house. In 1718 he was apprenticed to his brother to work in a print shop, where he learned how to be a good writer by copying the style he found in the Spectator, which his brother printed. At the age of seventeen, the independent-minded Franklin ran away, eventually ending up in Quaker Philadelphia. There he began publishing the Pennsylvania Gazette in the late 1720s, and in 1732 he started his annual publication Poor Richard: An Almanack, in which he gave readers much practical advice, such as “Early to bed, early to rise, makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.” Franklin subscribed to deism, an Enlightenment-era belief in a God who created, but has no continuing involvement in, the world and the events within it. Deists also advanced the belief that personal morality—an individual’s moral compass, leading to good works and actions—is more important than strict church doctrines. Franklin’s deism guided his many philanthropic projects. In 1731, he established a reading library that became the Library Company of Philadelphia. In 1743, he founded the American Philosophical Society to encourage the spirit of inquiry. In 1749, he provided the foundation for the University of Pennsylvania, and in 1751, he helped found Pennsylvania Hospital. His career as a printer made Franklin wealthy and well-respected. When he retired in 1748, he devoted himself to politics and scientific experiments. His most famous work, on electricity, exemplified Enlightenment principles. Franklin observed that lightning strikes tended to hit metal objects and reasoned that he could therefore direct lightning through the placement of metal objects during an electrical storm. He used this knowledge to advocate the use of lightning rods: metal poles connected to wires directing lightning’s electrical charge into the ground and saving wooden homes in cities like Philadelphia from catastrophic fires. He published his findings in 1751, in Experiments and Observations on Electricity. Franklin also wrote of his “rags to riches” tale, his Memoir, in the 1770s and 1780s. This story laid the foundation for the American Dream of upward social mobility. Visit the Worldly Ways section of PBS’s Benjamin Franklin site to see an interactive map showing Franklin’s overseas travels and his influence around the world. His diplomatic, political, scientific, and business achievements had great effects in many countries. THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA The reach of Enlightenment thought was both broad and deep. In the 1730s, it even prompted the founding of a new colony. Having witnessed the terrible conditions of debtors’ prison, as well as the results of releasing penniless debtors onto the streets of London, James Oglethorpe, a member of Parliament and advocate of social reform, petitioned King George II for a charter to start a new colony. George II, understanding the strategic advantage of a British colony standing as a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish Florida, granted the charter to Oglethorpe and twenty like-minded proprietors in 1732. Oglethorpe led the settlement of the colony, which was called Georgia in honor of the king. In 1733, he and 113 immigrants arrived on the ship Anne. Over the next decade, Parliament funded the migration of twenty-five hundred settlers, making Georgia the only government-funded colonial project. Oglethorpe’s vision for Georgia followed the ideals of the Age of Reason, seeing it as a place for England’s “worthy poor” to start anew. To encourage industry, he gave each male immigrant fifty acres of land, tools, and a year’s worth of supplies. In Savannah, the Oglethorpe Plan provided for a utopia: “an agrarian model of sustenance while sustaining egalitarian values holding all men as equal.” Oglethorpe’s vision called for alcohol and slavery to be banned. However, colonists who relocated from other colonies, especially South Carolina, disregarded these prohibitions. Despite its proprietors’ early vision of a colony guided by Enlightenment ideals and free of slavery, by the 1750s, Georgia was producing quantities of rice grown and harvested by slaves. Section Summary The eighteenth century saw a host of social, religious, and intellectual changes across the British Empire. While the Great Awakening emphasized vigorously emotional religiosity, the Enlightenment promoted the power of reason and scientific observation. Both movements had lasting impacts on the colonies. The beliefs of the New Lights of the First Great Awakening competed with the religions of the first colonists, and the religious fervor in Great Britain and her North American colonies bound the eighteenth-century British Atlantic together in a shared, common experience. The British colonist Benjamin Franklin gained fame on both sides of the Atlantic as a printer, publisher, and scientist. He embodied Enlightenment ideals in the British Atlantic with his scientific experiments and philanthropic endeavors. Enlightenment principles even guided the founding of the colony of Georgia, although those principles could not stand up to the realities of colonial life, and slavery soon took hold in the colony. Review Questions What was the First Great Awakening? - a cultural and intellectual movement that emphasized reason and science over superstition and religion - a Protestant revival that emphasized emotional, experiential faith over book learning - a cultural shift that promoted Christianity among slave communities - the birth of an American identity, promoted by Benjamin Franklin Hint: B Which of the following is not a tenet of the Enlightenment? - atheism - empiricism - progressivism - rationalism Hint: A Who were the Freemasons, and why were they significant? Hint: The Freemasons were a fraternal society that originated in London coffeehouses in the early eighteenth century. They advocated Enlightenment principles of inquiry and tolerance. Masonic lodges soon spread throughout Europe and the British colonies, creating a shared experience on both sides of the Atlantic and spreading Enlightenment intellectual currents throughout the British Empire. Benjamin Franklin was a prominent Freemason.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.754515	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15416/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763, Great Awakening and Enlightenment", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15414/overview	The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the causes of the Glorious Revolution - Explain the outcomes of the Glorious Revolution During the brief rule of King James II, many in England feared the imposition of a Catholic absolute monarchy by the man who modeled his rule on that of his French Catholic cousin, Louis XIV. Opposition to James II, spearheaded by the English Whig party, overthrew the king in the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689. This paved the way for the Protestant reign of William of Orange and his wife Mary (James’s Protestant daughter). JAMES II AND THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION King James II (Figure), the second son of Charles I, ascended the English throne in 1685 on the death of his brother, Charles II. James then worked to model his rule on the reign of the French Catholic King Louis XIV, his cousin. This meant centralizing English political strength around the throne, giving the monarchy absolute power. Also like Louis XIV, James II practiced a strict and intolerant form of Roman Catholicism after he converted from Protestantism in the late 1660s. He had a Catholic wife, and when they had a son, the potential for a Catholic heir to the English throne became a threat to English Protestants. James also worked to modernize the English army and navy. The fact that the king kept a standing army in times of peace greatly alarmed the English, who believed that such a force would be used to crush their liberty. As James’s strength grew, his opponents feared their king would turn England into a Catholic monarchy with absolute power over her people. In 1686, James II applied his concept of a centralized state to the colonies by creating an enormous colony called the Dominion of New England. The Dominion included all the New England colonies (Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Plymouth, Connecticut, New Haven, and Rhode Island) and in 1688 was enlarged by the addition of New York and New Jersey. James placed in charge Sir Edmund Andros, a former colonial governor of New York. Loyal to James II and his family, Andros had little sympathy for New Englanders. His regime caused great uneasiness among New England Puritans when it called into question the many land titles that did not acknowledge the king and imposed fees for their reconfirmation. Andros also committed himself to enforcing the Navigation Acts, a move that threatened to disrupt the region’s trade, which was based largely on smuggling. In England, opponents of James II’s efforts to create a centralized Catholic state were known as Whigs. The Whigs worked to depose James, and in late 1688 they succeeded, an event they celebrated as the Glorious Revolution while James fled to the court of Louis XIV in France. William III (William of Orange) and his wife Mary II ascended the throne in 1689. The Glorious Revolution spilled over into the colonies. In 1689, Bostonians overthrew the government of the Dominion of New England and jailed Sir Edmund Andros as well as other leaders of the regime (Figure). The removal of Andros from power illustrates New England’s animosity toward the English overlord who had, during his tenure, established Church of England worship in Puritan Boston and vigorously enforced the Navigation Acts, to the chagrin of those in port towns. In New York, the same year that Andros fell from power, Jacob Leisler led a group of Protestant New Yorkers against the dominion government. Acting on his own authority, Leisler assumed the role of King William’s governor and organized intercolonial military action independent of British authority. Leisler’s actions usurped the crown’s prerogative and, as a result, he was tried for treason and executed. In 1691, England restored control over the Province of New York. The Glorious Revolution provided a shared experience for those who lived through the tumult of 1688 and 1689. Subsequent generations kept the memory of the Glorious Revolution alive as a heroic defense of English liberty against a would-be tyrant. ENGLISH LIBERTY The Glorious Revolution led to the establishment of an English nation that limited the power of the king and provided protections for English subjects. In October 1689, the same year that William and Mary took the throne, the 1689 Bill of Rights established a constitutional monarchy. It stipulated Parliament’s independence from the monarchy and protected certain of Parliament’s rights, such as the right to freedom of speech, the right to regular elections, and the right to petition the king. The 1689 Bill of Rights also guaranteed certain rights to all English subjects, including trial by jury and habeas corpus (the requirement that authorities bring an imprisoned person before a court to demonstrate the cause of the imprisonment). John Locke (1632–1704), a doctor and educator who had lived in exile in Holland during the reign of James II and returned to England after the Glorious Revolution, published his Two Treatises of Government in 1690. In it, he argued that government was a form of contract between the leaders and the people, and that representative government existed to protect “life, liberty and property.” Locke rejected the divine right of kings and instead advocated for the central role of Parliament with a limited monarchy. Locke’s political philosophy had an enormous impact on future generations of colonists and established the paramount importance of representation in government. Visit the Digital Locke Project to read more of John Locke’s writings. This digital collection contains over thirty of his philosophical texts. The Glorious Revolution also led to the English Toleration Act of 1689, a law passed by Parliament that allowed for greater religious diversity in the Empire. This act granted religious tolerance to nonconformist Trinitarian Protestants (those who believed in the Holy Trinity of God the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost), such as Baptists (those who advocated adult baptism) and Congregationalists (those who followed the Puritans’ lead in creating independent churches). While the Church of England remained the official state religious establishment, the Toleration Act gave much greater religious freedom to nonconformists. However, this tolerance did not extend to Catholics, who were routinely excluded from political power. The 1689 Toleration Act extended to the British colonies, where several colonies—Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Delaware, and New Jersey—refused to allow the creation of an established colonial church, a major step toward greater religious diversity. Section Summary The threat of a Catholic absolute monarchy prompted not only the overthrow of James II but also the adoption of laws and policies that changed English government. The Glorious Revolution restored a Protestant monarchy and at the same time limited its power by means of the 1689 Bill of Rights. Those who lived through the events preserved the memory of the Glorious Revolution and the defense of liberty that it represented. Meanwhile, thinkers such as John Locke provided new models and inspirations for the evolving concept of government. Review Questions Which of the following represents a concern that those in England and her colonies maintained about James II? - that he would promote the spread of Protestantism - that he would reduce the size of the British army and navy, leaving England and her colonies vulnerable to attack - that he would advocate for Parliament’s independence from the monarchy - that he would institute a Catholic absolute monarchy Hint: D What was the Dominion of New England? - James II’s overthrow of the New England colonial governments - the consolidated New England colony James II created - Governor Edmund Andros’s colonial government in New York - the excise taxes New England colonists had to pay to James II Hint: B What was the outcome of the Glorious Revolution? Hint: James II was overthrown, and William III and Mary II took his place. The 1689 Bill of Rights limited the future power of the monarchy and outlined the rights of Parliament and Englishmen. In Massachusetts, Bostonians overthrew royal governor Edmund Andros.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.778640	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15414/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763, The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15434/overview	Introduction Overview - Competing Visions: Federalists and Democratic-Republicans - The New American Republic - Partisan Politics - The United States Goes Back to War The partisan political cartoon above (Figure) lampoons Thomas Jefferson’s 1807 Embargo Act, a move that had a devastating effect on American commerce. American farmers and merchants complain to President Jefferson, while the French emperor Napoleon Bonaparte whispers to him, “You shall be King hereafter.” This image illustrates one of many political struggles in the years after the fight for ratification of the Constitution. In the nation’s first few years, no organized political parties existed. This began to change as U.S. citizens argued bitterly about the proper size and scope of the new national government. As a result, the 1790s witnessed the rise of opposing political parties: the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans. Federalists saw unchecked democracy as a dire threat to the republic, and they pointed to the excesses of the French Revolution as proof of what awaited. Democratic-Republicans opposed the Federalists’ notion that only the wellborn and well educated were able to oversee the republic; they saw it as a pathway to oppression by an aristocracy.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.793972	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15434/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Growing Pains: The New Republic, 1790–1820, Introduction", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15422/overview	The Destruction of the Tea and the Coercive Acts Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe the socio-political environment in the colonies in the early 1770s - Explain the purpose of the Tea Act of 1773 and discuss colonial reactions to it - Identify and describe the Coercive Acts The Tea Act of 1773 triggered a reaction with far more significant consequences than either the 1765 Stamp Act or the 1767 Townshend Acts. Colonists who had joined in protest against those earlier acts renewed their efforts in 1773. They understood that Parliament had again asserted its right to impose taxes without representation, and they feared the Tea Act was designed to seduce them into conceding this important principle by lowering the price of tea to the point that colonists might abandon their scruples. They also deeply resented the East India Company’s monopoly on the sale of tea in the American colonies; this resentment sprang from the knowledge that some members of Parliament had invested heavily in the company. SMOLDERING RESENTMENT Even after the partial repeal of the Townshend duties, however, suspicion of Parliament’s intentions remained high. This was especially true in port cities like Boston and New York, where British customs agents were a daily irritant and reminder of British power. In public houses and squares, people met and discussed politics. Philosopher John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government, published almost a century earlier, influenced political thought about the role of government to protect life, liberty, and property. The Sons of Liberty issued propaganda ensuring that colonists remained aware when Parliament overreached itself. Violence continued to break out on occasion, as in 1772, when Rhode Island colonists boarded and burned the British revenue ship Gaspée in Narragansett Bay (Figure). Colonists had attacked or burned British customs ships in the past, but after the Gaspée Affair, the British government convened a Royal Commission of Inquiry. This Commission had the authority to remove the colonists, who were charged with treason, to Great Britain for trial. Some colonial protestors saw this new ability as another example of the overreach of British power. Samuel Adams, along with Joseph Warren and James Otis, re-formed the Boston Committee of Correspondence, which functioned as a form of shadow government, to address the fear of British overreach. Soon towns all over Massachusetts had formed their own committees, and many other colonies followed suit. These committees, which had between seven and eight thousand members in all, identified enemies of the movement and communicated the news of the day. Sometimes they provided a version of events that differed from royal interpretations, and slowly, the committees began to supplant royal governments as sources of information. They later formed the backbone of communication among the colonies in the rebellion against the Tea Act, and eventually in the revolt against the British crown. THE TEA ACT OF 1773 Parliament did not enact the Tea Act of 1773 in order to punish the colonists, assert parliamentary power, or even raise revenues. Rather, the act was a straightforward order of economic protectionism for a British tea firm, the East India Company, that was on the verge of bankruptcy. In the colonies, tea was the one remaining consumer good subject to the hated Townshend duties. Protest leaders and their followers still avoided British tea, drinking smuggled Dutch tea as a sign of patriotism. The Tea Act of 1773 gave the British East India Company the ability to export its tea directly to the colonies without paying import or export duties and without using middlemen in either Great Britain or the colonies. Even with the Townshend tax, the act would allow the East India Company to sell its tea at lower prices than the smuggled Dutch tea, thus undercutting the smuggling trade. This act was unwelcome to those in British North America who had grown displeased with the pattern of imperial measures. By granting a monopoly to the East India Company, the act not only cut out colonial merchants who would otherwise sell the tea themselves; it also reduced their profits from smuggled foreign tea. These merchants were among the most powerful and influential people in the colonies, so their dissatisfaction carried some weight. Moreover, because the tea tax that the Townshend Acts imposed remained in place, tea had intense power to symbolize the idea of “no taxation without representation.” COLONIAL PROTEST: THE DESTRUCTION OF THE TEA The 1773 act reignited the worst fears among the colonists. To the Sons and Daughters of Liberty and those who followed them, the act appeared to be proof positive that a handful of corrupt members of Parliament were violating the British Constitution. Veterans of the protest movement had grown accustomed to interpreting British actions in the worst possible light, so the 1773 act appeared to be part of a large conspiracy against liberty. As they had done to protest earlier acts and taxes, colonists responded to the Tea Act with a boycott. The Committees of Correspondence helped to coordinate resistance in all of the colonial port cities, so up and down the East Coast, British tea-carrying ships were unable to come to shore and unload their wares. In Charlestown, Boston, Philadelphia, and New York, the equivalent of millions of dollars’ worth of tea was held hostage, either locked in storage warehouses or rotting in the holds of ships as they were forced to sail back to Great Britain. In Boston, Thomas Hutchinson, now the royal governor of Massachusetts, vowed that radicals like Samuel Adams would not keep the ships from unloading their cargo. He urged the merchants who would have accepted the tea from the ships to stand their ground and receive the tea once it had been unloaded. When the Dartmouth sailed into Boston Harbor in November 1773, it had twenty days to unload its cargo of tea and pay the duty before it had to return to Great Britain. Two more ships, the Eleanor and the Beaver, followed soon after. Samuel Adams and the Sons of Liberty tried to keep the captains of the ships from paying the duties and posted groups around the ships to make sure the tea would not be unloaded. On December 16, just as the Dartmouth’s deadline approached, townspeople gathered at the Old South Meeting House determined to take action. From this gathering, a group of Sons of Liberty and their followers approached the three ships. Some were disguised as Mohawks. Protected by a crowd of spectators, they systematically dumped all the tea into the harbor, destroying goods worth almost $1 million in today’s dollars, a very significant loss. This act soon inspired further acts of resistance up and down the East Coast. However, not all colonists, and not even all Patriots, supported the dumping of the tea. The wholesale destruction of property shocked people on both sides of the Atlantic. To learn more about the Boston Tea Party, explore the extensive resources in the Boston Tea Party Ships and Museum collection of articles, photos, and video. At the museum itself, you can board replicas of the Eleanor and the Beaver and experience a recreation of the dumping of the tea. PARLIAMENT RESPONDS: THE COERCIVE ACTS In London, response to the destruction of the tea was swift and strong. The violent destruction of property infuriated King George III and the prime minister, Lord North (Figure), who insisted the loss be repaid. Though some American merchants put forward a proposal for restitution, the Massachusetts Assembly refused to make payments. Massachusetts’s resistance to British authority united different factions in Great Britain against the colonies. North had lost patience with the unruly British subjects in Boston. He declared: “The Americans have tarred and feathered your subjects, plundered your merchants, burnt your ships, denied all obedience to your laws and authority; yet so clement and so long forbearing has our conduct been that it is incumbent on us now to take a different course. Whatever may be the consequences, we must risk something; if we do not, all is over.” Both Parliament and the king agreed that Massachusetts should be forced to both pay for the tea and yield to British authority. In early 1774, leaders in Parliament responded with a set of four measures designed to punish Massachusetts, commonly known at the Coercive Acts. The Boston Port Bill shut down Boston Harbor until the East India Company was repaid. The Massachusetts Government Act placed the colonial government under the direct control of crown officials and made traditional town meetings subject to the governor’s approval. The Administration of Justice Act allowed the royal governor to unilaterally move any trial of a crown officer out of Massachusetts, a change designed to prevent hostile Massachusetts juries from deciding these cases. This act was especially infuriating to John Adams and others who emphasized the time-honored rule of law. They saw this part of the Coercive Acts as striking at the heart of fair and equitable justice. Finally, the Quartering Act encompassed all the colonies and allowed British troops to be housed in occupied buildings. At the same time, Parliament also passed the Quebec Act, which expanded the boundaries of Quebec westward and extended religious tolerance to Roman Catholics in the province. For many Protestant colonists, especially Congregationalists in New England, this forced tolerance of Catholicism was the most objectionable provision of the act. Additionally, expanding the boundaries of Quebec raised troubling questions for many colonists who eyed the West, hoping to expand the boundaries of their provinces. The Quebec Act appeared gratuitous, a slap in the face to colonists already angered by the Coercive Acts. American Patriots renamed the Coercive and Quebec measures the Intolerable Acts. Some in London also thought the acts went too far; see the cartoon “The Able Doctor, or America Swallowing the Bitter Draught” (Figure) for one British view of what Parliament was doing to the colonies. Meanwhile, punishments designed to hurt only one colony (Massachusetts, in this case) had the effect of mobilizing all the colonies to its side. The Committees of Correspondence had already been active in coordinating an approach to the Tea Act. Now the talk would turn to these new, intolerable assaults on the colonists’ rights as British subjects. Section Summary The colonial rejection of the Tea Act, especially the destruction of the tea in Boston Harbor, recast the decade-long argument between British colonists and the home government as an intolerable conspiracy against liberty and an excessive overreach of parliamentary power. The Coercive Acts were punitive in nature, awakening the worst fears of otherwise loyal members of the British Empire in America. Review Questions Which of the following is true of the Gaspée affair? - Colonists believed that the British response represented an overreach of power. - It was the first time colonists attacked a revenue ship. - It was the occasion of the first official death in the war for independence. - The ship’s owner, John Hancock, was a respectable Boston merchant. Hint: A What was the purpose of the Tea Act of 1773? - to punish the colonists for their boycotting of British tea - to raise revenue to offset the British national debt - to help revive the struggling East India Company - to pay the salaries of royal appointees Hint: C What was the significance of the Committees of Correspondence? Hint: The Committees of Correspondence provided a crucial means of communication among the colonies. They also set the foundation for a colonial government by breaking away from royal governmental structures. Finally, they promoted a sense of colonial unity.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.819979	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15422/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Imperial Reforms and Colonial Protests, 1763-1774, The Destruction of the Tea and the Coercive Acts", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15411/overview	The Impact of Colonization Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the reasons for the rise of slavery in the American colonies - Describe changes to Indian life, including warfare and hunting - Contrast European and Indian views on property - Assess the impact of European settlement on the environment As Europeans moved beyond exploration and into colonization of the Americas, they brought changes to virtually every aspect of the land and its people, from trade and hunting to warfare and personal property. European goods, ideas, and diseases shaped the changing continent. As Europeans established their colonies, their societies also became segmented and divided along religious and racial lines. Most people in these societies were not free; they labored as servants or slaves, doing the work required to produce wealth for others. By 1700, the American continent had become a place of stark contrasts between slavery and freedom, between the haves and the have-nots. THE INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY Everywhere in the American colonies, a crushing demand for labor existed to grow New World cash crops, especially sugar and tobacco. This need led Europeans to rely increasingly on Africans, and after 1600, the movement of Africans across the Atlantic accelerated. The English crown chartered the Royal African Company in 1672, giving the company a monopoly over the transport of African slaves to the English colonies. Over the next four decades, the company transported around 350,000 Africans from their homelands. By 1700, the tiny English sugar island of Barbados had a population of fifty thousand slaves, and the English had encoded the institution of chattel slavery into colonial law. This new system of African slavery came slowly to the English colonists, who did not have slavery at home and preferred to use servant labor. Nevertheless, by the end of the seventeenth century, the English everywhere in America—and particularly in the Chesapeake Bay colonies—had come to rely on African slaves. While Africans had long practiced slavery among their own people, it had not been based on race. Africans enslaved other Africans as war captives, for crimes, and to settle debts; they generally used their slaves for domestic and small-scale agricultural work, not for growing cash crops on large plantations. Additionally, African slavery was often a temporary condition rather than a lifelong sentence, and, unlike New World slavery, it was typically not heritable (passed from a slave mother to her children). The growing slave trade with Europeans had a profound impact on the people of West Africa, giving prominence to local chieftains and merchants who traded slaves for European textiles, alcohol, guns, tobacco, and food. Africans also charged Europeans for the right to trade in slaves and imposed taxes on slave purchases. Different African groups and kingdoms even staged large-scale raids on each other to meet the demand for slaves. Once sold to traders, all slaves sent to America endured the hellish Middle Passage, the transatlantic crossing, which took one to two months. By 1625, more than 325,800 Africans had been shipped to the New World, though many thousands perished during the voyage. An astonishing number, some four million, were transported to the Caribbean between 1501 and 1830. When they reached their destination in America, Africans found themselves trapped in shockingly brutal slave societies. In the Chesapeake colonies, they faced a lifetime of harvesting and processing tobacco. Everywhere, Africans resisted slavery, and running away was common. In Jamaica and elsewhere, runaway slaves created maroon communities, groups that resisted recapture and eked a living from the land, rebuilding their communities as best they could. When possible, they adhered to traditional ways, following spiritual leaders such as Vodun priests. CHANGES TO INDIAN LIFE While the Americas remained firmly under the control of native peoples in the first decades of European settlement, conflict increased as colonization spread and Europeans placed greater demands upon the native populations, including expecting them to convert to Christianity (either Catholicism or Protestantism). Throughout the seventeenth century, the still-powerful native peoples and confederacies that retained control of the land waged war against the invading Europeans, achieving a degree of success in their effort to drive the newcomers from the continent. At the same time, European goods had begun to change Indian life radically. In the 1500s, some of the earliest objects Europeans introduced to Indians were glass beads, copper kettles, and metal utensils. Native people often adapted these items for their own use. For example, some cut up copper kettles and refashioned the metal for other uses, including jewelry that conferred status on the wearer, who was seen as connected to the new European source of raw materials. As European settlements grew throughout the 1600s, European goods flooded native communities. Soon native people were using these items for the same purposes as the Europeans. For example, many native inhabitants abandoned their animal-skin clothing in favor of European textiles. Similarly, clay cookware gave way to metal cooking implements, and Indians found that European flint and steel made starting fires much easier (Figure). The abundance of European goods gave rise to new artistic objects. For example, iron awls made the creation of shell beads among the native people of the Eastern Woodlands much easier, and the result was an astonishing increase in the production of wampum, shell beads used in ceremonies and as jewelry and currency. Native peoples had always placed goods in the graves of their departed, and this practice escalated with the arrival of European goods. Archaeologists have found enormous caches of European trade goods in the graves of Indians on the East Coast. Native weapons changed dramatically as well, creating an arms race among the peoples living in European colonization zones. Indians refashioned European brassware into arrow points and turned axes used for chopping wood into weapons. The most prized piece of European weaponry to obtain was a musket, or light, long-barreled European gun. In order to trade with Europeans for these, native peoples intensified their harvesting of beaver, commercializing their traditional practice. The influx of European materials made warfare more lethal and changed traditional patterns of authority among tribes. Formerly weaker groups, if they had access to European metal and weapons, suddenly gained the upper hand against once-dominant groups. The Algonquian, for instance, traded with the French for muskets and gained power against their enemies, the Iroquois. Eventually, native peoples also used their new weapons against the European colonizers who had provided them. Explore the complexity of Indian-European relationships in the series of primary source documents on the National Humanities Center site. ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES The European presence in America spurred countless changes in the environment, setting into motion chains of events that affected native animals as well as people. The popularity of beaver-trimmed hats in Europe, coupled with Indians’ desire for European weapons, led to the overhunting of beaver in the Northeast. Soon, beavers were extinct in New England, New York, and other areas. With their loss came the loss of beaver ponds, which had served as habitats for fish as well as water sources for deer, moose, and other animals. Furthermore, Europeans introduced pigs, which they allowed to forage in forests and other wildlands. Pigs consumed the foods on which deer and other indigenous species depended, resulting in scarcity of the game native peoples had traditionally hunted. European ideas about owning land as private property clashed with natives’ understanding of land use. Native peoples did not believe in private ownership of land; instead, they viewed land as a resource to be held in common for the benefit of the group. The European idea of usufruct—the right to common land use and enjoyment—comes close to the native understanding, but colonists did not practice usufruct widely in America. Colonizers established fields, fences, and other means of demarcating private property. Native peoples who moved seasonally to take advantage of natural resources now found areas off limits, claimed by colonizers because of their insistence on private-property rights. The Introduction of Disease Perhaps European colonization’s single greatest impact on the North American environment was the introduction of disease. Microbes to which native inhabitants had no immunity led to death everywhere Europeans settled. Along the New England coast between 1616 and 1618, epidemics claimed the lives of 75 percent of the native people. In the 1630s, half the Huron and Iroquois around the Great Lakes died of smallpox. As is often the case with disease, the very young and the very old were the most vulnerable and had the highest mortality rates. The loss of the older generation meant the loss of knowledge and tradition, while the death of children only compounded the trauma, creating devastating implications for future generations. Some native peoples perceived disease as a weapon used by hostile spiritual forces, and they went to war to exorcise the disease from their midst. These “mourning wars” in eastern North America were designed to gain captives who would either be adopted (“requickened” as a replacement for a deceased loved one) or ritually tortured and executed to assuage the anger and grief caused by loss. The Cultivation of Plants European expansion in the Americas led to an unprecedented movement of plants across the Atlantic. A prime example is tobacco, which became a valuable export as the habit of smoking, previously unknown in Europe, took hold (Figure). Another example is sugar. Columbus brought sugarcane to the Caribbean on his second voyage in 1494, and thereafter a wide variety of other herbs, flowers, seeds, and roots made the transatlantic voyage. Just as pharmaceutical companies today scour the natural world for new drugs, Europeans traveled to America to discover new medicines. The task of cataloging the new plants found there helped give birth to the science of botany. Early botanists included the English naturalist Sir Hans Sloane, who traveled to Jamaica in 1687 and there recorded hundreds of new plants (Figure). Sloane also helped popularize the drinking of chocolate, made from the cacao bean, in England. Indians, who possessed a vast understanding of local New World plants and their properties, would have been a rich source of information for those European botanists seeking to find and catalog potentially useful plants. Enslaved Africans, who had a tradition of the use of medicinal plants in their native land, adapted to their new surroundings by learning the use of New World plants through experimentation or from the native inhabitants. Native peoples and Africans employed their knowledge effectively within their own communities. One notable example was the use of the peacock flower to induce abortions: Indian and enslaved African women living in oppressive colonial regimes are said to have used this herb to prevent the birth of children into slavery. Europeans distrusted medical knowledge that came from African or native sources, however, and thus lost the benefit of this source of information. Section Summary The development of the Atlantic slave trade forever changed the course of European settlement in the Americas. Other transatlantic travelers, including diseases, goods, plants, animals, and even ideas like the concept of private land ownership, further influenced life in America during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The exchange of pelts for European goods including copper kettles, knives, and guns played a significant role in changing the material cultures of native peoples. During the seventeenth century, native peoples grew increasingly dependent on European trade items. At the same time, many native inhabitants died of European diseases, while survivors adopted new ways of living with their new neighbors. Review Questions What was the Middle Passage? - the fabled sea route from Europe to the Far East - the land route from Europe to Africa - the transatlantic journey that African slaves made to America - the line between the northern and southern colonies Hint: C Which of the following is not an item Europeans introduced to Indians? - wampum - glass beads - copper kettles - metal tools Hint: A How did European muskets change life for native peoples in the Americas? Hint: European guns started an arms race among Indian groups. Tribes with ties to Europeans had a distinct advantage in wars with other tribes because muskets were so much more effective than bows and arrows. Guns changed the balance of power among different groups and tribes and made combat more deadly. Compare and contrast European and Indian views on property. Hint: Indians didn’t have any concept of owning personal property and believed that land should be held in common, for use by a group. They used land as they needed, often moving from area to area to follow food sources at different times of year. Europeans saw land as something individuals could own, and they used fences and other markers to define their property. Critical Thinking Questions Compare and contrast life in the Spanish, French, Dutch, and English colonies, differentiating between the Chesapeake Bay and New England colonies. Who were the colonizers? What were their purposes in being there? How did they interact with their environments and the native inhabitants of the lands on which they settled? Describe the attempts of the various European colonists to convert native peoples to their belief systems. How did these attempts compare to one another? What were the results of each effort? How did chattel slavery differ from indentured servitude? How did the former system come to replace the latter? What were the results of this shift? What impact did Europeans have on their New World environments—native peoples and their communities as well as land, plants, and animals? Conversely, what impact did the New World’s native inhabitants, land, plants, and animals have on Europeans? How did the interaction of European and Indian societies, together, shape a world that was truly “new”?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.850355	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15411/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700, The Impact of Colonization", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15408/overview	Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify the main Spanish American colonial settlements of the 1500s and 1600s - Discuss economic, political, and demographic similarities and differences between the Spanish colonies During the 1500s, Spain expanded its colonial empire to the Philippines in the Far East and to areas in the Americas that later became the United States. The Spanish dreamed of mountains of gold and silver and imagined converting thousands of eager Indians to Catholicism. In their vision of colonial society, everyone would know his or her place. Patriarchy (the rule of men over family, society, and government) shaped the Spanish colonial world. Women occupied a lower status. In all matters, the Spanish held themselves to be atop the social pyramid, with native peoples and Africans beneath them. Both Africans and native peoples, however, contested Spanish claims to dominance. Everywhere the Spanish settled, they brought devastating diseases, such as smallpox, that led to a horrific loss of life among native peoples. European diseases killed far more native inhabitants than did Spanish swords. The world native peoples had known before the coming of the Spanish was further upset by Spanish colonial practices. The Spanish imposed the encomienda system in the areas they controlled. Under this system, authorities assigned Indian workers to mine and plantation owners with the understanding that the recipients would defend the colony and teach the workers the tenets of Christianity. In reality, the encomienda system exploited native workers. It was eventually replaced by another colonial labor system, the repartimiento, which required Indian towns to supply a pool of labor for Spanish overlords. ST. AUGUSTINE, FLORIDA Spain gained a foothold in present-day Florida, viewing that area and the lands to the north as a logical extension of their Caribbean empire. In 1513, Juan Ponce de León had claimed the area around today’s St. Augustine for the Spanish crown, naming the land Pascua Florida (Feast of Flowers, or Easter) for the nearest feast day. Ponce de León was unable to establish a permanent settlement there, but by 1565, Spain was in need of an outpost to confront the French and English privateers using Florida as a base from which to attack treasure-laden Spanish ships heading from Cuba to Spain. The threat to Spanish interests took a new turn in 1562 when a group of French Protestants (Huguenots) established a small settlement they called Fort Caroline, north of St. Augustine. With the authorization of King Philip II, Spanish nobleman Pedro Menéndez led an attack on Fort Caroline, killing most of the colonists and destroying the fort. Eliminating Fort Caroline served dual purposes for the Spanish—it helped reduce the danger from French privateers and eradicated the French threat to Spain’s claim to the area. The contest over Florida illustrates how European rivalries spilled over into the Americas, especially religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants. In 1565, the victorious Menéndez founded St. Augustine, now the oldest European settlement in the Americas. In the process, the Spanish displaced the local Timucua Indians from their ancient town of Seloy, which had stood for thousands of years (Figure). The Timucua suffered greatly from diseases introduced by the Spanish, shrinking from a population of around 200,000 pre-contact to fifty thousand in 1590. By 1700, only one thousand Timucua remained. As in other areas of Spanish conquest, Catholic priests worked to bring about a spiritual conquest by forcing the surviving Timucua, demoralized and reeling from catastrophic losses of family and community, to convert to Catholicism. Spanish Florida made an inviting target for Spain’s imperial rivals, especially the English, who wanted to gain access to the Caribbean. In 1586, Spanish settlers in St. Augustine discovered their vulnerability to attack when the English pirate Sir Francis Drake destroyed the town with a fleet of twenty ships and one hundred men. Over the next several decades, the Spanish built more wooden forts, all of which were burnt by raiding European rivals. Between 1672 and 1695, the Spanish constructed a stone fort, Castillo de San Marcos (Figure), to better defend St. Augustine against challengers. Browse the National Park Service’s multimedia resources on Castillo de San Marcos to see how the fort and gates have looked throughout history. SANTA FE, NEW MEXICO Further west, the Spanish in Mexico, intent on expanding their empire, looked north to the land of the Pueblo Indians. Under orders from King Philip II, Juan de Oñate explored the American southwest for Spain in the late 1590s. The Spanish hoped that what we know as New Mexico would yield gold and silver, but the land produced little of value to them. In 1610, Spanish settlers established themselves at Santa Fe—originally named La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís, or “Royal City of the Holy Faith of St. Francis of Assisi”—where many Pueblo villages were located. Santa Fe became the capital of the Kingdom of New Mexico, an outpost of the larger Spanish Viceroyalty of New Spain, which had its headquarters in Mexico City. As they had in other Spanish colonies, Franciscan missionaries labored to bring about a spiritual conquest by converting the Pueblo to Catholicism. At first, the Pueblo adopted the parts of Catholicism that dovetailed with their own long-standing view of the world. However, Spanish priests insisted that natives discard their old ways entirely and angered the Pueblo by focusing on the young, drawing them away from their parents. This deep insult, combined with an extended period of drought and increased attacks by local Apache and Navajo in the 1670s—troubles that the Pueblo came to believe were linked to the Spanish presence—moved the Pueblo to push the Spanish and their religion from the area. Pueblo leader Popé demanded a return to native ways so the hardships his people faced would end. To him and to thousands of others, it seemed obvious that “when Jesus came, the Corn Mothers went away.” The expulsion of the Spanish would bring a return to prosperity and a pure, native way of life. In 1680, the Pueblo launched a coordinated rebellion against the Spanish. The Pueblo Revolt killed over four hundred Spaniards and drove the rest of the settlers, perhaps as many as two thousand, south toward Mexico. However, as droughts and attacks by rival tribes continued, the Spanish sensed an opportunity to regain their foothold. In 1692, they returned and reasserted their control of the area. Some of the Spanish explained the Pueblo success in 1680 as the work of the Devil. Satan, they believed, had stirred up the Pueblo to take arms against God’s chosen people—the Spanish—but the Spanish, and their God, had prevailed in the end. Section Summary In their outposts at St. Augustine and Santa Fe, the Spanish never found the fabled mountains of gold they sought. They did find many native people to convert to Catholicism, but their zeal nearly cost them the colony of Santa Fe, which they lost for twelve years after the Pueblo Revolt. In truth, the grand dreams of wealth, conversion, and a social order based on Spanish control never came to pass as Spain envisioned them. Review Questions Which of the following was a goal of the Spanish in their destruction of Fort Caroline? - establishing a foothold from which to battle the Timucua - claiming a safe place to house the New World treasures that would be shipped back to Spain - reducing the threat of French privateers - locating a site for the establishment of Santa Fe Hint: C Why did the Spanish build Castillo de San Marcos? - to protect the local Timucua - to defend against imperial challengers - as a seat for visiting Spanish royalty - to house visiting delegates from rival imperial powers Hint: B How did the Pueblo attempt to maintain their autonomy in the face of Spanish settlement? Hint: As the Spanish tried to convert the Pueblo to Catholicism, the native people tried to fold Christian traditions into their own practices. This was unacceptable to the Spanish, who insisted on complete conversion—especially of the young, whom they took away from their families and tribes. When adaptation failed, native peoples attempted to maintain their autonomy through outright revolt, as with the Pueblo Revolt of 1680. This revolt was successful, and for almost twelve years the Pueblos’ lives returned to normalcy. Their autonomy was short-lived, however, as the Spanish took advantage of continued attacks by the Pueblos’ enemies to reestablish control of the region.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.874497	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15408/overview", "title": "U.S. History, Creating New Social Orders: Colonial Societies, 1500–1700, Spanish Exploration and Colonial Society", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15426/overview	The Early Years of the Revolution Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the British and American strategies of 1776 through 1778 - Identify the key battles of the early years of the Revolution After the British quit Boston, they slowly adopted a strategy to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies and force the insurgents in that region into submission, believing that doing so would end the conflict. At first, British forces focused on taking the principal colonial centers. They began by easily capturing New York City in 1776. The following year, they took over the American capital of Philadelphia. The larger British effort to isolate New England was implemented in 1777. That effort ultimately failed when the British surrendered a force of over five thousand to the Americans in the fall of 1777 at the Battle of Saratoga. The major campaigns over the next several years took place in the middle colonies of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, whose populations were sharply divided between Loyalists and Patriots. Revolutionaries faced many hardships as British superiority on the battlefield became evident and the difficulty of funding the war caused strains. THE BRITISH STRATEGY IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES After evacuating Boston in March 1776, British forces sailed to Nova Scotia to regroup. They devised a strategy, successfully implemented in 1776, to take New York City. The following year, they planned to end the rebellion by cutting New England off from the rest of the colonies and starving it into submission. Three British armies were to move simultaneously from New York City, Montreal, and Fort Oswego to converge along the Hudson River; British control of that natural boundary would isolate New England. General William Howe (Figure), commander in chief of the British forces in America, amassed thirty-two thousand troops on Staten Island in June and July 1776. His brother, Admiral Richard Howe, controlled New York Harbor. Command of New York City and the Hudson River was their goal. In August 1776, General Howe landed his forces on Long Island and easily routed the American Continental Army there in the Battle of Long Island (August 27). The Americans were outnumbered and lacked both military experience and discipline. Sensing victory, General and Admiral Howe arranged a peace conference in September 1776, where Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and South Carolinian John Rutledge represented the Continental Congress. Despite the Howes’ hopes, however, the Americans demanded recognition of their independence, which the Howes were not authorized to grant, and the conference disbanded. On September 16, 1776, George Washington’s forces held up against the British at the Battle of Harlem Heights. This important American military achievement, a key reversal after the disaster on Long Island, occurred as most of Washington’s forces retreated to New Jersey. A few weeks later, on October 28, General Howe’s forces defeated Washington’s at the Battle of White Plains and New York City fell to the British. For the next seven years, the British made the city the headquarters for their military efforts to defeat the rebellion, which included raids on surrounding areas. In 1777, the British burned Danbury, Connecticut, and in July 1779, they set fire to homes in Fairfield and Norwalk. They held American prisoners aboard ships in the waters around New York City; the death toll was shocking, with thousands perishing in the holds. Meanwhile, New York City served as a haven for Loyalists who disagreed with the effort to break away from the Empire and establish an American republic. GEORGE WASHINGTON AND THE CONTINENTAL ARMY When the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775, members approved the creation of a professional Continental Army with Washington as commander in chief (Figure). Although sixteen thousand volunteers enlisted, it took several years for the Continental Army to become a truly professional force. In 1775 and 1776, militias still composed the bulk of the Patriots’ armed forces, and these soldiers returned home after the summer fighting season, drastically reducing the army’s strength. That changed in late 1776 and early 1777, when Washington broke with conventional eighteenth-century military tactics that called for fighting in the summer months only. Intent on raising revolutionary morale after the British captured New York City, he launched surprise strikes against British forces in their winter quarters. In Trenton, New Jersey, he led his soldiers across the Delaware River and surprised an encampment of Hessians, German mercenaries hired by Great Britain to put down the American rebellion. Beginning the night of December 25, 1776, and continuing into the early hours of December 26, Washington moved on Trenton where the Hessians were encamped. Maintaining the element of surprise by attacking at Christmastime, he defeated them, taking over nine hundred captive. On January 3, 1777, Washington achieved another much-needed victory at the Battle of Princeton. He again broke with eighteenth-century military protocol by attacking unexpectedly after the fighting season had ended. Thomas Paine on “The American Crisis” During the American Revolution, following the publication of Common Sense in January 1776, Thomas Paine began a series of sixteen pamphlets known collectively as The American Crisis (Figure). He wrote the first volume in 1776, describing the dire situation facing the revolutionaries at the end of that hard year. These are the times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. . . . Britain, with an army to enforce her tyranny, has declared that she has a right (not only to tax) but “to bind us in all cases whatsoever,” and if being bound in that manner, is not slavery, then is there not such a thing as slavery upon earth. Even the expression is impious; for so unlimited a power can belong only to God. . . . I shall conclude this paper with some miscellaneous remarks on the state of our affairs; and shall begin with asking the following question, Why is it that the enemy have left the New England provinces, and made these middle ones the seat of war? The answer is easy: New England is not infested with Tories, and we are. I have been tender in raising the cry against these men, and used numberless arguments to show them their danger, but it will not do to sacrifice a world either to their folly or their baseness. The period is now arrived, in which either they or we must change our sentiments, or one or both must fall. . . . By perseverance and fortitude we have the prospect of a glorious issue; by cowardice and submission, the sad choice of a variety of evils—a ravaged country—a depopulated city—habitations without safety, and slavery without hope—our homes turned into barracks and bawdy-houses for Hessians, and a future race to provide for, whose fathers we shall doubt of. Look on this picture and weep over it! and if there yet remains one thoughtless wretch who believes it not, let him suffer it unlamented. —Thomas Paine, “The American Crisis,” December 23, 1776 What topics does Paine address in this pamphlet? What was his purpose in writing? What does he write about Tories (Loyalists), and why does he consider them a problem? Visit Wikisource to read the rest of Thomas Paine’s first American Crisis pamphlet, as well as the other fifteen in the series. PHILADELPHIA AND SARATOGA: BRITISH AND AMERICAN VICTORIES In August 1777, General Howe brought fifteen thousand British troops to Chesapeake Bay as part of his plan to take Philadelphia, where the Continental Congress met. That fall, the British defeated Washington’s soldiers in the Battle of Brandywine Creek and took control of Philadelphia, forcing the Continental Congress to flee. During the winter of 1777–1778, the British occupied the city, and Washington’s army camped at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. Washington’s winter at Valley Forge was a low point for the American forces. A lack of supplies weakened the men, and disease took a heavy toll. Amid the cold, hunger, and sickness, soldiers deserted in droves. On February 16, Washington wrote to George Clinton, governor of New York: “For some days past, there has been little less than a famine in camp. A part of the army has been a week without any kind of flesh & the rest three or four days. Naked and starving as they are, we cannot enough admire the incomparable patience and fidelity of the soldiery, that they have not been ere [before] this excited by their sufferings to a general mutiny and dispersion.” Of eleven thousand soldiers encamped at Valley Forge, twenty-five hundred died of starvation, malnutrition, and disease. As Washington feared, nearly one hundred soldiers deserted every week. (Desertions continued, and by 1780, Washington was executing recaptured deserters every Saturday.) The low morale extended all the way to Congress, where some wanted to replace Washington with a more seasoned leader. Assistance came to Washington and his soldiers in February 1778 in the form of the Prussian soldier Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben (Figure). Baron von Steuben was an experienced military man, and he implemented a thorough training course for Washington’s ragtag troops. By drilling a small corps of soldiers and then having them train others, he finally transformed the Continental Army into a force capable of standing up to the professional British and Hessian soldiers. His drill manual—Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States—informed military practices in the United States for the next several decades. Explore Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben’s Revolutionary War Drill Manual to understand how von Steuben was able to transform the Continental Army into a professional fighting force. Note the tremendous amount of precision and detail in von Steuben’s descriptions. Meanwhile, the campaign to sever New England from the rest of the colonies had taken an unexpected turn during the fall of 1777. The British had attempted to implement the plan, drawn up by Lord George Germain and Prime Minister Lord North, to isolate New England with the combined forces of three armies. One army, led by General John Burgoyne, would march south from Montreal. A second force, led by Colonel Barry St. Leger and made up of British troops and Iroquois, would march east from Fort Oswego on the banks of Lake Ontario. A third force, led by General Sir Henry Clinton, would march north from New York City. The armies would converge at Albany and effectively cut the rebellion in two by isolating New England. This northern campaign fell victim to competing strategies, however, as General Howe had meanwhile decided to take Philadelphia. His decision to capture that city siphoned off troops that would have been vital to the overall success of the campaign in 1777. The British plan to isolate New England ended in disaster. St. Leger’s efforts to bring his force of British regulars, Loyalist fighters, and Iroquois allies east to link up with General Burgoyne failed, and he retreated to Quebec. Burgoyne’s forces encountered ever-stiffer resistance as he made his way south from Montreal, down Lake Champlain and the upper Hudson River corridor. Although they did capture Fort Ticonderoga when American forces retreated, Burgoyne’s army found themselves surrounded by a sea of colonial militias in Saratoga, New York. In the meantime, the small British force under Clinton that left New York City to aid Burgoyne advanced slowly up the Hudson River, failing to provide the much-needed support for the troops at Saratoga. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered his five thousand soldiers to the Continental Army (Figure). The American victory at the Battle of Saratoga was the major turning point in the war. This victory convinced the French to recognize American independence and form a military alliance with the new nation, which changed the course of the war by opening the door to badly needed military support from France. Still smarting from their defeat by Britain in the Seven Years’ War, the French supplied the United States with gunpowder and money, as well as soldiers and naval forces that proved decisive in the defeat of Great Britain. The French also contributed military leaders, including the Marquis de Lafayette, who arrived in America in 1777 as a volunteer and served as Washington’s aide-de-camp. The war quickly became more difficult for the British, who had to fight the rebels in North America as well as the French in the Caribbean. Following France’s lead, Spain joined the war against Great Britain in 1779, though it did not recognize American independence until 1783. The Dutch Republic also began to support the American revolutionaries and signed a treaty of commerce with the United States in 1782. Great Britain’s effort to isolate New England in 1777 failed. In June 1778, the occupying British force in Philadelphia evacuated and returned to New York City in order to better defend that city, and the British then turned their attention to the southern colonies. Section Summary The British successfully implemented the first part of their strategy to isolate New England when they took New York City in the fall of 1776. For the next seven years, they used New York as a base of operations, expanding their control to Philadelphia in the winter of 1777. After suffering through a terrible winter in 1777–1778 in Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American forces were revived with help from Baron von Steuben, a Prussian military officer who helped transform the Continental Army into a professional fighting force. The effort to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies failed with the General Burgoyne’s surrender at Saratoga in October 1777. After Saratoga, the struggle for independence gained a powerful ally when France agreed to recognize the United States as a new nation and began to send much-needed military support. The entrance of France—Britain’s archrival in the contest of global empire—into the American fight helped to turn the tide of the war in favor of the revolutionaries. Review Questions Which city served as the base for British operations for most of the war? - Boston - New York - Philadelphia - Saratoga Hint: B What battle turned the tide of war in favor of the Americans? - the Battle of Saratoga - the Battle of Brandywine Creek - the Battle of White Plains - the Battle of Valley Forge Hint: A Which term describes German soldiers hired by Great Britain to put down the American rebellion? - Patriots - Royalists - Hessians - Loyalists Hint: C Describe the British strategy in the early years of the war and explain whether or not it succeeded. Hint: The British strategy in the period from 1776 to 1778 was to isolate the New England colonies, where the rebellion was concentrated. They succeeded in the beginning by taking first New York and then Philadelphia. However, they stalled there, and after the British defeat at Saratoga, they were not able to complete their plan to isolate New England. How did George Washington’s military tactics help him to achieve success? Hint: In the eighteenth century, militaries typically fought only in the summer months. On December 25 and 26, 1776, Washington triumphed over the Hessians encamped at Trenton by surprising them as they celebrated Christmas. Shortly thereafter, he used this same tactic to achieve victory at the Battle of Princeton.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.904301	07/10/2017	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/15426/overview", "title": "U.S. History, America's War for Independence, 1775-1783, The Early Years of the Revolution", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28858/overview	Government Spending Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify U.S. budget deficit and surplus trends over the past five decades - Explain the differences between the U.S. federal budget, and state and local budgets Government spending covers a range of services that the federal, state, and local governments provide. When the federal government spends more money than it receives in taxes in a given year, it runs a budget deficit. Conversely, when the government receives more money in taxes than it spends in a year, it runs a budget surplus. If government spending and taxes are equal, it has a balanced budget. For example, in 2009, the U.S. government experienced its largest budget deficit ever, as the federal government spent $1.4 trillion more than it collected in taxes. This deficit was about 10% of the size of the U.S. GDP in 2009, making it by far the largest budget deficit relative to GDP since the mammoth borrowing the government used to finance World War II. This section presents an overview of government spending in the United States. Total U.S. Government Spending Federal spending in nominal dollars (that is, dollars not adjusted for inflation) has grown by a multiple of more than 38 over the last four decades, from $93.4 billion in 1960 to $3.9 trillion in 2014. Comparing spending over time in nominal dollars is misleading because it does not take into account inflation or growth in population and the real economy. A more useful method of comparison is to examine government spending as a percent of GDP over time. The top line in Figure shows the federal spending level since 1960, expressed as a share of GDP. Despite a widespread sense among many Americans that the federal government has been growing steadily larger, the graph shows that federal spending has hovered in a range from 18% to 22% of GDP most of the time since 1960. The other lines in Figure show the major federal spending categories: national defense, Social Security, health programs, and interest payments. From the graph, we see that national defense spending as a share of GDP has generally declined since the 1960s, although there were some upward bumps in the 1980s buildup under President Ronald Reagan and in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. In contrast, Social Security and healthcare have grown steadily as a percent of GDP. Healthcare expenditures include both payments for senior citizens (Medicare), and payments for low-income Americans (Medicaid). State governments also partially fund Medicaid. Interest payments are the final main category of government spending in Figure 30.2. Each year, the government borrows funds from U.S. citizens and foreigners to cover its budget deficits. It does this by selling securities (Treasury bonds, notes, and bills)—in essence borrowing from the public and promising to repay with interest in the future. From 1961 to 1997, the U.S. government has run budget deficits, and thus borrowed funds, in almost every year. It had budget surpluses from 1998 to 2001, and then returned to deficits. The interest payments on past federal government borrowing were typically 1–2% of GDP in the 1960s and 1970s but then climbed above 3% of GDP in the 1980s and stayed there until the late 1990s. The government was able to repay some of its past borrowing by running surpluses from 1998 to 2001 and, with help from low interest rates, the interest payments on past federal government borrowing had fallen back to 1.4% of GDP by 2012. We investigate the government borrowing and debt patterns in more detail later in this chapter, but first we need to clarify the difference between the deficit and the debt. The deficit is not the debt. The difference between the deficit and the debt lies in the time frame. The government deficit (or surplus) refers to what happens with the federal government budget each year. The government debt is accumulated over time. It is the sum of all past deficits and surpluses. If you borrow $10,000 per year for each of the four years of college, you might say that your annual deficit was $10,000, but your accumulated debt over the four years is $40,000. These four categories—national defense, Social Security, healthcare, and interest payments—account for roughly 73% of all federal spending, as Figure shows. The remaining 27% wedge of the pie chart covers all other categories of federal government spending: international affairs; science and technology; natural resources and the environment; transportation; housing; education; income support for the poor; community and regional development; law enforcement and the judicial system; and the administrative costs of running the government. State and Local Government Spending Although federal government spending often gets most of the media attention, state and local government spending is also substantial—at about $3.1 trillion in 2014. Figure shows that state and local government spending has increased during the last four decades from around 8% to around 14% today. The single biggest item is education, which accounts for about one-third of the total. The rest covers programs like highways, libraries, hospitals and healthcare, parks, and police and fire protection. Unlike the federal government, all states (except Vermont) have balanced budget laws, which means any gaps between revenues and spending must be closed by higher taxes, lower spending, drawing down their previous savings, or some combination of all of these. U.S. presidential candidates often run for office pledging to improve the public schools or to get tough on crime. However, in the U.S. government system, these tasks are primarily state and local government responsibilities. In fiscal year 2014 state and local governments spent about $840 billion per year on education (including K–12 and college and university education), compared to only $100 billion by the federal government, according to usgovernmentspending.com. In other words, about 90 cents of every dollar spent on education happens at the state and local level. A politician who really wants hands-on responsibility for reforming education or reducing crime might do better to run for mayor of a large city or for state governor rather than for president of the United States. Key Concepts and Summary Fiscal policy is the set of policies that relate to federal government spending, taxation, and borrowing. In recent decades, the level of federal government spending and taxes, expressed as a share of GDP, has not changed much, typically fluctuating between about 18% to 22% of GDP. However, the level of state spending and taxes, as a share of GDP, has risen from about 12–13% to about 20% of GDP over the last four decades. The four main areas of federal spending are national defense, Social Security, healthcare, and interest payments, which together account for about 70% of all federal spending. When a government spends more than it collects in taxes, it is said to have a budget deficit. When a government collects more in taxes than it spends, it is said to have a budget surplus. If government spending and taxes are equal, it is said to have a balanced budget. The sum of all past deficits and surpluses make up the government debt. Self-Check Questions When governments run budget deficits, how do they make up the differences between tax revenue and spending? Hint: The government borrows funds by selling Treasury bonds, notes, and bills. When governments run budget surpluses, what is done with the extra funds? Hint: The funds can be used to pay down the national debt or else be refunded to the taxpayers. Is it possible for a nation to run budget deficits and still have its debt/GDP ratio fall? Explain your answer. Is it possible for a nation to run budget surpluses and still have its debt/GDP ratio rise? Explain your answer. Hint: Yes, a nation can run budget deficits and see its debt/GDP ratio fall. In fact, this is not uncommon. If the deficit is small in a given year, than the addition to debt in the numerator of the debt/GDP ratio will be relatively small, while the growth in GDP is larger, and so the debt/GDP ratio declines. This was the experience of the U.S. economy for the period from the end of World War II to about 1980. It is also theoretically possible, although not likely, for a nation to have a budget surplus and see its debt/GDP ratio rise. Imagine the case of a nation with a small surplus, but in a recession year when the economy shrinks. It is possible that the decline in the nation’s debt, in the numerator of the debt/GDP ratio, would be proportionally less than the fall in the size of GDP, so the debt/GDP ratio would rise. Review Questions Give some examples of changes in federal spending and taxes by the government that would be fiscal policy and some that would not. Have the spending and taxes of the U.S. federal government generally had an upward or a downward trend in the last few decades? What are the main categories of U.S. federal government spending? What is the difference between a budget deficit, a balanced budget, and a budget surplus? Have spending and taxes by state and local governments in the United States had a generally upward or downward trend in the last few decades? Critical Thinking Questions Why is government spending typically measured as a percentage of GDP rather than in nominal dollars? Why are expenditures such as crime prevention and education typically done at the state and local level rather than at the federal level? Why is spending by the U.S. government on scientific research at NASA fiscal policy while spending by the University of Illinois is not fiscal policy? Why is a cut in the payroll tax fiscal policy whereas a cut in a state income tax is not fiscal policy? Problems A government starts off with a total debt of $3.5 billion. In year one, the government runs a deficit of $400 million. In year two, the government runs a deficit of $1 billion. In year three, the government runs a surplus of $200 million. What is the total debt of the government at the end of year three? References Kramer, Mattea, et. al. A People's Guide to the Federal Budget. National Priorities Project. Northampton: Interlink Books, 2012. Kurtzleben, Danielle. “10 States With The Largest Budget Shortfalls.” U.S. News & World Report. Januray 14, 2011. http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2011/01/14/10-states-with-the-largest-budget-shortfalls. Miller, Rich, and William Selway. “U.S. Cities and States Start Spending Again.” BloombergBusinessweek, January 10, 2013. http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-01-10/u-dot-s-dot-cities-and-states-start-spending-again. Weisman, Jonathan. “After Year of Working Around Federal Cuts, Agencies Face Fewer Options.” The New York Times, October 26, 2013. http://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/27/us/politics/after-year-of-working-around-federal-cuts-agencies-face-fewer-options.html?_r=0. Chantrill, Christopher. USGovernmentSpending.com. “Government Spending Details: United States Federal State and Local Government Spending, Fiscal Year 2013.” http://www.usgovernmentspending.com/year_spending_2013USbn_15bs2n_20.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.933651	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28858/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Government Budgets and Fiscal Policy, Government Spending", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28882/overview	Protectionism: An Indirect Subsidy from Consumers to Producers Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain protectionism and its three main forms - Analyze protectionism through concepts of demand and supply, noting its effects on equilibrium - Calculate the effects of trade barriers When a government legislates policies to reduce or block international trade it is engaging in protectionism. Protectionist policies often seek to shield domestic producers and domestic workers from foreign competition. Protectionism takes three main forms: tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers. Recall from International Trade that tariffs are taxes that governments impose on imported goods and services. This makes imports more expensive for consumers, discouraging imports. For example, in recent years large, flat-screen televisions imported to the U.S. from China have faced a 5% tariff rate. Another way to control trade is through import quotas, which are numerical limitations on the quantity of products that a country can import. For instance, during the early 1980s, the Reagan Administration imposed a quota on the import of Japanese automobiles. In the 1970s, many developed countries, including the United States, found themselves with declining textile industries. Textile production does not require highly skilled workers, so producers were able to set up lower-cost factories in developing countries. In order to “manage” this loss of jobs and income, the developed countries established an international Multifiber Agreement that essentially divided the market for textile exports between importers and the remaining domestic producers. The agreement, which ran from 1974 to 2004, specified the exact quota of textile imports that each developed country would accept from each low-income country. A similar story exists for sugar imports into the United States, which are still governed by quotas. Nontariff barriers are all the other ways that a nation can draw up rules, regulations, inspections, and paperwork to make it more costly or difficult to import products. A rule requiring certain safety standards can limit imports just as effectively as high tariffs or low import quotas, for instance. There are also nontariff barriers in the form of “rules-of-origin” regulations; these rules describe the “Made in Country X” label as the one in which the last substantial change in the product took place. A manufacturer wishing to evade import restrictions may try to change the production process so that the last big change in the product happens in his or her own country. For example, certain textiles are made in the United States, shipped to other countries, combined with textiles made in those other countries to make apparel—and then re-exported back to the United States for a final assembly, to escape paying tariffs or to obtain a “Made in the USA” label. Despite import quotas, tariffs, and nontariff barriers, the share of apparel sold in the United States that is imported rose from about half in 1999 to about three-quarters today. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), estimated the number of U.S. jobs in textiles and apparel fell from 666,360 in 2007 to 385,240 in 2012, a 42% decline. Even more U.S. textile industry jobs would have been lost without tariffs. However, domestic jobs that are saved by import quotas come at a cost. Because textile and apparel protectionism adds to the costs of imports, consumers end up paying billions of dollars more for clothing each year. When the United States eliminates trade barriers in one area, consumers spend the money they save on that product elsewhere in the economy. Thus, while eliminating trade barriers in one sector of the economy will likely result in some job loss in that sector, consumers will spend the resulting savings in other sectors of the economy and hence increase the number of jobs in those other sectors. Of course, workers in some of the poorest countries of the world who would otherwise have jobs producing textiles, would gain considerably if the United States reduced its barriers to trade in textiles. That said, there are good reasons to be wary about reducing barriers to trade. The 2012 and 2013 Bangladeshi fires in textile factories, which resulted in a horrific loss of life, present complications that our simplified analysis in the chapter will not capture. Realizing the compromises between nations that come about due to trade policy, many countries came together in 1947 to form the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). (We’ll cover the GATT in more detail later in the chapter.) This agreement has since been superseded by the World Trade Organization (WTO), whose membership includes about 150 nations and most of the world's economies. It is the primary international mechanism through which nations negotiate their trade rules—including rules about tariffs, quotas, and nontariff barriers. The next section examines the results of such protectionism and develops a simple model to show the impact of trade policy. Demand and Supply Analysis of Protectionism To the non-economist, restricting imports may appear to be nothing more than taking sales from foreign producers and giving them to domestic producers. Other factors are at work, however, because firms do not operate in a vacuum. Instead, firms sell their products either to consumers or to other firms (if they are business suppliers), who are also affected by the trade barriers. A demand and supply analysis of protectionism shows that it is not just a matter of domestic gains and foreign losses, but a policy that imposes substantial domestic costs as well. Consider two countries, Brazil and the United States, who produce sugar. Each country has a domestic supply and demand for sugar, as Table details and Figure illustrates. In Brazil, without trade, the equilibrium price of sugar is 12 cents per pound and the equilibrium output is 30 tons. When there is no trade in the United States, the equilibrium price of sugar is 24 cents per pound and the equilibrium quantity is 80 tons. We label these equilibrium points as point E in each part of the figure. \| Price \| Brazil: Quantity Supplied (tons) \| Brazil: Quantity Demanded (tons) \| U.S.: Quantity Supplied (tons) \| U.S.: Quantity Demanded (tons) \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| 8 cents \| 20 \| 35 \| 60 \| 100 \| \| 12 cents \| 30 \| 30 \| 66 \| 93 \| \| 14 cents \| 35 \| 28 \| 69 \| 90 \| \| 16 cents \| 40 \| 25 \| 72 \| 87 \| \| 20 cents \| 45 \| 21 \| 76 \| 83 \| \| 24 cents \| 50 \| 18 \| 80 \| 80 \| \| 28 cents \| 55 \| 15 \| 82 \| 78 \| If international trade between Brazil and the United States now becomes possible, profit-seeking firms will spot an opportunity: buy sugar cheaply in Brazil, and sell it at a higher price in the United States. As sugar is shipped from Brazil to the United States, the quantity of sugar produced in Brazil will be greater than Brazilian consumption (with the extra production exported), and the amount produced in the United States will be less than the amount of U.S. consumption (with the extra consumption imported). Exports to the United States will reduce the sugar supply in Brazil, raising its price. Imports into the United States will increase the sugar supply, lowering its price. When the sugar price is the same in both countries, there is no incentive to trade further. As Figure shows, the equilibrium with trade occurs at a price of 16 cents per pound. At that price, the sugar farmers of Brazil supply a quantity of 40 tons, while the consumers of Brazil buy only 25 tons. The extra 15 tons of sugar production, shown by the horizontal gap between the demand curve and the supply curve in Brazil, is exported to the United States. In the United States, at a price of 16 cents, the farmers produce a quantity of 72 tons and consumers demand a quantity of 87 tons. The excess demand of 15 tons by American consumers, shown by the horizontal gap between demand and domestic supply at the price of 16 cents, is supplied by imported sugar. Free trade typically results in income distribution effects, but the key is to recognize the overall gains from trade, as Figure shows. Building on the concepts that we outlined in Demand and Supply and Demand, Supply, and Efficiency in terms of consumer and producer surplus, Figure (a) shows that producers in Brazil gain by selling more sugar at a higher price, while Figure (b) shows consumers in the United States benefit from the lower price and greater availability of sugar. Consumers in Brazil are worse off (compare their no-trade consumer surplus with the free-trade consumer surplus) and U.S. producers of sugar are worse off. There are gains from trade—an increase in social surplus in each country. That is, both the United States and Brazil are better off than they would be without trade. The following Clear It Up feature explains how trade policy can influence low-income countries. Visit this website to read more about the global sugar trade. Why are there low-income countries? Why are the poor countries of the world poor? There are a number of reasons, but one of them will surprise you: the trade policies of the high-income countries. Following is a stark review of social priorities which the international aid organization, Oxfam International has widely publicized. High-income countries of the world—primarily the United States, Canada, countries of the European Union, and Japan—subsidize their domestic farmers collectively by about $360 billion per year. By contrast, the total amount of foreign aid from these same high-income countries to the poor countries of the world is about $70 billion per year, or less than 20% of the farm subsidies. Why does this matter? It matters because the support of farmers in high-income countries is devastating to the livelihoods of farmers in low-income countries. Even when their climate and land are well-suited to products like cotton, rice, sugar, or milk, farmers in low-income countries find it difficult to compete. Farm subsidies in the high-income countries cause farmers in those countries to increase the amount they produce. This increase in supply drives down world prices of farm products below the costs of production. As Michael Gerson of the Washington Post describes it: “[T]he effects in the cotton-growing regions of West Africa are dramatic . . . keep[ing] millions of Africans on the edge of malnutrition. In some of the poorest countries on Earth, cotton farmers are some of the poorest people, earning about a dollar a day. . . . Who benefits from the current system of subsidies? About 20,000 American cotton producers, with an average annual income of more than $125,000.” As if subsidies were not enough, often, the high-income countries block agricultural exports from low-income countries. In some cases, the situation gets even worse when the governments of high-income countries, having bought and paid for an excess supply of farm products, give away those products in poor countries and drive local farmers out of business altogether. For example, shipments of excess milk from the European Union to Jamaica have caused great hardship for Jamaican dairy farmers. Shipments of excess rice from the United States to Haiti drove thousands of low-income rice farmers in Haiti out of business. The opportunity costs of protectionism are not paid just by domestic consumers, but also by foreign producers—and for many agricultural products, those foreign producers are the world’s poor. Now, let’s look at what happens with protectionism. U.S. sugar farmers are likely to argue that, if only they could be protected from sugar imported from Brazil, the United States would have higher domestic sugar production, more jobs in the sugar industry, and American sugar farmers would receive a higher price. If the United States government sets a high-enough tariff on imported sugar, or sets an import quota at zero, the result will be that the quantity of sugar traded between countries could be reduced to zero, and the prices in each country will return to the levels before trade was allowed. Blocking only some trade is also possible. Suppose that the United States passed a sugar import quota of seven tons. The United States will import no more than seven tons of sugar, which means that Brazil can export no more than seven tons of sugar to the United States. As a result, the price of sugar in the United States will be 20 cents, which is the price where the quantity demanded is seven tons greater than the domestic quantity supplied. Conversely, if Brazil can export only seven tons of sugar, then the price of sugar in Brazil will be 14 cents per pound, which is the price where the domestic quantity supplied in Brazil is seven tons greater than domestic demand. In general, when a country sets a low or medium tariff or import quota, the equilibrium price and quantity will be somewhere between those that prevail with no trade and those with completely free trade. The following Work It Out explores the impact of these trade barriers. Effects of Trade Barriers Let’s look carefully at the effects of tariffs or quotas. If the U.S. government imposes a tariff or quota sufficient to eliminate trade with Brazil, two things occur: U.S. consumers pay a higher price and therefore buy a smaller quantity of sugar. U.S. producers obtain a higher price and they sell a larger quantity of sugar. We can measure the effects of a tariff on producers and consumers in the United States using two concepts that we developed in Demand, Supply, and Efficiency: consumer surplus and producer surplus. Step 1. Look at Figure, which shows a hypothetical version of the demand and supply of sugar in the United States. Step 2. Note that when there is free trade the sugar market is in equilibrium at point A where Domestic Quantity Demanded (Qd) = Quantity Supplied (Domestic Qs + Imports from Brazil) at a price of PTrade. Step 3. Note, also, that imports are equal to the distance between points C and A. Step 4. Recall that consumer surplus is the value that consumers get beyond what they paid for when they buy a product. Graphically, it is the area under a demand curve but above the price. In this case, the consumer surplus in the United States is the area of the triangle formed by the points PTrade, A, and B. Step 5. Recall, also, that producer surplus is another name for profit—it is the income producers get above the cost of production, which is shown by the supply curve here. In this case, the producer surplus with trade is the area of the triangle formed by the points Ptrade, C, and D. Step 6. Suppose that the barriers to trade are imposed, imports are excluded, and the price rises to PNoTrade. Look what happens to producer surplus and consumer surplus. At the higher price, the domestic quantity supplied increases from Qs to Q at point E. Because producers are selling more quantity at a higher price, the producer surplus increases to the area of the triangle PNoTrade, E, and D. Step 7. Compare the areas of the two triangles and you will see the increase in the producer surplus. Step 8. Examine the consumer surplus. Consumers are now paying a higher price to get a lower quantity (Q instead of Qd). Their consumer surplus shrinks to the area of the triangle PNoTrade, E, and B. Step 9. Determine the net effect. The producer surplus increases by the area Ptrade, C, E, PNoTrade. The loss of consumer surplus, however, is larger. It is the area Ptrade, A, E, PNoTrade. In other words, consumers lose more than producers gain as a result of the trade barriers and the United States has a lower social surplus. Who Benefits and Who Pays? Using the demand and supply model, consider the impact of protectionism on producers and consumers in each of the two countries. For protected producers like U.S. sugar farmers, restricting imports is clearly positive. Without a need to face imported products, these producers are able to sell more, at a higher price. For consumers in the country with the protected good, in this case U.S. sugar consumers, restricting imports is clearly negative. They end up buying a lower quantity of the good and paying a higher price for what they do buy, compared to the equilibrium price and quantity with trade. The following Clear It Up feature considers why a country might outsource jobs even for a domestic product. Why are Life Savers, an American product, not made in America? In 1912, Clarence Crane invented Life Savers, the hard candy with the hole in the middle, in Cleveland, Ohio. Starting in the late 1960s and for 35 years afterward, a plant in Holland, Michigan produced 46 billion Life Savers a year, in 200 million rolls. However, in 2002, the Kraft Company announced that it would close the Michigan plant and move Life Saver production across the border to Montreal, Canada. One reason is that Canadian workers are paid slightly less, especially in healthcare and insurance costs that are not linked to employment there. Another main reason is that the United States government keeps the sugar price high for the benefit of sugar farmers, with a combination of a government price floor program and strict quotas on imported sugar. According to the Coalition for Sugar Reform, from 2009 to 2012, the price of refined sugar in the United States ranged from 64% to 92% higher than the world price. Life Saver production uses over 100 tons of sugar each day, because the candies are 95% sugar. A number of other candy companies have also reduced U.S. production and expanded foreign production. From 1997 to 2011, sugar-using industries eliminated some 127,000 jobs, or more than seven times the total employment in sugar production. While the candy industry is especially affected by the cost of sugar, the costs are spread more broadly. U.S. consumers pay roughly $1 billion per year in higher food prices because of elevated sugar costs. Meanwhile, sugar producers in low-income countries are driven out of business. Because of the sugar subsidies to domestic producers and the quotas on imports, they cannot sell their output profitably, or at all, in the United States market. The fact that protectionism pushes up prices for consumers in the country enacting such protectionism is not always acknowledged openly, but it is not disputed. After all, if protectionism did not benefit domestic producers, there would not be much point in enacting such policies in the first place. Protectionism is simply a method of requiring consumers to subsidize producers. The subsidy is indirect, since consumers pay for it through higher prices, rather than a direct government subsidy paid with money collected from taxpayers. However, protectionism works like a subsidy, nonetheless. The American satirist Ambrose Bierce defined “tariff” this way in his 1911 book, The Devil’s Dictionary: “Tariff, n. A scale of taxes on imports, designed to protect the domestic producer against the greed of his consumer.” The effect of protectionism on producers and consumers in the foreign country is complex. When a government uses an import quota to impose partial protectionism, Brazilian sugar producers receive a lower price for the sugar they sell in Brazil—but a higher price for the sugar they are allowed to export to the United States. Notice that some of the burden of protectionism, paid by domestic consumers, ends up in the hands of foreign producers in this case. Brazilian sugar consumers seem to benefit from U.S. protectionism, because it reduces the price of sugar that they pay (compared to the free-trade situation). On the other hand, at least some of these Brazilian sugar consumers also work as sugar farmers, so protectionism reduces their incomes and jobs. Moreover, if trade between the countries vanishes, Brazilian consumers would miss out on better prices for imported goods—which do not appear in our single-market example of sugar protectionism. The effects of protectionism on foreign countries notwithstanding, protectionism requires domestic consumers of a product (consumers may include either households or other firms) to pay higher prices to benefit domestic producers of that product. In addition, when a country enacts protectionism, it loses the economic gains it would have been able to achieve through a combination of comparative advantage, specialized learning, and economies of scale, concepts that we discuss in International Trade. Key Concepts and Summary There are three tools for restricting the flow of trade: tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers. When a country places limitations on imports from abroad, regardless of whether it uses tariffs, quotas, or nontariff barriers, it is said to be practicing protectionism. Protectionism will raise the price of the protected good in the domestic market, which causes domestic consumers to pay more, but domestic producers to earn more. Self-Check Questions Explain how a tariff reduction causes an increase in the equilibrium quantity of imports and a decrease in the equilibrium price. Hint: Consider the Work It Out "Effects of Trade Barriers." Hint: This is the opposite case of the Work It Out feature. A reduced tariff is like a decrease in the cost of production, which is shown by a downward (or rightward) shift in the supply curve. Explain how a subsidy on agricultural goods like sugar adversely affects the income of foreign producers of imported sugar. Hint: A subsidy is like a reduction in cost. This shifts the supply curve down (or to the right), driving the price of sugar down. If the subsidy is large enough, the price of sugar can fall below the cost of production faced by foreign producers, which means they will lose money on any sugar they produce and sell. Review Questions Who does protectionism protect? From what does it protect them? Name and define three policy tools for enacting protectionism. How does protectionism affect the price of the protected good in the domestic market? Critical Thinking Questions Show graphically that for any tariff, there is an equivalent quota that would give the same result. What would be the difference, then, between the two types of trade barriers? Hint: It is not something you can see from the graph. From the Work It Out "Effects of Trade Barriers," you can see that a tariff raises the price of imports. What is interesting is that the price rises by less than the amount of the tariff. Who pays the rest of the tariff amount? Can you show this graphically? Problems Assume two countries, Thailand (T) and Japan (J), have one good: cameras. The demand (d) and supply (s) for cameras in Thailand and Japan is described by the following functions: P is the price measured in a common currency used in both countries, such as the Thai Baht. - Compute the equilibrium price (P) and quantities (Q) in each country without trade. - Now assume that free trade occurs. The free-trade price goes to 56.36 Baht. Who exports and imports cameras and in what quantities? References Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Industries at a Glance.” Accessed December 31, 2013. http://www.bls.gov/iag/. Oxfam International. Accessed January 6, 2014. http://www.oxfam.org/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:29.969400	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28882/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Globalization and Protectionism, Protectionism: An Indirect Subsidy from Consumers to Producers", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28883/overview	International Trade and Its Effects on Jobs, Wages, and Working Conditions Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss how international trade influences the job market - Analyze the opportunity cost of protectionism - Explain how international trade impacts wages, labor standards, and working conditions In theory at least, imports might injure workers in several different ways: fewer jobs, lower wages, or poor working conditions. Let’s consider these in turn. Fewer Jobs? In the early 1990s, the United States was negotiating the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico, an agreement that reduced tariffs, import quotas, and nontariff barriers to trade between the United States, Mexico, and Canada. H. Ross Perot, a 1992 candidate for U.S. president, claimed, in prominent campaign arguments, that if the United States expanded trade with Mexico, there would be a “giant sucking sound” as U.S. employers relocated to Mexico to take advantage of lower wages. After all, average wages in Mexico were, at that time, about one-eighth of those in the United States. NAFTA passed Congress, President Bill Clinton signed it into law, and it took effect in 1995. For the next six years, the United States economy had some of the most rapid job growth and low unemployment in its history. Those who feared that open trade with Mexico would lead to a dramatic decrease in jobs were proven wrong. This result was no surprise to economists. After all, the trend toward globalization has been going on for decades, not just since NAFTA. If trade did reduce the number of available jobs, then the United States should have been seeing a steady loss of jobs for decades. While the United States economy does experience rises and falls in unemployment rates—according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, from spring 2007 to late 2009, the unemployment rate rose from 4.4% to 10%. It has since fallen back to under 5% as of the end of 2016—the number of jobs is not falling over extended periods of time. The number of U.S. jobs rose from 71 million in 1970 to 145 million in 2014. Protectionism certainly saves jobs in the specific industry being protected but, for two reasons, it costs jobs in other unprotected industries. First, if consumers are paying higher prices to the protected industry, they inevitably have less money to spend on goods from other industries, and so jobs are lost in those other industries. Second, if a firm sells the protected product to other firms, so that other firms must now pay a higher price for a key input, then those firms will lose sales to foreign producers who do not need to pay the higher price. Lost sales translate into lost jobs. The hidden opportunity cost of using protectionism to save jobs in one industry is jobs sacrificed in other industries. This is why the United States International Trade Commission, in its study of barriers to trade, predicts that reducing trade barriers would not lead to an overall loss of jobs. Protectionism reshuffles jobs from industries without import protections to industries that are protected from imports, but it does not create more jobs. Moreover, the costs of saving jobs through protectionism can be very high. A number of different studies have attempted to estimate the cost to consumers in higher prices per job saved through protectionism. Table shows a sample of results, compiled by economists at the Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas. Saving a job through protectionism typically costs much more than the actual worker’s salary. For example, a study published in 2002 compiled evidence that using protectionism to save an average job in the textile and apparel industry would cost $199,000 per job saved. In other words, those workers could have been paid $100,000 per year to be unemployed and the cost would only be half of what it is to keep them working in the textile and apparel industry. This result is not unique to textiles and apparel. \| Industry Protected with Import Tariffs or Quotas \| Annual Cost per Job Saved \| \|---\|---\| \| Sugar \| $826,000 \| \| Polyethylene resins \| $812,000 \| \| Dairy products \| $685,000 \| \| Frozen concentrated orange juice \| $635,000 \| \| Ball bearings \| $603,000 \| \| Machine tools \| $479,000 \| \| Women’s handbags \| $263,000 \| \| Glassware \| $247,000 \| \| Apparel and textiles \| $199,000 \| \| Rubber footwear \| $168,000 \| \| Women’s nonathletic footwear \| $139,000 \| Why does it cost so much to save jobs through protectionism? The basic reason is that not all of the extra money that consumers pay because of tariffs or quotas goes to save jobs. For example, if the government imposes tariffs on steel imports so that steel buyers pay a higher price, U.S. steel companies earn greater profits, buy more equipment, pay bigger bonuses to managers, give pay raises to existing employees—and also avoid firing some additional workers. Only part of the higher price of protected steel goes toward saving jobs. Also, when an industry is protected, the economy as a whole loses the benefits of playing to its comparative advantage—in other words, producing what it is best at. Therefore, part of the higher price that consumers pay for protected goods is lost economic efficiency, which we can measure as another deadweight loss, like what we discussed in Labor and Financial Markets. There’s a bumper sticker that speaks to the threat some U.S. workers feel from imported products: “Buy American—Save U.S. Jobs.” If an economist were driving the car, the sticker might declare: “Block Imports—Save Jobs for Some Americans, Lose Jobs for Other Americans, and Also Pay High Prices.” Trade and Wages Even if trade does not reduce the number of jobs, it could affect wages. Here, it is important to separate issues about the average level of wages from issues about whether the wages of certain workers may be helped or hurt by trade. Because trade raises the amount that an economy can produce by letting firms and workers play to their comparative advantage, trade will also cause the average level of wages in an economy to rise. Workers who can produce more will be more desirable to employers, which will shift the demand for their labor out to the right, and increase wages in the labor market. By contrast, barriers to trade will reduce the average level of wages in an economy. However, even if trade increases the overall wage level, it will still benefit some workers and hurt others. Workers in industries that are confronted by competition from imported products may find that demand for their labor decreases and shifts back to the left, so that their wages decline with a rise in international trade. Conversely, workers in industries that benefit from selling in global markets may find that demand for their labor shifts out to the right, so that trade raises their wages. View this website to read an article on the issues surrounding fair trade coffee. One concern is that while globalization may be benefiting high-skilled, high-wage workers in the United States, it may also impose costs on low-skilled, low-wage workers. After all, high-skilled U.S. workers presumably benefit from increased sales of sophisticated products like computers, machinery, and pharmaceuticals in which the United States has a comparative advantage. Meanwhile, low-skilled U.S. workers must now compete against extremely low-wage workers worldwide for making simpler products like toys and clothing. As a result, the wages of low-skilled U.S. workers are likely to fall. There are, however, a number of reasons to believe that while globalization has helped some U.S. industries and hurt others, it has not focused its negative impact on the wages of low-skilled Americans. First, about half of U.S. trade is intra-industry trade. That means the U.S. trades similar goods with other high-wage economies like Canada, Japan, Germany, and the United Kingdom. For instance, in 2014 the U.S. exported over 2 million cars, from all the major automakers, and also imported several million cars from other countries. Most U.S. workers in these industries have above-average skills and wages—and many of them do quite well in the world of globalization. Some evidence suggested that intra-industry trade between similar countries had a small impact on domestic workers but later evidence indicates that it all depends on how flexible the labor market is. In other words, the key is how flexible workers are in finding jobs in different industries. The effect of trade on low-wage workers depends considerably on the structure of labor markets and indirect effects felt in other parts of the economy. For example, in the United States and the United Kingdom, because labor market frictions are low, the impact of trade on low income workers is small. Second, many low-skilled U.S. workers hold service jobs that imports from low-wage countries cannot replace. For example, we cannot import lawn care services or moving and hauling services or hotel maids from countries long distances away like China or Bangladesh. Competition from imported products is not the primary determinant of their wages. Finally, while the focus of the discussion here is on wages, it is worth pointing out that low-wage U.S. workers suffer due to protectionism in all the industries—even those in which they do not work. For example, food and clothing are protected industries. These low-wage workers therefore pay higher prices for these basic necessities and as such their dollar stretches over fewer goods. The benefits and costs of increased trade in terms of its effect on wages are not distributed evenly across the economy. However, the growth of international trade has helped to raise the productivity of U.S. workers as a whole—and thus helped to raise the average level of wages. Labor Standards and Working Conditions Workers in many low-income countries around the world labor under conditions that would be illegal for a worker in the United States. Workers in countries like China, Thailand, Brazil, South Africa, and Poland are often paid less than the United States minimum wage. For example, in the United States, the minimum wage is $7.25 per hour. A typical wage in many low-income countries might be more like $7.25 per day, or often much less. Moreover, working conditions in low-income countries may be extremely unpleasant, or even unsafe. In the worst cases, production may involve the child labor or even workers who are treated nearly like slaves. These concerns over foreign labor standards do not affect most of U.S. trade, which is intra-industry and carried out with other high-income countries that have labor standards similar to the United States, but it is, nonetheless, morally and economically important. In thinking about labor standards in other countries, it is important to draw some distinctions between what is truly unacceptable and what is painful to think about. Most people, economists included, have little difficulty with the idea that production by six-year-olds confined in factories or by slave labor is morally unacceptable. They would support aggressive efforts to eliminate such practices—including shutting out imported products made with such labor. Many cases, however, are less clear-cut. An opinion article in the New York Times several years ago described the case of Ahmed Zia, a 14-year-old boy from Pakistan. He earned $2 per day working in a carpet factory. He dropped out of school in second grade. Should the United States and other countries refuse to purchase rugs made by Ahmed and his co-workers? If the carpet factories were to close, the likely alternative job for Ahmed is farm work, and as Ahmed says of his carpet-weaving job: “This makes much more money and is more comfortable.” Other workers may have even less attractive alternative jobs, perhaps scavenging garbage or prostitution. The real problem for Ahmed and many others in low-income countries is not that globalization has made their lives worse, but rather that they have so few good life alternatives. The United States went through similar situations during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In closing, there is some irony when the United States government or U.S. citizens take issue with labor standards in low-income countries, because the United States is not a world leader in government laws to protect employees. According to a recent study by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the U.S. is the only one of 41 countries that does not provide mandated paid leave for new parents, and among the 40 countries that do mandate paid leave, the minimum duration is about two months. Many European workers receive six weeks or more of paid vacation per year. In the United States, vacations are often one to three weeks per year. If European countries accused the United States of using unfair labor standards to make U.S. products cheaply, and announced that they would shut out all U.S. imports until the United States adopted paid parental leave, added more national holidays, and doubled vacation time, Americans would be outraged. Yet when U.S. protectionists start talking about restricting imports from poor countries because of low wage levels and poor working conditions, they are making a very similar argument. This is not to say that labor conditions in low-income countries are not an important issue. They are. However, linking labor conditions in low-income countries to trade deflects the emphasis from the real question to ask: “What are acceptable and enforceable minimum labor standards and protections to have the world over?” Key Concepts and Summary As international trade increases, it contributes to a shift in jobs away from industries where that economy does not have a comparative advantage and toward industries where it does have a comparative advantage. The degree to which trade affects labor markets has much to do with the structure of the labor market in that country and the adjustment process in other industries. Global trade should raise the average level of wages by increasing productivity. However, this increase in average wages may include both gains to workers in certain jobs and industries and losses to others. In thinking about labor practices in low-income countries, it is useful to draw a line between what is unpleasant to think about and what is morally objectionable. For example, low wages and long working hours in poor countries are unpleasant to think about, but for people in low-income parts of the world, it may well be the best option open to them. Practices like child labor and forced labor are morally objectionable and many countries refuse to import products made using these practices. Self-Check Questions Explain how trade barriers save jobs in protected industries, but only by costing jobs in other industries. Hint: Trade barriers raise the price of goods in protected industries. If those products are inputs in other industries, it raises their production costs and then prices, so sales fall in those other industries. Lower sales lead to lower employment. Additionally, if the protected industries are consumer goods, their customers pay higher prices, which reduce demand for other consumer products and thus employment in those industries. Explain how trade barriers raise wages in protected industries by reducing average wages economy-wide. Hint: Trade based on comparative advantage raises the average wage rate economy-wide, though it can reduce the incomes of import-substituting industries. By moving away from a country’s comparative advantage, trade barriers do the opposite: they give workers in protected industries an advantage, while reducing the average wage economy-wide. How does international trade affect working conditions of low-income countries? Hint: By raising incomes, trade tends to raise working conditions also, even though those conditions may not (yet) be equivalent to those in high-income countries. Do the jobs for workers in low-income countries that involve making products for export to high-income countries typically pay these workers more or less than their next-best alternative? Hint: They typically pay more than the next-best alternative. If a Nike firm did not pay workers at least as much as they would earn, for example, in a subsistence rural lifestyle, they many never come to work for Nike. How do trade barriers affect the average income level in an economy? Hint: Since trade barriers raise prices, real incomes fall. The average worker would also earn less. How does the cost of “saving” jobs in protected industries compare to the workers’ wages and salaries? Hint: Workers working in other sectors and the protected sector see a decrease in their real wage. Review Questions Does international trade, taken as a whole, increase the total number of jobs, decrease the total number of jobs, or leave the total number of jobs about the same? Is international trade likely to have roughly the same effect on the number of jobs in each individual industry? How is international trade, taken as a whole, likely to affect the average level of wages? Is international trade likely to have about the same effect on everyone’s wages? Critical Thinking Questions If trade barriers hurt the average worker in an economy (due to lower wages), why does government create trade barriers? Why do you think labor standards and working conditions are lower in the low-income countries of the world than in countries like the United States? References Bureau of Labor Statistics. “Data Retrieval: Employment, Hours, and Earnings (CES).” Last modified February 1, 2013. http://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cesbtab1.htm. Dhillon, Kiran. 2015. “Why Are U.S. Oil Imports Falling?” Time.com. Accessed April 1, 2015. http://time.com/67163/why-are-u-s-oil-imports-falling/. Kristof, Nicholas. “Let Them Sweat.” The New York Times, June 25, 2002. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/25/opinion/let-them-sweat.html.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.004877	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28883/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, Globalization and Protectionism, International Trade and Its Effects on Jobs, Wages, and Working Conditions", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28867/overview	Fiscal Policy and the Trade Balance Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss twin deficits as they related to budget and trade deficit - Explain the relationship between budget deficits and exchange rates - Explain the relationship between budget deficits and inflation - Identify causes of recessions Government budget balances can affect the trade balance. As The Keynesian Perspective chapter discusses, a net inflow of foreign financial investment always accompanies a trade deficit, while a net outflow of financial investment always accompanies a trade surplus. One way to understand the connection from budget deficits to trade deficits is that when government creates a budget deficit with some combination of tax cuts or spending increases, it will increase aggregate demand in the economy, and some of that increase in aggregate demand will result in a higher level of imports. A higher level of imports, with exports remaining fixed, will cause a larger trade deficit. That means foreigners’ holdings of dollars increase as Americans purchase more imported goods. Foreigners use those dollars to invest in the United States, which leads to an inflow of foreign investment. One possible source of funding our budget deficit is foreigners buying Treasury securities that the U.S. government sells, thus a trade deficit often accompanies a budget deficit. Twin Deficits? In the mid-1980s, it was common to hear economists and even newspaper articles refer to the twin deficits, as the budget deficit and trade deficit both grew substantially. Figure shows the pattern. The federal budget deficit went from 2.6% of GDP in 1981 to 5.1% of GDP in 1985—a drop of 2.5% of GDP. Over that time, the trade deficit moved from 0.5% in 1981 to 2.9% in 1985—a drop of 2.4% of GDP. In the mid-1980s an inflow of foreign investment capital matched, the considerable increase in government borrowing, so the government budget deficit and the trade deficit moved together. Of course, no one should expect the budget deficit and trade deficit to move in lockstep, because the other parts of the national saving and investment identity—investment and private savings—will often change as well. In the late 1990s, for example, the government budget balance turned from deficit to surplus, but the trade deficit remained large and growing. During this time, the inflow of foreign financial investment was supporting a surge of physical capital investment by U.S. firms. In the first half of the 2000s, the budget and trade deficits again increased together, but in 2009, the budget deficit increased while the trade deficit declined. The budget deficit and the trade deficits are related to each other, but they are more like cousins than twins. Budget Deficits and Exchange Rates Exchange rates can also help to explain why budget deficits are linked to trade deficits. Figure shows a situation using the exchange rate for the U.S. dollar, measured in euros. At the original equilibrium (E0), where the demand for U.S. dollars (D0) intersects with the supply of U.S. dollars (S0) on the foreign exchange market, the exchange rate is 0.9 euros per U.S. dollar and the equilibrium quantity traded in the market is $100 billion per day (which was roughly the quantity of dollar–euro trading in exchange rate markets in the mid-2000s). Then the U.S. budget deficit rises and foreign financial investment provides the source of funds for that budget deficit. International financial investors, as a group, will demand more U.S. dollars on foreign exchange markets to purchase the U.S. government bonds, and they will supply fewer of the U.S. dollars that they already hold in these markets. Demand for U.S. dollars on the foreign exchange market shifts from D0 to D1 and the supply of U.S. dollars falls from S0 to S1. At the new equilibrium (E1), the exchange rate has appreciated to 1.05 euros per dollar while, in this example, the quantity of dollars traded remains the same. A stronger exchange rate, of course, makes it more difficult for exporters to sell their goods abroad while making imports cheaper, so a trade deficit (or a reduced trade surplus) results. Thus, a budget deficit can easily result in an inflow of foreign financial capital, a stronger exchange rate, and a trade deficit. You can also imagine interest rates are driving the exchange rate appreciation. As we explained earlier in , a budget deficit increases demand in markets for domestic financial capital, raising the domestic interest rate. A higher interest rate will attract an inflow of foreign financial capital, and appreciate the exchange rate in response to the increase in demand for U.S. dollars by foreign investors and a decrease in supply of U. S. dollars. Because of higher interest rates in the United States, Americans find U.S. bonds more attractive than foreign bonds. When Americans are buying fewer foreign bonds, they are supplying fewer U.S. dollars. U.S. dollar depreciation leads to a larger trade deficit (or reduced surplus). The connections between inflows of foreign investment capital, interest rates, and exchange rates are all just different ways of drawing the same economic connections: a larger budget deficit can result in a larger trade deficit, although do not expect the connection to be one-to-one. From Budget Deficits to International Economic Crisis We lay out step-by-step the economic story of how an outflow of international financial capital can cause a deep recession in the Exchange Rates and International Capital Flows chapter. When international financial investors decide to withdraw their funds from a country like Turkey, they increase the supply of the Turkish lira and reduce the demand for lira, depreciating the lira exchange rate. When firms and the government in a country like Turkey borrow money in international financial markets, they typically do so in stages. First, banks in Turkey borrow in a widely used currency like U.S. dollars or euros, then convert those U.S. dollars to lira, and then lend the money to borrowers in Turkey. If the lira's exchange rate value depreciates, then Turkey’s banks will find it impossible to repay the international loans that are in U.S. dollars or euros. The combination of less foreign investment capital and banks that are bankrupt can sharply reduce aggregate demand, which causes a deep recession. Many countries around the world have experienced this kind of recession in recent years: along with Turkey in 2002, Mexico followed this general pattern in 1995, Thailand and countries across East Asia in 1997–1998, Russia in 1998, and Argentina in 2002. In many of these countries, large government budget deficits played a role in setting the stage for the financial crisis. A moderate increase in a budget deficit that leads to a moderate increase in a trade deficit and a moderate appreciation of the exchange rate is not necessarily a cause for concern. However, beyond some point that is hard to define in advance, a series of large budget deficits can become a cause for concern among international investors. One reason for concern is that extremely large budget deficits mean that aggregate demand may shift so far to the right as to cause high inflation. The example of Turkey is a situation where very large budget deficits brought inflation rates well into double digits. In addition, very large budget deficits at some point begin to raise a fear that the government would not repay the borrowing. In the last 175 years, the government of Turkey has been unable to pay its debts and defaulted on its loans six times. Brazil’s government has been unable to pay its debts and defaulted on its loans seven times; Venezuela, nine times; and Argentina, five times. The risk of high inflation or a default on repaying international loans will worry international investors, since both factors imply that the rate of return on their investments in that country may end up lower than expected. If international investors start withdrawing the funds from a country rapidly, the scenario of less investment, a depreciated exchange rate, widespread bank failure, and deep recession can occur. The following Clear It Up feature explains other impacts of large deficits. What are the risks of chronic large deficits in the United States? If a government runs large budget deficits for a sustained period of time, what can go wrong? According to a recent Brookings Institution report, a key risk of a large budget deficit is that government debt may grow too high compared to the country’s GDP growth. As debt grows, the national savings rate will decline, leaving less available in financial capital for private investment. The impact of chronically large budget deficits is as follows: - As the population ages, there will be an increasing demand for government services that may cause higher government deficits. Government borrowing and its interest payments will pull resources away from domestic investment in human capital and physical capital that is essential to economic growth. - Interest rates may start to rise so that the cost of financing government debt will rise as well, creating pressure on the government to reduce its budget deficits through spending cuts and tax increases. These steps will be politically painful, and they will also have a contractionary effect on aggregate demand in the economy. - Rising percentage of debt to GDP will create uncertainty in the financial and global markets that might cause a country to resort to inflationary tactics to reduce the real value of the debt outstanding. This will decrease real wealth and damage confidence in the country’s ability to manage its spending. After all, if the government has borrowed at a fixed interest rate of, say, 5%, and it lets inflation rise above that 5%, then it will effectively be able to repay its debt at a negative real interest rate. The conventional reasoning suggests that the relationship between sustained deficits that lead to high levels of government debt and long-term growth is negative. How significant this relationship is, how big an issue it is compared to other macroeconomic issues, and the direction of causality, is less clear. What remains important to acknowledge is that the relationship between debt and growth is negative and that for some countries, the relationship may be stronger than in others. It is also important to acknowledge the direction of causality: does high debt cause slow growth, slow growth cause high debt, or are both high debt and slow growth the result of third factors? In our analysis, we have argued simply that high debt causes slow growth. There may be more to this debate than we have space to discuss here. Using Fiscal Policy to Address Trade Imbalances If a nation is experiencing the inflow of foreign investment capital associated with a trade deficit because foreign investors are making long-term direct investments in firms, there may be no substantial reason for concern. After all, many low-income nations around the world would welcome direct investment by multinational firms that ties them more closely into the global networks of production and distribution of goods and services. In this case, the inflows of foreign investment capital and the trade deficit are attracted by the opportunities for a good rate of return on private sector investment in an economy. However, governments should beware of a sustained pattern of high budget deficits and high trade deficits. The danger arises in particular when the inflow of foreign investment capital is not funding long-term physical capital investment by firms, but instead is short-term portfolio investment in government bonds. When inflows of foreign financial investment reach high levels, foreign financial investors will be on the alert for any reason to fear that the country’s exchange rate may decline or the government may be unable to repay what it has borrowed on time. Just as a few falling rocks can trigger an avalanche; a relatively small piece of bad news about an economy can trigger an enormous outflow of short-term financial capital. Reducing a nation’s budget deficit will not always be a successful method of reducing its trade deficit, because other elements of the national saving and investment identity, like private saving or investment, may change instead. In those cases when the budget deficit is the main cause of the trade deficit, governments should take steps to reduce their budget deficits, lest they make their economy vulnerable to a rapid outflow of international financial capital that could bring a deep recession. Financing Higher Education Between 1982 and 2012, the increases in the cost of a college education had far outpaced that of the income of the typical American family. According to President Obama’s research staff, the cost of education at a four-year public college increased by 257% compared to an increase in family incomes of only 16% over the prior 30 years. The ongoing debate over a balanced budget and proposed cutbacks accentuated the need to increase investment in human capital to grow the economy versus deepening the already significant debt levels of the U.S. government. In summer 2013, President Obama presented a plan to make college more affordable that included increasing Pell Grant awards and the number of recipients, caps on interest rates for student loans, and providing education tax credits. In addition, the plan includes an accountability method for institutions of higher education that focuses on completion rates and creates a College Scorecard. Whether or not all these initiatives come to fruition remains to be seen, but they are indicative of creative approaches that government can take to meet its obligation from both a public and fiscal policy perspective. Key Concepts and Summary The government need not balance its budget every year. However, a sustained pattern of large budget deficits over time risks causing several negative macroeconomic outcomes: a shift to the right in aggregate demand that causes an inflationary increase in the price level; crowding out private investment in physical capital in a way that slows down economic growth; and creating a dependence on inflows of international portfolio investment which can sometimes turn into outflows of foreign financial investment that can be injurious to a macroeconomy. Self-Check Questions In the late 1990s, the U.S. government moved from a budget deficit to a budget surplus and the trade deficit in the U.S. economy grew substantially. Using the national saving and investment identity, what can you say about the direction in which saving and/or investment must have changed in this economy? Hint: In this case, the national saving and investment identity is written in this way: The increase in the government budget surplus and the increase in the trade deficit both increased the supply of financial capital. If investment in physical capital remained unchanged, then private savings must go down, and if savings remained unchanged, then investment must go up. In fact, both effects happened; that is, in the late 1990s, in the U.S. economy, savings declined and investment rose. Review Questions Under what conditions will a larger budget deficit cause a trade deficit? Critical Thinking Questions Explain how a shift from a government budget deficit to a budget surplus might affect the exchange rate. Describe how a plan for reducing the government deficit might affect a college student, a young professional, and a middle-income family. Problems Sketch a diagram of how a budget deficit causes a trade deficit. (Hint: Begin with what will happen to the exchange rate when foreigners demand more U.S. government debt.) Sketch a diagram of how sustained budget deficits cause low economic growth. Assume that the newly independent government of Tanzania employed you in 1964. Now free from British rule, the Tanzanian parliament has decided that it will spend 10 million shillings on schools, roads, and healthcare for the year. You estimate that the net taxes for the year are eight million shillings. The government will finance the difference by selling 10-year government bonds at 12% interest per year. Parliament must add the interest on outstanding bonds to government expenditure each year. Assume that Parliament places additional taxes to finance this increase in government expenditure so the gap between government spending is always two million. If the school, road, and healthcare budget are unchanged, compute the value of the accumulated debt in 10 years. References The White House. “This is why it's time to make college more affordable.” Last modified August 20, 2013. http://www.whitehouse.gov/share/college-affordability. Rubin, Robert E., Peter R. Orszag, and Allen Sinai. “Sustained Budget Deficits: Longer-Run U.S. Economic Performance and the Risk of Financial and Fiscal Disarray.” Last modified January 4, 2004. http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2004/1/05budgetdeficit%20orszag/20040105.pdf.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.034446	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28867/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The Impacts of Government Borrowing, Fiscal Policy and the Trade Balance", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73804/overview	Education Standards Annotation Symbols Background of, The Gettysburg Address - 150 years ago today! Lincoln's Gettysburg Address / recorded on the dictaphone The Gettysburg Address - Speech AL Passage Annotation Overview One annotates a passage that needs an explanation to be thoroughly understood and appreciated. Often, in works of literature, an editor will annotate the text in the margin (or at the bottom of each page) to further insight into sources of information that could bolster the reader's understanding. Anyone can annotate an article, speech, page in a novel or passage within a text. An individual makes notes that analyze the specific wording found in the course, which provides background information related to the selection; or referring the passage to another part of the same text. This lesson plan reflects passage annotation and helps students elaborate on the concept within literature and further guidance when writing an essay related to a selected text. Passage Annotation Summary Have you ever seen highlighted words or sentences, side notes or underlined terms on a paper, article or a novel page? Is there a reason behind this? Is there a term for it? There is, and today’s lesson will provide an overview of what this ‘term’ is with the help of Abraham Lincoln. Materials/Content: A Revision of Abraham Lincoln’s “The Gettysburg Address” speech Intended Learning Outcomes Intended Learning Outcomes Understand and use basic concepts and skills of passage annotation; Communicate clearly in oral and written form and Search for unfamiliar words in a dictionary or online dictionary resource. Process Skills Symbolization, observation, description, prediction, annotation Instructional Procedures Invitation to Learn “Why do people highlight, write notes on the side of the page or underline information?" Have you done that before? What is the purpose behind all that jazz? Instructional Procedures First, discuss what 'passage annotation' is by identifying the purpose, importance, relevance to literature and why people do it. Steps to follow for passage annotation activity: Provide students (online) with the speech (where it is located), and for the students in-class, handout the speech, “The Gettysburg Address” by Abraham Lincoln. Provide the students (online) with a link for dictionary skills, to look up words (Webster Dictionary, Cambridge Dictionary or Oxford Dictionary). For the students in-class, handout dictionaries. Set the focus. For example, say, “Read the speech to yourself, unless advised to read out-loud with a vote.” Look for “unfamiliar words within the text and circle or underline the words.” Highlight sentences that make you question the reader's thoughts – why did Abraham say this? What was the purpose, importance or relevance of this word or sentence within his speech? Reinforce the directions on the question sheet to all the students to understand the assignment's expectations of grammar, punctuation and writing in complete sentences. Remind students (online); provided on a Google Form on GoogleClassroom, is the Passage Annotation Assignment, which includes Abraham Lincoln’s “The Gettysburg Address” speech and the questions. Please remind the students to print the assignment out (if it is easier for them to read while answering the items). Allow the students to read the speech provided and answer the questions to hand-in/submit before the end of class. Extensions Possible Extensions/Adaptations Watch a video or lyric video on Abraham Lincoln’s speech, “The Gettysburg Address” on YouTube. Assessment Plan Did the students make any text to self or text to text connections after reading the speech? Could the students locate unfamiliar words in the dictionary or through the links provided with dictionary resources? Did the students predict the story pattern? Were the students able to understand the importance, purpose or relevance of passage annotation? Passage Annotation Activity - Revised “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are generated equal. Now we are affianced in a great civil war, testing whether that nation or any nation so conceived and so staunch can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We have come to consecrated a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate - we cannot consecrate - we cannot hallow - this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who thrashed here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long evoked, what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the fragmentary work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here keen to the great task remaining before us - that from these honoured dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full appraise of devotion - that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain - that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of candour - and that government of the people, by the people, for the inhabitants, shall not perish from the earth.” Please note (teachers): the highlighted words reflect the words changed for students to most likely lookup. You can alter the speech using your own words if you would like. Summary Have you ever seen highlighted words or sentences, side notes or underlined terms on a paper, article or a novel page? Is there a reason behind this? Is there a term for it? There is, and today’s lesson will provide an overview of what this ‘term’ is with the help of Abraham Lincoln. This lesson has also opted for both hybrid and virtual learning, use the links as a reference if you need detail explanation. Materials/Content: A Revision of Abraham Lincoln’s “The Gettysburg Address” speech Intended Learning Outcomes Intended Learning Outcomes - Understand and use basic concepts and skills of passage annotation; - Communicate clearly in oral and written form and - Search for unfamiliar words in a dictionary or online dictionary resource. Process Skills Symbolization, observation, description, prediction, annotation Instructional Procedures Invitation to Learn “Why do people highlight, write notes on the side of the page or underline information?" Have you done that before? What is the purpose behind all that jazz? Instructional Procedures Discuss what 'passage annotation' is by identifying the purpose, importance, relevance to literature and why people do it. Annotation Definition - Annotating is any action that deliberately interacts with a text to enhance the reader's understanding of the text’s actions, style or devices, - Annotating involves highlighting or underlining key pieces of text and making notes in the text's margins. - Sometimes called "close reading." The Purpose of Annotation - Anyone can create annotations to imply the task of either: making notes that analyze the specific wording found in the selection, provide background information related to the passage, or referring the passage to another part of the same text. Why do people Annotate? - People do this to help build vocabulary skills, analyze material or content, express thoughts and ideas within the text, predict the purpose of the author's reasoning behind the text and find critical or useful information within the text to write their argument. Importance & Relevance of Annotation - One annotates a passage that needs an explanation to be thoroughly understood and appreciated. - Often, in works of literature, an editor will annotate the text in the margin (or at the bottom of each page) to further insight into sources of information that could bolster the reader's understanding. - Annotating also helps build a better understanding of texts and stories. When you annotate, you are forced to evaluate what a story is saying, creating a clear image. It also makes reading more meaningful, and it helps readers remember critical information. Annotation Resources - The ‘Dictionary’ will be your best friend! Listed below are steps to help with annotating: - Reference information following a particular formatting style (APA, MLA, or another). - Write a summary of the source's content. - Write a thorough evaluation of the argument that includes a focus on rhetorical concepts and terms. - Write a few sentences on how you will use this source in your paper or project. Passage Annotation Assignment This assignment should take no longer than 20-30 minutes to complete. For the passage annotation, please provide students (online) with the annotation symbols, and students (in-class) provide them with a printed page of the symbols for reference. Remind the students online and in-person that grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure are part of the assignment. Unless it reflects question 1, then it is okay (depending on the sentence or definition used to define the chosen word for the written part of defining the word). If students are still unsure, you can use one of these video links to show them what annotating is and why it is useful. 1. School Habits - How to annotate text while reading https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5Mz4nwciWc 2. Ms. Peer Editor - Annotate With Me (Close Reading Strategies for Literary Passages) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJ8nhlzYx9o 3. Mrs. Ellis - Annotating a Text https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jcAparEo-Bk Directions: This assignment is due after class. It is to be either submitted online on GoogleClassroom (under Passage Annotation Assignment) or handed in-class. Students, please type out your answers using Microsoft Word, Google Doc or handwritten/printed in your English notebooks. This assignment is worth 15 marks. Please use correct grammar, punctuation, and sentence structure when completing your work. Passage Annotation Assignment 1. Please lookup ten words that are unfamiliar to you and define 5 of those words. [5 marks] 2. Please describe in your own words what the speech meant to you. (Importance, Relevance or Purpose). [3 marks] 3. From the sentences you highlighted, what was the purpose of annotating this information. Explain in one or two sentences why you highlighted the sentence/s. How did it reflect meaning towards Abraham Lincoln's speech? [3 marks] 4. What was the central argument or purpose for Abraham Lincoln's speech? (Who was it written for, audience. When was it published, what year? Why is this speech still remembered and reflected upon to this day). [4 marks]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.139357	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73804/overview", "title": "Passage Annotation", "author": "Interactive" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82446/overview	Reading Task: Murderer or a Mistake? Overview Teachers can make use of the given real life newspaper content as a reading material. The content has been adapted to their learners. Guiding discussion/debate questions will be helpful for their post-reading activities. The athlete Oscar Pistorius known as the Blade Runner shot his girlfriend in his house. "Some of the state witnesses heard a woman scream, followed by moments of silence, then heard gunshots and then more screaming," the people said. Pistorius admits shooting his girlfriend at his luxury home in Pretoria this year but he thought that she was a thief and he defended himself. This case was surprised South Africa and his fans around the world who regarded the Paralympian as a sporting hero. "The dead, a 29-year-old woman, was shot and killed in the home of Oscar Pistorius just after 3 am on 14 February 2013," " Oscar Pistorius armed himself with his 9 mm gun and he fired four shots at the woman through the locked door. The woman died on the scene. The cause of death is given as 'multiple gunshot wounds'." "Oscar Pistorius said that he thought she was a thief. However, he killed a person..." Dressed in a dark suit and dark tie, Pistorius, 26, entered the court and faced a wall of cameras. Occasionally his upper lip trembled and he lost the battle with his emotions, taking a deep breath, squeezing his teeth or wiping away tears. The court asked Pistorius if he would arrange his own defence. Pistorius stood up and said quietly into the microphone: "That is correct, your honour." The case was sent to the high court in South Africa. Discussion 1. Why do not South Africans find Oscar Pistorius guilty? 2. What is the reason behind this “empathy”? 3. Do they match with the habits of Highly Empathic People? 4. What do you think about the story now? 5. Do you find him guilty or not? 5. Do you find him guilty or not? Debate 1. There will be two debate groups: one group who thinks that he is guilty and one group who thinks that he is not. You will sit together with those who have the same answer with you for the question 5. 2. You are going to defend your opinions with the information you have gathered from the video and the news report. 3. First, you are going to have a little discussion with your group members. 4. Then, decide on your supporting points and evidences from the sources. 5. If necessary, take some notes. 6. Make sure that everyone contributes to the discussion. 7. The group that defends their opinions best is going to win the argument.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.158968	Emine Karaduman	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82446/overview", "title": "Reading Task: Murderer or a Mistake?", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76383/overview	Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Understand the concept of a ratio and use ratio language to describe a ratio relationship between two quantities. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Understand the concept of a unit rate a/b associated with a ratio a:b with b ≠ 0, and use rate language in the context of a ratio relationship. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Use ratio and rate reasoning to solve real-world and mathematical problems. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Solve unit rate problems including those involving unit pricing and constant speed. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Compute unit rates, including those involving complex fractions, with like or different units. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Recognize and represent proportional relationships between quantities. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Understand the concept of a ratio and use ratio language to describe a ratio relationship between two quantities. For example, "The ratio of wings to beaks in the bird house at the zoo was 2:1, because for every 2 wings there was 1 beak."ť "For every vote candidate A received, candidate C received nearly three votes."ť Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Understand the concept of a unit rate a/b associated with a ratio a:b with b ‰äĘ 0 (b not equal to zero), and use rate language in the context of a ratio relationship. For example, "This recipe has a ratio of 3 cups of flour to 4 cups of sugar, so there is 3/4 cup of flour for each cup of sugar." "We paid $75 for 15 hamburgers, which is a rate of $5 per hamburger." (Expectations for unit rates in this grade are limited to non-complex fractions.) Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Use ratio and rate reasoning to solve real-world and mathematical problems, e.g., by reasoning about tables of equivalent ratios, tape diagrams, double number line diagrams, or equations. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Solve unit rate problems including those involving unit pricing and constant speed. For example, If it took 7 hours to mow 4 lawns, then at that rate, how many lawns could be mowed in 35 hours? At what rate were lawns being mowed? Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Compute unit rates associated with ratios of fractions, including ratios of lengths, areas and other quantities measured in like or different units. For example, if a person walks 1/2 mile in each 1/4 hour, compute the unit rate as the complex fraction (1/2)/(1/4) miles per hour, equivalently 2 miles per hour. Learning Domain: Ratios and Proportional Relationships Standard: Recognize and represent proportional relationships between quantities. Cluster: Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems Standard: Understand the concept of a ratio and use ratio language to describe a ratio relationship between two quantities. For example, “The ratio of wings to beaks in the bird house at the zoo was 2:1, because for every 2 wings there was 1 beak.” “For every vote candidate A received, candidate C received nearly three votes.” Cluster: Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems Standard: Understand the concept of a unit rate a/b associated with a ratio a:b with b ≠ 0 (b not equal to zero), and use rate language in the context of a ratio relationship. For example, "This recipe has a ratio of 3 cups of flour to 4 cups of sugar, so there is 3/4 cup of flour for each cup of sugar." "We paid $75 for 15 hamburgers, which is a rate of $5 per hamburger." (Expectations for unit rates in this grade are limited to non-complex fractions.) Cluster: Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems Standard: Use ratio and rate reasoning to solve real-world and mathematical problems, e.g., by reasoning about tables of equivalent ratios, tape diagrams, double number line diagrams, or equations. Cluster: Understand ratio concepts and use ratio reasoning to solve problems Standard: Solve unit rate problems including those involving unit pricing and constant speed. For example, If it took 7 hours to mow 4 lawns, then at that rate, how many lawns could be mowed in 35 hours? At what rate were lawns being mowed? Cluster: Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems Standard: Compute unit rates associated with ratios of fractions, including ratios of lengths, areas and other quantities measured in like or different units. For example, if a person walks 1/2 mile in each 1/4 hour, compute the unit rate as the complex fraction (1/2)/(1/4) miles per hour, equivalently 2 miles per hour. Cluster: Analyze proportional relationships and use them to solve real-world and mathematical problems Standard: Recognize and represent proportional relationships between quantities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.199417	01/15/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76383/overview", "title": "Math, Grade 8; Ratios, Rates, and Unit Rates", "author": "Janel Williams" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65078/overview	Learning Microsoft's 3-D Builder: Coffee Mug Tutorial Overview A tutorial to learn the essential elements of Microsoft's 3-D Builder by building a coffee mug. Takes about 7-8 minutes to complete Below is a step-by-step process of how to create a coffee mug using Microsoft’s 3D Builder. This program is native to all Windows 10 PC’s, and can be downloaded from the Microsoft store. First, we need to open the Insert menu at the top left of the screen. Then click on Cylinder to drop one in the middle of your work plane. Click Custom under the Insert menu, and then change the Shape to Torus. Then change the Latitude to 100, the Longitude to 100, and the Radius to 18. Finally click add to drop the custom Torus into your work plane. Make sure the Move tool at the bottom of your screen is selected, then use the arrows next to your Torus to move it from under your cylinder. Use the Rotate tool at the bottom of your screen to rotate the torus by 90 degrees until it’s perpendicular with the cylinder. Then use the Move tool to insert your torus halfway into the side of the cylinder: this is your mug handle. Select the cylinder and press Ctrl+C to copy it, then press Ctrl+V to paste it. Then use the Scale tool at the bottom of the screen to adjust the cylinder to the following settings: X =37, Y=37, Z = 60. Copy and paste your new cylinder the same way you did in step 5. Now use the Move tool to move one of the long cylinders into the middle of your original cylinder. Make sure the long cylinder is selected, go to the Edit menu at the top of the page and press Subtract. You should now have a large hole in the middle of your mug, press Crtl+Z if you need to undo anything. Hold down the shift button and then click on your mug and mug handle to select both at the same time. Then go to the top right side of your screen and click the Group button. They are now one combined object. Click on Paint at the top of the screen, then click on Color, and then change the selected color to white. Mouse over the mug and click on it to change the color to white, do the same to the mug handle. Finally click the color check mark at the top of the screen to apply your color changes. Use the Move tool to move your last remaining long cylinder into the middle of your mug. Use the Scale tool to make the cylinder’s Z = 30. Use the skills you learned in step 8 to change the cylinder’s color to brown: now you have some coffee in your cup. Time for finishing touches. With your brown coffee cylinder still selected, click on Material at the top of the screen. Then change the type to Translucent and hit apply; your coffee filling should now be see-through. You can use this same technique to change the mug and handles material to Realistic, and then use the slider at the top to make it glossy. After hitting apply, you’ve finished your 3D Builder coffee mug! Bonus Points: After finishing, group your coffee filling and mug to have one complete object!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.220350	John Whitfield	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65078/overview", "title": "Learning Microsoft's 3-D Builder: Coffee Mug Tutorial", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112250/overview	:الجامعات العربية:أولاً: جامعة الملك فهد للبترول:أ- نبذ عنهاجامعة الملك فهد للبترول هي جامعة سعودية تحكم في مدينة السيطرة الشرقية. تم افتتاحها لأول مرة بالرسم في تاريخ 5 جمادى الأولى 1383هـ الموافقة على الموافقة في 23 سبتمبر 1963م باسم كلية التنظيم للبترول وفي عام 1975م تم تغيير مكانها الأكاديمية واسمها رسميا جامعة ألبرتو ألبرتو، وفي عام 1986م تم تغيير اسم الجامعة ليسقر كما هو الآن جامعة الملك فهد لتنفيذ ذلك بعد زيارة مؤسسة الملك فهد وهي لها، وهي جامعة في العلوم والتقنية في المملكة العربية السعودية، الجامعة الأولى عربياً في عدد براءات الايراس، حيث تشمل ثلاثة براءات الاكتتاب في العالم العربي، الاشتراك في الاشتراك السادس على مستوى جامعات العالم حسب تصنيف مكتب الولايات المتحدة لبراءات بالإضافة إلى إلى إلى . كما دخلت ضمن قائمة أفضل جامعة على مستوى العالم، بحسب QS البريطانية، في تصنيف المجلس لعام 2020-2021، والتي تنوعت بـ "الجائزة الذهبية" لعام 2022م من التنفيذي، مراجعة نظم المعلومات في الشرق الأوسط لشهر فبراير، منذ تأسيسها حتى عام 2014م، التخرج منهم 30,831 شخصًا، منهم 3,346 شخصًا للحصول على درجة الماجستير و217 شخصًا في دراسة الدكتوراه. وهي الجامعة منذ إنشائها للجامعات التعليمية المتقدمة مقتصرا على طلاب الطلاب دون عام 2019 حيث تقدم برامج الدراسات العليا للخريجين كرحلة أولى في تخصصات محددة، وتعتمد الجامعة أولًا على رياضات الأولمبياد الرياضيات العالمية:ب- تأريخهانشأت الكلية الناشئة بموجب مرسوم ملكي في 5 جمادى الأولى 1383هـ (23/9/1963م). وقد أطلقها باسم “كلية الإدارة الحكومية“، وفي 1/5/1395هـ، صدرت مرسوم ملكي بتعديل إسمه إلى “جامعة الإدارة الحكومية”، وفي 23/4/1407هـ، تم تعديله إلى “جامعة الملك فهد للبناء”، بعد زيارة الملك فهد بن. عبد العزيز للجامعة. شهدت الجامعة منذ نشأتها، وحضرت في سجل المحاضرين المتحقين بها، والمتخرجين منها، وأعضاء هيئة التدريس في كلية الحقوق. كما يعكس هذا التطور في جميع منشآت الجامعة للطوارئ. لقد بلغ عدد الطلاب في 23 سبتمبر 1964 م (67) طالباً. ومن ثم فقدت والجامعة ذاكرتها في النمو بشكل متزايد حتى بلغ عدد طلابها أكثر من 10000 طالب في الدراسة الدراسية 2005 /2006م. تخرجت أول دفعة في الجامعة عام 1391/ 1392هـ (1971/ 1972م)، مكونة من أربعة طلاب حصلوا على شهادة بكالوريوس العلوم في كليات العلوم والعلوم الهندسية، وقد منحت الجامعة أول شهاداتها في عام 1391هـ/1971م؛ فأخذت شهادات في العلوم الهندسية:ت- الحرم الجامعييُقسم الجامعة إلى ثلاثة شتاء رئيسة: الشمالية والوسطى والجنوبية. ويشهد مشروب العسل الشمالي مجمع السنة التحضيرية ومجمع اسكان الاخوة المتميزين الشمالي ومجمع اسكان الرئيسي اماككت في يشمل كل المميزات الأكاديمية من فصول ومعامل ومكاتب جميلة الاساتذة كما يمكن أن يكون رئيسًا للعلوم الجامعة وسعى والمكتبة الرئيسية وتقنية المعلومات ومراكز أخرى واما الشمال فهو حاليا عن اسكان معهد للأساتذة جميلة:ث- أبرز خريجي وأستاذة الجامعةخالد بن عبد العزيز الفالح وزير الاستثمار والوزير السابق للعمل والثروة المعدنية والرئيس السابق لشركة أرامكوأمين حسن الناصر رئيس شركة أرامكو وكبير إدارييها التنفيذيينالأمير بن سعود خالد الفيصل وكيل هيئة الهيئة العامة للاستثمار ونائب أمير المدينة المنورة حاليًامحمد بن خليفة آل خليفة وزير النفط البحرينيغازي مشعل عجيل الياور رأس الحكومة الجزائرية بعد غزو العراق عام 2003محمد بن صالح بنت وزير الحج ومرةزياد بن سامي اللبان الرئيس التنفيذي لإصدار المعرفة الواضحةالموسيقي الرئيسي التنفيذي لإنشاء جديدزياد بن محمد الشيحة الرئيس التنفيذي السابق للشركة السعودية للكهرباءمحمد بن إبراهيم السويل وزير الاتصالات وتقنية المعلومات سابقاالأمير عبد العزيز بن سلمان بن عبد العزيز وزير الطاقةفداء فؤاد النائب العادل للمملكة المتحدة لدى منظمة يونيو بين العامين 2001 – 2005خالد بن حسن البياري الرئيس التنفيذي لشركة الاتصالات السعودية STCسعيد بن صالح الغامدي رئيس مجلس إدارة شركة عبد اللطيف جميل للتمويلإحسان شكور أبو غزالة الشريك المحلي لشركة البيك للخدمات الغذائيةعبد الله بن عامر السواحة وزير الاتصالات وتقنية المعلوماتإبراهيم بن عبد الرحمن العمر محافظ الهيئة العامة للاستثمارعبد الله بن عبد الرحمن المطرب ووزير النسخة وأمين منطقة الرياض سابقاأبو بكر بن أحمد وكيل وزارة الثقافة والإعلام (السعودية) الموظف الثقافي الدوليعبد الله بن حسن العبد القادر رئيس مجلس إدارة شركة الاتصالات السعودية STCفهد بن عبد الرحمن بالغنيم وزير الزراعةسعيد بن محمد الغامدي الرئيس التنفيذي في البنك الأهلي التجاري حاليامحمد بن صالح المنجد، الداعية المعروف ومشرف مجموعة مواقع الإسلامخالد بن عبد الله المصلح، الداعيةعبد العزيز و بعد مدير جامعة حفر الباطنخالد بن صالح المديفر - الرئيس التنفيذي لشركة التجريف العربية السعودية (معادن)محمد دريش، مدير المختبر الرقمي في قسم الهندسة الكهربائيةفيصل الفقير المدير العام لمصفاة رأس تنورةفايز علي المالكي نائب رئيس سابك لسلسلة توريد وعضو في مجلس إدارة شركتي كيميا وينبتأحمد بن محمد ثمين- مراقب هيئة الحكومة الرقمية:ج- كليتها:كلية علوم وهندسة الحاسب الآليعلوم الحاسبهندسةهندسة الحاسب الآليعلوم وهندسة الحاسب الآلي (دكتوراه)شبكات الحاسب (ماجستير)نظم هندسة التحكم والقياسهندسة ونظم صناعية:كلية العلوم الهندسيةهندسة الطيران والفضاءالهندسة المدنيةالتقنية الصناعيةالهندسة الكهربائيةهندسة الاتصالات (ماجستير)الهندسة الميكانيكية:كلية هندسة البترول وعلوم الأرضهندسة البترولالكترونياالجيوفيزياءالسياسة:كلية الفنون التطبيقيةالهندسة المدنية التطبيقيةالتكنولوجيا التطبيقية الكيميائيةالتطبيقات الكهربائيةالهندسة الميكانيكية الميكانيكيةهندسة البترول التطبيقية:كلية العلومالكيمياءالكيمياء الصناعيةفيجيفيزياء طبية (ماجستير)العلوم الرياضيةالإحصاء(ماجستير):كلية الإدارة الصناعيةبشكل صحيحنظم المعلومات الإداريةcom.coolالإدارةتسويقماجستير إدارة الأعمالماجستير إدارة الأعمال (للمدير التنفيذي):كلية تصاميم البيئةالتكنولوجيا الحديثةالتكنولوجيا الحديثةإدارة إدارة التشيد (ماجستير)تخطيط المدن والأسماء (ماجستير):كليات المجتمعكلية المجتمع بالدمامكلية المجتمع بحفر الباطنكلية المجتمع بحائل:ح- تصنيفها: تصنيفها حسب تصنيف كيو إس العالمي المنطقة العربية لعام 2024تصنيفها الأول:خ- الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالجامعة:ثانياً: الجامعة الأردنية:أ- نبذ عنهاجامِعَة أردُنية هي جامِعَة حُكوميَّة رَسميّة تقع في العاصمةِ الأردونية عمَّان في منطقة الجبيهة، تُعتبَر الغامِعَة الأولى التي أُنشئت في المملكة الأردونية الهاشمية. تأسست عام 1962 صَدَار الإِرادَة الملكية بِإنشَاء الغامِعة في شمال عمّان، حيث حَضَرَ وَفدٌ عسكرِيٌّ بريطاني لِلَبَحث في تقديم الدَّعم المسلَّحة الأردونية، وعندماها نُودي بِإِ بعد إنشاء الغامِقة. تُعَد منطقة المُحيطة بِالجامِعة حاليًا واحِدة والتي تُطلَق عليها منطقة لِواء الجمِعة من المنااطِق الحَضَريَّة في عمَّان، وتتمتع بكثافة عَدَد السُّكّان وارتِفاعستوي التعليمي والثَّقافي. لُقِبَت الجامعة بِلقَب جامعة الأُم؛ فَقَد احتَضنَت الغامِعة وقد رُبع مِليون طالبٍ منها، وخَرَّجت شخصيَّات لها تَأثيرها ونفوذها عَلى المُجتَمع الأردني والدوَل المُجاورةفي العَقدِ الأوَّلِ مِن القرنِ الحادي والعِشرين، لَم يَتَجاوَز عَدَدُ الطُّلاّبِ 35 ألف طَالِب، في حينِ كانَ عَدَدُ الطُّلاّبِ في مُنتَصَفِ عَقدِ 2010 يُعَادِل 45 ألف طَالِبٍ وطالبة، لكن في عَام 2019 تَجاوَز عَدَدُ الطُّلاّبِ 50 ألفًا لأوَّلِ مَرَّةٍ مُنذ إنشائهاتتوج فيمِعةِ نسبَة (12%) من الطّلّابِ الأجانِب في إِطارِ ما يُسَمّى بالرنامج الدّولي، تَجاوَز عَدَد الخريجين مائتَي ألفٍيَبلُغ عَدَد أعضاء الهيئَة التدريسيَة ما يُقارِب 1600 مُعلِّم، حَوالي ثلثهم حاصِل عَلى دَرَجَةِ أُستاذ (بروفيسور) من جامِعات أمريكية وأوروبية وآسيوية وَعَرَبيَّة، بِالإِضافَةِ إلى خريجي الجامِعة الأردُنيَّة نَفسِها، أمّا عَدَد المَعاهد والمراكز في الجامِعةِ 19، وعَدَد بَرامج الكُليات لِمَرحلةِ البَكالوريوس 94، وعَدَد بَرامج الكُليات لِمرحلةِ الدِّراسات العُليا هو 111 لدرجة الماجستير و38 لدرجة الدكتوراةيَضُم فرع العَقَبةِ سِت كُلّيّات مُقسَّمة بَين إنسانية وعلمية، فَهُناك ثَلاث كُلّيّات عِلميَة: كُلّيَّة نظم وتكنولوجيا المَعلومات وَكُلّيَّة العُلوم الأساسية والبَحريَّة وَكُلّيَّة التَمريض، ويوجَد ثَلاث كُلّيّات إنسانية: وهُم اللُّغات، وَالإِدارَة والتمويل، والسياحة والفندقة:ب- تاريخها:ويشمل تـأريخها الآتي:أولاً: مرحلة تأسيس الجامعةطالب الأردنيون عدة مرات بإنشاء جامعة على أراضي الأردن، في الخمسينيات، كان عدد الطلاب الأردنيين الذين يدرسون في الخارج هائلاً، وحينها تبرع عدد كبير من الأردنيين بمساحات كبيرة لإنشاء الجامعة على أراضيهم، في عام 1962، التقى وفد عسكري بريطاني مع قادة الجيش الأردني للاتفاق على المساعدة البريطانية، سُئِل الجيش الأردني عن حاجته إلى المعونات لإجراء جدولتها، فطَلَبَ قادة الجيش ببناء جامعة في الأردن، ووُفِقَ عليه، كان الملك الحسين بن طلال قد تشاور مع رئيس الوزراء آنذاك وصفي التل في الأمر، واِتَّفقا بينهما على إنشاء الجامعة، وأعطى الملك توجيهاته إلى وصفي بإنشائها، بدأت الاتصالات الرسمية في متابعة تأسيس الجامعة، لا سيما الاتصالات مع بريطانيا ومع الجامعات المصرية والعراقية واللبنانية، من بينهم الجامعة الأمريكية في بيروت والجامعة الأمريكية بالقاهرة، جاء في نص الإرادة الملكية :الساميةفإننا ايمانًا مِنا بهذا كله واستجابة له وبالاستناد إلى المادة 40 من الدستور وبناءً على ما قرره مجلس وزرائنا نصدر إرادتنا بما هو آت: تؤسس في المملكة الأردنية الهاشمية جامعة تُدعى الجامعة الأردنية يكون مقرها موقع الجبيهة في عاصمة المملكةفي يوم افتتاح الجامعة، وصل الملك الحسين بن طلال وموكبه والأمير الحسن بن طلال ورئيس الوزراء الأردني وصفي التل إلى الجامعة، كان في استقبالهم في حينه رئيس الجامعة ناصر الدين الأسد ورئيس مجلس الأمناء سمير الرفاعي وبقية أعضاء مجلس الأمناء، في احتفال أُقيم في السابع عشر من أبريل عام 1965، تسلّم الملك الحسين أول شهادة صادرة عن الجامعة وهي شهادة دكتوراه فخرية، ألقى الملك بعدها كلمة سامية في مدرج الجامعة عبّر فيها عن فخره برؤية أجمل أحلامه وأغلى أمنياته قد تحققانطلقت كلماتي حارةً مؤمنة، تُعلن باسم الأسرة الأردنية الواحدة تأسيس الجامعة الأردنية في الأردن الغالي في اليوم الثاني من أيلول عام 1962، وهذا والحمد لله أعيش لأشهد هذا الاحتفال الباسم بافتتاح الجامعة الغالية، وأسعد بأن أحمل شهادتها وردائها وشارتها، فألف حمدٍ للعلي القادر على كل ما أنعم وقدر(من حفل افتتاحية الجامعة في 17 أبريل 1965، الملك الحسين بن طلال)بدأ أول يوم للتدريس في الجامعة في 25 ديسمبر 1965، بدأت الجامعة بثلاثة مباني صغيرة، وبميزانية وصلت 50 ألف دينار، وبثمانية مدرسين وعدد قليل من الأساتذة الوافدين، كان من بين الأساتذة ناصر الدين الأسد وعبد الكريم الغرايبة وفاخر عاقل وهاشم ياغي، كما بدأت بكلية واحدة وهي كلية الآداب، كان عدد الطلبة حينها 167 طالباً من بينهم 17 طالبة، نشطت إدارة الجامعة في سنواتها الأولى في بناء البنية التحتية للجامعة، ثم لم تنتظر بعد افتتاح كلية الآداب والتدريس هناك حتى أسست كلية العلوم عام 1965، جنباً إلى جنب مع كلية الاقتصاد والتجارة خلال تلك الفترةلُقِبَت الجامعة الأردنية بلقب الجامعة «الأم» من قبل الإعلام الأردني في نهاية عام 1962، فهي تأسست عام 1962 وبهذا تكون أول جامعة تأسست في الأردن، احتضنت الجامعة ما يقارب ربع مليون طالب وطالبة وقامت بتأسيس شخصيات لها تأثيرها ونفوذها على المجتمع الأردني، كما انطلق أول مسرح أردني من مسرح سمير الرفاعي في الجامعة، وتأسس أول مشروع أردني مجتمعي من قسم الاجتماع، وبدأ أول نظام ساعات معتمدة في العالم العربي من الجامعة الأردنية، لذا فقد سُميت الجامعة الأم، كانت الجامعة تجربة جديدة عربيًا، وكانت في أولى سنواتها معروفة كجامعة دولة، وليست كما هي الآن «جامعة حكومية»، وذلك يعني أنها جامعة وطنية مستقلة عن الحكومة استقلالًا كاملًا حيث كانت مستقلة كان التدريس باللغة العربية لتخصصات العلوم الإنسانية وباللغة الإنجليزية للتخصصات العلمية، ضمت الكليات الإنسانية أساتذة من عباقرة اللغة العربية البارزين في المنطقة، مثل: ناصر الدين الأسد، وشوقي ضيف، وهاشم ياغي، ونهاد الموسى، وإبراهيم السامرائي، وعبد الكريم خليفة، في السنوات الأولى، كان نظام الدراسة هو نظام سنوات حتى تم تغييره في عام 1968 للسماح للطلاب بحرية اختيار المواد:ثانياً: ( 1970-1990)على الرغم من الصعوبات التي مر بها الأردن في نهاية الستينيات وبداية السبعينيات، سواء على المستوى الخارجي مثل الاعتداءات الإسرائيلية المتكررة، أو داخليًا مثل أحداث أيلول الأسود بين الجيش الأردني والمقاومة الفلسطينية وما أعقبها من مناوشات عنصرية بين الجهتين، ومع ذلك؛ استمرت الجامعة الأردنية في النمو والتوسع، شهدت الفترة ما بين 1970 و1990 تزايد عدد الكليات والمراكز، كانت المملكة الأردنية تشهد نمواً اقتصادياً جيداً في ذلك الوقت، وكانت حجم المساعدات التي قدمتها أمريكا والدول العربية كبيرة؛ فأنشأَت رئاسةُ الجامعة عشر كليات، بما في ذلك كليات الطب وطب الأسنان والصيدلة والهندسة والتمريض، فضلاً عن كليات الزراعة والحقوق والتربية الرياضية، مع العلم أنها كلها كليات عالية التكلفة وخاصة كليات الطب والهندسة، كما أُنشِئَ ثمانية مراكز علمية بالإضافة إلى مستشفى الجامعة التعليمي، من الأمور المهمة الأخرى أن هذه المرحلة شهدت إنشاء عمادة شؤون الطلاب وعمادة البحث العلمي، افتُتِحَ مسجد الجامعة في 10 يونيو 1980، بحضور الملك الحسين والأمير الحسن، وفي 6 أبريل 1982، صدرت الإرادة الملكية بتأسيس المركز الثقافي الإسلاميفي عام 1972، صدر قانون بإعادة هيكلة إدارة الجامعة، من أهم القوانين التي صدرت أن يكون للرئيس نائب أو أكثر، أعطت القوانين المزيد من الصلاحيات لمجلس العمداء، ومنذ ذلك الحين أصبح مجلس العمداء هو الذي يدير الجامعة ويسير شؤونها. في عام 1985، أُلغي مجلس أمناء الجامعة بموجب القانون رقم 28 لسنة 1985 الصادر عن وزارة التعليم العالي، وذلك بتفويض صلاحيات المجلس إلى مجلس التعليم العالي، لم تكن المنحة المالية ثابتة؛ إذ بلغت 225 ألف دينار أردني في عام 1970، وارتفعت إلى 950 ألف دينار أردني في عام 1990:ثالثاً: (1990-2000)بدأت هذه المرحلة مع انتهاء الأحكام العرفية في الأردن؛ فشهدت هذه المرحلة زيادة في الحريات، والحياة الديمقراطية، والتوسع المستمر في بناء كليات ومراكز الجامعة، طالبت الحركة الطلابية في التسعينيات بإنشاء اتحاد عام للطلاب الأردنيين، انطلاقًا من الجامعة الأردنية، طبّقت إدارة الجامعة نظام الصوت الواحد في انتخاب أعضاء مجلس الجامعة في تلك الفترة، مما رسخ العشائرية والقبلية بين الطلاب، عام 1990، اُنتُخِبَت لجنة تحضيرية فاز فيها التيار الإسلامي بنسبة 96% من الأصوات، في عام 1992، أُنشِئَ «مجلس طلبة»، ليس «اتحاد طلبة»، كانت تعليمات وأنظمة الجامعة متوافقة مع توجهات الدولة الأردنية؛ لذلك ظلت العلاقات متشنجة ومتوترة بين الطلاب وإدارة الجامعة، ومن الناحية الأخرى، تحسنت العلاقات بين الجامعة ووزارة التعليم العالي، وبدأ الطرفان التنسيق بينهما لاتخاذ عدة قرارات، وفي عام 1998، أُعيدَ مجلس أمناء الجامعة، وبالتالي استعادت الجامعة استقلالها الأكاديمي والإداري والمالي، كما نُقِلَت صلاحيات مجلس التعليم العالي في اعتماد الجامعات وضمان جودتها إلى مجلس الاعتماد:رابعاً: (2000– إلى الآن)تمثّلت هذه المرحلة بصدور العديد من القرارات مثل إنشاء فرع العقبة، وقبول طلاب النظام الموازي والدولي، وظهور التعليم المدمج، ونشاط الحركة الطلابية داخل الحرم الجامعي، في عام 2000، تراجعت المنحة المالية من الحكومة إلى 400 ألف دينار أردني، مما كانت أحد الأسباب في تضاعف عدد الطلاب وأعضاء هيئة التدريس والموظفين والإداريين في هذه المرحلة؛ إذ ازدادت أعداد الطلاب بعد أن ظهر عدة قبولات مثل القبول الدولي والموازي عام 2000، وقبول أعداد كبيرة من الطلاب من هوامش المملكة تحت مسمى المكرمة لدوافع سياسية واجتماعية، مثل مكرمة المناطق الأقل حظاً، وأبناء العشائر، وأبناء أفراد الجيش والأمن، في عام 2008 في فترة رئاسة خالد الكركي، أُنشِئَ فرع للجامعة في العقبة، وبدأ التدريس فيه عام 2009، بين عامي 2000 و2011، سجّلت الجامعة 78 براءة اختراع، وأُصدِرَ 752 كتابًا، ونُشِرَ 8764 بحثًا من قبل أعضاء هيئة التدريسمع بداية عقد 2010، سعت إدارة الجامعة إلى تحويل الجامعة الأردنية إلى جامعة عالمية تارةً وجامعة بحثية تارةً أخرى، ولذلك تنفق الجامعة الآن 5% من نفقاتها السنوية على البحث العلمي، وُسِّعَت برامج الدراسات العليا وزِيدَت عدد الطلاب فيها، وباتت الجامعة تقدم 111 برنامجًا على مستوى الماجستير و38 لدرجة الدكتوراه و16 في الاختصاص العالي في الطبازدادت الحركة الطلابية في عقد 2010، ظهرت عدة قوائم كبيرة في الجامعة أثرت على التوجهات والحراك الطلابي داخل الحرم الجامعي، مثل قائمة النشامى، وأهل الهمة، والعودة، والكرامة، والتجديد وغيرهم من القوائم على مستوى الجامعة أو الكليةفي حفل اليوبيل الذهبي للجامعة في عام 2012، افتتح الملك عبد الله الثاني بن الحسين الحفل، حيث جاء إلى مدرج الحسن بن طلال، وقام بتكريم رؤساء الجامعة السابقين، وافتتح عددًا من المرافق الجديدة، قال رئيس الجامعة آنذاك؛ اخليف الطراونة، أن الجامعة قد خرّجت 159,383 طالباً منذ إنشائهافي عام 2017، زِيدَت عدد فصول السنة، بعد أن كان عدد الفصول الدراسية ثلاثة (الأول، والثاني، والصيفي)؛ أُضِيفَ فصل رابع في صيف 2017 مما جعل عدد الفصول الدراسية في الجامعة (الأول، والثاني، والصيفيين)، على آية حال، أُلغِيَ نظام الصيفيين في عام 2018، واستُبدِلا بفصلٍ صيفيٍ واحد مدته اثني عشر أسبوعًا، في النصف الثاني من عقد 2010، شُيدَت محطة التعلم المدمج في مكتبة الجامعة، وأُطلِقَ نظام التعلم المدمج أو ما يسمى بالتعلم الإلكتروني يسعى نظام التعلم الإلكتروني إلى تطوير نظام التعليم من خلال التفاعل والابتكار بواسطة أحدث تقنيات المعلومات والاتصالات، حيث يضع الأساتذة دروسًا وواجبات على منصات التعلم التابعة للجامعة بدلاً من إلقاء محاضرة في الجامعة، شريطة ألا يتم تقليل نسبة المحاضرات الجامعية عن 50%، في 14 مارس 2020 وفي ظل تفشي جائحة فيروس كورونا في الأردن، قرر مجلس الوزراء تعليق الدوام في الجامعات، وعليه قرر مجلس العمداء تعليق الدوام الرسمي من يومه، بحيث يتم توفير التعليم الإلكتروني بالكامل، وتضمين تدريس جميع المقررات الجامعية إلكترونيًا لطلابها بشكل إجباري دون الذهاب لحضور المحاضرات في الجامعة:ت- الحرم الجامعيمساحة الجامعة 463.32 ميل مربع (1,200.0 كـم2)، منتشرة في الكليات الإنسانية في الجهة الشمالية، الجامعات الطبية في الجانب الجنوبي، للكولوجيات العلمية الأخرى، تحتوي على العديد من المطاعم والكافتيريات المتقدمة والتي تقدم الطعام والشراب بشكل رمزي للمتطوعين وأعضاء الهيئة التدريسية والإدارية والضيوف، كما توجد مجموعة أكشاك أمام كل كلية، مطاعم خاصة داخل الحرم الجامعي مثل مطاعم صاج وفيلاج جديدة أخرى، بالإضافة إلى المطاعم المتنوعة الموجودة في أطراف الحرم الجامعي في تجربة بالجامعة:ويشمل الحرم الجامعي الآتي:أولاً: المستشفىهو أحد المستشفيات الرئيسية في العاصمة الأردنية عمّان، أُجري افتتاحه في 28 أبريل 1973، كان اسمه حينها مستشفى عمان الكبير، وبعد ذلك ضُم إلى الجامعة الأردنية بإرادة ملكية في 1 يوليو من عام 1975، وهو أول مستشفى جامعي تعليمي في الأردن، منذ عام 1987، يقوم المستشفى بزراعة النخاع العظم لمرضى سرطان الدم وأمراض الدم الأخرى، وأُنشِئَت وحدة خاصة لمرضى زراعة نخاع العظم مزودة بغرف عزل، وتوجد فيه عيادة متخصصة في علاج أمراض المناعة الذاتية الرئوية، كما تحتوي على مختبر للنوم يقدم خدمات متخصصة واستثنائية للمرضى المصابين بمشاكل خطيرة في التنفسبالإضافة إلى خدماته المميزة لمرضى النطق والسمع، كان المستشفى من أوائل المستشفيات في إجراء عمليات زراعة القوقعة، كما أنه رائد في عمليات زراعة القرنيات، ويجري أيضًا عمليات أطفال الأنابيب وعمليات معالجات الجهاز الهضمي وإدخال تقنية الكبسولة الذكية في علميات التصوير التشخيصي، يستفرد المستشفى بمعالجة حالات الصرع الحادة جراحيًا باستخدام بحوث (العصب الحائر) والتي تعد من العمليات الجراحية النادرة، ويستفرد المستشفى بإجراء عمليات المسالك البولية والنسائية وفق أحدث وأدق الوسائل، وعمليات جراحية للأجنّة داخل الرحم، ويقدم المستشفى خدمات خاصة بمعالجة الآلام المزمنة، ووحدة علاج القدم السكرية، ووحدة زراعة الأسنان، ووحدة متكاملة لطب التأهيليضم المستشفى مختبرات طبية في مختلف المجالات ومنها مختبر السموم، ومختبر الباثولوجيا الجزيئية، ومختبر الأنسجة والخلايا، وبنك الدم، كما أُدخِل نظام "Fish System" لتقديم خدمة التشخيص الوراثي الجزيئي، تحتوي دائرة الأشعة على أجهزة الرنين المغناطيسي وأجهزة التصوير الطبقي الحديثة، كما يتم أرشفة نظام الأشعة لتمكين الأطباء من عرض الأشعة السينية تلقائيًا من أي مكان وفي أي وقت، يقدم المستشفى خدمات الإسعاف من خلال دائرة طب الطوارئ في مبنى جديد للطوارئ والحوادث بسعة 34 سريراً، يوفر المبنى خدمات المختبرات والأشعة والتصوير المقطعييتكون المستشفى من العديد من الوحدات، وهم: وحدة غسيل الكلى، ووحدة فسيولوجيا الأعصاب، ووحدة الحروق، ووحدة العناية الحثيثة للجراحة، ووحدة العناية المركزة للقلب، ووحدة العناية الحثيثة للمواليد، ووحدة الإخصاب والمساعدة على الحمل، ووحدة مختبر النوم، ووحدة كهربة القلب، ووحدة قسطرة القلب، ووحدة العناية الحثيثة بجراحات القلب المفتوح، ووحدة المعالجة التنفسية، ووحدة العناية الحثيثة للأمراض الباطنية، ووحدة العناية المتوسطة لجراحة الدماغ والأعصاب، ووحدة الجهاز الهضمي والكبد، ووحدة تفتيت حصى المسالك البولية، ووحدة زراعة النخاع العظمي، ووحدة تخطيط القلب ووحدة مختبر القلب غير اجتياحييحتوي المستشفى على إحدى عشرة دائرة، وهم: دائرة الجراحة الخاصة، ودائرة الأمراض الباطنية، ودائرة الجراحة العامة، ودائرة طب الأطفال، ودائرة النسائية والتوليد، ودائرة طب الأسنان، ودائرة الأشعة والطب النووي، ودائرة التخدير والإنعاش، ودائرة المختبرات والطب الشرعي، ودائرة طب التأهيل ودائرة الحوادث والطوارئ:ثانياً: المكتبةتأسست مكتبة الجامعة مع تأسيس الجامعة عام 1962، تحوي المكتبة على 725,000 مادة مكتبية (2003) تبلغ مساحتها 10,500 م²، بالإضافة إلى 4,000 م² تشغلها قاعات المطالعة الفرعية في كليات الجامعة ومراكزها العلمية وطابق قيد الإنشاء تتكون المكتبة من ثلاث دوائر، أولهم الدائرة الفنية؛ وتضم الدائرة الفنية ثلاث شعب وهم: شعبة الفهرسة التصنيف وشعبة التزويد وشعبة التجليد والترميم، والدائرة الثانية هي دائرة الخدمات المكتبية؛ وتضم بذاتها خمس شعب وهم: شعبة الإعارة وشعبة المراجع وشعبة المجموعة الإبداعية والخاصة، أما الدائرة الثالثة فهي دائرة المعلومات؛ وتضم ثلاث شعب وهم: شعبة الحاسوب وقواعد البيانات وشعبة الأرشفة والمصغرات الفيلمية وشعبة مركز إيداع الرسائل الجامعية:ثالثاً: حجرة الدراسةيوجد العديد من الغرف والمساكن الطلابية التابعة للجامعة في شوارع العاصفة بالجامعة، إلا أنه يوجد سكنين فقط في الحرم الجامعي، وهما: سكنات الاندلس والزهراء وسكنات جرش وعمون الدولية، تتبع مساكن دائرة المنازل والسكنات الدولية:رابعاً: صروحأمام المسطح الأخضر، يوجد شهداء معركة الكرامة وهو عبارة عن رخام منحوت عليه أسماء الشهداء في المعركةنشأت من الدفاع الجنوبي لكلية القوة في الجزء الجنوبي من الجامعة، يوجد نصب الشهيد معاذ الكساسبة، وهي حربية من طراز إف-104 ستار جوفايتر، قُدمت من سلاح الجيش الملكي الأردني، وهي طائرة السرب التاسع التي شاركت مع عدة طائرات أخرى بالطائرة عن مدينة كراتشي أثناء الحرب الهندية الهندية 1971، قائد الطيار إحسان شردم ومحمود حماد (عميد كلية الهندسة سابقا):خامساً: عناوين البنوكتحوي الجامعة فرعاً لبنك الأردن، وفرعاً لبنك القاهرة عمان، وفرعاً للبنك الإسلامي الأردني:سادساً: مدرسة وروضة الجامعةتقع مدرسة الجامعة في الجزء الشمالي من الجامعة؛ واسمها المدرسة النموذجية، وهي مدرسة خاصة متنوعة تعتمد على كل العلوم التربوية بالجامعة، تأسست عام 1983 بقرار من مجلس عمداء الجامعة، متكامل عدد الطلاب في المدرسة ما بين 600 إلى 650 طالب أصلي، وتكون مدرسة ثلاث مباني، ومساحة تقترب من 19000 م²، ضمان مدرسة روضة وحضانة، كما أنها تضمن جميع فصول المرحلة الأساسية والثانوية، بسبب فصل شعبتين، إلا أنه هناك شعبة واحدة فقط للرحلة الثانوية؛ وهي شعبة الفرع العلمي فقط، كما أنها هناك أيضًا فصول رياض الأطفال، أُنشِئت حضانة الجامعة عام 1992، حيث افتتحتها الأميرة بسمة بنت طلال في 20 أكتوبر 1992، وتفصل الواحد من 20 إلى 25 طالبًا ووجدت، تحتوي على المدرسة على مكتبة، ومختبر علوم، ومختبر كيمياء، ومختبر فيزياء، ومختبر أحياء، ومختبري حاسوب يحتوي على أجهزة حاسوب متطورة، شاملة مشاغل موحدة وفنية مستقلة، وملاعب كرة قدم وسلة، جاهدة تمريض متابعة الفحوصات الدورية للطلبة والمطاعيم والحالات الطارئة:سابعاً: مرافق آخرأُنْشِئَ برج ساعة في الجامعة عام 1992، حيث شُيِّدَ بدعمٍ من الدكتور رؤوف أبو جابر والمهندس سمير شمّا، اختِيرَ موقع البناء على الجليد 250 متر من البوابة الرئيسية، وبُنِيَ نافورة صغيرة حول البرج، لم يكن بوسعك بالجامعة برج ساعة قبل ذلك الوقت، بل كانت هناك تُجرِس تُق من قبل كل ساعة إعلانية للجامعة عن انتهاء وقت المحاضرةشُيِّدَ مدرج الجامعة في عام 1989، وسومي المدرج على اسم الأمير الحسن بن طلال، المدرج هو أكبر مدرجات الجامعة، 1200 مقعد، بُني بالقرب من شارع الجامعة وافتتحه الملك الحسين بن طلال وولي العهد ثم الأمير الحسن بن طلال في 2 مارس 1989، شهدت مسرح تناول العديد من الفعاليات والفعاليات المختلفة، بما في ذلك المؤتمرات، والمناظرات والندوات، والمسرحيات، والاحتفالات المتنوعة، والمحاضرات، ولقاءات ملك الأردن بطلبة الجامعةولأمتحانات والأبحاث والواجبات المحوسبة، يوجد بالجامعة مجمع القاعات الحاسوبية التابعة لكلية الأعمال؛ أطلق عليه " Student.com "، وهو مجمع كمبيوتر كبير للغاية يتميز بمختبر جامعي آخر حاصل على احتواء سجل كبير، يضم حوالي أربعمائة جهاز متطورأحد أهم العناصر الترفيهية والاجتماعية بالجامعة هو المسطح الأخضر، أغلق المسطح الأخضر بجوار دائرة الخدمات والتغذية، وهو شامل بالكامل بالنباتات العشبية الخضراء ومحاط بأشجار السرو، مما يخلق منظرًا جماليًا في الجامعة، في اتجاه الغربية من وسط الجامعة، يوجد مجمع نشاطات رياضية، ويقع بجوار مجمع ملعب الجامعة، يوجد في المجمع العديد من الألعاب الرياضية مثل كرة السلة، وكرة السلة، وكرة الطائرة، يحتوي على إستاد الجامعة على مدرجات تتسع لـ 6000 شخص، صممَ الستاد ضمن المواصفات العالمية لألعاب القوى والمضمار وكرة القدم وغيرها من الأحداث، يُحجَز ملاعب عدة مرات في اليوم من قبل الكليات، كما أنه محجوز للخريجين من الجامعة، تسعة ستاد أيضًا على منصة الأشخاص الرئيسيين تُسمى بمنصة الفيفي أي بي (بالإنجليزية: VIP ):ث- كليتهاالكليات الإنسانيةالكليات الصحيةالكليات العلميةكلية الدراسات العليا:ج- أبرز خريجي وأستاذة الجامعة:أولاً: أبرز أعضاء الهيئة التدريسيةعلى تاريخها، الهيئة العلمية متعددة التخصصات على مستوى الأردن ومنها ناصر الدين الأسد، مؤسس الجامعة وأستاذ اللغة العربية وآدابها، بما في ذلك أبحاثه في الشعر الجاهليعبد الوهاب البرلسي، أستاذ في كلية الطب، عُرف في علم الأدويةرولا قواس، أستاذة الأدب الإنجليزي وناشطة في مجال حقوق المرأة، اخترت بالأدب النسويجورج بيدون، أستاذ في كلية الحقوقإبراهيم السامرائي، أستاذ الأدب العربيعبد الله عزام، أستاذ في كلية الشريعة، كان من أعلام جماعة الإخوان المسلمينخالد الكركي، أستاذ اللغة العربية وآدابهاخالد طوقان، أستاذ في كلية الهندسةمحمد عصفور، أستاذ الأدب الإنجليزي، عُرف في مجال الترجمةعبد اللطيف البدري، أستاذ في كلية الطبعبد الكريم الغرايبة، أستاذ في قسم التاريخعبد الكريم خليفة، أستاذ الأدب العربيشهر المومني، أستاذ رياضي في كلية العلوم، رُشِح لجائزة نوبل في الفلسفة عام 2016أصبحي القاسم، مؤسس كلية الزراعةأحمد نوفل، أستاذ في كلية الشريعةمحمود سمرة، أستاذ في كلية الآدابأمجد قورشة، أستاذ في كلية الشريعةمروان كمال، عميد كليتي العلوم سابقاسعيد حسن سمور، أستاذ في كلية الشريعةمحمد شاهين، أستاذ الأدب الإنجليزي في الجامعة الأردنية منذ عام 1985:ثانياً: أبرز المتأهلين بالجامعةعلى مر السنين، دَرَسَ وتَخْرِج العديد من الشخصيات المعروفة بالجامعة، ومنهم الأميرة عالية بنت الحسينجفري فيلتمان، وزير الخارجية الأمريكي، مساعد الشرق الأوسط في فترة الرئاسة باراك أوباما، كما كان سفيراً للولايات المتحدة في لبنانحبيب الزيودي، شاعر وأديبجون أبي زيد، قائد القيادة المركزية الأمريكية، أمريكي أمريكي، أمريكي في السعوديةفايز الطراونة، سياسي واقتصاديأحمد داود أوغلو، سياسي تركيمحمد نوح القضاة، مفتي وداعية مفكر إسلامي معاصر، عمله كعدة سياسيةناهض حتتر، الكاتب والصحفي يساريهوشيار زيباري، بريطاني كردي عراقيأحمد أبو غوش، طالب في كلية التربية الرياضية، فاز بذهبية التايكوندو وزن 68 كغم رجال في الألعاب الأولمبية الصيفية 2016وضاح خنفر، صحفي الوظيفة المدير العام لقناة الجزيرة البريطانيةمها العلي، شغلت عدة سياسيةيوسف السركجي، من مؤسسي كتائب عز الدين الأقسامرامي الحمد الله، أكاديمي وسياسي فلسطيني:ح- تصنيفها: تصنيفها حسب تصنيف كيو إس العالمي المنطقة العربية لعام 2024تصنيفها التاسع:خ- الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالجامعة:ثالثاً: جامعة الملك سعود:أ- نبذ عنهاجامعة الملك سعود هي مؤسسة أكاديمية مستقلة غير هادفة للربح، تقع تحت مظلة الهيئة الملكية لمدينة الرياض، تم افتتاحها في يوم 14 ربيع الثاني 1377 هـ / 6 نوفمبر 1957، وتعتبر ثاني جامعة تأسست في المملكة العربية السعودية بعد جامعة أم القرى، وكان ذلك عندما أمر الملك عبد العزيز بتأسيس كلية الشريعة بمكة عام 1369 هـ لتصبح أولى المؤسسات التعليمية الجامعية قياما في المملكة العربية السعودية، تم تغيير اسمها إلى جامعة الرياض في عهد الملك فيصل بن عبد العزيز، وأعيد تسميتها بجامعة الملك سعود في عهد الملك خالد بن عبد العزيز والذي رأى أثناء رعايته لأحد حفلاتها الختامية إعادة اسمها الأول فكان ذلك، جامعة الملك سعود هي ثاني أكبر جامعة بالعالم من حيث المساحة، وقد خصصت حكومة المملكة العربية السعودية لهذه الجامعة ما يعادل 1% من ميزانية الدولة سنويا:ب- تاريخهاكانت بداية تاريخ إنشاء الجامعة بعد مضي ثلاث سنوات على إنشاء أول وزارة للمعارف عندما صرح الملك فهد بن عبد العزيز وزير المعارف آنذاك في عام 1376 هـ إن وزارة المعارف تفكر جديا في إخراج الجامعة السعودية إلى حيز التنفيذ، وبعد ذلك بعام تقريبا أُنشِأت أول جامعة في المملكة العربية السعودية، وذلك بصدور المرسوم الملكي رقم 17 في الحادي والعشرين من ربيع الآخر عام 1377 هـ حيث نص بإنشاء جامعة الملك سعود، وفيهبعونه تعالى نحن سعود بن عبد العزيز آل سعود ملك المملكة العربية السعودية رغبة في نشر المعارف وترقيتها في مملكتنا وتوسيع الدراسة العلمية والأدبية، وحبا في مسايرة الأمم في العلوم والفنون ومشاركتها في الكشف والاختراع، وحرصا على إحياء الحضارة الإسلامية والإبانة عن محاسنها ومفاخرها وطموحها إلى تربية النشئ تربية صالحة، تكفل لهم العقل السليم والخلق القويم، رسمنا ما هو آت تنشأ في مملكتنا جامعة تسمى جامعة الملك سعودكما صدر مع هذا المرسوم الملكي مرسومان ملكيان آخران، أحدهما برقم 18 والآخر برقم 19 في الحادي والعشرين من شهر ربيع الثاني عام 1377 هـ يقضي الأول بإنشاء كلية للآداب، بينما يقضي الثاني بإنشاء كلية للعلوم، وقد بدأت الدراسة في الجامعة بافتتاح كلية الآداب عام 1378 هـ، وفي عام 1380 هـ صدر المرسوم الملكي رقم (112) المتضمن الموافقة على نظام جامعة الملك سعود وكان أبرز ما جاء فيه أن للجامعة شخصية اعتبارية وميزانية خاصة يوافق عليها وزير المعارف ويعرضها على الجهات ذات الاختصاص لاعتمادها، وأن تختص الجامعة بكل ما يتصل بالتعليم العالي الذي تتولاه كلياتها ومعاهدها وبتشجيع البحوث العلمية والعمل على رقي الآداب والعلوم في البلادوفي عام 1387 هـ صدر المرسوم الملكي رقم (م/11) المتضمن الموافقة على نظام جامعة الرياض (جامعة الملك سعود حاليا) وإلغاء الأنظمة والأوامر والتعليمات السابقة المتعلقة بالجامعة، وكان من أبرز ما جاء في النظام إحداث المجلس الأعلى للجامعة كإحدى السلطات الإدارية فيها، والمجلس الأعلى هو السلطة المهيمنة على شؤون الجامعة وله وضع السياسة التي تسير عليها، وفي عام 1392 هـ صدر المرسوم الملكي رقم (م/6) المتضمن الموافقة على نظام جامعة الرياض وإلغاء نظام الجامعة الصادر في عام 1387هـ وجميع ما يتعارض معه من أنظمة وأوامر وتعليمات سابقة:ت- الحرم الجامعي وكلياتهايحتوي الحرم الجامعي بجامعة الملك سعود على مدينة متكاملة تعليمية اقتصادية تجارية طبية رياضية وهي كالتالي:أولاً: كليات الجامعةكليات جامعة الملك سعود هي الكليات الموجودة بداخل الحرم الجامعي للجامعة وخارجها، وفي فروع الجامعة بمنطقة الرياض، وهي تقريبا حوالي 24 كلية ومعهد تضم الكثير من التخصصات الصحية والعلمية والإنسانية وهي كالتاليالكليات الصحية وتضم كلية الطب البشري وكلية طب الأسنان وكلية الصيدلة وكلية العلوم الطبية التطبيقية وكلية التمريض وكلية الأمير سلطان بن عبد العزيز للخدمات الطبية الطارئةالكليات العلمية وتضم كلية العلوم وكلية الهندسة وكلية العمارة والتخطيط وكلية علوم الحاسب والمعلومات وكلية إدارة الأعمال وكلية علوم الأغذية والزراعةالكليات الإنسانية وتضم كلية الآداب وكلية التربية وكلية الحقوق والعلوم السياسية وكلية اللغات والترجمة وكلية السياحة والآثار وكلية المعلمين وكلية التربية البدنية والرياضة وكلية المجتمع وكلية الدراسات التطبيقية وخدمة المجتمعهذا بالإضافة لبرنامج السنة التحضيرية وهو مخصص لإعداد الطلبة والطالبات المستجدين بالكليات الصحية والهندسية والعلمية بالجامعة، ويدير البرنامج إحدى عمادات الجامعة وهي عمادة السنة التحضيرية، والتي من خلال نتيجتها يتحدد التخصص الذي سيتجه إليه الطالب، وتتألف السنة التخضيرية من فصلين دارسيين وفصل صيفي احتياطي، يدرس فيها اللغة الإنجليزية والرياضيات وبعض العلوم الأخرى والمهارات الحياتية المختلفة، وتتمتع بعض كليات الجامعة باعتماد دولي من قبل بعض المنظمات المتخصصة، فكلية الهندسة حاصلة على الاعتماد من هيئة الاعتماد الأكاديمي للهندسة والتقنية الأمريكية، وكلية علوم الأغذية والزراعة حاصلة على الاعتماد الأكاديمي الدولي من قبل الهيئة الزراعية الكندية (AIC) لبرامج كلية علوم الأغذية والزراعة الثمانية، كما حصلت كلية المجتمع على الاعتماد الأكاديمي الدولي من الهيئة الأمريكية للاعتماد الأكاديمي وللمدة القصوى وهي ست سنوات قادمة، وذلك لجميع برامجها الأكاديمية الأجهزة الطبية، علوم الحاسب، إدارة الموارد البشرية، الإدارة المالية، إدارة أعمال التأمين، إدارة المبيعات: ثانيآ : مكتبات الجامعةوصل عدد المقتنيات بمكتبات الجامعة 874.971 عنوانا تقع في 2.065.863 مجلد ومادة من مختلف أوعية المعلومات، وبلغت المساحة الإجمالية لمكتبات الجامعة 62.634 متر مربع، تحتوي على 6.194 مقعد، وتلتزم التصنيف الدولي، وهي مجهزة بكل تقنيات المكتبات الحديثة، حيث تستخدم النظام الآلي في كل أعمالها شاملا الإعارة والإعادة، والبحث عن الكتب والمجلات وغيرها من مقتنيات المكتبة المتداولة وغير المتداولة، تضم الجامعة عددا من المكتبات وهيمكتبة الملك سلمان المركزيةالمكتبة المركزية للطالبات - الملزمكتبة مركز الدراسات الجامعية للطالبات - عليشةمكتبة كلية الطب والمستشفىمكتبة مستشفى الملك عبد العزيز الجامعيمكتبة طب الأسنانمكتبة العلوم الطبية التطبيقيةمكتبة كلية الدراسات التطبيقية وخدمة المجتمع بالبديعةمكتبة كلية خدمة المجتمعمكتبة سكن الطالبات بخريص: ثالثآ : الأوقافالمقالة الرئيسية: أوقاف جامعة الملك سعودتمتلك الجامعة حالياً محفظة استثمارية عقارية وقفية تتجاوز المليار دولار وتسعى لأن تصل إلى 25 مليار دولار بحلول عام 2040، تهدف الجامعة في تأسيس برنامج أوقاف جامعة الملك سعود إلى تعزيز الموارد المالية الذاتية للجامعة، والمساهمة في الأنشطة التي تعمل على نقل الجامعة إلى مصاف الجامعات العالمية ودعم أنشطة البحث والتطوير والتعليم، ودعم العلاقة بين الجامعة والمجتمعويحتوي برنامج أوقاف جامعة الملك سعود على أحد عشر برجاً، تتوزع بين أبراج عقارية وعلمية وصحية وتجارية، جزء منها تبرع بها صندوق الجامعة، والجزء الأكبر تبرع بها وتكفل ببنائها مجموعة من رجال الأعمال والشخصيات الاعتبارية في البلد، المشاريع هي عبارة عن أبراج الجامعة التي تقع في أرض المدينة الجامعية على تقاطع طريق الملك عبد الله مع طريق الملك خالد، ويتكون المشروع من إحدى عشر برجا بعضها لخدمات الضيافة والفندقة مرتبط بمجموعة فندقية عالمية وأبراج مكتبية وطبية وخدمات للمؤتمرات والاجتماعات والاحتفالات إضافة إلى الخدمات التجارية والأسواق، وبلغ مجموع تكلفة إنشاء الأرباج 4.9 مليار ريال سعودي (1.3 مليار دولار) ، وهي كتاليمنارة الملك عبد الله للمعرفة: تتوسط المنارة عناصر مشروع أبراج الجامعة، حيث يبلغ ارتفاع البرج 49 دور، وبمساحة قدرها 128.602 متر مربع، كما أن منصة البرج هي مركز الملك عبد الله للمؤتمرات بمساحة قدرها 254.155 متر مربع، والتي تحتوي على قاعة محاضرات رئيسية تسع حوالي 2.500 شخصبرج الفندق الخمسة نجوم: وهو البرج الأول من الجهة الشمالية لمنارة الملك عبد الله للمعرفة ضمن مجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك خالد، تبلع المساحة المبنية للبرج 56,417 متر مربع، منها 36,887 متر مربع مساحات مخصصة للاستخدامات والخدمات الفندقية، يحتوي الفندق على 241 وحدة فندقية، الأدوار المتكررة عشرة أدواربرج مصرف الراجحي الطبي: هو أول برج من الجهة الشمالية لمجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك خالد، يقدم البرج خدمات صحية عالية الجودة يشتمل على عدد من العيادات الخارجية وخدماتها المساندة بالإضافة إلى مراكز طبية متخصصة، وتبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 40 ألف متر مربع، منها 20 ألف متر مربع مساحات مخصصة للاستخدامات الطبيةبرج الشيخ صالح كامل: يقع البرج في الجهة الشرقية لمنارة الملك عبد الله للمعرفة، وتبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 25.279 متر مربع، منها 7.673 متر مربع مخصصة للأجنحة الفندقيةبرج الأجنحة الفندقية:يقع في الجهة الشرقية لمنارة الملك عبد الله للمعرفة، وتبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 33.283 متر مربع، منها 11.015 متر مربع مخصصة للأجنحة الفندقيةبرج المعلم محمد بن لادن المكتبي:يقع في الجهة الشرقية لمجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك عبد الله، تبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 65.248 متر مربع، منها 22.469 متر مربع مخصصة كمساحات مكتبيةبرج الأمير سلطان بن عبد العزيز للأبحاث الصحية وطب الطوارئ: يقع في الجهة الشرقية لمجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك عبد الله، تبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 34.882 متر مربع، منها 12.562 متر مربع مخصصة كمساحات تأجيرية موزعة في تسعة أدوار متكررةبرج الدكتور ناصر الرشيد:يقع في الجهة الشرقية لمجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك عبد الله، تبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 24.456 متر مربع، منها 10.044 متر مربع مخصصة كمساحات تأجيرية موزعة في سبعة ادوار متكررةبرج الشيخ محمد حسين العامودي: هو البرج الثاني من الجهة الشمالية لمجموعة الأبراج الواقعة على طريق الملك خالد، تبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج 61,511 متر مربع، منها 22,732 متر مربع مخصصة كمساحات مكتبية موزعة في إثني عشر دور متكرربرج الشيخ عبد الرحمن بن عبد الله الهليل:تبلغ إجمالي المساحة المبنية للبرج في حدود 20 ألف متر مربع، منها فراغات مكتبية موزعة في ستة أدوار متكررة كل دور:رابعاً: مستشفيات الجامعةالمقالات الرئيسية: مستشفى الملك خالد الجامعي ومستشفى الملك عبد العزيز الجامعيتقدم الخدمات الصحية بجامعة الملك سعود من خلال مستشفيين جامعيين، وعدد من العيادات التابعة لهما داخل الحرم الجامعي، كعيادة أعضاء هيئة التدريس، وعيادة الطلاب في مركز الجامعة، وعيادات الطالبات في مراكز الدراسات الخاصة بهن، إضافة إلى تلك الموجودة في إسكان الطلاب والطالبات، وتستقبل المستشفيات الجامعية جميع الحالات التي تحتاج لعلاج متخصص، كما تقبل الحالات الطارئة مباشرة عن طريق الإسعاف، وتقدم لجميع المرضى خدمات صحية مجانية على أعلى درجات الكفاءة تشمل الأدوية وجميع الفحوصات الطبيةأولاً: مستشفى الملك عبد العزيز الجامعي: يعتبر أول مستشفى تعليمي بالمملكة العربية السعودية وهو أحد المستشفيات الجامعية التابعة لكلية الطب بجامعة الملك سعود، ويضم المستشفى مجموعة من الكفاءات الطبية المتميزة من استشاريين وأطباء وفنيين مختصون في عدة تخصصات بشكل متميز وبخبرات عالمية إضافة إلى وجود التقنية الحديثة المتطورة في أحد أعرق المستشفيات في المملكة العربية السعودية، يضم المستشفى أقسام تخصصية مثل: قسم طب وجراحة العيون وقسم طب وجراحة الأنف والأذن والحنجرة والمركز الجامعي للسكري والعيادات التخصصية والعيادات العامة والخدمات الطبية المساندة، تبلغ طاقة المستشفى السريرية 104 سرير وهو للتخصصات الأكاديمية فقط وقد أقر مجلس إدارة جامعة الملك سعود توسعة مستشفى الملك عبد العزيز الجامعي وذلك ببناء مبنى رئيسي مكون من 9 أدوار، تحاوي على 126 سرير، بالإضافة لعيادات تخصصية أخرىثانياً: مستشفى الملك خالد الجامعي: تم افتتاحه عام 1402 هـ الموافق 1982 في المدينة الجامعية، واقتصر في بدايته على مجمع عيادات خارجية، ثم تطور مع الوقت ليعمل بطاقة استيعابية تقارب 800 سرير و20 غرفة عمليات جراحية، ومبنى مستقل للعيادات يضم 161 غرفة فحص بالإضافة إلى المرافق الأخرى، كما يضم المستشفى خدمات متكاملة في المخـتبرات الطبية وخدمات الأشعة والصيدلية، وقد تم مؤخرا توسعة مستشفى الملك عبد العزيز الجامعي، وتتكون التوسعة من مبنى مكون من ثمان طوابق، يتسع هذا المبنى لمئة وثلاثين سرير، ويضم عيادات خارجية، ومركزا تعليميا متكاملا، إضافة إلى التجهيزات الأخرىخامساً: كلية طب الأسنان ومستشفى طب الأسنان الجامعي ويضم: عيادات الطلاب وأعضاء هيئة التدريس والاستشاريون يقدر عددها بأكثر من 500 عيادة في أقسام طب الأسنان المختلفة مثلطب أسنان الأطفالجراحة الفم والوجه والفكينطب الفم والألم الوجهي الفمويأمراض وجراحة دواعم السن واللثةتقويم الأسنانالاستعاضة السنية الثابتةالاستعاضة السنية المتحركة، أعصاب وجذور الأسنانالعلاج التحفظيأمراض الفم والوجه والفكينأشعة الفم والوجه والفكين التشخيصية:سادساً: وادي الــتـــقـنــيةالمقالة الرئيسية: وادي الرياض للتقنية بجامعة الملك سعوديقع الوادي في حرم جامعة الملك سعود بمدينة الرياض وقد أسس في العشرين من شهر ذي القعدة من عام 1429 هـ تحت مسمى مشروع وادي الرياض للتقنية بعد قرار من مجلس الجامعة، وقد تحول في الرابع عشر من شهر ربيع الثاني من عام 1431 هـ الموافق التاسع والعشرين من شهر مارس عام 2010 إلى مؤسسة وادي الرياض للتقنية، يعتبر وادي الرياض للتقنية مركز استثمار معرفي ومركز أبحاث عالمي يعمل على استقطاب الإبداع وتطويره، واستثمار مخرجات الأبحاث لتوطين التقنية والابتكار عبر تأسيس شركات معرفية جديدة، أو التعاقد مع شركات عالمية للتطوير العلمي والبحث المعرفي، وتوفير وظائف نوعية عالية الدخل تسهم في خلق اقتصاد معرفي، ومن أبرز انتاجات الوادي واحة العلوم ومعهد الملك عبد الله لتقنية النانو ويشمل الآتي:سابعاً: مراكز الابحاث:تحتوي جامعة الملك سعود على العديد من مراكز البحوث فضلا عن المعاهد البحثية وهيمركز بحوث كلية الصيدلةمركز بحوث كلية الهندسةمركز بحوث كلية علوم الأغذية والزراعةمركز بحوث كلية العلومكلية الآداب مركز البحوثكلية اللغات ومركز الأبحاث الترجمةمركز بحوث كلية التربيةمركز إدارة أبحاث كلية العلوممركز بحوث كلية الطبمركز بحوث كلية علوم الحاسب والمعلوماتمركز بحوث كلية العلوم الطبية التطبيقيةمركز الأبحاث والتخطيط كلية الهندسة المعماريةمركز البحوث والعلوم وأقسام الدراسات الطبيةمركز البحوث للدراسات الجامعيةمركز البحوث للدراسات الجامعية في المكتبات:ثامناً: برنامج كراسي البحثبرنامج كراسي البحث الذي اعتمدته جامعة الملك سعود في المملكة العربية السعودية يعد من أكبر المشاريع التعلمية التي تهدف إلى تحقيق التميز في مجال البحث والتطوير واقتصاديات المعرفة، ويقصد بكرسي البحث بأنه مرتبة علمية تسند لباحث متميز في مجال تخصصه على الصعيدين الوطني والدولي ويزخر رصيده البحثي بمساهمات نوعية وكمية عالية في مجال الاختصاص، مدة كرسي البحث في الجامعة أربع سنوات من تاريخ إنشائه ويجوز تمديد مدة عمل الكرسي لفترات أخرى، يضاف إلى أنه قد تم التفاوض مع حوالي عشرون عالماً من الحائزين على جائزة نوبل للسلام من أجل المشاركة في هذا المشروع:تاسعاُ: براءات الاختراعالجامعة هي الأولى عربياً في تسجيل براءات الاختراع في أمريكا وأوروبا، والأولى في الحصول على أوسمة الملك عبد العزيز من الدرجتين الممتازة والأولى على المستوى الوطني، وفي تسلسل براءات الاختراع فقد حصلت جامعة الملك سعود على 31 براءة اختراع قبل العام 2008، وفي العام 2008 حصلت الجامعة على أربع براءات اختراع، وفي العام 2009 حصلت على براءة اختراع واحدة فقط، وفي عام 2010 حصلت على ست براءات اختراع، وفي عام 2011 حصلت على 11 براءة اختراع، وفي عام 2012 حصلت على 28 براءة اختراع، وفي عام 2013 حصلت على 87 براءة اختراع، وفي عام 2014 حصلت على 91 براءة اختراع:عاشراً: البطولات الرياضيةفي فبراير 2019، حققت الجامعة المركز الأول في بطولة ألعاب القوى وكرة الهدف للاحتياجات الخاصة، التي أقيمت في جامعة طيبة في المدينة المنورة، تحت إشراف الاتحاد الرياضي للجامعات السعودية:الحادي عشر: مشروع المصحف الإلكترونيهو مشروع خاص بجامعة الملك سعود، وهو محاكاة إلكترونية للمصحف الشريف بسبع عشرة لغة مع قسم لترجمة معاني القرآن الكريم لأكثر من عشرين لغة، وسبعة تفاسير، وترجمة صوتية للغتين، وتلاوات للقرآن الكريم بصوت العديد من القراء مع إمكانية التكرار لتيسير الحفظ على الأطفال والمكفوفين خاصة، بالإضافة إلى اختبار الحفظ:ث- تصنيفها: تصنيفها حسب تصنيف كيو إس العالمي المنطقة العربية لعام 2024تصنيفها الثاني:ج- الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالجامعة:رابعاً: جامعة قطر:أ- نبذ عنهاجامعة قطر هي الجامعة الحكومية الوحيدة في دولة قطر، تقع على المشارف الشمالية للعاصمة، الدوحة. في عام 2009، ضمّت 8221 طالبا، منهم 64٪ من الإناث، يتم تدريس المقررات باللغة العربية (في الفنون، والتعليم، ودورات العلوم الاجتماعية والاقتصادية) أو الإنكليزية (في الطب، العلوم الصحية، الصيدلة، والهندسة، والعلوم وإدارة الأعمال): الجامعة تستضيف حاليا عشرة كلياتالآداب والعلومالإدارة والاقتصادالتربيةالهندسةالقانونالشريعة والدراسات الإسلاميةكلية الصيدلةكلية الطبكلية العلوم الصحيةكلية طب الأسنانتضمّ حاليًا ما يقارب ال 19000 طالب وطالبة، بالإضافة إلى ذلك، يتم وضعها في البداية الطلاب الذين يدخلون الجامعة في "البرنامج التأسيسي"، والتي تضمن اكتساب المهارات حاسمة إقليميا مثل الرياضيات واللغة الإنجليزية، وتكنولوجيا الكمبيوتر،جامعة قطر توفر أوسع مجموعة من البرامج الأكاديمية في دولة قطر، وهي في معظمها للطلاب الجامعيين، وقد تلقى العديد من الدوائر الأكاديمية أو يجري حاليا تقييم للاعتماد من المنظمات الرائدة، بالإضافة إلى أكاديميين الجامعية، جامعة قطر لديها بنية تحتية للأبحاث بما في ذلك المختبرات البحثية المتقدمة، والسفينة العابرة للمحيطات، بأحدث المعدات التقنية ومكتبة كبيرة آلاف المساكن من الكتب، بما في ذلك جمع قيمة من المخطوطات النادرة، جامعة يخدم عادة نيابة عن الحكومة والقطاع الخاص لإجراء البحوث الإقليمية، وبخاصة في مجالات البيئة وتكنولوجيات الطاقة، تضمّ جامعة قطر هيئة طلابية متنوعة، أكثر من 52 جنسية مختلفة، غالبيّتهم من المواطنين القطريين، يشكّل النساء نحو 64٪ من إجمالي عدد الطلّاب، حيث توفّر لهن الجامعة مجموعة من المرافق والفصول الدراسية الخاصّة بهنّ:ب- تاريخهافي عام 1973، أصدر أمير دولة قطر مرسومًا أميريًا يؤسس بموجبه أول كلية للتربية في الدولة؛ تجسيداً لرؤيته في وضع التعليم أولويةً من أولويات تطوير الدولة، وفي ضوء قلة عدد السكان آنذاك قبلت الكلية 57 طالبا و93 طالبة في عامها الأولأبرز التطور السريع في البلاد الحاجة إلى التوسع في الكلية، لتوفير مجالات إضافية من التخصص بما يتماشى مع متطلبات السكان. لذلك، في عام 1977، تأسست جامعة قطر وضمت أربع كليات جديدة هي التربية، والعلوم الإنسانية والعلوم الاجتماعية، الشريعة والدراسات الإسلامية، والعلوم، من هنا، تطورت وتوسعت المؤسسة بشكل سريع، مع تأسيس كلية الهندسة عام 1980 وكلية الإدارة والاقتصاد في عام 1985، وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، أوجدت الجامعة عدة مراكز بحثية مستقلة صغيرة، وعملت على إنشاء كلية مجتمع وطنية هي كلية قطر التقنيةبعد إنشاء المدينة التعليمية ومؤسسة قطر في عام 1996، بدأت حقبة جديدة من الخيارات التنافسية للمؤسسات المحلية للتعليم العالي، وأُعِيد تقييم للمهام والخدمات في جامعة قطر. في عام 2003، عكفت الجامعة على خطة الإصلاح الطموحة لزيادة كفاءة العمليات الإدارية والأكاديمية، ولهذه الغاية، أُطلِقَت الخطة الإستراتيجية على مستوى الجامعة 2010-2013، وتتضمن مجالات الأداء الرئيسية والتي ركزت على تعزيز جودة التعليم والخدمات بكفاءة وفعالية، كما جددت الخطة التركيز على البحث، مما أدى إلى إنشاء مكتب البحث العلمي في عام 2007، والذي أشرف على عدد متزايد من مراكز البحوث الفضائية رفيعة المستوى، أصبحت خدمة المجتمع أيضًا تحظى بتركيز كبير، وتم تعزيز العديد من المرافق والخدمات وتوسيعها لتلبية احتياجات الجمهور:ت- كليتهاتمنح جميع كليات الجامعة درجة البكالوريوس لملتحقيها وتعمل باستمرار على تحديث برامجها واستبدال بعضها انسجاما مع متطلبات سوق العمل واحتياجات المجتمع المتلاحقة والتطورات العالمية في المجال الأكاديمي، وتضع كل كلية إستراتيجية مدروسة تضمن التواصل مع الهيئات والمؤسسات الحكومية والخاصة بالدولة وتعتمد معظم كليات الجامعة البرنامج التأسيسي الذي يمهد لدراسة التخصص باللغة الإنجليزية وبالمواد العلمية كالرياضيات والحاسب الآلي: تضم الجامعة حاليا عشرة كليات وهمكلية الآداب والعلومكلية الهندسةكلية الإدارة والاقتصادكلية الشريعة والدراسات الإسلاميةكلية القانونكلية التربيةكلية الصيدلةكلية الطبكلية العلوم الصحيةكلية طب الأسنان:ث- تصنيفها: تصنيفها حسب تصنيف كيو إس العالمي المنطقة العربية لعام 2024تصنيفها الثالث:ج- الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالجامعة:خامساً: الجامعة الأمريكية في بيروت:أ- نبذ عنهاالجامعة الأميركية في بيروت (بالإنجليزية: The American University of Beirut) ومعروفة اختصارا (AUB)،هي جامعة خاصة مستقلة مسجلة في نيويورك ولها حرم جامعي في بيروت، لبنان، يحكم الجامعة مجلس أمناء خاص ومستقل ويقدم برامج تعليمية تؤدي إلى نيل درجات البكالوريوس والماجستير والدكتوراه، افتتحت في 3 ديسمبر 1866، وتقع في منطقة رأس بيروت في العاصمة اللبنانيةتبلغ الميزانية التشغيلية للجامعة الأميركية في بيروت 423 مليون دولار مع منح تقارب 768 مليون دولار، يتألف الحرم الجامعي من 64 مبنى، بما في ذلك المركز الطبي للجامعة الأمريكية في بيروت (مستشفى الجامعة الأمريكية بسعة 420 سريرًا) وأربع مكتبات وثلاثة متاحف وسبعة مهاجع (سكن داخلي)، التحق ما يقرب من خُمس طلاب الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت بمدرسة ثانوية أو جامعة خارج لبنان قبل القدوم إلى الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت، يقيم خريجو الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت في أكثر من 120 دولة حول العالم. لغة التدريس هي اللغة الإنجليزية، يتم تسجيل الدرجات العلمية الممنوحة في الجامعة رسميًا لدى جامعة نيويورك:ب- تاريخها تأسست عام 1866م شركة خاصة مستقلة هدفها إنشاء نواة لجامعة في لبنان، على أن تكون مؤسسة غير طائفية. أطلق عليها في ذلك الوقت اسم الكلية البروتستانتية السورية، وقد أسسها دانيال بليس مبشر أمريكي ولد عام 1823، وعين فيها كأول رئيس لها وتقديرا له سمي الشارع الملاصق لسور الجامعة باسمه شارع بليس وكذلك سميت إحدى مباني الجامعة الرئيسة باسمه Bliss Hall :ويشمل نشأتها:أولاً: البدايةبدأت الكلية العمل بموجب ميثاق منحها اعترافاً حصل عليه الدكتور دانيال بليس من ولاية نيويورك في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، افتتحت الجامعة أبوابها في 3 ديسمبر عام 1866م لتمارس نشاطها في منزل مستأجر في أحد مناطق بيروت وسجل فيها 16 طالباً فقطكان منهاج الكلية في سنتها الأولى (1866-1867) يشمل تدريس اللغات العربية والإنكليزية والفرنسية والتركية واللاتينية ثم الرياضيات وتاريخ العرب القديم وتاريخ الديانات والتوراة وكانت الهيئة التعليمية تتألف من 13 معلماً:وفي العام الأكاديمي 1878-1879، أصبحت الدراسة على الشكل التاليالسنة الأولى (فرشمان): الصرف والنحو واللغة الإنجليزية والأدب والجبر والهندسة والكتاب المقدس والموسيقى والخطابةالسنة الرابعة: الفلك والفلسفة العقلية والأخلاق والتاريخ وعلم طبقات الأرض وعلم النبات والحيوان والموسيقى والإنشاء والخطابة والكتاب المقدسفي عام 1867، أنشئت كليتي الصيدلة والطب. وكان التدريس باللغة العربية حتى عام 1887 ثم أصبح باللغة الإنجليزيةوبين عام 1871 و1907، خرجت الكلية 154 طالبا من سوريا، و75 طالبا من مصر، و3 طلاب من العراق، 69 طالبا من بقية الولايات العثمانية:ثانياً: التخطيط للتوسعولإنشاء مباني الجامعة واستعدادا لتوسعها مستقبلا اختيرت أرض مساحتها 736,900 فدان في منطقة راس بيروت لتشكل حرما جامعيا يطل على البحر الأبيض المتوسط ويشرف على جبل لبنان، كما يمكن منه مشاهدة قمة جبل صنين:ت- كليتها كلية العلوم الزراعية والغذائية (FAFS)كلية الفنون والعلوم (FAS)كلية مارون سمعان الهندسة والعمارة (FEA) وتشمل: العمارة، هندسة الحاسوب والاتصالات، هندسة الحاسوب والإلكترونيات، الهندسة المدنية، الهندسة الميكانيكية، الهندسة الكيميائية، وتصميم الجرافيككلية العلوم الصحية (FHS)كلية الطب (FM)مدرسة رفيق الحريري للتمريض (HSON)مدرسة سليمان عليان لإدارة الأعمال (OSB):ث- أبرز خريجي وأستاذة الجامعة تخرج منها عدد كبير من الشخصيات في الوطن العربي ممن اشتهروا في مختلف المجالات كالرئيس سليم الحص ووليد جنبلاط وعبد القادر الحسيني واسحاق الفرحان وعبد الرؤوف الروابدة رئيس الجمهورية السوري ناظم القدسي الزعيم السياسي السوري عبدالرحمن الشهبندر رئيس وزراء الأردن وسعدون حمادي رئيس الوزراء العراقي الاسبق وعالم الاجتماع العراقي علي الوردي والشاعر إبراهيم طوقان وأحمد طوقان وقدري طوقان والدكتور أحمد محمد الخطيب وجورج حبش والمفكر البحريني محمد جابر الأنصاري ورائد الأعمال والناشط السوري عبد السلام هيكل والمعمارية العراقية زها حديد ورئيس ارامكو السعودية السابق عبد الله جمعه ورئيس منظمة الطاقة الذرية الإيرانية علي أكبر صالحي والدكتور عبد الله النفيسي ، وسفير دولة الكويت لدي الولايات المتحدة سالم عبد الله الجابر الصباح وغيرهموقديما تخرج منها:يعقوب صروف صاحب مجلة المقتطفأنطونيوس بشير عالِم لاهوتي، وأديب وخطيب مفوَّه لبناني، اشتُهِر بترجماته لبعض أعمال جبران:ج- تصنيفها: تصنيفها حسب تصنيف كيو إس العالمي المنطقة العربية لعام 2024تصنيفها الرابع:ج- الموقع الإلكتروني الخاص بالجامعة \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.626670	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112250/overview", "title": "الجامعات العالمية", "author": "Technology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103523/overview	Ordering numbers 1-10 Overview This lesson is abour learning ordinal numbers, and putting them in order. This also allows students to be able to put the word form with the number form. By the end of this section students will be able to identify ordinal numbers with correct word form. - Place numbers 1-10 around the room randomlyOnce they each have a card then give them 1 minute to put themselves in order. This will allow the students to listen to each other, but also being respectful to one another. Ask each student to go pick a number. Once they each have a card then give them 1 minute to put themselves in order. Once in order listen for any students that already know the ordinal numbers. Introducing Ordinal Numbers Praise the students for the number that is in the right order. Offer a piece of candy or a treat to any student that can tell me the word form of the number like first, second, third and so on. Figure out how many they do and do not know, then put on the slide of the numbers in word form and show the students how to put the word form with the correct number. Students will work in slides 2-3 as a class, be sure to call on students who do struggle with or do not know all the answers. This way the students can see the different words together, and how they are similar to word form and ordinal form. On the powerpoint slide number 2 will be 1-5 with first, second, third, fourth and fifth on it. Place the correct word form of the numbers in the correct spot under the number. On slide number 3 will be numbers 6-10 with sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth and tenth displayed on it. Independent work time Students will be given the option between two different work sheets about ordering numbers in word form. These forms are on powerpoint slide 3, when finished the students will place the papers in the turn in tray. On slide 9 the Scaffolding for Gap Repair and Extended Learning Opportunities are listed and the flashcards will be available for those who need it. Worksheet for 1-20 will also be avaliable as well. Choose from the following worksheets from slide 3. The first form will be drawing a line to the correct word of the number. The other option is matching the numbers and words with a picture. Partner Practice This should take about 15- 20 minutes. As the students are practicing this, I will walk around the room and observe them and help if needed, if not I will be grading their work. There is a timer on slide 4 set for 20 minutes. When the students are finished with their worksheet, grab your whiteboard and dry erase marker. Partner up with a classmate and practice writing the numbers in word form. (First, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, nineth and tenth.) This is also on slide 4. You will have about 20 minutes to do so. Clean up and Regroup On slide 5 there is a fun little clean up song. Play this song so that students know it is time to clean up. They are responsible for putting their dry erase markers and whiteboard away in their desks. Also please remind the students to place their finished worksheets in the turn in tray. The students will come to the carpet and dance until the timer is finished, thens it criss cross with hands in lap. When you hear the clean up song, students will place markers and dry erase boards away in their appropriate location. Please make sure you worksheet is in the turn in tray. Once you have cleaned up your area, come to the carpet and dance until the timer is finished. Once the timer is finished please sit criss cross with hands in your lap. Quick Check Again, place all the numbers 1-10 around the room, only this time place the word form of the numbers as well. I will provide all of these for you and have them out for you. The students will have to work together and match the number and the words together and put them in ordinal number order. There is a timer on slide 6. This is a 3 minute timer, if the students complete this task in under 3 minutes, they will have earned extra recess or extra free choice. This will be voted by the class, majority rules and no sad mad grumpy pants. Free choice can be anything from play doh, coloring, chromebook, drawing, reading books, or anything quiet as long as they are productive. The students will have to work together and match the number and the words together and put them in ordinal number order. If the students can successfully complete this in 3 minutes, they will earn extra free time or extra recess, that will be voted on as a class majority rules. No sad mad grumpy pants. Free choice can be anything play doh, coloring, chromebook, drawing, reading books, or anything quiet as long as you are productive.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.747497	05/04/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103523/overview", "title": "Ordering numbers 1-10", "author": "Brianna Carpenter" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81368/overview	The Lion Sleeps Tonight- Ukulele Overview Students wil demonstrate Chucking and Muting on their Ukulele while playing "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" The Lion Sleeps Tonight Learning Objectives: - I can demonstrate fluency in rhythmic accuracy and chord accuracy. - I can produce an appropriate tone on my ukulele. Instructions: Watch The Lion Sleeps Tonight Lesson if you haven't done so already. Then, record yourself playing and singing the entire song using Screencastify. Be sure to play using the use the correct strum patterns. Use The Lion Sleeps Tonight- Chord Chart if you would like to access the entire tab (or chord chart). The Lion Sleeps Tonight Chord Chart The Lion Sleeps Tonight By Solomon Linda, Arr. by Cynthia Lin VERSE: C/ F/ C/ G7/ In the jungle, the mighty jungle, the lion sleeps to-night In the jungle, the quiet jungle, the lion sleeps to-night CHORUS x2: C F [d u X u-d u X u] A-wim-o-weh A-wim-o-weh A- wim-o-weh A-wim-o-weh C G7 A-wim-o-weh A-wim-o-weh A- wim-o-weh A-wim-o-weh VERSE: (Add knock on 2&4) C/ F/ C/ G7/ Near the village, the peaceful village, the lion sleeps to- night Near the village, the quiet village, the lion sleeps to- night CHORUS x2: C F C G7 A-weee -e-e-e- ee-um-o-weh VERSE (Muted Island Strum): C/ F/ C/ G7/ Hush my darling, don’t fear my darling, the lion sleeps to- night Hush my darling, don’t cry my darling, the lion sleeps to- night CHORUS x2: C F C G7 A-weee -e-e-e- ee-um-o-weh OUTRO: C/ F/ C/ G7/ END C/ Dee-dee-dee-dee-dee Dee-dee-dee-dee-dee the lion sleeps to-night	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.764469	Katie Hackett	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/81368/overview", "title": "The Lion Sleeps Tonight- Ukulele", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107225/overview	Baby words be gone PPT Baby words be gone Overview Students will learn the definition of words and then apply the definition to writing a complex complete sentence. This can be done in any subject that requires vocabulary practice. Increasing vocabulary for middle school Give the students the following words to choose from (more words may be added depending on class size): \| concede \| endeavor \| fiasco \| \| grotesque \| haphazard \| intervene \| \| muster \| precise \| revel \| \| surpass \| turbulent \| voracious \| Use the template or have the students recreate the template on a piece of colored paper. - Write the word in the center of the paper - Look up the dictionary definition of the word and write it in 1 quarter of the paper - Write your own definition of the word in 1 quarter of the paper (may not use the word in the definition) - Write a well thought, complete sentence using your new word in 1 quarter of the paper - Draw a picture demonstrating the meaning of the word Once completed, have students present their word to the class (this can be done during the baby shower. See extension activities) Extension activities EXTENSION ACTIVITIES Pre-activity: teach students about an epitaph. Students will create an epitaph for "dead words". These are words they should no longer use in their writing or everyday vocabulary. Use the template for definition and examples. - Get 2 sheets of tombstones (1 R.I.P and 1 survivor) - Get 1 sheet of BLACK construction paper and cut in half horizontally - Write personal epitaph on R.I.P. tombstone - Write your name at the top with a dark colored marker - Epitaph must be written large enough to see - May not write epitaph in pencil or pen - Write your survivors on a survivor tombstone - Cut out the R.I.P. tombstone and glue it to the front of a piece of construction paper - Cut out the survivor tombstone and glue it to the back of this tombstone Activity: once the epitaphs are completed, have a funeral for the words. Have everyone wear black and bring a dish to share with the class. Turn down the lights and have students share their dead word epitaph. Assignment: Pair students in groups of 2 or 3. Students will write a story including at least 8 of the new words. Have them highlight the new words in the story. Assignment: Return students' stories. In their group, they must prepare a skit about their story to present to the class. Activity: since the class has had a funeral for "dead words", it is now time to have a baby shower for the new words to come. Have students present their new word to the class. Let everyone enjoy the snacks.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.787147	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107225/overview", "title": "Baby words be gone", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20650/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.809811	01/31/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20650/overview", "title": "Science: Living & Nonliving", "author": "Mattie Potthoff" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100155/overview	Lesson Plan in Determining the Inverse of an If-then Statement Overview This lesson plan can be a reference to other teachers especially when it talks about determining the inverse of an if-then statement. This lesson plan can be a reference to other teachers especially when it talks about determining the inverse of an if-then statement.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.825137	01/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100155/overview", "title": "Lesson Plan in Determining the Inverse of an If-then Statement", "author": "JOSIE SHENA LAZAGA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103122/overview	Should a carbon tax be imposed? Overview Economists' thoughts on imposing a carbon tax. Economists' thoughts on Carbon Tax American Economists suggest that Global Climate change is a serious problem. A document published by the Wall Street Journal shows that 3640 United States Economists, 4 Former Chairs of the Federal Reserve, 28 Nobel Laureate Economists, and 15 Former Chairs of the Council of Economic Advisors signed an Economist’s statement on carbon dividends to curve global climate change. The first point proposes a carbon tax, which economists say is the most cost-effective lever to reduce carbon emissions at the necessary speed to limit the effects of global warming. Economists suggest imposing a carbon tax that will create effects towards a low-carbon future. Point two suggests a carbon tax increase each year unite economic emission reduction goals are met. A positive to this effect is that this might lead to technological innovations and infrastructure development in American society. Limiting carbon emissions by imposing a tax will promote economic growth by steering companies to invest in and produce over a long-term period, clean energy alternatives. In attempts to stop carbon seepage, economists suggest a border carbon adjustment system. A system that would give an advantage to firms in the United States that are more energy efficient than their global competitors, while inspiring other nations to adopt similar carbon pricing. The last point suggests returning the revenue to the people to maximize the fairness and political viability of the rising carbon tax. It is cheap and mostly free to emit greenhouse gases. There are many cars on the road, and though the government might impose a gas tax, some citizens may choose to take public transportation, but most citizens will pay the tax and continue to drive because this is a privilege, and depending on citizen location, might save time. Though gas tax is imposed, individuals may continue to act in a rational self-interested way, that in the long run, produces a less-than-optimal outcome such as carbon emissions. This is why economists suggest the imposition of a carbon tax by the United States government so that citizens that are operating a motor vehicle would be taxed for carbon emissions produced by their cars. Limiting the use of carbon emission equipment can potentially lead to market failure, which is an inefficient distribution of goods and services in the free market since the population that is using carbon emission items will be the ones affected by the carbon tax. This could occur because, in a free market, the prices of goods and services are determined by the forces of supply and demand; any change in one of these forces will result in a price change and a corresponding supply change. These changes lead to price equilibrium. One alternative is to impose a carbon tax on companies that are producing carbon emission equipment as part of their supply chain. The consumers that are purchasing the items should also have to pay a carbon tax at purchase, and annually during operation, as economists suggested.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.838328	04/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103122/overview", "title": "Should a carbon tax be imposed?", "author": "Akeem Shepherd" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117251/overview	Behavior Management for Adults with Dementia Overview Critically Appraised Topic - Behavior Management in Adults with Dementia N/A	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.853875	06/25/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117251/overview", "title": "Behavior Management for Adults with Dementia", "author": "Madison Rambler" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92543/overview	Puppet Play Overview Expressing needs is linked to identifying and expressing feelings. The activity's objective is to enable children to express feelings first and foremost to be able to identify and express their needs. Expressing needs and wants Puppet play is a good activity to try one-on-one or in small groups to help children explore and express their feelings, ideas, and concerns. Many children find it easier to talk about feelings during puppet play because it can give them some distance from scary or upsetting issues. Encourage children to pick up a puppet and be its voice while you or another child or adult adopts the character of another puppet. You can discuss the children’s feelings indirectly and then their needs with each feeling, and offer another point of view through your puppet. Reversing the characters so that children play another role can also promote empathy by helping kids experience how others feel. Activity Materials \| At least 2 to 3 \| Puppets \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.866888	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92543/overview", "title": "Puppet Play", "author": "Special Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78411/overview	Brain-Based Learning Lesson Overview This lesson is related to 3.NF.A.2-Fractions on a Numberline Fractions on a Numberline Lesson- 3rd Grade This lesson is based on these 3rd grade standards. In this lesson, students will be learning about fractions on a number line through brain-based learning strategies. 3.NF.A.2- Understand a fraction as a number on the number line, represent fractions on a number line. 3.NF.A.2.a- Represent a fraction 1/b on a number line diagram by defining the interval from 0 to 1 as the whole and partitioning it into b equal parts. Recognize that each part has size 1/b and that the endpoint of the part based at 0 locates the number 1/b on the number line. 3.NF.A.2.b- Represent a fraction a/b on a number line diagram by marking off a lengths 1/b from 0. Recognize that the resulting interval has size a/b and that its endpoint locates the number a/b on the number line.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.883901	Mariya Skrzat	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78411/overview", "title": "Brain-Based Learning Lesson", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73156/overview	Community Building Songs for Young Children Overview Song list of community building songs for young children. Song List These are songs used with young chidren to develop community in a classroom. They are demonstrated to student teachesrs at the beggining of a child dvelopment course, to serve as an ice breaker before the module which highilghts the importance of community and relationships in Early Childhood Education. Who Is Next To You? (Sung to a “pat, clap” chant beat) Hello, _____ How are, you And who is, next to you? (Name of the person to your left)! [Repeat, going around in a circle.] Hello Cheer (Sung to the “row, row, row your boat” melody) Hello hello hello ______. We’re sooo glad you’re here! We love to see you every day, and do the Hello Cheer. (Then wave and/or clap and say “hello ___!”) [Repeat until everyone is sung to, including the teachers.] *Can also be made into a book for an added visual aid. Who Has Come To School Today? Who has come to school today? School today. School today. Who has come to school today? (Name of Child A) & (Name of Child B). Yay! (Name of Child A) & (Name of Child B)! [Repeat until everyone is sung to, including the teachers.] I Have A Name I have a name, you have a name Every. Body. Has. A. Name. Your name is ____________. Let’s all wave to __________. (Then everybody waves to that child.) [Repeat until everyone is sung to, including the teachers.]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.898752	10/04/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73156/overview", "title": "Community Building Songs for Young Children", "author": "Ashley Kipple" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86958/overview	Education Standards How to construct a 60 degree angle Constructing Angles Overview How to construct different angles using a straight edge and a compass. 60 degree angle \| After doing this \| Your work should look like this \| \|---\|---\| \| 1. Draw a line segment which will become one side of the angle. (Skip this step if you are given this line.) The exact length is not important. Label it PQ. P will be the angle's vertex. \| \| \| 2. Set the compasses on P, and set its width to any convenient setting. \| \| \| 3. Draw an arc across PQ and up over above the point P. \| \| \| 4. Without changing the compasses' width, move the compasses to the point where the arc crosses PQ, and make an arc that crosses the first one. \| \| \| 5. Draw a line from P, through the intersection of the two arcs. \| \| \| 6. Done. The angle QPR has a measure of 60° \| Construct a 60° angle, with compass and straightedge (For assistance see www.mathopenref.com/constangle60.html) \| 1. \| Construct a 60° angle with its vertex at the point P \| \| 2. \| Perform the construction twice to create a 120° angle from two 60° angles that are adjacent (share a side) as in the example: \| (C) Copyright John Page 2017 45 degree angle \| After doing this \| Your work should look like this \| \|---\|---\| \| 1. Draw a line segment which will become one side of the angle. (Skip this step if you are given this line.) The exact length is not important. Label it PQ. P will be the angle's vertex. \| \| \| In the next 3 steps we create the perpendicular bisector of PQ. See Constructing a perpendicular bisector of a line segment \| \| \| 2. Set the compasses' width to just over half the length of the line segment PQ. \| \| \| 3. With the compasses' point on P then Q, draw two arcs that cross above and below the line. \| \| \| 4. Draw a line between the two arc intersections. This is at right angles to PQ and bisects it (divides it in exactly half). \| \| \| 5. With the compasses' point on the intersection of PQ and the perpendicular just drawn, set the compasses' width to P \| \| \| 6. Draw an arc across the perpendicular, creating the point C \| \| \| 7. Draw a line from P through C, and on a little more. The end of this line is point R \| \| \| 8. Done. The angle ∠QPR has a measure of 45° \| Construct a 45° angle, with compass and straightedge (For assistance see www.mathopenref.com/constangle45.html) \| 1. \| Construct a 45° angle with its vertex at the point P \| \| 2. \| (a) \| Construct a 45° angle on each end of the line below as in the example. \| Example \| \| (b) \| What is the precise name of the triangle that results? \| \|\| \| (c) \| What properties does this triangle have? (list 3). \| (C) Copyright John Page 2017	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.928286	10/22/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86958/overview", "title": "Constructing Angles", "author": "Ryan Eberly" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107971/overview	Gender Equality School Education Overview This content is an information text prepared within the framework of the Erasmus project. NO MAN NO WOMAN JUST HUMAN The project aimed to improve gender perception through education, promoting healthy participation of women, girls, and boys in society and decision-making processes. Women and girls make up half of the population and are central to EU values. Priorities include democratic, equal, and inclusive education, preparing students to accept and internalize common European values. The goal was to provide innovative and high-quality educational content, fostering a strong society where women and men can work together. Education is crucial for breaking gender stereotypes and promoting gender equality. However, gender equality in education faces limitations and obstacles. Cultural codes in society and schools hinder girls' abilities and limitations. A holistic approach to gender equality requires developing gender-sensitive curriculum, materials, and teaching methods. Priority should be given to training teachers and students for a better gender-sensitive approach. The project aimed to raise awareness among educators, students, and parents, contributing to social gender equality. It aimed to educate educators in formal and non-formal education and create training modules for educators to apply to their age groups. General purpose of the project, to contribute to the supporting of Social Gender Equality. Purpose of this Project, To educate methodologically educators working in formal and non-formal education and to create training modules which support gender equality that educators can apply to their age groups. The aims of this Project were: • to develop a new pedagogy / method proposal in GE education, • to create a network for teachers and others in GE education; • to train a large number of educators by creating training packages, • to raise awareness about gender equality in and around the schools, • to disseminate gender equality education in formal education and create awareness, • to empower individuals through education to prevent gender discrimination, • to strengthen families by improving teachers' skills and expertise, • To recognize and spread the values of the European Union, • To strengthen democratic participation through education • To develop and apply educational approaches, activities and resources that can be applied to formal educational environments. The project was especially focused on developing GE educational materials in schools. In this sense, the project had sustainable results that could be used in other schools by targeting teachers and students in the impact area. The following activities were carried out within the scope of the project. 01:Gender Equality Questionnaire and Needs Analysis 02: e-learning platform: Online Courses for Teachers:These courses were created online with high quality and content.The courses were designed to empower gender equality awareness in teachers. O3: Gender Equality Activity Book (Curriculum and application proposal) Educational Pedagogy Proposal / Method for Improving Gender Equality Perception in Students Teacher's Guide Book -Gender Equality Book for Primary School Students -Gender Equality Book for Secondary School Students -Gender Equality Book for High School Students: O4: Gender Equality Awareness Materials: This output consisted of; external posters that can be downloaded and printed with high quality, infographics, posters, brochures, bookmarks,a short film of GE awareness and booklets to raise awareness for teachers /students / parents/ local people. 5 TPM Pilot applications 5 Multiplier Events Online meetings The project produced the following concrete outputs; 1.Gender Equality Questionnaire and Needs Analysis (5 reports) 2.E-learning platform 3 Project website and social media accounts 4. Manual and online Gender Equality courses were created for teachers. In this context, interactive courses and downloadable pdf training materials (modules) were created. 5.Gender equality themed; movie corner Game corner Useful Links corner *virtual walks corner 6. Gender Equality Activity Book (Curriculum and application proposal) 7.Educational Pedagogy Proposal / Method for Improving Gender Equality Perception in Students 8.Teacher's Guide Book 9.Gender Equality Activity Book for Primary School Students 10.Gender Equality Activity Book for Secondary School Students 11.Gender Equality Activity Book for High School Students 12.Gender Equality Awareness Materials.You can find them all in the links below; https://justhumanproject.com/home-page https://justhuman.aketh.eu/ Established a network for trainers promoting gender equality education, trained numerous trainers, increased awareness, strengthened social life, families, and multiplied effect by improving educators' skills and expertise. You can find them all in the links below; https://justhumanproject.com/home-page https://justhuman.aketh.eu/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.949073	Syllabus	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107971/overview", "title": "Gender Equality School Education", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71640/overview	Primary and Secondary Colors Overview Hey there we have a new interesting topic about colors! Primary and Secondary colors Primary colors are: - R E D - Y E L L O W - B L U E Secondary Colors are: - O R A N G E - G R E E N - P U R P L E	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.965766	08/24/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71640/overview", "title": "Primary and Secondary Colors", "author": "Ines Andrade" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92994/overview	Color Theory Color Theory Overview Activities for color theory. 1. Assessment of the color wheel and the terms associated with color families. 2. Color mixing activity to see how many colors a student or pair of students can make. Discussion of color and what is the favorite color they created. Color Theory In this resource, there are two activities for students to learn about color theory and color mixing. The first resource is about the color wheel, placing colors in the correct location. Discussing color mixing and the correct terms for color families. The second resource I like to tell my students is that it is a color challenge. They are to see how many colors they can create using the 3 primary colors along with black and white. They then have to discuss how they created their favorite color on the page and if they feel like they can re-create the color if needed. These activities get students discussing color, how colors are created and what colors appeal to them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:30.985003	Michelle Bridges	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92994/overview", "title": "Color Theory", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65288/overview	Education Standards LEGO Practice Sandcastles Practice Whales Practice Math Overview Daily math assignments. Please refer to attached documents in this resource or your 'To Print' folder for required supplement material. Math \| Monday \| \| \| Tuesday \| \| \| Wednesday \| \| \| Thursday \| \| \| Friday \| Start your Amusement Park Inquiry Project \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.011494	04/15/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65288/overview", "title": "Math", "author": "Julie Cronin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88306/overview	Introduction to Programming Overview Introducing children to Programming Programming for very beginner What is Programming...what is coding?Basics of Programming and Coding Teaching kids Programming and Coding Programming for very beginner What is Programming...what is coding?Basics of Programming and Coding Teaching kids Programming and Coding What is Programming...what is coding?Basics of Programming and Coding Teaching kids Programming and Coding	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.034253	Pasuree Poovachiranon	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88306/overview", "title": "Introduction to Programming", "author": "Saranyu Kladsawad" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65293/overview	Science Overview Daily science assignments. Please install Adobe Flash or change computer settings to 'Allow' for Microorganisms assignments to work. Science Note: You need to install Adobe Flash or change your computer settings to 'Allow' for science assignments to work \| Monday \| \| \| Tuesday \| \| \| Wednesday \| \| \| Thursday \| \| \| Friday \| Virtual Field Trip to Shark Bay in Australia \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.049845	04/15/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65293/overview", "title": "Science", "author": "Julie Cronin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105317/overview	Product Based Assessment Overview Product-based assessment is an evaluation method that assesses an individual's learning or performance based on the outcomes or products they produce. It involves measuring the quality, effectiveness, or creativity of tangible outputs such as projects, presentations, essays, artworks, or prototypes. This approach focuses on the end result rather than the process, providing insights into the individual's abilities, understanding, and application of knowledge or skills. Product-based assessments are commonly used in education, creative fields, and professional settings to gauge performance and measure achievement. Product-based assessment is an evaluation method that assesses an individual's learning or performance based on the outcomes or products they produce. It involves measuring the quality, effectiveness, or creativity of tangible outputs such as projects, presentations, essays, artworks, or prototypes. This approach focuses on the end result rather than the process, providing insights into the individual's abilities, understanding, and application of knowledge or skills. Product-based assessments are commonly used in education, creative fields, and professional settings to gauge performance and measure achievement.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.061557	Mary Grace Vallaso	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105317/overview", "title": "Product Based Assessment", "author": "Student Guide" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/34117/overview	Education Standards Frozen Planet Documentary-Six Episode Week one of Kindergarten IB Unit-Polar Regions Overview This lesson is to introduce the IB Unit of Inquiry, "Where We Are in Place and Time". The Central Idea: Environmental factors influence the adaption of living things. Lines of Inquiry that will define the scope of the inquiry into the central idea: - Animal/human adaptations - The location determines climate (map skills) - Compare/contrast the two polar regions Teacher questions/provocations that will drive these inquiries: - What is the landscape of the Polar Regions? - What factors affect the climate of the Polar Regions? - How does climate affect adaptations? KWL Day 1: The first activity with this unit will be a KWL exercise. Chart paper will be used to create a list of what the students know about the word, "polar" and "polar region". The class will be sitting together telling the teacher what they'd like to add to the list of what they "Know". This will be displayed in the classroom. Following the "Know" list students will begin to brainstorm what they'd like to learn about this region. These inquiries will help guide the unit. The teacher is the facilitator in this unit and will help guide the children to learn what it is they're curious about and what they don't already know. The "Want to learn" list will be created and displayed alongside the "Know" list. Books about the Polar Regions and animals will already be on display for students to browse during free time and reading time. Once the list of what the students would like to learn has been created the teacher will continue to add resources to the collection that cater to their questions. Peaking more interest Day2: To further stir students ‘curiosity the teacher will show the below link on the smart board. This has six photos with captions and links that will continue discussion on the Polar Region. This fourth slide also includes a map that will be part of the unit further along. The class will go through these six pages creating more questions and curiosities. This will also be the start of looking at maps of the Polar Regions. Questions can be added to the “Want to know” list created on day 1 Windows to the Universe: https://www.windows2universe.org/?page=/earth/polar/polar.html Another resource that will be used throughout this unit is the documentary series, “Frozen Planet”. One episode will be viewed each week of the unit-See Resources Mapping Day 3: Mapping Today the class will look at a map on the Smartboard to understand where the Polar Regions are located. They will see it as a globe and as a flat surface. After interacting with and learning about the globe students will create their own maps highlighting arctic regions. Polar Bear Habitat Day 4/5: Polar Bear Habitat - See Resource Tab	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.085696	11/13/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/34117/overview", "title": "Week one of Kindergarten IB Unit-Polar Regions", "author": "Brooke Reed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65471/overview	Professional Learning Resources for Teacher Librarians Overview Professional learning opportunities and guidance resources for teacher librarians. Professional Learning Opportunities and Additional Resources for Teacher Librarians Professional Learning School Library Journal Webcasts \| MSI Information Services Register for free real-time webcasts or view archived recordings. Fee-based online courses are also available Washington Library Association Training Resources \| Washington Library Association Provides links to free and low-cost online continuing education resources and archived workshops. Washington State Library Tutorials \| Washington State Library Online learning platform for individual and group learning. Content includes internet basics, social media, open data, and youth and teen services. - Sign up for WSL Updates, a free weekly e-newsletter that provides a curated list of free webinars and other training opportunities for library staff as well as other news of interest to libraries. View the latest edition at Between The Lines: Washington State Library Blog. Wyoming State Library Training Calendar \| Wyoming State Library Offers many free online events and archived webinars open to all, in addition to Wyoming-specific trainings. General Resources Alki Journal \| Washington Library Association Alki’s purpose is to communicate current and enduring issues for and about Washington libraries, personnel and advocates and to facilitate the exchange of research, opinion, and information. Reading in the Time of COVID-19: Free access to eBooks, audiobooks, animated books, and read alouds \| Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Free reading options for all Pre K - 12 students. Sites include access for English learners as well as students with reading barriers. Opportunities are highlighted for online reading, downloadable eBooks, audiobooks, apps to read content on smartphones/tablets, and read aloud stories for our youngest learners. The Role of School Librarians in OER Curation - A Framework to Guide Practice \| Institute for the Study of Knowledge Management in Education Provides suggestions and a framework for resource curation promising practices. Washington State Library - Covid-19 Resources \| Washington State Library Washington State Library staff will be updating this site with learning and entertainment resources for home schoolers, workers-at-home, and career builders, and for librarians and K-20 educators as they continue to support their communities through the COVID-19 outbreak. Read Aloud Guidance for Schools and Libraries Reading Allowed: Fair Use Enables Translating Classroom Practices to Online Learning \| American University – Washington College of Law Reading Allowed YouTube Recording Essential Copyright Knowledge: A Toolkit for Teachers and Librarians Essential copyright knowledge: a toolkit for teachers and librarians – slides \| American University – Washington College of Law Attribution and License Cover image by Gerd Altmann from Pixabay Except where otherwise noted, this work by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. This resource contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.116137	Barbara Soots	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65471/overview", "title": "Professional Learning Resources for Teacher Librarians", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84957/overview	Media Manipulations and Disinformation Introduction Overview Class/grade: 11th grade (Elementary school) authors: Bryan Villarreal - Nicolas Espitia Jose Quiroga - Ronal Perdomo Jonathan Sánchez - Jose Luis Delgado Time & Length of class: 1 hour 30 - 2 hours Achievement: - Students will be able to define what a media manipulator is and define some of their types and characteristics. Pre-activity TIME: 20 MINUTES At the beginning, the teacher starts the class with "the telephone game" to motivate the students; and then he asks what they think the reason they played that game for. Afterwards, the teacher conducts a conversatory about what they think is fake news and if they know of any. Then, he presents a video to clarify doubts. While-activity MANIPULATOR TYPES ( 30 MINUTES) Each student will choose two types of manipulators in the chapter “who is manipulating the media” and they will read it. Afterwards, each student will look for one example of fake news based on either of the two types they read about, and they will post it on a jamboard: https://jamboard.google.com/d/1XODKarQceDmnzW3KxTXu2JdsoU4Cb8YUai1B21CQOgk/edit?usp=sharing Then some students will be selected to expose their fake news and tell the class the type of manipulator they selected and its characteristics. CLASS DISCUSSION ( 15 MINUTES) The teacher will play the video about how fake news work or share it with students so they can watch it:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=frjITitjisY Based on the video the whole class will answer some questions for discussion: -What role does mainstream news media play in influencing the public's opinion and attitudes in a political election? - what motivates people to create fake news? - how media manipulation and desinformation works? -"just happened to be more likely to share fake news" What do you think this means? Post-activity TIME: 25 MINUTES - Teacher asks the students to get into groups of five. Each group will be assigned one picture. The groups will have five minutes to find at least two features about media manipulation. Each group has to select a speaker to expose their findings. Each speaker will have two minutes to do so. Teacher provides feedback to the students. ASSESSMENT SECTION Assessment: - https://app.schoology.com/course/5167212531/assessments/5218749553 - https://app.schoology.com/event/5248728401/profile	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.139862	08/11/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84957/overview", "title": "Media Manipulations and Disinformation Introduction", "author": "Jose Quiroga" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87013/overview	Demand and Supply Curves Overview This resource is for anyone who wants to learn about the concept of demand and supply curves and their features as well as the concept of market equilibrium. It is designed to introduce the basic knowledge about the concepts, so it is more like an introduction to the field of microeconomics through learning the fundamental theory of demand and supply in the market. Demand Curve The demand curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between the price of a good or service and the quantity demanded for a given period of time. It is a downward-sloping curve because as the price of the good increases, people would want less of that good. In contrast, if the price decreases, meaning the good is much cheaper than before, customers will want more of the good so that they can save some money. Supply Curve The supply curve is a graphic representation of the correlation between the cost of a good or service and the quantity supplied for a given period. Typically, the supply curve is upward-sloping because as the market price for one good is increasing, the suppliers will be more lucrative to produce more so that they can earn more money. However, if the market price is decreasing due to some reasons, suppliers will want to produce less since the market for that good is not at its best, and producing more will lead to a considerable amount of loss. The Market Equilibrium Point By definition, the market equilibrium is where for a particular good, the demand is equal to the supply in the market. When the demand is equal to the supply, then we say we have reached an equilibrium point. Graphically, the market equilibrium is where the demand curve intersects with the supply curve. At this point, the quantities of goods supplied and demanded are the same, and the prices at which the goods are supplied and demanded are also the same. The market equilibrium is important because it represents that the market price is stable and helps the suppliers and the customers to decide their further actions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.159319	10/25/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87013/overview", "title": "Demand and Supply Curves", "author": "Yumeng Chen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92932/overview	Danielson's Framework for Teaching Educator Resume Writing Guide Evaluation Form for Cooperating Teacher Lesson Cover Sheet LESSON COVER SHEET Lesson Plan Template Lesson Plan Template Reflection after Observation Reflection following Observation Resume Sample Sample Brochure TIMS Information University Supervisor Evaluation Form Student Teaching Seminar (Elementary & Secondary) Overview This seminar is offered concurrently with the student teaching practicum. The content will focus on 1) topics related to student teaching; 2) professionalism; and 3) career development. Student Teaching Seminar Course Description Course Description The Student Teaching Seminar course is offered every other week for 50 minutes. The purpose of the course is to offer a safe place to meet with student teachers to discuss topics related to student teaching, professionalism, and career development. This couse is offered concurrently with the student teaching practicum. The student teacher will turn in necessary paperwork to his or her Practicum professor. However, in Seminar, we will discuss the different requirements that need to be submitted throughout the student teaching experience and how this paperwork must be completed. Resumes and Cover Letters Resumes and cover letters were discussed thoroughly in pre-student teaching seminar and should be developed prior to this seminar. However, the student teacher may want to refer to this module to assist in preparing a final resume and cover letter for an application packet. Assignment: Professional Brochure Assignment: Trifold Professional Brochure Assignment This module will contain information and samples of the professional brochure required for this class. Create a professional brochure (typically trifold on Microsoft Publisher) outlining accomplishments. This will be something that pre-service teachers can leave with administrators at interviews. Include information such as: - Name - Major/Minor/Add-on Endorsements - Contact Information (address, Email) - Professional looking picture - Link to professional portfolio - Biography information (where student attended school; GPA if good, hours out in the field, for example, 200+, Leadership Opportunities/Experiences and Rewards) - Experiences that might set student apart from other interviewees - Professional Experiences - Technology Expertise - Provide a summary of your educational philosophy - Charlette Danielson’s Framework for Teaching Domains, summary of work completed in each domain - Favorite Education Quote - Other…. Assignment: Student Teaching Notebook Assignment: Student Teaching Notebook Student teachers will be responsible for maintaining a notebook throughout his or her student teaching assignment. These will be turned in at the end of the semester. Students will share ideas from their notebooks during the Student Teaching Seminar. SEPARATE YOUR NOTEBOOK(S) INTO THE FOLLOWING SECTIONS: Strategies and Resource Notebook: Directions: Keep a list/description of the strategies (ex. Jigsaw Method), resources (ex. children's literature), and technology (ex. Class Dojo) utilized in the planning, implementation, and assessment of prepared and presented lessons. Continue adding strategies for each of the content areas as you find and/or utilize them in your student teaching setting. Classroom Management: Directions: Keep a list/description of classroom management strategies shared and experienced during your student teaching semester. This will help you to reflect, analyze, and refine your personal classroom management style. Differentiation: Directions: Keep a list/description of differentiation strategies that you observed and/or implemented during your student teaching placement. How did the classroom teacher or you, as the student teacher, meet the needs of ALL learners? Culturally Relevant Teaching: Use the culturally relevant teaching competencies to document ways in which your cooperating teacher and/or you apply these competencies to your teaching and student learning. Miscellaneous Journal Writing: Directions: Your daily journal writing will include reflections on teaching and learning strategies, organizational/management systems, effective instruction, and diverse learners. Reflection is essential to learning and addressing what you are seeing and areas that you need to address. Be sure to include routines, timing, children’s responses to different situations, assessments, etc. This journal will be an invaluable reference, especially when you are a teacher of record. Danielson's Domains for Teaching/INTASC Standards/Feedback The evaluation process may seem stressful at first, but is intended to strengthen and prepare student teachers through valuable feedback provided by the professionals mentoring pre-service teachers. Danielson's Framework for Teaching is a resource that both student teachers and teachers will refer to as a way to plan for effective teaching and learning. The University Supervisor and Cooperating Teacher will use this tool to formally evaluate the student teacher (Administrators will also use this framework while conducting observations if the student teacher gets hired in a school district). Prior to the observation process with cooperating teachers and university supervisors, student teachers should assure that all 4 domains are being met. The Danielson's Framework is attached to this document. Also included below are the INTASC Standards previously used to evaluate student teachers and the correlation to Danielson's Framework currently used to evaluate student teachers. Receiving feedback from Cooperating Teacher(s) and University Supervisor This is extremely important. You are a novice teacher. You do not know more than the teacher or supervisor. You may have recently learned new methods or updated strategies or content, but they have the experience. If you choose to share things that you have recently learned in university courses or from a placement, be sure to share in a way that is not offensive. Many cooperating teachers enjoy seeing new ways to do things and will welcome your input. Others may find this offensive. Student teaching, though it may seem like it is long, is a very short time in your life. Enjoy the new experiences and learn from experienced teachers. Updated INTASC Standards with Correlation to Danielson’s Framework InTASC Standard Danielson Framework Component(s) \| Correlation of Danielson’s Framework of Teaching \| 1. Learner Development The teacher understands how learners grow and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and development vary individually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical areas, and designs and implements developmentally appropriate and challenging learning experiences. \| Planning and Preparation 1b: Demonstrating Knowledge of Students 1c: Setting Instructional Outcomes 1e: Designing Coherent instruction Instruction 3c: Engaging Students in Learning \| 2: Learning Differences. The teacher uses understanding of individual differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure inclusive learning environments that enable each learner to meet high standards. \| Planning and Preparation 1b: Demonstrating Knowledge of Students \| 3: Learning Environment The teacher works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative learning, and that encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation. \| Classroom Environment 2a: Creating an Environment of Respect and Rapport Instruction 3c: Engaging Students in Learning \| 4: Content Knowledge. The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and creates learning experiences that make the discipline accessible and meaningful for learners to assure mastery of the content. \| Planning and Preparation 1a. Demonstrating Knowledge of Content and Pedagogy 1e: Designing Coherent instruction Instruction 3c: Engaging Students in Learning \| 5: Application of Content. The teacher understands how to connect concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in critical thinking, creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to authentic local and global issues. \| Instruction 3a: Communicating with Students 3c: Engaging Students in Learning 3f: Demonstrating Flexibility and Responsiveness \| 6: Assessment. The teacher understands and uses multiple methods of assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor learner progress, and to guide the teacherʼs and learnerʼs decision making. \| Planning and Preparation 1f: Designing Student Assessments Instruction 3d: Using Assessment in Instruction \| 7: Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans instruction that supports every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing upon knowledge of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and pedagogy, as well as knowledge of learners and the community context. \| Planning and Preparation 1b: Demonstrating knowledge of students 1e: Designing coherent instruction \| 8: Instructional Strategies. The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep understanding of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to apply knowledge in meaningful ways. \| Instruction 3b: Using Questioning and Discussion Techniques 3c: Engaging students in learning \| 9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice. The teacher engages in ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually evaluate his/her practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions on others (learners, families, other professionals, and the community), and adapts practice to meet the needs of each learner. \| Professional Responsibilities 4a: Reflecting on Teaching 4e: Growing and Developing Professionally 4f: Showing Professionalism \| 10: Leadership and Collaboration. The teacher seeks appropriate leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for student learning, to collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school professionals, and community members to ensure learner growth, and to advance the profession. \| Professional Responsibilities 4c: Communicating with Families 4d: Participating in a Professional Community 4f: Showing Professionalism \| University Supervisor Evaluations (4) This module contains information and forms needed for the university supervisor observation and evaluation of the pre-service teacher. The student teachers will be evaluated 4 times by the University Supervisor. Lesson Observation Packet (for observations completed by the University Supervisor) - Lesson Observation Packet Cover Sheet - DAILY Lesson Plan - Lesson Observation Form - LESSON REFLECTION FOLLOWING OBSERVATION BY THE UNIVERSITY SUPERVISOR - Any additional forms used Cooperating Teacher Observation/Evaluation (2) This module contains information and forms needed for the cooperating teacher observation and evaluation of the pre-service teacher. The student teacher will be evaluated two times by the cooperating teacher. It is the student teacher’s responsibility to submit the packet of forms completed for each observation conducted by the Cooperating Teacher to Practicum professor within one week of each observation. Lesson Observation Packet (for observations completed by the Cooperating Teacher) - Lesson Observation Packet Cover Sheet - DAILY Lesson Plan - Lesson Observation Form - LESSON REFLECTION FOLLOWING OBSERVATION BY THE COOPERTING TEACHER - Any additional forms used Observations by Cooperating Teacher - The student teacher completes a DAILY Lesson Plan using the format provided by the program. He/she provides the Cooperating Teacher with a copy prior to the lesson/observation (hard copy or electronic) within the timeframe/format designated by the Cooperating Teacher, but no less than 48 hours prior to the lesson delivery. - The Cooperating Teacher reviews the DAILY Lesson Plan and, if time allows, conducts a pre-conference with the student teacher to discuss the lesson. - During the lesson, the Cooperating Teacher completes the Lesson Observation Form. The Cooperating Teacher assigns a ranking and provides written comments or identifies evidence of indicators that have been observed in four categories: - Planning and Preparation - Classroom Environment - Instruction - Reflection and Professionalism - After the observation, the Cooperating Teacher and student teacher meet to discuss the lesson, focusing on reflection and self-evaluation. The Cooperating Teacher documents student performance on the Supportive Feedback and Areas for Growth sections of the Lesson Observation Form. - Using information from the reflective discussion, the student teacher completes the LESSON REFLECTION FOLLOWING OBSERVATION BY THE COOPERATING TEACHER form so that both Cooperating Teacher and student teacher agree on what was discussed and a goal is identified for the next observation. Note: This reflection form is different than the form submitted to University Supervisor. - The student teacher and the Cooperating Teacher should each keep a copy of the completed DAILY Lesson Plan, Lesson Observation Form, and LESSON REFLECTION FOLLOWING OBSERVATION BY THE COOPERATING TEACHER forms for each lesson observed. - A Lesson Observation Packet, including each of the above-mentioned forms, should also be submitted to the university with a Lesson Observation Packet Cover Sheet. Cumulative Time Log The student teacher will create a time log at the beginning of student teaching to record date, activity, and number of hours. Create a table that numbers your days from 1 - 60 and lists the dates that you were in attendance. Note if the days were professional development. Submit time log at the end of semester. See example: \| DATE \| Activity \| Hours \| Day 1: 9/30/23 \| Student Teaching Placement \| 7 hours \| TIMS Information At the end of the semester, student teachers will complete a TIMS informational sheet prior to submitting an application on the TIMS system. This informational sheet should be completed for the Practicum professor.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.207494	Jeanne Burth	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92932/overview", "title": "Student Teaching Seminar (Elementary & Secondary)", "author": "Jessica McCormick" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69183/overview	Education Standards OSPI Statistics and Geometry Instructional Task: Walkathon Overview This resource was created by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Task OSPI Statistics and Geometry Instructional Task E Statistics and Geometry; Standard S-ID.A, Claim 3B; S-ID.A, Claim 1 Walkathon Sam claims that of the twenty-two juniors at River City High School who participated in a walkathon walked at least ten miles. \| - Justify or refute Sam’s claim. Show your reasoning using numbers and words. - Estimate the typical number of miles the juniors walked. Explain why you chose this value. Rubric Rubric Question Number \| Standard/Claim \| Description \| E \| S-ID.A/Claim 3B S-ID.A/Claim 1 \| A 2-point response demonstrates reasonable understanding of the standards and claims by doing all the following: States the median should be used because the data is skewed. \| A 1-point response demonstrates partial understanding of the standards and claims by doing two of the following: States the median should be used because the data is skewed. \| \|\| A 0-point response demonstrates almost no understanding of the standards and claims. \| OSPI Statistics and Geometry Instructional Task E Exemplar OSPI Statistics and Geometry Instructional Task E Statistics and Geometry; Standard S-ID.A, Claim 3B; S-ID.A, Claim 1 Walkathon Sam claims that of the twenty-two juniors at River City High School who participated in a walkathon walked at least ten miles. \| - Justify or refute Sam’s claim. Show your reasoning using numbers and words. - Estimate the typical number of miles the juniors walked. Explain why you chose this value. \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.241877	Hannah Hynes-Petty	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69183/overview", "title": "OSPI Statistics and Geometry Instructional Task: Walkathon", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117520/overview	CAT - Parental Involvement in Intervention for Children with Speech Sound Disorders by Kelsie Simpkins Overview CAT - Parental Involvement in Intervention for Children with Speech Sound Disorders CAT - Parental Involvement in Intervention for Children with Speech Sound Disorders by Kelsie Simpkins	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.257834	07/01/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117520/overview", "title": "CAT - Parental Involvement in Intervention for Children with Speech Sound Disorders by Kelsie Simpkins", "author": "Kelsie Simpkins" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90085/overview	Physicochemical Properties of Drugs Overview The illustration presents a mind map of the physicochemical properties of drugs which can be used by instructors to summarize the course. Students can also use it to test their understanding of the subject matter. Mind Map Summary of the physicochemical properties of drugs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.269983	02/16/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90085/overview", "title": "Physicochemical Properties of Drugs", "author": "GLADYS MOKUA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97612/overview	Education Standards Telling Time to the quarter hour Overview A quick lesson or center activity for telling time to the quarter hour. photo courtesy of clipartbest.com Telling Time: quarter hour Print and place in page protector sleeve for reuse or center activity with dry-erase markers. *This activity goes beyond matching, involving the student to draw the clock hands(long and short) for enhanced understanding. If students are struggling with drawing the clock hands, make some long and short clock arrows for students to place appropriately on the clocks. For students who have a basic understanding of telling time, practice with quarter hour time. Students will learn new vocabulary terms: quarter past, quarter 'till, half past. Begin with the introductory video from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HKZOGR1pz1I 2.MDA.6 Use analog and digital clocks to tell and record time to the nearest five-minute interval using a.m. and p.m	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.291875	09/30/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97612/overview", "title": "Telling Time to the quarter hour", "author": "Robin Allen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88349/overview	Integration of Sketch-noting Overview This resource explains how teachers can integrate sketchnote to allow students to pull rich meaning from a text. Integration of Sketch-noting for Text Comprehension Gianni Llano EDR 529 ORE Technology Integration Project: Sketchnoting Part 1 Introduction Sketchnoting is a way of note-taking, where one combines both visuals and words to explore ideas and connect important information. Adding sketches to your notes allows for the activation of part of your brain, which would have remained dormant if one chooses to only include words when digging deeper into ideas. In integration, sketchnoting prompts students to analyze sections, with the goal of determining how the information connects to the overall structure and how it contributes to the development of theme/central idea, setting or plot (NGS 6R5). When completing a sketchnote, students integrate visual information with other information in print and digital text (NGS RH7). Sketchnoting is an awesome way to refine annotation, where students have access to advance their annotations to something much more than just thoughts onto paper. Sketchnoting presents students with a variety of tools they can choose from and create their own customized note-taking process, one that works well with their learning style and personality. Sketchnote can be introduced during comprehension activities, which allows students to dissect a text. Introduce the tool by showcasing all of the amazing features which is a set up from transitional note taking. Tools Students will need emails in order to create free accounts on explaineverything.com *There is a whiteboard app for iPads, Androids, Chromebooks, and browsers. \| Prerequisite lessons \| Part 1: Annotation lesson Aim: How can utilizing annotation symbols and writing on the margin further develop our comprehension of the text? In this lesson, model how to use various annotation symbols to react to the text. In addition, provide comprehension questions in which students can answer when rereading the passage of your choice. Part 2: Conduct Image Search Aim: How can we use keywords to narrow our search when researching images linked/related to our ideas and thoughts? In this lesson, model how to conduct image searches. Model how student’s ideas can generate keywords to plug into a search engine in order to narrow their search. \| Lesson Plan Outline \| Grade \| 6TH GRADE \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Aim \| How can the integration of Sketchnote allow for students to deeply explore text meaning and further develop comprehension? \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Text \| Select a text of your choice you’d like your students to closely read and check for text comprehension \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Materials \| Smart Board, Google Slides presentation, pencils/highlighters/notebook, text of your choice, student devices, student emails \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Standards \| Next Generation ELA Standards:6R5: In literary texts, analyze how a particular sentence, paragraph, stanza, chapter, scene, or section fits into the overall structure of a text and how it contributes to the development of theme/central idea, setting, or plot. In informational texts, analyze how a particular sentence, paragraph, chapter, or section fits into the overall structure of a text and how it contributes to the development of theme/central ideas.RH7 (6-8): Integrate visual information (e.g., in charts, graphs, photographs, videos, or maps) with other information in print and digital texts.ISTE Standards:Empowered Learner1.1.b Students build networks and customize their learning environments in ways that support the learning process.Knowledge Constructor1.3.c Students curate information from digital resources using a variety of tools and methods to create collections of artifacts that demonstrate meaningful connections or conclusions.Creative communicator1.6.c Students communicate complex ideas clearly and effectively by creating or using a variety of digital objects such as visualizations, models or simulations. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Objective \| Students will create a sketchnote to support their understanding of a challenging passage or idea in one of your school year text selections. Their sketchnotes will include simple drawings and doodles, text, and other elements to show how ideas are connected. As students begin to establish connections between elements within the text, they will be better equipped to pull meaning from the text and increase comprehension, which support’s in formulating the central idea, author's perspective and purpose of the text. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Do Now \| Do Now: Lesson opener \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Mini-Lesson/ \| In your mini lesson be sure to explain to students the following: What is it? A sketchnote is a creative way to make notes. You combine words with drawings and other markings that make sense to you. Your doodles/sketches + your annotations/notes = Sketchnotes (Visualize translation of your understanding of a text) Why is this helpful? Because the pictures and words you use reflect your own thoughts, your sketchnotes can help you explore concepts, retell what you’ve learned, and even help you study for tests or find ideas for essays.Teacher Sample You may also demo a sample of your own sketchnote. You may want to create a sketchnote for a passage previously read in class, that depicts connections the students were able to establish when discussing and dissecting the passage. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Brainstorm \| Ask students to recap a section of a passage read in class. Ask students to look for something chunks in the passage that may challenge them. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Prepare \| DISCLAIMER: A sketchnote is not a work of art, so don’t worry about your drawing skills. Simple drawings or doodles, as long as they make sense to you, work best. Students can create an account on explaineverything.com, which they can link to their emails for free. Students will then be prompted to “Start Whiteboarding.” Allow students to explore the tool box, which allows them to link: Images, audio, text boxes, color, shapes, links, background, and color \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Directions \| Directions for students Guide: Picture the process. Reread the text that includes the challenging passage or idea. Then, use words and sketches to show your ideas about it. If you have questions, include them right in your sketchnote. Use the text, other sources, or your own experience to find the answers.Keep it simple. Your sketchnote is a record of your thinking, so be sure to use visuals that are meaningful to you. Keep your drawings simple. People, for example, can be difficult to draw, but you can represent them with basic stick figures. If you’d like to show emotions, you can add familiar symbols, such as hearts, question marks, exclamation points, or jagged “anger” lines, above a figure’s head.Weigh your words. Sometimes you’ll need to include words in your sketchnote, but choose your words carefully. Use words to identify key terms or concepts, to name important people, places, or events, and to help you remember an idea. Show a word’s importance by styling it for emphasis. For example, draw a box or starburst around a key term. Write a character’s name in bold bubble lettering and then underline it. Set off important ideas in bold colored text. Show structure. Review the ideas you had about organization during your planning. Use an organization that will best show how your ideas connect. For example, you might use a simple storyboard to analyze a plot, drawing boxes that include details of each scene. You can add numbers or arrows to show a sequence. You can use colors to show connections. You might write a character’s name and all points about that character in the same bright color. To lead the eye from one area of the sketchnote to another, you might add swooping lines or arrows. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Reflection \| As a way to reflect and collaborate with other classmates on different perspectives on the meaning of a text, students should be prompted to upload a screenshot of their final sketchnote onto a discussion board thread. Students will then comment “1 connection, 1 comment, 1 question” for at least two classmate’s posts. \| \|\|\|\|\|\| \| Exit Slip \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.313806	Gianni Llano	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88349/overview", "title": "Integration of Sketch-noting", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76050/overview	Reading 1-3 Overview These resources are developed by ELPA and align with the ELP standards. They are organized by grade band and domain. They are designed to be used as lessons and for test practice. These resources are developed by ELPA and align with the ELP standards. They are organized by grade band and domain. They are designed to be used as lessons and for test practice.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.329909	Linguistics	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76050/overview", "title": "Reading 1-3", "author": "Languages" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90355/overview	Teaching The Passive Voice: An Introductory Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan Overview This lesson is designed to incorporate speaking, listening, reading, vocabulary and grammar practice. Since introducing the passive to ESL students can be difficult, make sure you remain patient while teaching. To teach more effectively, be sure to refer to the given teacher notes. If you want additional lesson plans and support, including teachers’ notes, be sure to register for a free Off2Class account. Off2Class This lesson is the first in a series of ten lessons about the passive voice. These ten lessons are great for helping students grasp this difficult concept. With that being said, you should avoid using this lesson with beginner students. Instead, it is great for pre-Intermediate students but can also be used with intermediate learners for a review. To teach this lesson most effectively, I recommend that you download a free Off2Class account so you can access the accompanying Teacher Notes. These Teacher Notes will help you teach the concepts clearly while asking for information from students. All in all, Teacher Notes make the Off2Class lesson plans even better than they already are! Download the free lesson plan below: https://www.off2class.com/lesson-plan-downloads/teaching-the-passive-voice-an-introductory-lesson/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.347844	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90355/overview", "title": "Teaching The Passive Voice: An Introductory Off2Class ESL Lesson Plan", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116116/overview	Professional and Social Skills Slides in Handout Overview Slides about professional skills in the workplace. Handout See attachment for handout	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.364272	05/16/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116116/overview", "title": "Professional and Social Skills Slides in Handout", "author": "Aujalee Moore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116115/overview	Interview Handout Overview Handout with tips about interviewing Handout See attachment for handout.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.380947	05/16/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116115/overview", "title": "Interview Handout", "author": "Aujalee Moore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93002/overview	German-speaking Countries Human Bingo Overview In this version of bingo, each student has an answer that they share with the others when they exchange information. It allows students to learn as they complete the task. I attached a PDF as well as the copy and paste from the Google doc did not keep the tables and font sizes. Feel free to edit to your needs. Answer key is the very last page. Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: Berlin \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: Danube or Rhine \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: Europe \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: soccer \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: the Euro \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: Österreich \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: Bern \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: black, red and gold \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: the Alps \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: Beethoven or Mozart \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: Deutschland \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: Vienna/Wien \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: red and white \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: Vaduz \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: Einstein \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: \| F: German name of Austria? A: \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: \| F: German flag colors? A: \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: \| F: German name of Germany? A: \| F: Capital of Austria? A: \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: die Schweiz \| Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ EXIT SLIP What is something new that you learned today during Human Bingo? ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you find the most interesting? Why? ___________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________ Which country do you sit at?________________________________________________ What do you know about the country you sit at? ________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________________ Name: __________________ Homeroom Teacher: __________________ Human Bingo KEY Be the first to collect four correct answers in a row diagonally, horizontally, or vertically. SPELLING COUNTS!!! F: Capital of Germany? A: Berlin \| F: Name of a big river in Germany? A: Danube/Rhine \| F: Continent where Germany is found? A: Europe \| F: Most popular sports in Germany? A: Soccer \| F: Name of coin used in Germany/Austria? A: Euro \| F: German name of Austria? A: Österreich \| F: Capital of Switzerland? A: Bern \| F: German flag colors? A: black, red and gold \| F: Mountain region in German-speaking countries? A: the Alps \| F: Name of a famous composer? A: Beethoven/Mozart \| F: German name of Germany? A: Deutschland \| F: Capital of Austria? A: Vienna \| F: Austrian flag colors? A: red and white \| F: Capital of Liechtenstein? A: Vaduz \| F: Name of a famous scientist/physicist? A: Einstein \| F: German name of Switzerland? A: die Schweiz \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.522443	05/24/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93002/overview", "title": "German-speaking Countries Human Bingo", "author": "Bethany Poppe" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64097/overview	Summary Test Your Knowledge Test Your Knowledge!! Unit 3: Pythagoras' Theorem (Online Book) Pythagoras' Theorem Overview This resource contains information which may be used by students for self-directed learning. Teachers may use it to supplement their lessons. Pythagoras' Theorem What is this strangely named formula and how does it work? Let's find out. Go through each section and ensure you have a very good understanding before moving on. By the end of the lesson students should be able to: 1. identify the parts of a right angle triangle 2. accurately state Pythagoras' Theorem 3. apply Pythagoras' Theorem in calculating the length of the hypotenuse 4. apply Pythagoras' Theorem in calculating the length of any of the shorter sides of the right angle triangle. Introduction Let's hear a story about how this theorem came into being! It is important that we know the parts of the triangle we will be working with. Pay close attention to how to identify the hypotenuse of the triangle. Before watching the following videos, click on the link below them, "Locating the Hypotenuse", to see if you know how to identify the hypotenuse. We are now at the stage where we really need to learn about this strangely named formula. Calculating the Hypotenuse In this first part of the lesson you will learn how to calculate the length of the longest side of the right angle triangle (hypotenuse). How is the formula used in calculating the hypotenuse? Pay attention to the steps involved. Need more guidance? Watch this next video. There is a document on the next page which summarises what has been demonstrated so far. Take a look if you prefer to read through the process. Click on the link below to "Test Your Knowledge" before moving on. Calculating the Shorter Side So what about the other sides? How is the formula used in calculating the shorter side? It's the same formula, just used differently, so pay attention. Need more guidance? Watch this next video. There is a document summarising what has been demonstrated so far. Take a look if you prefer to read through the process. Click on the link below to "Test Your Knowledge" before moving on. Let's Review Click on the link to have fun and test your knowledge Pythagorean Theorem Jeopardy Game	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.550720	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64097/overview", "title": "Pythagoras' Theorem", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121254/overview	Why Technology is Beneficial in Education? Overview Explains why technology in education can be benficail tostudents and instructors alike. gives insight to different learning styles, as well as learning principles, and approaches. Introduction Technology is extremely useful and important in education! It helps education grow and cater to a leaner centered approach. Allowing for personalized education for all students! The learner centered approach is, "multimedia designs that are consistent with the way the human mind works are more effective in fostering learning than those that are not" (Mayer, 2014). Multimedia Learning Did you know that technology in education can allow for numerous different learning styles to be incorporated in everyday learning? Technology can allow for different multimedia learning. Multimedia is different ways that technology and social platforms allow people to connect and create. For more information about multimeida education as well as cognitive theory check out this video! Principles Did you know that technology in education can allow for numerous different learning styles to be incorporated in everyday learning? Technology can allow for different multimedia learning. Multimedia is different ways that technology and social platforms allow people to connect and create. In learning there are a couple of principles that can make education more universal some of those principles being: the multimedia principle, the modality principle, and the personalization principle. The multimedia principle states that, "people learn better from words and pictures than from words alone" (Mayer, 2014). The modality principle states, "people learn better from graphics and narration than graphics and printed text" (Mayer, 2014). The personalization principle states, "people learn better when the words of a multimedia presentation are in conversational style rather than formal style and when the words are spoken in a standard-accented human voice rather than a machine voice or foreign-accented human voice" (Mayer, 2014). Principles Introduction Video Who Benefits? All student benefit from multimedia learning and technology being incorporated into education. Students with disabilities benefit from it, so do students with learning disabilities. Closing In conclusion technology in education is very beneficial for all students as well as for all different learning styles. It also helps cater to the learner centered approach. Reference Mainero, R. (2017). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=qQ8luZR9NoM Mayer, R., (2014). Introduction to Multimedia Learning. In: Mayer, R. (Ed), The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia. (pp.1-10). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. Peck, D. (2021). Mayer’s Principles of Multimedia Learning. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d9WpfWriY7A Skynesher. (2018). Male teacher giving a lecture from desktop PC during a class at... iStock. https://www.istockphoto.com/signature/photo/mid-adult-professor-teaching-a-lecture-from-desktop-pc-at-computer- lab-gm1079587192-289307508?searchscope=image%2Cfilm	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.568569	Jesenia Melton	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121254/overview", "title": "Why Technology is Beneficial in Education?", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89354/overview	No Bake Cookies Overview No bake cookies/worksheet to be completed before cooking No Bake Cookies for Low ability students We use this recipe for students what have low abilities-- geared towards middle school No Bake Cookies Day 4 Ingredients: List equipment needed here: 1/2 cups sugar 1. 2 Tbsp milk 2. 2 Tbsp butter 3. ½ Tbsp cocoa 4. ¾ cup quick oatmeal 5. ¼ tsp vanilla 6. Directions for tomorrow: Wash hands with soap and water, put apron on. Run warm sudsy water in kitchen sink. Get a dish cloth and a fabric towel for drying dishes. Why should you use a dish rag to wash with, instead of your hands? Where are dish towels & dish clothes located? Where should they be placed by the end of the class period? Gather ingredients and equipment needed. (Make list of all equipment needed above) Combine sugar, milk, butter, and cocoa in a saucepan. Bring to a boil then allow to boil for 1 minute. What equipment do you need to measure ingredients? What kind of utensil should you use to stir while ingredients are boiling? What do you put ingredients into? How long do you boil? Remove pan from heat and add oatmeal and vanilla. Stir well. What should you use to stir ingredients? Place wax paper in plastic container. Use two teaspoons to drop small cookies on wax paper and let cool. Where is the wax paper located? Store in container with a lid on it.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.582268	Peggy Longmore	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89354/overview", "title": "No Bake Cookies", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61917/overview	Robotic Golf Putter Overview Students in groups of two will use an EV3 kit, EV3 accessories kit and Microbit. To Create a robotic golf putter. The putter will use a Microbit to read and analyze its acceleration. The robot will be allowed to travel up to 2’ to strike the ball to make a 6-8’ putt. Robotic Golf Putter Robotic Golf Putter Summary: Students in groups of two will use an EV3 kit, EV3 accessories kit and Microbit. To Create a robotic golf putter. The putter will use a Microbit to read and analyze its acceleration. The robot will be allowed to travel up to 2’ to strike the ball to make a 6-8’ putt. Grade Level(s): 7-8 Time required: 1.5-2 weeks of 45 minutes classes Subject Area(s): Robotics or STEM Keywords: Design Process, Program, Sensors, Loops, Switches, Bluetooth Learning Objectives: - Program different computer components to work together using makecode.org/javascript editor. - Use sensors and sensor data to decide how to program robot. - Create inventive solutions to problems. After brainstorming multiple solutions. - Work in partnerships to implement chosen design solution Educational Standards: - 2-CS-02: Design projects that combine hardware and software components to collect and exchange data - 2-AP-12: Design and iteratively develop programs that combine control structures, including nested loops and compound conditionals - 2-AP-13: Decompose problems and subproblems into parts to facilitate the design, implementation, and review of programs. - 2-AP-14: Seek and incorporate feedback from team members and users to refine a solution that meets user needs. - 2-AP-18: Distribute tasks and maintain a project timeline when collaboratively developing computational artifacts. Pre-requisite Knowledge: Nothing Vocabulary and Definitions: - Engineering Design Process: Problem solving process - Sensors: a device which detects or measures a physical property and records, indicates or responds to it. - Javascprit: a form of computer programing. - Blocks: Group of code grouped together. - Switch: Similar to an if statement controls the follow of the program based on the value of a variable. - Loop: Instructions continually repeated until a condition is reached. Resources: - EV3 kit - EV3 accessories kit - Microbit - Laptop computer - Putting Green or Surface - Golf Balls Introduction / Motivation: Let the students spend a few minutes taking turns putting on the practice putting greens Talk about technology and it use to improve performance in athletics and everyday life. Then explain that they will be creating robotic putters. In an attempt to make a 6-8’ putt. Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers: - How to program an EV3 & Microbit with makecode.org/javascript editor. - The engineering or computer science design thinking process. Lesson Outline: Here are the step by step instructions for teaching the lesson - Students will be working in groups of 2. - If first time using Microbits walk class through it use and functions. 1 class period. - They will begin by brainstorming 3 or more ideas/solutions. This should be done in 1-2 class periods. (Teacher should monitor groups and help with groups that are struggling.) - Students will then discuss and decide on one solution and begin building the solution. Initial build will take 1-3 class periods. (Teacher monitors room and checks for equal participation from group members and helps as needed.) - As solution take shape students begin programing and experimenting with programing solution. Students will use computer table to document results and notes. 3 or more class periods. (Teacher will make spot checks of student documentation.) - When students feel they have a working prototype they will demonstrate and show program to instructor for grading. Lesson Closure: Once students have created a successful putter and program review the process and go over rubric to grade. Having the students help assess their work and partnership. Assessment: General STEM/Robotics Rubric \| STEM/ROBOTICS Rubric \| \|\|\|\|\| \| Students Name: Project Name: Period: Date: \| \|\|\|\|\| \| CATEGORY \| 100 \| 90 \| 80 \| 70-0 \| Total \| \| Daily Work(50) \| Clear evidence of troubleshooting, testing, and refinements based on the engineering design process. \| Some clear evidence of troubleshooting, testing and refinements based on the engineering design process. \| Some too little evidence of troubleshooting, testing and refinements based on the engineering design process. \| Little to no evidence of troubleshooting, testing or refinement based on the engineering design process. \| \| \| Written/Oral Report(10) \| Written/Oral explanations indicate a clear and accurate understanding of engineering design process underlying the construction and modifications as it relates to the project. \| Written/Oral explanations indicate a relatively accurate understanding of engineering design process underlying the construction and modifications as it relates to the project. \| Written/Oral explanations indicate some understanding of engineering design process underlying the construction and modifications as it relates to the project. \| Written/Oral explanations do not illustrate much understanding of engineering design process underlying the construction and modifications as it relates to the project. \| \| \| Design/Sketch/Plan(10) \| Appropriate materials/items were selected and creatively modified in ways that made it possible to complete the task. \| Appropriate materials/items were selected and there was an attempt at creativity and modification to complete part but not the entire task. \| Appropriate materials/items were selected. Some too little of the task was completed. \| Inappropriate materials/items were selected and little too none of the task was completed. \| \| \| Daily Journal (10) \| Journal provides a complete record of planning, construction, testing, modifications, reasons for modifications, and complete reflection about the strategies used and the results. \| Journal provides some record of planning, construction, testing, modifications, and reasons for modifications, and some reflection about the strategies used and the results. \| Journal provides some too little record of planning, construction, testing, modifications, and reasons for modifications, and some too little reflection about the strategies used and the results. \| Journal provides very little too no record of aspects of the planning, construction, testing, modifications, and reasons for modifications, and very little too no reflection about the strategies used and the results \| \| \| Project Testing(20) \| Project successfully meets all of listed criteria. \| Project successfully meets over 90% of listed criteria. \| Project successfully meets over 80% of listed criteria. \| Project successfully meets 0%-70% of listed criteria. \| \| \| Final Grade (100) \| Author: Tony Reisdorff Sources: https://education.lego.com/en-us/downloads/mindstorms-ev3/curriculum https://microbit.org/teach/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.607896	Electronic Technology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/61917/overview", "title": "Robotic Golf Putter", "author": "Computer Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110459/overview	quiz Overview A short quiz about English pronouns The pronouns of English Do the short quiz in Kahoot	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.624506	11/23/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110459/overview", "title": "quiz", "author": "Aaya Alaamri" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70883/overview	Not Sedentary, My Dear Watson Overview In this lesson, students use a Micro:bit to create a movement reminder device. This device will signal anyone wearing it to get up and move if they have been in one place for too long. Design Challenge Title: Not Sedentary, My Dear Watson Author: Keith Royer Background: Research demonstrates that low-intensity movement interruptions are an effective means of combatting sedentary (being still in one place too long) behavior. Challenge: Create a wearable device, using the Micro:bit, to alert the wearer to move after being sedentary (being still in one place too long). \| \| \| SDG Goal: Goal #3Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages \| Why is this challenge relevant to students? A sedentary lifestyle leads to health problems, and simple movements can improve the overall health of a person. \| Constraints/Criteria: \| Materials: \| CS Standards: \| \| Problem Solving Practice(s)/Process(s): \| Coding Activities/Lessons: \| STEM Career Connections: \| Literature Connections: \| Attachments/Student Handouts: \| \| Additional Resources/Notes: Movement Study - Ace Fitness (link)Adapted from Micro:bit Fitness Friend Lesson (link) \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.644573	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70883/overview", "title": "Not Sedentary, My Dear Watson", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77195/overview	Methodical recomendation to topic No. 1 Overview Methodical recomendation to topic No. 1 Subject: Clinical anatomy and operativesurgery Methodical recomendation to topic No.1 Subject: Clinical anatomy and operative surgery	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.660633	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77195/overview", "title": "Methodical recomendation to topic No. 1", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91379/overview	Renaissance Learning Activity Overview My names Dario and this is my lesson plan for an activity that approaches Grade 8 Social Studies. Particularly the Renaissace section of Grade Social Studies will be approached. Positive Behaviour Supports Here is the link to a sample of what a fuliflled Google Jamboard should look like: https://jamboard.google.com/d/1NRhF14P1fA4PhkjOFd3UnLmEZkb0Du8-IhqjQEYntC0/viewer?f=0 The lesson plan utilizes the positive behaviour support section of Alberta Education K-12 instructional supports. This lesson plan is intended for Grade 8 Social Studies, in particular, the Renaissance section. Through the use of partner work students will gain a clear understanding of the important figures and themes of the Renaissance. Using Google Jamboard, students will work with one another to add sticky notes containing the names of key figures or themes of the renaissance.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.676755	Dario N	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91379/overview", "title": "Renaissance Learning Activity", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/41452/overview	Oregon Coast Science Project Module 2 Tasks 5 & 6 Overview The Oregon Science Project Module #2 is designed for K-12 and nonformal educators who want to learn more about NGSS, with an emphasis on the central role student discourse and talk play in the K-12 NGSS classroom. It is designed to provide 3-4 hours of work and asks learners to create something new to contribute to the work. Who talks and why? Engaging All Students How Do We Increase Student Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Individual Work Tips for Success: It's helpful to take a few notes while working your way through this, as you will be sharing your analysis in our group meeting and using the Task Analysis to analyze another task as a group. On Your Own: Components: Blog post reading, task analysis survey, exploration of gradeband NGSS storylines Preparation: This individual work portion prepares you to engage in reflective group discussion When we think of framing we are referring to "a set of expectations an individual has about the situation in which she finds herself that affects what she notices and how she thinks to act." - Resources, Framing, and Transfer Please read this short blog post comparing two different classrooms using the idea of framing to set the context for student exploration, learning, and understanding of what they are learning in science as envisioned by the NGSS. Look at these norms and think of your own classroom. As you set the context and frame your classroom for productive participation, look closely to see how you are asking students to productively participate. Below is an example from the Inquiry Project where teachers worked collaboratively when approaching their students to develop norms for equitable participation. Please complete ONE of the task analysis surveys below on your own. Please consider a group of students engaged in the task who are similar to students you work with in your own practice. How can the NGSS practices guide planning for rich language use and development by students? One tool that can help us is a task analysis process. Choose one of the sample tasks below (4th or 8th grade), read through it, and answer the survey that relates to that task. If you want to go through both of them and do both surveys, great, but you only have to do one. Please read the first pages of a relevant grade and/or core idea storyline below in preparation to think about a relevant task that could provide opportunities for productive participation by students by engaging them in NGSS practices. OPTIONAL: You may create a small task that would only take about 10-20 minutes by students. If you do, we can share and analyze these tasks in our group meeting; however, we will provide other tasks to analyze as a group, so you do not need to do this. Please do look at and take short notes on a storyline of your choice. NGSS Storylines How Do We Increase Student Science Talk? How Do We Show Others? Group Reflection and Discussion Tips for Success: Keep in mind that the goal of this module is to increase and improve Student Science Talk. In a Small Group: Components: Sample Task for review, task analysis survey, and NGSS Lesson Planning Template to drive reflection and creation. Collaboratively complete Survey 5. In your breakout group, open the sample task. Work through Survey 5 together and submit one Survey for the entire group. Next, follow directions below to outline a NGSS-aligned Task. Balloon Rocket Sample Task (mixed grades) (3PS2, 4PS3, 5PS1, MSPS1-3, HSPS1-3, various SEPs) Survey 5: Collaborative Survey for Task Analysis Here is an image of the 3 dimensions to quickly reference as you analyze the task. After your group has finished Survey 5, open the link for the NGSS Planning Template. One person should make a copy, change the name to reflect your group members, and share it to the group members and Kama (kama.almasi@lincoln.k12.or.us). Each person can then open it through google docs and work on it collaboratively to outline a modified lesson for the balloon rocket activity, aligning it to the NGSS. Once everyone has completed the surveys and the discussion has wrapped up: 1) Look at the collective responses and discuss how you could use this in your practice to communicate the importance of talk in the science classroom. 2) Take note of any ideas that come to mind about tasks you might do in your classroom to increase student science talk as we will discuss this before signing off for the night.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.694847	Ruth McDonald	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/41452/overview", "title": "Oregon Coast Science Project Module 2 Tasks 5 & 6", "author": "Kama Almasi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20296/overview	Oregon Coast Science Project Module 2 Tasks 3 & 4 Overview The Oregon Science Project Module #2 is designed for K-12 and nonformal educators who want to learn more about NGSS, with an emphasis on the central role student discourse and talk play in the K-12 NGSS classroom. It is designed to provide 3-4 hours of work and asks learners to create something new to contribute to the work. Who talks and why? Engaging All Students What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Individual Work Tips for Success: Task 3 does not have a survey, but you will need to be ready to share your thoughts about the three or four videos you watch. We found it very useful to take notes on each of the videos. Relate what you are watching to your own classroom and teaching practices and be ready to discuss these during our group meeting on January 30th. On Your Own: Components: Grade-appropriate video examples and resources (NO SURVEY) Relevance: Choose between primary, elementary, and secondary options Preparation: This individual work portion prepares you to engage in reflective group discussion "Instruction can be designed in ways that foster a positive orientation toward science and promote productive participation in science classrooms. Such approaches include offering choice, providing meaningful tasks and an appropriate level of challenge, giving students authority over their learning while making sure their work can be examined by others, and making sure they have access to the resources they need to evaluate their claims and communicate them to others." - Taking Science to School. Questions from prior work continues to drive your discussion and should be considered as you engage with the materials below: Q: Why is it important to engage all of our students in science talk? Q: How do students engage in talk during science in your classroom (what protocols, norms, or framing do you use)? Q: How would you like them to engage? Please select the grade level that is most relevant for your practice and watch all video segments and engage with any readings or articles. Be ready to bring your observations and questions to your small group discussion in Task #4. As you engage, make connections to your own practice and your vision for increased productive participation by more of your students. Primary Grades Upper Elementary Talk Moves Primer (read pages 7-11) Secondary Discourse Primer (read pages 5-14 paying attention to "discourse moves") There is no survey for this task. Be ready to engage in active discussion around what talk looks like for the next task. What Does Science Talk in the Classroom Look Like? Group Reflection and Discussion Tips for Success: We encourage you to open the survey before you start the Task 4 work together. Work collaboratively on the survey, using your notes from Task 3. In A Small Group: Components: Survey with question prompts to drive reflective discussion. Every person completes their own survey. Relevance: Although the resources vary by grade level, this group task is not grade-level specific. As a small group, please collaboratively complete the survey by discussing questions together as each of you fills out your own survey. Be sure to bring in your impressions, observations, and wonderings prompted by the resources in Task #3. Survey 3 Group Reflection and Individual Survey	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.713753	Cristina Trecha	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20296/overview", "title": "Oregon Coast Science Project Module 2 Tasks 3 & 4", "author": "Kama Almasi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79419/overview	Education Standards 7th grade computer scavenger hunt 8th grade actual scavenger hunt Scavenger hunt 2019 Scavenger hunt fall 2019 Library Scavenger Hunt Overview Students will learn how to use the library automation system. When using the library automation system, students will gather information about how to locate books in the library. Students will then go find the book and get a new clue using a QR reader. I attached the documents more as a guide so you can see what I have done. Feel free to use them or just use them as a template. I frequently change how I guide the scavenger hunt and of course due to COVID this past year I had to modify the scavenger hunt to just be online. So you will see a couple that say computer. Those are ones we did without moving around in the library. I did book talks and showed book trailers as a way of mixing it up with those students. When setting up the scavenger hunt, I find it best to lay out the QR codes and scan them in order to ensure students will complete the scavenger hunt before repeating themselves. In the past when I didn't double check that some groups might only find 4 clues before repeating and then it was a scramble to quickly fix the code. Students love this activity. I allow them to run and actuallly encourage it as a way of creating excitement about the race. Students find this helps them learn the library neighborhoods. My library is genrefied, so the sublocation is the genre or neighborhood where they would find the book. Students will learn how to search the library automation system and locate books in the library by participating in a library scavenger hunt. Using a free QR code generator, create clues for books in your library. Try to use clues that allow for different search terms. Clues I have used include things like: Find a book by Adam Rex about a special day, or The War that Saved my Life was written by this author. Students have to answer the questions or fill in the blank, additionally, students need to find the call number of the book and locate the book in the library. Each book used in the scavenger hunt has a QR code on the book with the next clue. Students work best in pairs for this activity. Students are required to activily participate. The best way to ensure that happens is to give each student a copy of the paper they must complete. Each group starts with a different clue. You will need to create enough clues for your largest group of students. Students might overlap while searching for books based on how much time each group takes to find each book. When a group finds the first clue they started with, they have completed the scavenger hunt.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.740513	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79419/overview", "title": "Library Scavenger Hunt", "author": "Game" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100302/overview	Critical Appraisal of a Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Trial Entitled“Colchicine in Patients with Chronic Coronary Disease” Overview This is a critical appraisal of a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial on the effects of colchicine to patients with chronic coronary disease. A clinical scenario was presented to determine the applicability of the trial to an actual patient from the general population. The evaluation method followed the population (P), intervention (I), comparison (C), outcome (O) design. Overall, the appraisal revealed that all valdiity criteria were met in this study. The trial provide evidence suggesting that inflammation plays a causal role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and related complications and that interventions to mitigate inflammation, like the colchicine, may reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. Critical Appraisal of a Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Trial - GENERAL OBJECTIVE To evaluate a randomized, controlled, double-blind trial entitled “Colchicine in Patients with Chronic Coronary Disease”. Specifically, this scientific inquiry seeks to: - Assess the risk of bias, directness, and validity of the results of the study. - Determine if the effect is significant, generalizable, and applicable to the current clinical scenario. - CLINICAL SCENARIO S> A case of a 56-year-old male, diagnosed to have chronic coronary syndrome, known to be hypertensive for 7 years, non-diabetic, with a history of smoking - 10 packs per year, the last attack was 7 months ago, with creatinine of 88, had ACS UA 7 months ago, no previous surgery. , 2D echo revealed EF of 85%, with good systolic and diastolic function, no valvular heart disease. No allergies to food and drugs. Maintenance medications include: ASA, clopidogrel, atorvastatin , Losartan, Amlodipine O> Awake, not in cardiorespiratory distress BP: 130/70 mmHg HR: 67 bpm RR: 19 cpm T: 36.7 Anicteric sclera, pink palpebral conjunctiva, moist lips, moist oral mucosa (-) NVE, no palpable cervical lymphadenopathy O> symmetrical chest expansion, clear breathsounds - Adynamic precordium, normal rate, regular rhythm - Flabby, soft nontender abdomen - Full pulses, no edema A> Chronic Coronary syndrome, Hypertension stage 2, controlled - CLINICAL QUESTION - In adult patients with chronic coronary disease, does daily intake of colchicine or placebo reduce the risk of any cardiovascular event? Population \| Adult patients with chronic coronary syndrome. \| Intervention \| Low dose of daily colchicine \| Comparison \| No colchicine (placebo) \| Outcome \| Reduce the likelihood of poor outcomes (reduced composite of cardiovascular death, spontaneous MI, ischemic stroke, or ischemic-driven coronary revascularization) \| - JOURNAL SEARCH - METHODS Design \| Double-blind randomized controlled trial \| Setting \| 13 centers affiliated with Genesis Care and the Heart & Vascular Research Institute of Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital in Western Australia; 30 centers of the Dutch Network for Cardiovascular Research in the Netherlands \| Patient Population \| Adult patients with evidence of coronary disease on invasive coronary angiography or CT angiography or a coronary-artery calcium score of at least 400 Agatston units on a coronary-artery calcium scan. \| Description of Prognostic Factors Considered \| Patients must be clinically stable for at least 6 months before the trial. Excluded patients were those who had moderate to severe renal impairment, severe heart failure, severe valvular heart disease, or known side effects from colchicine. \| Analysis \| Cox proportional-hazards models (for cause-specific hazard ratios), Fine and Gray sub-distribution hazard models (for analysis of the primary & secondary end points) \| Outcomes \| Primary: Composite of cardiovascular death, spontaneous (nonprocedural) MI, ischemic stroke, or ischemic-driven coronary revascularization Secondary: Composite of cardiovascular death, spontaneous (nonprocedural) MI, ischemic stroke (key secondary end point); Composite spontaneous MI or ischemic-driven coronary revascularization; composite cardiovascular death or spontaneous MI; ischemic driven coronary revascularization; spontaneous MI; death from any cause; and CV death. \| Follow-up \| One month open-label run-in phase, 60 months since randomization \| - APPRAISING DIRECTNESS Does the research question of the study correspond that of the clinical question? Research Question \| Clinical Questions \| \| Population \| Chronic Coronary Syndrome \| Chronic coronary syndrome with history of hypertension \| Intervention \| Colchicine 0.5 mg/tab \| Colchicine \| Comparison \| Placebo use \| No colchicine use \| Outcome \| Reduced cardiovascular event and stroke \| Reduced cardiovascular event and stroke \| - APPRAISING VALIDITY Question 1: Were patients randomly assigned to treatment groups? Answer: Yes - Eligible patients entered an open-label run-in phase for 1 month (receive 0.5 mg of Colchicine daily). - After passing the run-in phase (i.e., stable condition, no side effects, still willing to participate), randomization was conducted in 1:1 ratio (either 0.5 mg Colchicine or placebo) - Randomization was performed in double-blind manner with the use of a computerized algorithm (i.e., both the patients and the doctors are blinded of the treatment or placebo). Question #2: Was allocation concealed? Answer: Yes - Double-blind randomization was made. Question #3: Were baseline characteristics similar at the start of the trial? Answer: Yes Question #4: Were patients blinded to treatment assignment? Answer: Yes - Randomization was performed in a double-blind manners with the use of a computerized algorithm, with stratification according to country. Question #5: Were caregivers blinded to treatment assignment? Answer: Yes - Double-blind randomization was made. Question #6: Were outcome assessors blinded to treatment assignment? Answer: Yes - The academic and clinical investigators designed the study, collected and managed the data, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the manuscript. The members of the steering committee & the trial statisticians vouched for the completeness and accuracy of the data & analyses and for the fidelity of the trial. Question #7: Were all patients analyzed in the groups to which they were originally randomized? Answer: Yes Question #8: Was follow-up rate adequate? Answer: Yes - Clinical evaluations were scheduled before the run-in phase, at the time of the randomization, and at 6-month intervals until the completion of the trial. All follow-up assessments were performed in person, if person, or by telephone. The trial regimens were continued until the completion of the trial. Moreover, clinical follow-up was continued until the date of trial completion regardless of premature discontinuation of colchicine or placebo. Were all validity criteria met? ACHIEVED \| \| Randomization \| Yes \| Allocation concealment \| YEs \| Similar baseline data \| Yes \| Patients blinded \| Yes \| Assessors blinded \| Yes \| Caregivers blinded \| Yes \| Analyzed to original random group \| Yes \| Adequate follow-up \| Yes \| - APPRAISING RESULT How likely are the outcomes during a specified period of follow-up? The primary composite end-point event of cardiovascular death, spontaneous myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke, or ischemia-driven coronary revascularization occurred in 187 patients (6.8%) in the colchicine group and in 264 patients (9.6%) in the placebo group, with incidence rates of 2.5 and 3.6 events, respectively, per 100 person-years (hazard ratio, 0.69; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.57 to 0.83; P<0.001). - With a hazard ration of 0.69, this indicate that people in the colchicine group at any individual time along the study are 31% less likely to develop a cardiovascular event than the people in the placebo group. How likely are the outcomes during a specified period of follow-up? In the prespecified hierarchical testing of the ranked secondary end points, the rates of the first five secondary end points, including spontaneous myocardial infarction, were significantly lower in the colchicine group than in the placebo group Colchicine did not result in a lower incidence of death from any cause than placebo (73 vs. 60 fatalities; incidence, 0.9 vs. 0.8 events, respectively, per 100 person-years; hazard ratio, 1.21; 95% CI, 0.86 to 1.71). - Colchicine has not significant benefit in reducing death from any cause than placebo. A hazard ration of 1.21 indicates that people in the colchicine group at any individual time along the study are 121% more likely to develop death from any cause than the people in the placebo group. How precise is the likelihood estimates? - The trial was designed to accrue a minimum of 331 primary end-point events and to have a minimum follow-up of 1 year. On the basis of a target enrollment of 6053 patients in the open-label run-in phase, with 5447 undergoing randomization after screening, we estimated that the trial would have more than 90% power, at a two-sided alpha level of 0.05, to detect a 30% lower rate (i.e., a hazard ratio of 0.70) of a primary composite end-point event in the colchicine group than in the placebo group, assuming a 10% rate of discontinuation of colchicine or placebo and an annual rate of the primary end point in the control group of 2.6%. - The main analysis was based on the time from randomization to the first occurrence of any component of the primary composite end point. If the incidence of the primary end point was significantly lower in the colchicine group than in the placebo group (P<0.05) then the ranked secondary end points were tested in a hierarchical fashion at a significance level of 0.05 in order to preserve the alpha level. - The main analysis was performed according to the intention-to-treat principle and included all adjudicated end-point events that occurred between randomization and the end-of-trial date in all patients who had undergone randomization, regardless of whether they adhered to their assigned regimen. Cause-specific hazard ratios in the colchicine group, as compared with the placebo group, and 95% confidence intervals were determined with the use of Cox proportional hazards models, stratified according to country. If an end-point event had not occurred, follow-up data were censored at the time of the competing risk event (death from non-cardiovascular causes or death from any cause, as appropriate) or at the end of the trial. Two-sided P values for superiority were calculated with the use of log-rank tests, as governed by the rules of hierarchical testing. The prespecified subgroup analyses were performed with the use of the Cox proportional-hazards method. - ASSESSING APPLICABILITY Biologic Consideration Inclusion Criteria \| Exclusion Criteria \| Age: 35-82 years old \| With moderate to sever renal impairment \| Had any evidence of coronary disease on invasive coronary angiography or CT angiography or a coronary-artery calcium score of at least 400 Agatston units on a coronary-artery calcium scan. \| With severe heart failure \| Clinically stable for at least 6 months \| With severe valvular heart disease \| With known sided effects from colchicine \| - Non-cardiovascular deaths occurred more frequently among the patients who received colchicine than among those who received placebo, with incidence rates of 0.7 and 0.5 events, respectively, per 100 person-years (hazard ratio, 1.51; 95% CI, 0.99 to 2.31) . Similar rates were observed of cancer diagnosis, hospitalization for infection, hospitalization for pneumonia, and hospitalization for a gastrointestinal reason in the two trial groups, in both the intention-to-treat analysis and the on-treatment analysis. Gout occurred in 38 patients (1.4%) in the colchicine group and in 95 patients (3.4%) in the placebo group (cumulative incidence ratio, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.28 to 0.58). Neutropenia and myotoxic effects were uncommon in both trial groups. Among the patients from the Netherlands, myalgia was reported in 384 (21.2%) in the colchicine group and 334 (18.5%) in the placebo group (cumulative incidence ratio, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.31). Dysesthesia was reported in 143 patients (7.9%) in the colchicine group and in 150 patients (8.3%) in the placebo group (cumulative incidence ratio, 0.95; 95% CI, 0.76 to 1.18). Assessing Applicability Patient’s Characteristics: - 56-year-old male, - diagnosed to have chronic coronary syndrome, - hypertensive for 7 years, - non-diabetic, - with creatinine of 88, - had ACS UA 7 months ago, no previous surgery. , - 2D echo revealed EF of 85%, - with good systolic and diastolic function, - no valvular heart disease - no allergies to food and drugs. Socioeconomic Consideration - Colchicine is an anti-inflammatory drug originally extracted from the autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) and was used by the ancient Greeks and Egyptians. - Usual price of Colchicine in the Philippine market ranges from P2.50 to P4.50 - CONCLUSION - The trial provided evidence suggesting that inflammation plays a causal role in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and related complications and that interventions to mitigate inflammation may reduce the risk of cardiovascular events. - REVIEWER’S APPRAISAL - In scrutinizing the validity of the trial, the results, and its applicability, the study is acceptable. The trial design is appropriate, there was a true randomization of assignment of participants, treatment groups are concealed, both the patients and the care providers were blinded to treatment assignment, the outcomes were measured and analyzed adequately using an appropriate statistical tool. Hence, the effects of treatments were consistent across the majority of clinical subgroups examined. Article: Nidorf, S. M., Fiolet, A. T. L., Mosterd, A., Eikelboom, J. W., Schut, A., Opstal, T. S. J., The, S. H. K., Xu, X. F., Ireland, M. A., Lenderink, T., Latchem, D., Hoogslag, P., Jerzewski, A., Nierop, P., Whelan, A., Hendriks, R., Swart, H., Schaap, J., Kuijper, A. F. M., van Hessen, M. W. J., … LoDoCo2 Trial Investigators (2020). Colchicine in Patients with Chronic Coronary Disease. The New England journal of medicine, 383(19), 1838–1847. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2021372	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.811325	01/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100302/overview", "title": "Critical Appraisal of a Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Trial Entitled\u000b“Colchicine in Patients with Chronic Coronary Disease”", "author": "Charlie Falguera" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108387/overview	Designing a SmartShoe for Blind People Overview We designed a smartshoe for blind people so that they can sense when they encounter an obstacle. SmartShoe for Blind People We designed a smartshoe for blind people so that they can sense when they encounter an obstacle.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.828690	09/08/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108387/overview", "title": "Designing a SmartShoe for Blind People", "author": "Ozge Bayat" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106582/overview	OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [7.NS] Overview The intent of clarifying statements is to provide additional guidance for educators to communicate the intent of the standard to support the future development of curricular resources and assessments aligned to the 2021 math standards. Clarifying statements can be in the form of succinct sentences or paragraphs that attend to one of four types of clarifications: (1) Student Experiences; (2) Examples; (3) Boundaries; and (4) Connection to Math Practices. 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: 7.NS.A.1 Cluster: 7.NS.A - Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions. STANDARD: 7.NS.A.1 Standards Statement (2021): Apply and extend previous understandings of addition, subtraction and absolute value to add and subtract rational numbers in authentic contexts. Understand subtraction as adding the additive inverse, p – q = p + (–q). Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| 6.NS.C.5, 6.NS.C.6, 6.NS.C.7, 6.NS.C.8 \| 7.NS.A.2, 7.NS.A.3 \| 5.NF.A.1 \| 7.NS.A.1 7.NS.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Terminology - Part-whole reasoning refers to how numbers can be split into parts to add and subtract numbers more efficiently. - In the equation 3 + −3 = 0, 3 and −3 are additive inverses of each other. - Students should represent a variety of types of rational numbers on a number line diagram presented both horizontally and vertically. Teaching Strategies - Represent operations with rational numbers both visually and numerically, including number line diagrams. - Students should be allowed to explore the signs of integers and what they really mean to discover integer rules. - It is common to use colored chips to represent integers, with one color representing positive integers and another representing negative integers, subject to the rule that chips of different colors cancel each other out; thus, a number is not changed if you take away or add such a pair. Also implicit in the use of chips is that the commutative and associative properties extend to addition of integers, since combining chips can be done in any order. Progressions - A fundamental fact about addition of rational numbers is that p + (-p) = 0 for any rational number p; in fact, this is a new property of operations tha comes into play when negative numbers are introduced. (Please reference pages 9 and 10 in the Progression document). Examples - (─8) + 5 + (─2) may be solved as (─8) +( ─2) + 5 to first make ─10 by using the Commutative Property. - Your bank account balance is − $25.00. You deposit $25.00 into your account. The net balance is $0.00. - 6 + (–4) is 4 units to the left of 6 on a horizontal number line or 4 units down from 6 on a vertical number line. - Illustrative Mathematics: - Student Achievement Partners: - Signed Numbers - Operations on Rational Numbers Mini-Assessment - Smarter Balanced Assessment Item Illustrating 7.NS.A.1 [Option 1] [Option 2] 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: 7.NS.A.2 Cluster: 7.NS.A - Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions. STANDARD: 7.NS.A.2 Standards Statement (2021): Apply and extend previous understandings of multiplication and division and of fractions to multiply and divide rational numbers. Interpret operations of rational numbers solving problems in authentic contexts. Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| 6.NS.A.1, 7.NS.A.1 \| 8.NS.A.1 \| 5.NF.B.4, 7.AEE.B.3 \| 7.NS.A.2 7.NS.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Clarifications - Students should be allowed to explore the signs of integers and what they really mean to discover integer rules. - If p and q are integers (q ≠ 0), then –(p/q)=(-p)/q= p/(-q) - Students should be able to reason about direction on a number line when representing multiplication and division using the tool. Boundaries - Understand that integers can be divided, provided that the divisor is not zero, and every quotient of integers (with non-zero divisor) is a rational number. - Apply properties of operations as strategies to multiply and divide rational numbers. - Convert a rational number to a decimal using division; know that the decimal form of a rational number terminates or eventually repeats. Teaching Strategies - Represent operations with rational numbers both visually and numerically, - Apply properties of operations such as identity, inverse, distributive, associative and commutative properties. - Student should have opportunities to use concepts of repeated addition and the meaning of a negative sign as the “opposite of,” with both models and representations, leading to deriving the rules for multiplying signed numbers. Progressions - Just as the relationship between addition and subtraction helps students understand subtraction of rational numbers, so the relationship between multiplication and division helps them understand division.To calculate -8 divided by 4, students recall that (-2) x 4 = -8, and so -8 divided by 4 = -2. By the same reasoning, -8 divided by 5 = -8/5 because -8/5 x 5 = -8. (Please reference page 11 in the Progression document). Examples - –(20/5) = –4 is the same as (−20)/5= –4 and 20/(−5) = – 4 - Illustrative Mathematics: - Student Achievement Partners: 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: 7.NS.A.3 Cluster: 7.NS.A - Apply and extend previous understandings of operations with fractions. STANDARD: 7.NS.A.3 Standards Statement (2021): Understand that equivalent rational numbers can be written as fractions, decimals and percents. Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| 6.NS.B.3, 7.NS.A.1 \| 8.NS.A.1 \| 7.AEE.B.3, 8.AEE.A.2 \| 7.NS.A.3 7.NS.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Clarifications - Students should build upon their understanding of percents as a ratio comparison to 100. - This is an extension of previous understanding from 6th grade of writing common fractions as decimal numbers and percents. Boundaries - Use long division to convert fractions to decimals. - Students should know that every rational number can be written as the ratio of two integers, terminating decimal numbers, or repeating decimal numbers. Examples - A water well drilling rig has dug to a height of −60 feet after one full day of continuous use. If the rig has been running constantly and is currently at a height of −143.6 feet, for how long has the rig been running? (Modified from Illustrative Mathematics) - Identify whether the decimal form of a rational number is a terminating or repeating decimal. - Convert terminating decimals to fractions. - If Sara makes $25 an hour gets a 10% raise, she will make an additional 110 of her salary an hour, or $2.50, for a new salary of $27.50. - Illustrative Mathematics: - Student Achievement Partners:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.883444	07/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106582/overview", "title": "OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [7.NS]", "author": "Mark Freed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112834/overview	Basic Hand Tools Overview This is a part of the Self learning material developed for Skill course in the department of Physics for under graduate students of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad,India Basic Hand Tools This is a part of the Self learning material developed for Skill course in the department of Physics for under graduate students of Dr.B.R.Ambedkar Open University, Hyderabad,India BASIC HAND TOOLS : Any person who does the electrician job should always use proper and well maintained tools. By using improper and defective tools, the efficiency of the craftsman is greatly reduced. Use a proper tool for each and every job. The main tools which we use generally are described below 1.Screw - Driver It is used to tight or loose a wooden or machine Screw. It has four parts namely the blade, shank femule, pin and the handle. The size of a screw driver depends upon the length of its shank. see the below figure. In general any electrician use 10 cm to 30 cm size screw - drivers The blade of the screw driver is well tempered so as to have a tough and proper shape. Connector screw driver are used for very small screws. The size of their shank is usually 5 to 8 centimeters. Safety Measures while using Screw-Drivers: - The blade of the screw driver should not be too sharp. - Always use proper screw - driver as per the head size of the screw. - Don’t use it like a hammer of a chisel. - The handle of the screw - driver should not be in splitted condition. 2. Combination plier The Combination piler is used for gripping, cutting, twisting and jointing the wires. Its head is plat and it is called a flat nose plier also its middle part is like a scissors which has cutters. The cutters are used for cutting the wires. Its tail side portion is called the handle which is covered with insulation see fig. The size of a combination plier varies from 15 to 30 centimetres. \| Safety Measures \| - Don’t cut steel wires with it. - Don’t use it like a hammer. - Check its insulation before using it on alive line. - Don’t use it for holding hot things. 3. Side Cutting Plier Side Cutting Piler is used for cutting the wires and for nipping their insulation. Its one end is flat which is used for cutting. The size of a side cutting plier is usually 15 cm. You can see the figure below. Safety Measures: - Don’t cut steel wires with it. - Don’t cut iron sheets with it. 4. Long Nose Plier It is used for gripping and twisting thin wires and for loosing and tightening small not - bolts. Its head is long and round from outside while flat from in side. A plier with a flat nose is called a flat long nose plier with round nose is called a round long nose plier. Its handle is generally insulated. Its size varies from 10 to 15 centimetress. You can find the figure below Safety Measyres: - Don’t use for tightening and loosening big size not bolts. - Don’t apply an exra ordinary force on it. 5. Pocker or Brodawal Pocker is used for making pilot holes in the wood plank and thus it is very useful in the fitting of switch socket etc,on wood boards with wooden screws. Its handle is made of wood with a round top. Its shank has a pointed tip with flat side and the rest of the shank is cylindrical like a screw - driver .See in the figure. 6. Hacksaw It is used for cutting metallic pipes, flats, sheets etc. It has an adjustable type or a fixed typed frame. The frame has a variable screw, gliding screw and a wing nut to hold the blade. The variable screw is fitted to a handle. The adjustable frame can accommodate the blades of different lengths varying from 15 to 30 centimetres. The frame is made of mild stell and the blade of high carbon steel. The constructional features of a hack saw are shown in fig below. The width the blade is usually 12 mm and the thickness is 0.6 mm. The blade is kept straight while sawing otherwise it will break. Safety Measures: - Keep the blade stretched in the frame. - Drive the blade in a straight direction on the job. - Carry on dropping the whether on the job while sawing. - Protect the frame and the blade against rust. 7. Hammer The Hammer is used in riveting, chipping etc. The various types of hammers are follows. - Ball pane hammer - Cross pane hammer - Riveters hammer - Straight pane hammer - Carpenter’s claw hammer 8. Extra type hammer We learned there are various types of hammers . Out of the above six types of hammers, only ball pane hammer is mostly used for electrical jobs. It is made of cast steel. It has face, post handle, pane, eye hole. Out of these parts,the face and the pane are tempered bat post part is kept soft. The size of a hammer varies accompany to its weight ranging from 100 grams to 1 kilogram. Below you find three different types of hammers. The eye holes of the hammer is made in egg shape so that its handle may not slip further, the forehead of the handle is splitted into two parts and a wedge is fitted in the slot. In this way the hammer holds the handle firmly. Safety Measures: - The handle should be tough and well fitted. - No part of the hammer should be greases. - Drive the hammer by holding it all its end. - Don’t work with lose handle hammer. 9. Hand Drilling Machine Hand Driller is used for making holes in the wooden and mild steel jobs. It has a geared wheel handle machine, handle and a drilt chuck a twist drill bit vary. From 1 mm to 12 mm figure shows a hand drill machine. Hand drill machine Safety Measures: - Keep it straight while drilling. - Lubricate its gears from time to time with grease. - The drill bit should be firmly held by the jaws of the drill chuck. Hellow students, these are some of the various hand tools which we use generally in our daily life. Hope you understand and enjoy this lesson.=	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.931885	02/15/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112834/overview", "title": "Basic Hand Tools", "author": "Pushpa Ghanta" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112801/overview	Strategy: Use varied ways to participate in data collection Overview Tips for ensuring that all learners participate in data collection. Use varied ways to participate in data collection - Is writing measurements the only data that can be collected? What about observations on what could impact the validity of the data? Having someone take on the role of “Field Notes observer” can show students the critical role of different types of data. - Encourage students to record observations using drawing or uploading. Encouraging these modalities will allow you to see more students’ skills and understanding. - Data check: After students collect their data and answer analyze questions, have them turn their chairs and talk in groups of 3 or 4.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.944393	Kristin Robinson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112801/overview", "title": "Strategy: Use varied ways to participate in data collection", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113635/overview	https://www.canva.com/design/DAF-Ttq4DfI/J3ObccKmhKohiyLmFoSlFw/edit?utm_content=DAF-Ttq4DfI&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link2&utm_source=sharebutton U.S. States and Their Capitals Overview This is a review for the U.S. States and Capitals. Review Play an interactive review game through Canva or Kahoot to reveiw our U.S. States and Capitals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.961136	03/01/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113635/overview", "title": "U.S. States and Their Capitals", "author": "Andrea LaRue" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108212/overview	Class Dojo App in Language Teaching Overview Class Dojo Kullanımı Class Dojo App in Language Teaching Class dojo tanıtım	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:31.983816	09/05/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108212/overview", "title": "Class Dojo App in Language Teaching", "author": "Enver Güneş" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91887/overview	Jeoparty! - Social Security Law Overview I use this Jeopardy!-style game to test, reinforce, and enhance students' understanding of Social Security Law. Playing the game and discussing the answers takes about one hour. I use a free online multiplayer buzzer system that requires students to respond to questions by typing their answers into a text entry field (www.cosmobuzz.net). I give students plenty of time to answer each question and award points for all correct answers. At the end of the game, I award a prize to the winning student (e.g. a Starbucks gift card). I haven't uploaded the answer key here because I don't want students to see the correct answers online; feel free to email me at david.moss@wayne.edu for a copy of the answer key. Jeoparty! - Social Security Law I use this Jeopardy!-style game to test, reinforce, and enhance students' understanding of Social Security Law. Playing the game and discussing the answers takes about one hour. I use a free online multiplayer buzzer system that requires students to respond to questions by typing their answers into a text entry field (www.cosmobuzz.net). I give students plenty of time to answer each question and award points for all correct answers. At the end of the game, I award a prize to the winning student (e.g. a Starbucks gift card). I haven't uploaded the answer key here because I don't want students to see the correct answers online; feel free to email me at david.moss@wayne.edu for a copy of the answer key. The presentation template is available for free from SlidesCarnival: https://www.slidescarnival.com/jeopardy-free-presentation-template/11277 The presentation template is free to use under Creative Commons License Attribution 4.0 International: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:37:32.001074	Game	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91887/overview", "title": "Jeoparty! - Social Security Law", "author": "Assessment" }

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