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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55204/overview	Specific Heat and Temperature Example Problem for Freshman Chemistry Overview An example problem of finding the final temperature upon the heat exchange of two materials Section 1 An example problem of finding the final temperature upon the heat exchange of two materials	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.330388	06/07/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/55204/overview", "title": "Specific Heat and Temperature Example Problem for Freshman Chemistry", "author": "Joshua Lang" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88411/overview	Welcome to Intermediate Academic English Overview This module will introduce students to Intermediate Academic English. Students will review the learning outcomes for the course and course policies. They will send an email to the instructor, write an introductory paragraph, and begin reviewing verb tenses. Welcome Activities Sample Course Schedule Module 1: Getting Started - Become familiar with TEAMS, PAWS, and Office 365 Weeks 2- 4 Module 2: In the Community In this module, the focus will be on health care in your communities and libraries at Southwest and in your communities. - Journal Assignment 1 (Journal Assignments are 10 percent of your final grade) - Journal Assignment 2 (Journal Assignments are 10 percent of your final grade) - Role – Playing Assignment with Partner (Module Assessment – 50 percent of total grade) - Quiz modals in Quizzes. Choose. (Quizzes are 10 percent of your final grade) - Module Assessment Grade - Discussiosn Activity Weeks 5- 7 Module 3: News and Current Events - Listening Assignment on podcast and Journal Assignment based on podcast - Reading Assignment and Journal Assignment based on reading - Discussion Activity - Quiz on sentence structure - Current Event Presentation Weeks 8- 10 Module 4: Careers and Education - Journal 7 (Educational Plans) - Journal 8 (Career Plans) - Resume - Interview Presentation - Quiz on Vocabulary and Grammar Weeks 11- 13 Module 5: Immigration and Citizenship - Journal 9 - Journal 10 - Discussion Activity - Quiz - Personal Narrative Presentation - Personal Narrative Essay Review and Interviews Weeks 14- 15 - Review of Sentence Structure - Simple, Compound, and Complex Setences - Quiz - Review of Verb Tenses - Preparation for Interview - Final Exam Welcome to Intermediate Academic English Wecome to Class Activities - Using the course email, respond to the Welcome email message from the instructor. Provide the following: - name - phone number - email address - Complete the Introductory Writing Assignment Write about yourself. Write about what you were doing five years ago, what you are doing at the present time, and what you plan to be doing five years from now. This is your first assignment. You should try to write at least three sentences, but you may write as many as three paragraphs. Write what you can without help. This assignment is for your instructor to get to know you and your skills at the beginning of the semester. - Class Discussion : - Tell the class your name, your home country, and how long you have been in the United States. Then tell the class what you like to do in your leisure time. Tell the class something about yourself that will help your classmates remember you. - Listen carefully to the introductions of your classmates. Be prepared to ask at least three questions during the class discussion. - Begin Review of Verb Tense. - Read and Review Verb Tense (Copyright ©1995-2020 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University - Adult ESL Verb Tense (All material on this website is copyrighted (© 2007-2021). Webmaster gives freedom to use materials in classes. Handouts must include website information) Semester Vocabulary Journal Assignment Vocabulary Journal Assignment An important part of improving your language is improving vocabulary. Some say you must use a word at least fifty times in order to make a word yours. This means that when you read it, you understand the meaning and that you use the word easily and correctly. Assignment- Vocabulary Journal What to do Starting with week two of class, you are to keep a vocabulary journal. You must make five entries a week. - Most words have more than one definition. Write at least on definition, and it should be related to the way the word was used when you read it or heard it. - Write a synonym (a word or phrase that has the same meaning or nearly the same) for the word. - Tell where you heard or read the word. - Use the word in a sentence. - Enter the word in the free Quizlet App. How many words must you put in your journal? You should have at least five words a week. You may have more. Where do you find the words to put in the Journal? The words can be words you hear in English class or any other class. They can be words you hear in videos and movies. They can be words you hear in conversation. The list is your personal vocabulary list. They can come from anywhere. What do you do with the Quizlet App? - You will enter the words in the Quizlet App and make flashcards. - You will use the flash cards to study the words. - You will take practice tests on the words. - You will make your own tests on the app and report the results to your instructor. When is the assignment due? Your professor will tell you the due date.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.364939	Linda Patterson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88411/overview", "title": "Welcome to Intermediate Academic English", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120422/overview	Jeopardy Urinalysis Reivew - OER OER Item Sharing - Elyse Gayda Overview OER Fundamentals Academy participants are invited to remix this sharing template to design and share their OER project plans, course information, any related resources and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? Pima Community College is encouraging us to switch to OER, to make it more affordable for our students. In addition to financial reasons, I like the idea of utilizing OER in our MLT courses as the information typically needs to be updated to keep up with all of the scientific advancements in our field of Clinical Lab Science. I plan to keep searching for open resources in OER Commons as well as other databases to provide to our students. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I'm expanding on this OER item for my students within the MLT program. It may also be used for Clinical Lab Workforce courses my team and I are currently building. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? Any other adjuncts who end up taking over Urinalysis or who may want to use the Jeopardy Template - Google Slides. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. There were a couple of resources, including an atlas of pictures that may be useful for this OER item. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? This OER item is complete but I may make a part two in the future. In that case, I may need more resources on other databases. There wasn't a whole lot on OER Commons for clinical laboratory science. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? As this was an item that was already OER, I gave attribution to the creator and turned it into my own review game for one of my MLT (clinical lab science) classes. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? This item is complete and has been played by students in previous semesters. OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. Jeopardy Review Game - MLT240 Urinalysis & Body Fluids At the end of the semester we have a review day, where students can practice any hands-on skills we learned in class. We also have a review game, either Kahoot or this Jeopardy review game. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact. The students have always enjoyed review games incorporated into our classes. I wanted to try something other than Kahoot and have the students work in teams to answer the Jeopardy questions. (I suppose I should say.....provide the questions to the answers!). This OER item was really easy to use and it made me want to find other resources that make learning more interactive and enjoyable. Here's the Template for the Jeopardy Game if anyone is interested.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.386805	10/04/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120422/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing - Elyse Gayda", "author": "Elyse Gayda" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69312/overview	Revivalist Movements Overview Major cultural stressors can impact the development of various new religious movements. Slavery in the Americas played an important role in the development of several new religious movements, including Rastafarianism. The historical trajectory of the enslaved West African population in the Carribean islands of modern day Haiti and Jamaica, combined with contact with various European cultures, resulted in the development of Vodun in Haiti and Rastafarianism in Jamaica. Vodou and Rastafarianism illustrate the response of people subjugated to slavery and colonialism through religion. The focus on this page will be on Rastafarianism, and how it was shaped through historical and cultural agents. Rastafarianism Very early history of Jamaican slavery is similar to Haiti. Slaves were transported to the Caribbean island of Jamaica by Spanish colonizers from West Africa. Under Spanish rule slaves were forced to learn and convert to Christianity. During this period there were indigenous populations on the island, who were eventually wiped out by disease and violence from contact with the Europeans. European Jews also travelled to Jamaica around this time as indentured servants to work in sugar production, fleeing the Spanish Inquisition during this period. In 1655 English forces took over the island from the Spanish. Under English rule slaves were prevented from learning Christianity by English plantation owners. The slaves and former slaves continued practicing African religions during English rule. In 1838 slavery was abolished in modern day Jamaica. Shortly after the Great Awakening, a Christian evangelical movement, swept North America during 1860s. During this period black churches formed in the region and thousands of ex-slaves attended church. Jamaica remained under British colonial rule until 1962. During colonial rule there was a small white elite ruling population, along with a small black elite population. However, the impoverished black population made up the majority of the people on the island. During this period rasta ideology began to form among the impoverished black population. Marcus Garvey (1887 – 1940) Marcus Garvey was a political activist, a journalist, and a publisher in Jamaica in the early 20th century. He was born in Jamaica to a working-class family. In the hierarchy according to color of skin, Garvey and family would be considered on lowest end of the hierarchy. In 1914 Garvey founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). This was a worldwide fraternity of Black people that promoted race pride and sought to restore the lost dignity of black people. The main belief was that Africa was the place for repatriation for black people, especially those in the Americas. One of the things Garvey told his followers is to “look to Africa for the crowning of a king to know that your redemption is near”. Prince Ras Tafari In 1930 Prince Tafari Makonnen was crowned as the king of Ethiopia. He claimed himself as Emperor Haile Selassie, which means Power of the Trinity. The followers of Marcus Garvey saw this as fulfillment of Garvey’s prophecy in the Americas. Selassie was worshipped by Garvey's followers as a living god, considered to be the king of Juda and the King of Kings. He was believed to be a descendant of King Solomon and Queen Sheba. During this period the Rastafarian movement begins and gains followers. Leonard Howell (1898 – 1981) aka The Gong Leonard Howell was a Jamaican preacher of the Rastafarian movement. He preached in the 1930s that Haile Selassie was “the Messiah returned to earth” and that Ethiopia was the promised land. He was arrested and jailed for two years with the accusation that he expressed hatred and contempt for the Jamaican government in his preaching. Howells followers withdrew to rural Jamaica and formed the Pinnacle Commune shortly after his arrest. Examining the sociocultural context as a revivalist movement The society in Jamaica was borne out of slavery and colonialism. Jamaican black people were in the periphery of the colonial world, and were economically depressed. The rise of black nationalism began in response to these conditions and to resist globalization and British Protestant rule. Rasta Symbols - The “Lion of Judah” - represents maleness of the movement - History as a symbol – African history deeper than Christianity, older than Judaism - Sins of Babylon – the place of bondage - White political power structure holding the black race down for centuries is the bondage. - Jah – Rastafarian name for God - Symbol of triumph over tribulations of everyday life. - The Holy Herb – Ganja - Ganja is not smoked recreationally. It is considered to be a sacrament and is smoked ritually for spiritual reasons and medicinal purposes. The smoking of Ganja as a sacrament is based on some Biblical texts embraced by Rastas as reasons for use of the herb - “…thou shall eat the herb of the field.” (Genesis 3:18) - “He causeth the grass for the cattle, and herb for the service of man.” (Psalms 104:14) - Dreadlocks – symbolize Rasta roots - These are worn representing the symbol of the Lion of Judah. Dreadlocks are also a form of rebellion of the system and the “proper” way to wear hair according to colonialists, so it has become a sign of resistance and outsider status among the Rasta. - Ganja is not smoked recreationally. It is considered to be a sacrament and is smoked ritually for spiritual reasons and medicinal purposes. The smoking of Ganja as a sacrament is based on some Biblical texts embraced by Rastas as reasons for use of the herb Exodus and Jamaican Rasta captivity Rastafarians in Jamaica identified with captivity of Jewish slaves in Egypt and Babylon in mid 20th century. The story of Exodus was a central Biblical myth for Rastafarians. This became the narrative in the call for freedom from oppression in Jamaica. The reggae song Exodus by Bob Marley and the Wailers revolves around this Biblical story, as it calls for people to escape from the bondage of colonialism.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.405072	07/03/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69312/overview", "title": "Revivalist Movements", "author": "Madlen Avetyan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120641/overview	Krofchik OER Item Sharing Template Overview OER Fundamentals Academy participants are invited to remix this sharing template to design and share their OER project plans, course information, any related resources and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? I have discovered that are some premade material to use in building a Powerpoint point for an introductory course and want to use some of the material in building an OER item. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I am building this OER item for students and OER supportors. I am hoping this will aid in student learning and provide material for others to use. My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? Other A&P instructors or instructors in biology. Their role could be to help find material that will aid in the project. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. Introduction to Human Anatomy and Phyisology syllabus To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.425244	10/11/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120641/overview", "title": "Krofchik OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Blake Krofchik" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92767/overview	KPU Library Project Charter Canvas Overview This charter is used this to track big-picture aspects of an open textbook/ OER project. It will help manage information and keep the project on-task. Project Charter This charter is used this to track big-picture aspects of an open textbook/ OER project. It will help manage information and keep the project on-task.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.441614	05/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92767/overview", "title": "KPU Library Project Charter Canvas", "author": "Karen Meijer-Kline" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113245/overview	Korea Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 10, Lesson 3 A discussion of how Korea transitioned from a tributary state of China to being under the influence of Japan between 1700 and 1900. The period between 1700 and 1900 was one of tremendous change for Korea. Since the second century BCE, China militarily, economically and culturally dominated Korea, forcing Korean monarchs to pay tribute to Beijing. In 1392, Yi Seong-gye (1335-1408) overthrew the ruling Goryeo family to create the Joseon Dynasty. His descendant Sejong (the Great, 1397- 1458) reformed the Korean government, civil service and legal system along Confucian lines. He also used Chinese characters to create the first written Korean alphabet, “hangul.” After enduring invasions by both Japanese and Chinese forces in the early 17th century, Koreans followed a policy of strict isolation, earning the nickname of the “Hermit Kingdom.” Despite its isolation, Korea continued trade with China, importing goods as well as Buddhist, Confucian, and Western texts on religion, science, and history. Many of these works were Chinese translations of books introduced by Catholic Priest Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) into China in the mid- 1500s. In the early 1700s, King Yeongio (1694-1776) and his grandson, King Jeongio (1752-1800), initiated a period of reform that streamlined the tax system, modernized the military and promoted the creation of schools, universities and a national library. The advent of movable type printing presses helped create a flourishing print culture in Korea. During this period, the leaders of the Silhak movement demanded that schools begin to teach Western science instead of Confucian classics. Influenced by Catholic missionaries, many Silhak leaders also became attracted to the egalitarian aspects of Christianity. Starting in 1784 diplomat, Yi Sung-hun (1756-1801) established a grassroots Catholic movement focused on conversion and especially baptism throughout Korea. External Pressures From 1839-1842 China and Great Britain fought the First Opium War. Japanese and Korean leaders watched in horror as British forces defeated China’s woefully antiquated military. Western diplomats then forced the Qing government to sign a series of unequal treaties which opened Chinese ports to Western trade. Worried by the growing popularity of Christianity among working-class Koreans and the Chinese defeats in the Second Opium War (1856-1860), aristocrat and scholar Choe Je-u (1824-1865) created a new religious belief system known as “Donghak” (or Eastern Learning) that drew from native Korean, Confucian, Buddhist and even Christian beliefs. Although Donghak proved very popular among the Korean masses, the royal government began to see it as a threat. In 1864, government officials executed Choe on charges of misleading the Korean people and promoting social chaos. When Prince Gojong (1852-1919) became Korean Emperor at the age of 12 in 1864, his father, Heungseon Daewongun (1820-1898) became acting regent. He strengthened the central government’s power, implemented a series of merit-based civil servant exams and levied taxes against Confucian-run schools. During this time, Gojong’s military forces beat back French (1866) and American (1871) expeditions that sought to open Korea by force. In 1873 Gojong’s consort Queen Min (1851-1895) forced him into exile. Crowned Empress Myeongsong, Min continued to build up Korea’s imperial government and military. In 1882, Korea’s government signed a treaty with the U.S. granting American merchants trading rights in Korea, granting American citizens in Korea the right of extraterritoriality, guaranteeing the rights of American missionaries to proselytize, and pledging mutual support for one another in the case of attack. American missionaries migrated to Korea in large numbers, founding schools and opposing traditional Korean practices such as polygamy and having concubines. In 1894, Koreans who opposed the intrusion of Westerners into traditional Korean society launched the Donghak Rebellion (also called the Nongmin Jeonjaeng or Peasant War). Taking advantage of the confusion, Japan invaded Korea, causing China to intervene to defend its tributary state. The conflict ended in a Japanese victory known later as the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895). The war, and subsequent peace treaty, resulted in Korea being opened up to Japanese trade and influence. The Empress Myeongseong responded to growing Japanese influence by cultivating closer ties to Czarist Russia. The Japanese responded by attacking the royal palace and killing the empress in 1895. King Gojong fled to the protection of the Russian embassy in Seoul. In 1897 he proclaimed the creation of the Korean Empire with himself as emperor. Korea thus began the period as a tributary state to China and ended it under the influence of Japan. In 1910, Japan officially annexed Korea.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.458088	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113245/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Managing Modernity in Asia 1700-1900, Korea", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113244/overview	Japan Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 10, Lesson 2 A discussion of the Meiji Restoration in Japan, a period of rapid modernization and reform that began in 1868. The Meiji government implemented widespread changes, including the adoption of Western political and economic systems, industrialization, and educational reforms. Includes excerpts from the 1871 Letter from Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito) to President Ulysses S. Grant, on the Iwakura Mission (1871) Meiji Restoration Until the mid-19th century, Japan was ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate, a conservative regime that prioritized maintaining internal stability and limiting foreign influence. This policy of isolation, known as sakoku, had ensured a period of relative peace and prosperity for over 250 years. However, by the mid-19th century, Japan began to face increasing challenges. Declining agricultural yields, famines, and widespread poverty exacerbated internal unrest. Simultaneously, growing external pressures from Western powers, eager to expand trade and diplomatic relations, threatened to disrupt the established order. Although the Tokugawas refused to open up Japan to foreign traders and ships (except for the Dutch, which had a small and highly regulated presence in Nagasaki), it became increasingly clear that Japan lacked the military and naval power to effectively counter these external pressures. The turning point came in 1853 when a U.S. naval squadron led by Commodore Matthew Perry (1794- 1858) entered Tokyo Bay. Perry turned his guns on the capital of Edo (now Tokyo) and demanded that the shogun open up Japan to American trade and diplomacy. Unable to find a solution to the naval threat, the shogun eventually gave in when Perry returned the following year. European powers demanded and were granted similar trading and diplomatic privileges. Like China, Japan was forced to sign unequal treaties which threatened Japan’s independence and economy. In response to these treaties, some groups began to advocate for a new government centered around the emperor. The imperial court in Kyoto had long been relegated to a ceremonial rather than administrative or executive role. However, during the crisis of foreign encroachment, the palace began to host groups advocating for a new government led by the emperor. A civil war broke out between those loyal to the shogunate and those wishing to see the emperor restored. Eventually, the forces dedicated to restoring the emperor proved decisive. This ended more than 250 years of Tokugawa rule. Known by the regnal name Meiji (1852-1912), the new emperor came to the throne on January 3, 1868, signifying what would become a new era in Japanese history. Spotlight On \| MEIJI RESTORATION The Meiji Restoration (January 3, 1868) is named after Emperor Meiji, considered the 122nd Emperor of Japan. The Restoration and his reign led to rapid modernization, which swept away much of Japan’s feudal and isolationist policies transforming the country into an industrialized power. Before the Restoration, the shoguns ruled, and it was in their interest to keep the emperor isolated in his palaces and ignorant of contemporary events. Emperors and their families were often kept in isoloation, with many dying young due to the hardships of their sheltered lives. All five of Emperor Meiji’s siblings died as infants, and only five of his 15 children survived into adulthood. Having contracted smallpox, his own father died at 36. While the rapid modernization of Japan is indisputable, historians still debate the degree to which Emperor Meiji supported reform, with some claiming he had almost no role, with others painting him as an active participant in the process. Whatever the case, Emperor Meiji has been, and will likely continue to be, closely associated with the rapid modernization of Japan. After centuries of isolation, Japan underwent a dramatic transformation known as the Meiji Restoration. This period of rapid modernization began in the mid-19th century, as Japan recognized the need to catch up with the West. Both progressive and conservative leaders embraced Western ideas and technologies. A prime example of this shift was Emperor Meiji's letter to U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant in 1871. The Meiji Restoration brought about significant changes to Japanese society. One of the most notable reforms was the dismantling of the feudal system. This involved abolishing hereditary ranks, privileges, and the rigid social hierarchy that had characterized traditional Japan. The Meijis wanted their political system to emulate the West. A constitutional committee travelled to several Western countries to study European and American political systems. This created much debate over which version of Western democracy best suited Japan. The Meiji settled on the Bismarckian example, which, although it had a parliament, placed ultimate authority in the executive branch. The result was a system that, although it looked like and acted like a democracy, was in practice still highly authoritarian. Reformers understood that success ultimately rested with reforming and modernizing the state and the economy. To stimulate production, land was transferred away from the nobles and large landholders to those who tilled the soil. In return for private ownership of the land, farmers paid an annual tax on the value of their land. This created a reliable and stable tax base. This was not all positive, as those who could not meet the tax obligation were pushed off their land and forced to find employment in the city as part of the growing number of factory workers. The Meiji government also pursued a policy of industrialization. Personal profit and the sanctity of capital were not the guiding principles but rather whether the industry served the state. With this perspective, the Meiji government might favor one company over another or force a weaker, less productive company to merge with a stronger, better organized one or even to shutter its doors. This approach worked, and at the dawn of the 20th century, Japan had a strong industrial economy. Japan looked to the West for inspiration and technical and educational know-how. European officers, mainly from Germany, were employed to help Japan develop a modern army based on meritocracy and universal conscription. The Japanese armed forces were quickly modernized with the ultimate goal of being able to compete with European and American forces. Inspired by the American educational system, the Meiji government instituted universal education. With an emphasis on technical training, the Japanese government sponsored a series of programs encouraging bright students to study abroad while inviting leading European and American scholars to teach in Japan. These schools and opportunities were open to women as well. Emphasizing duty, service and loyalty as the ultimate virtues of education, the state downplayed the individualism which might be gleaned from an American education. The mingling of culture with the West allowed Western fashions, arts and preoccupations to become popular in Japan. American leisure activities, including ballroom dancing, music and American sports became increasingly popular, especially among Japanese youth. Today, we see the results of this development, including the popularity of baseball in Japan. Primary Source \| The Meiji Restoration The Letter from Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito) to President Ulysses S. Grant, on the Iwakura Mission (1871) Mitsuhito, Emperor of Japan, etc., to the President of the United States of America, our good brother and faithful friend, greeting: Mr. President: Whereas since our accession by the blessing of heaven to the sacred throne on which our ancestors reigned from time immemorial, we have not dispatched any embassy to the Courts and Governments of friendly countries. We have thought fit to select our trusted and honored minister, Iwakura Tomomi, the Junior Prime Minister (udaijin), as Ambassador Extraordinary … and invested [him] with full powers to proceed to the Government of the United States, as well as to other Governments, in order to declare our cordial friendship, and to place the peaceful relations between our respective nations on a firmer and broader basis. The period for revising the treaties now existing between ourselves and the United States is less than one year distant. We expect and intend to reform and improve the same so as to stand upon a similar footing with the most enlightened nations, and to attain the full development of public rights and interest. The civilization and institutions of Japan are so different from those of other countries that we cannot expect to reach the declared end at once. It is our purpose to select from the various institutions prevailing among enlightened nations such as are best suited to our present conditions, and adapt them in gradual reforms and improvements of our policy and customs so as to be upon an equality with them. With this object we desire to fully disclose to the United States Government the constitution of affairs in our Empire, and to consult upon the means of giving greater efficiency to our institutions at present and in the future, and as soon as the said Embassy returns home we will consider the revision of the treaties and accomplish what we have expected and intended.… Your affectionate brother and friend, Signed Mutsuhito Countersigned Sanjō Sanetomi, Prime Minister From Asia for Educators, Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.480855	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113244/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Managing Modernity in Asia 1700-1900, Japan", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112383/overview	Asia and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 1, Lesson 5 A discussion of the regions of Southeast Asia and East Asia in the 1500s, including the influence of European traders and the impact of Buddhism. The text also touches on the Ming Dynasty in China and the Tokugawa Dynasty in Japan. Today Asia is generally divided into four different regions: Southeast Asia (mainland Southeast Asia and maritime Southeast Asia), South Asia (Indian subcontinent), East Asia (Far East), Central and West Asia (the Middle East and the Caucasus), and North Asia (Siberia). It is bounded by the Pacific, Indian and Artic Oceans. Nomadic horsemen, such as the Mongols and Turkic peoples, dominated the Eurasian steppes and built empires that controlled vast regions from the 13th century onward.. Russian explorers and settlers began relocating to Asia in the 16th century, a process they would complete by the 19th century. During this same period, the Ottoman Empire expanded throughout Anatolia, the Balkans and Egypt. The Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912) consolidated power over China following the fall of the Ming dynasty, expanding its control throughout the 17th century. The Islamic Mughal Empire (1526-1857) and the predominately Hindu Maratha Empire (16th to early 19th century) likewise controlled much of India from the 16th to 18th century. Japan expanded its influence over much of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania during the first half of the 20th century, particularly in the lead-up to and during World War II, until its defeat in 1945. Southeast Asia Over the centuries, the term “Southeast Asia” has meant different things to different people. For instance, Chinese mapmakers referred to the coastal areas of Southeast Asia as Nanyang (literally “the Southern sea”). On the other hand, Arab explorers called the region Zīrbād or Zīrbādāt (“land below the winds”). Geographers did not refer to Southeast Asia as a geographical and distinct political term until the mid- twentieth century. Today experts refer to mainland Southeast Asia (also known as the Indochinese Peninsula), comprising Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam, under the general heading of Southeast Asia. Maritime Southeast Asia consists mainly of the Malay Archipelago, including Brunei, East Malaysia, East Timor, Indonesia, the Philippines and Singapore. As in the case of Africa, European explorers, soldiers, merchants and missionaries who voyaged to Asia from the 1500s through the 1800s primarily dealt with coastal areas. For example, Portuguese merchants arrived in the region in the 1500s to dominate the spice trade. However, in the 17th century, the Dutch displaced the Portuguese by establishing trading relations with the Sultans of Java and Sumatra. By the 1800s the British East India Company dominated large sections of India and controlled Hong Kong on the south China coast and Penang and Singapore in Malaysia. Although the bulk of Spain’s overseas colonies lay in Central and South America, Madrid still maintained a tight hold over the Philippines. However, unlike the Americas where Europeans quickly imposed their religious and cultural beliefs on native populations, in Southeast Asia local cultures largely retained their practices. While European economic techniques were adopted, most Southeast Asian societies continued to follow Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, and Islam. In sum, prior to 1500, Europeans wielded little influence over Southeast Asia and even afterward were forced to limit such influence to the relatively small costal areas. Spotlight On \| BUDDHISM During the sixth or fifth centuries BCE, an Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) founded Buddhism, a spriritual path focused on the alleviation of suffering through meditation, ethical conduct, and wisdom. As the Buddha eschewed religious dogma and urged individuals to develop their own methods of meditating and praying, Buddhism flowered throughout Asia in a variety of contrasting styles and traditions. Today Tantric, Northern Mahāyāna, and Southern Buddhism represent the three largest groups of Buddhists in the world. Native to Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia and Laos, the Theravada school represents the most conservative branch of Buddhism. Theravadins (Pali; “Way of the Elders”) enshrine the teachings of Buddha’s followers, maintain a sharp division between monks and ordinary practitioners, and venerate the Buddha as not merely a spiritual leader but the perfect master. The Mahāyāna (Sanskrit for “Greater Vehicle”) movement arose in India around the ninth century CE and spread rapidly through Central and East Asia. Central to Mahāyāna ideology is the idea of the bodhisattva, the one who seeks to become a Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists believe that everybody can aspire to become a bodhisattva. Bodhisattvas seek to understand the nature of reality through acquiring wisdom (prajna) and actualization through compassion (karuna). Providing an organized monastic movement and large scholastic centers, Mahāyāna Buddhism remains a very popular form of Buddhism. Mahāyāna accepts the primary scriptures and teachings of early Buddhism but also recognizes other texts that are not accepted by Theravada Buddhism, such as the Mahāyāna Sūtras, which emphasizes the history of bodhisattvas. East Asia Today cartographers regard China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea and Taiwan as part of East Asia. East Asia shares borders with Russia, Southeast Asia and Central Asia. For nearly 300 years, the Ming dynasty provided China with a relatively stable government and economy. The Ming dynasty was the last Han Chinese dynasty to rule China, having come to power in 1368 after the fall of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. Ming emperors promoted domestic agricultural production and tried to reduce dependency on foreign trade and merchants. Ming officials capitalized on American crops such as corn, squash, peanuts and beans introduced to Asia by European merchants to greatly increase Chinese crop yields. The Ming dynasty also established regular commercial exchanges with Japan. In the 1400s, Ming fleets led by Admiral Zheng He used sophisticated seamanship and maritime technology to reach Malaysia, Indonesia, India, Arabia and East Africa. Negative encounters with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch trading enterprises and missionaries led Chinese officials to expel foreigners en masse and prohibit the teaching of western religion. Losing control of the country, the Ming dynasty would be replaced in 1644 by the Qing. The Qing dynasty would, in turn, govern China until 1912. Despite being heavily influenced by Chinese culture and politics, Japan developed its own political, cultural and economic traditions. Although nominally led by an emperor, Japan was actually ruled by daimyos (feudal lords) who competed to control the imperial government. Japan had been a fractured and violent state until the emergence of the Tokugawa dynasty (1603-1868), led by the daimyo and eventual military dictator (shogun) Tokugawa Ieyasu (1603-1868). Borrowing from Chinese precedents, Tokugawa and his successors expelled Christian missionaries and reduced their exposure to European trade and ideas. This isolation would last until the 19th century. South Asia Today, South Asia includes the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The region is bounded by the Himalayan mountains to the north and the Indian Ocean in the south. When Europeans traders in the 1500s and 1600s first moved into the region, they faced opposition from the Mughal Empire that dominated Northern India. However, the decline of the Mughals in the 18th century provided an opening for the British Empire, which would eventually gain control over much of the region. SUMMARY This chapter has laid the essential groundwork for our investigation of world history. The following chapters will build upon this information by encouraging readers to broaden their horizons and confront the past from a multitude of perspectives. As we cover more than 500 years of history, we will see that while many aspects of the human experience have radically changed, other areas retain a high degree of continuity. When reading through this text, try to identify trends of continuity and change over time. The next three chapters deal with empires that governed vast lands in Europe, America, Asia, Eurasia and the Middle East. The following three chapters examine revolutions in science and religion, social and cultural revolutions that challenged and toppled existing political orders, and a technological revolution that changed the world. We then examine how various societies dealt with the challenges of modernity and outside encroachment. Our textbook concludes with an investigation of the 20th century and our modern world.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.503408	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/112383/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The World in 1500, Asia and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113205/overview	Colonial Americas Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 2, Lesson 3 Discussion of the colonization of the Americas by European powers, focusing on the Spanish, French, and English detailing the interactions between colonists and Native Americans, the economic systems established in the colonies, and the lasting impacts of colonization on the Americas. Spanish Colonial America Before the arrival of Europeans, powerful Native American empires and city-states dominated large swathes of Central and South America. For instance, from the 1100s to the 1500s, the Aztecs (who called themselves Mexica) moved into the Central Valley of Mexico, conquered other city-states, and created a tributary empire. The Aztecs created vibrant commercial networks, intricate artwork and a complex religion that featured human sacrifice. The Incan Empire arose in Peru at roughly the same time, tying together large cities through an intricate system of roads that allowed for the rapid deployment of trade and armed forces. Yet for all of their strengths, the Aztecs and Incas fell quickly to Spanish conquistadors equipped with steel armor, lances and swords, firearms, horses and epidemic diseases for which many Native Americans had no resistance. Beginning in the 1500s, Spanish conquistadors asserted their will over millions of Aztecs, Mayans and Incas. Conquistadors such as Hernan Cortes (1485-1547) and Francisco Pizarro (1478-1541) were not social revolutionaries looking to create new societies in the Americas. They were mercenaries seeking “gold, glory and God.” In particular, they sought to extract wealth from their conquered subjects and return to Spain as rich men. Following waves of colonists, merchants and priests attempted to destroy traditional Native American cultures, or merged them with Iberian Catholic institutions, customs and ideas. Facing continued resistance from Mayans in Central America, Incas in Peru, Mapuche in Patagonia, and Pueblos in New Mexico, Spanish officials created systems of fortified missions such as Santa Fe and San Francisco to convert and train Native Americans to assume positions in Spanish colonial society. It fell to subsequent generations of colonial administrators and priests to create a colonial social order on the ruins of the Aztec, Mayan and Incan states. They began by creating the encomienda system by which individual conquistadors received land grants buttressed by the unfree labor of Native Americans. Franciscan and Dominican Priests also operated missions throughout Nueva España designed to function as forts and imperial outposts and as community centers where Native Americans could receive conversion and training in industrial skills. In 1542, Dominican Priest and former conquistador Bartolome de las Casas (1484- 1566) published A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, which condemned the harshness of the encomienda system. Spotlight On \| BARTOLOME DE LAS CASAS Born into a family of Spanish merchants in 1484, Bartolome de Las Casas became a secular priest in 1507. He participated in the Spanish conquest of Cuba but became horrified by the brutal ways in which Spaniards treated the conquered Taino Indians. Following the publication of his A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies (1542), de Las Casas at argued in Valladolid, Spain, from 1550-1551, that Native Americans had souls capable of salvation and thus could not be treated as enslaved people. The Spanish government reformed the encomienda system and created the Juzgado General de Indios (General Indian Court) to protect Native Americans from the worst abuse of the colonial rule. Full-blooded Native Americans and African Americans remained at the margins of Spanish colonial society. Although some Catholic Priests became champions of Indian rights, many others viewed Native Americans as heathens who could only be saved through conversion to Spanish culture and Roman Catholicism. They began by destroying thousands of Native American codices, such as the Mayan Popul Vuh, which recorded the creation myth, deities and customs of K’iche Mayans. They raised Native American temples and built Christian cathedrals on their ruins. Well-versed in the techniques used by the Spanish Inquisition, Catholic priests used physical torture and psychological intimidation to forcibly convert millions of Aztecs, Mayans and Incas to Christianity. Spotlight On \| TONATZIN CHURUBUSCO Employing brutal methods against Native Americans, Spanish priests proved much more successful in gaining converts than Protestant ministers in the English North American colonies. Many Mayans and Incans accepted conversion because they felt baptism might protect them from the European-borne diseases ravaging their communities. Others saw the adoption of Spanish culture and transformation as stepping stones for entry into Spanish trading networks and colonial society. Many Native Americans empathized with the image of a savior figure whose suffering resembled their own. Many Native Americans selectively combine aspects of their Native American religions with Catholicism to create a hybrid faith. For instance, Aztecs combined traditions associated with the Corn Goddess Tonantzin with the cult of the Virgin Mary to create a blended religious figure. Within a generation of conquest, many conquistadors married into Native American families who had lost members due to disease and warfare. For example, Hernan Cortes and his native translator Malinche (c. 1500-c. 1529) gave birth to a son, Martín Cortés el Mestizo (1522-1595), who later became a Spanish nobleman. Latin American society thus developed castas (or caste system). Peninsulares, Spanish-born whites, represented the large landholders, government officials and church leaders. Beneath them were the creoles, white Spaniards born in the colonies. Creoles were usually small-time ranchers, low-level government functionaries and friars who worked with Native Americans. Mestizos, those of European and Native American descent, traditionally performed as craftsmen, merchants and intermediaries. Full-blooded Native Americans (Indios), African Americans (Negros), and their children (Zambos) served as itinerant laborers, peasants, miners and enslaved people. By the mid-1500s, the wealth of Central and South America had made Spain the wealthiest nation in Europe. Spanish officials generally taxed wealth imported to Spain at a rate of 20%, which became known as the Quintano Real (literally “the king’s fifth”). In addition to gold, silver and gems looted from Native American temples and palaces, the silver mines of San Luis Potosi in Bolivia provided a steady stream of precious metals to Madrid. However, the cost of such mineral wealth came at the expense of millions of lives of enslaved Native Americans and Africans who died in the brutal extraction process common in the Potosi mines. Sugar, coffee and tobacco plantations in the Caribbean likewise provided incredible profits for landholders and Spanish officials but did so at the cost of millions of Taino and West African lives. Beginning in 1503, a governmental committee known as the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) controlled Spanish migration to the Americas. The Spanish Crown appointed Captain-Generals to invade, hold and administer new provinces, which would then be added to the empire. Beginning in the 1520s, the newly created Council of the Indies began to regulate colonial trade with the mother country and define the legal role of other colonies within the empire. As Spanish conquistadors expanded into new territories, the Spanish crown converted such land into provinces and dispatched governors to run each region. By the 1600s, the provinces of Viceroyalty of Peru and Río de la Plata and the governates of Cuba, New Castile, New Toledo and New Andalusia had been created. Within these provinces, some leading Aztec and Incan families were granted the title and rights of nobles in return for their compliance with the colonial hierarchy. Viceroys and royally appointed governors strictly controlled provinces from the top down, limited only by Audencias, committees of leading colonists and imperial officials, who oversaw the administration of the colonial judicial systems. Viceroys, in turn, appointed corregidores to collect taxes and settle disputes at the local level. Corregidores often worked with local alcaldias (mayors) and cabildos (town councils) to keep the peace on the provincial frontiers. Portuguese Colonial America While the Spanish conquered large swathes of North and South America, Portuguese explorers concentrated on the area of Brazil. With less manpower and resources to devote to colonization, Portuguese settlers quickly intermarried with Native Americans. Their descendants became known as mamelucos in Brazil and mestizos in Spanish-speaking regions. Both Portuguese and Spanish colonies profited from large plantation systems, especially those that focused on sugarcane. The big agricultural estates were initially run by an encomienda system that later gave way to the hacienda system. Some areas were also rich in gold and silver mines. The hacienda system focused on cultivating a portion of the estate for a limited market. In this way, they were often self-sufficient. Beyond economic profit, haciendas conferred social status and political influence upon their owners. The labor force on haciendas primarily consisted of Indigenous peoples, theoretically employed as wage earners. However, in practice, many laborers were trapped in a cycle of debt, reliant on loans or advances from their employers. This system effectively bound them to the land. French Colonial America adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA In North America the French established two huge colonies, each along a major North American river. The first of the two was New France founded along the St. Lawrence River. The second was Louisiana with the Mississippi River as its axis. The French, like the English, established their first lasting settlements in the early seventeenth century. Division over the Reformation in the sixteenth century hindered both English and French efforts to explore and settle North America. During the last third of the sixteenth century, religious divisions between Catholics and Huguenots, embodied in a succession of religious wars, nearly tore apart France; this prevented the government from committing resources to the construction of a colonial empire in the Americas. With the conclusion of religious hostilities in France in 1598, the French government under Henry IV could devote more resources to the establishment of a permanent, if small, French presence in present-day eastern Canada. During that period, the latter half of the sixteenth century, fishermen dominated the French presence in the St Lawrence River valley and coast of eastern Canada. The growth of French fishing in the northwestern Atlantic led to the establishment of winter settlements, the development of a fur trade, and more contacts with indigenous peoples, these activities did not require an extensive colonial presence. New France The single most important individual in the early development of New France was Samuel de Champlain, a partially enigmatic figure who dedicated his energies to seeing that New France thrived as a colony and not just a collection of outposts. Founded in 1608, Quebec was the first settlement of New France, and it has lasted to the present day. Over the next forty years French colonists founded Trois Rivieres in 1634 and Montreal in 1642. Those two settlements, along with Quebec, would become the three small urban centers of a slowly growing New France. The original focus of New France and Louisiana was the fur trade. The French government also made modest efforts to encourage migrants to settle for the purpose of farming, in order to establish self-sufficiency. The original political, religious, and social structures of New France were taken from those of early modern and medieval France, partly rooted in that nation’s feudal institutions, practices, and structures. The original seigneurial system for land distribution was taken from the feudal system of land tenure in France. As part of this system seigneurs held title to landed estates. The lands of these estates were distributed to settlers, known as habitants, for the purpose of farming. Remnants of this system survived into the nineteenth century. The fur trade required the French colonists to interact with indigenous peoples of the region, both through diplomacy and warfare. The fur traders, settlers, missionaries, and government officials of New France developed a complex set of relationships with these people that were shaped by assorted and antagonistic interests. Their first interactions were with the Huron and the Iroquois. By the mid-seventeenth century the withdrawal of the Huron and Iroquois from the St. Lawrence River valley opened new opportunities for French immigrants in fur trade and farming. Regardless, the colonial population continued to grow slowly because of the distance of the colony from France, the climate, and the perception of limited economic opportunities. English Colonial America adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA The English model of colonization brought key elements of the Spanish, French, and Dutch colonies together in one approach. One of the critical components of the English colonization models is the lack of cohesion among the colonies. This lack of cohesion would lead to challenges and future rebellions between the English and their colonial worlds. The English seemed to be the most interested in both gaining territory and gaining money. The English approach to the North American colonies is one that is centered around hedonistic capitalism and religious freedoms. The English were the last European country to begin to colonize during the first wave of colonization. Partly due to the lack of resources and technology that other Europeans had, the English had a very difficult time in establishing a colonial presence. The Treaty of Tordesillas posed a significant challenge for the English colonists. This treaty divided the world between Spain and Portugal, excluding other European nations. Since the treaty was endorsed by the Pope, the English were reluctant to defy the Catholic Church to establish their own colonies. One of the critical differences between the English and other European powers was the English use of the joint-stock companies. Joint-stock companies were formed to fund and manage colonies in the New World. Investors pooled their resources to share the risks and profits of colonial ventures, one notable example of a joint-stock company was the Virginia Company, which established Jamestown in 1607. Traveling to the Americas was difficult, expensive, and extremely dangerous. By using joint-stock companies, this risk was spread out among many shareholders which made the risk to any individual much lower. This approach today would be called a stock, and many modern U.S. companies are financed through buying and selling stocks. The use of joint-stock companies not only spread the risks and profits of voyages but also made investors increasingly wealthy by sharing the rewards from successful ventures. Based on reports from the Spanish explorers, English settlers in the Virginia expected to find large indigenous groups. Probably because the diseases introduced during the Spanish colonial period had decimated the indigenous population, this was not the case. Early English settlers remarked that the American landscape was very empty and devoid of life. The groups that they did find were local bands of Powhatans that were a part of the Algonquin indigenous groups. The Powhatans were friendly to the English and showed the settlers how to farm and grow local foods. The English, who were more interested in gold and expansion, thinking that the local Powhatans would be the basis of their new English empire, wanted the indigenous populations to do the work to grow the food. Realizing this, the Powhatans quickly left the English after demonstrations of how to grow their own food. The majority of the first English settlers were males, like the Spanish colonization model; however, unlike the Spanish, the English were not interested in starting families with the indigenous populations. The English maintained a very distinct separation between themselves and the indigenous populations. The English were only interested in expansion which meant that the Powhatans had to defend their homes and ways of life if they were to survive against the English settlement. The English system of race was heavily influenced by their historic relationships in England and would have a significant influence on future colonization. The English had a very different historic relationship with race than other European colonizers. For example, the Spanish invasion in 711 CE of the Berbers from Northern Africa had a profound impact on the Spanish integration of diverse populations into their society. The English, on the other hand, were invaded by other Europeans throughout their history. This has a profound impact on the English understanding of race and ethnicity. As the English were expanding throughout the world in the Early Modern period, they had a difficult time integrating others, such as African and indigenous populations, into the English society. For example, the English did not integrate the indigenous into their colonial society in Jamestown. Instead, the indigenous populations were pushed to the outside of the English system. The English would take lands and break treaties with the indigenous populations. The mistreatment of the indigenous population would only intensify as the English traveled throughout the world and continued this separatist approach. Throughout this period worldwide, the relationship of power between the English and other populations they come in contact with was an either/or situation; the individual is either English, or they do not have any political or economic power. The treatment of the Afro-English populations was also demonstrated in the 17th century of exclusion. The English would carry these ideas far beyond the North American shores, into Africa and the Indian subcontinent during subsequent colonization.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.532871	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113205/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Expanding Empires, Europe and the Americas, 1500-1700, Colonial Americas", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113221/overview	Introduction Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 6, Lesson 1 An introduction to the Enlightenment which was an intellectual and philosophical movement that emphasized reason, science, and individual liberty. Its thinkers challenged traditional authority and advocated for religious tolerance, influencing political developments such as the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions. The Age of Enlightenment had its origins in the Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution. A social, political, intellectual and philosophical movement during the 17th and 18th centuries, the Enlightenment wrestled with the tensions inherent between a scientific- driven world and one that placed human endeavors at the center of all things. Whereas the Renaissance placed humanity more at the center of human thinking, the Scientific Revolution challenged many long-standing beliefs and led to the creation of modern evidence- based science. While Enlightenment thought varied in space and time, some central ideas emerged, including the importance of human progress, individual liberty and the value of religious tolerance. The printed word gained significance as books, academic journals, pamphlets, and the highly influential Encyclopédie became more widely distributed and discussed. The Enlightenment undermined much older modes of thought and political organization. It challenged all absolutes, including the notion that monarchy was divinely ordained or the best form of governance. In response, monarchs, including Catherine the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796), Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786), and Joseph II of Austria (Holy Roman Emperor from 1765-1790), promised enlightened reforms inspiring a variety of 19th-century political and intellectual movements. Spotlight On \| ENCYCLOPÉDIE Published between 1751 and 1772, the Encyclopédie, a 28-volume work in the Enlightenment tradition, showcased new approaches to knowledge, government and society. Edited by Denis Diderot and later co-edited with Jean le Rond d’Alembert, the Encyclopédie pushed for the secularization of knowledge and education, placed political power with the people, not traditional powerbrokers, and espoused the notions of natural, inalienable rights while advocating for less state intervention in the economy. The text gained attention for its vast knowledge and willingness to challenge traditional elites and orthodox thinking. Dedicated to disseminating new forms of knowledge, contributors spent considerable time sharing their knowledge and expertise. The largest contributor, Louis de Jaucourt (1704-1779), wrote more than 17,000 articles. While any text based on the work of numerous contributors and more than 70,000 articles will offer multiple perspectives, it is clear that many of the contributors to the Encyclopédie desired a new society based not on tradition but on the Enlightenment values of rational thought and fair and good government. Much Enlightenment thought concerning religion was in response to the political and religious violence that occurred after the Protestant Reformation. Fought over religious differences and political control of Europe, The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) killed between five to eight million soldiers and civilians. In the face of such devastation, Enlightenment thinkers advocated using reason to achieve religious, social and political peace. For some Enlightenment thinkers, such as the Englishman John Locke (1632-1704), this meant simplifying his faith into the single idea of Jesus as the redeemer and steadfastly avoiding further discussion or debate. Frenchman François-Marie Arouet (1694- 1778), better known as Voltaire, argued that all people, not just fellow Christians, were children of God. Thus, religious conflict was both pointless and detrimental to human development. This encouraged Enlightenment thinkers to call for a reduction in the social and political power of organized religion and to support the notion of the separation of church and state. Enlightenment thought has had a tremendous impact on theories of government. Many significant figures involved in the American Revolution were closely aligned and influenced by Enlightenment ideas. The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution and the Bill of Rights are all inspired by Enlightenment thoughts and aspirations. Enlightenment ideals also inspired, influenced and helped engender the French Revolution. As we shall see, the social and political ramifications of the Enlightenment helped direct the development of human history and still impacts much of our thinking about liberty, legal and universal rights and government.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.550375	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113221/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Age of Reason - The Scientific Revolution, Enlightened Thought and its Impact, Introduction", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113235/overview	Italian Unification Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 9, Lesson 3 A discussion of Italian unification in the 19th century, highlighting the roles of key figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini, Giuseppe Garibaldi, and Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour detailing the challenges faced by the Italian unification movement and the eventual success in unifying the Italian peninsula under the Kingdom of Italy. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the delegates at the 1815 Congress of Vienna created a series of powerful alliances designed to maintain a balance of power by propping up traditional European empires. While such a system protected established nations it made it difficult for new ones to be formed. For instance, since the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century AD, the Italian peninsula had remained divided into a series of petty kingdoms, city-states and papal lands. Although constant conflict and trade between these small states provided the creative ferment that led to the rise of the Renaissance, it made any consensus for Italian nationalism hard to achieve. The Italian Campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars destabilized the traditional Italian feudal order and introduced new ideas, such as nationalism. Attempts at Italian unity under the short-lived Cispadane Republic (1796-1797) were rolled back by Napoleon’s defeat and the efforts of the Congress of Vienna. Throughout the 1810s and 1820s, a secret order known as the Carbonari spearheaded a movement for Italian unification. One such member, Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), established a movement known as La Giovine Italia (Young Italy) that trained a generation of future revolutionary leaders. Another Carbonaro, Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), spent several years learning to function as a professional revolutionary by participating in armed struggles in Brazil and Uruguay. Spotlight On \| GIUSEPPE GARIBALDI Born in 1808 in Nice, part of Napoleon’s French Empire, Giuseppe Garibaldi trained as a young man to become a ship captain. Joining the Carbonari and Mazzini’s Young Italy movement in 1833, Garibaldi participated in an unsuccessful uprising in Piedmont. Fleeing to the Americas, Garibaldi worked with revolutionaries seeking independence from Brazil. Marrying Brazilian revolutionary Ana Maria “Anita” de Jesus Ribeiro (1821-1849), Garibaldi learned guerilla warfare techniques. During the Uruguayan Civil War, Garibaldi raised a legion of Italian expatriates known as the Redshirts because of their distinctive uniforms that featured red shirts, ponchos and sombreros. Returning to Italy in 1848, Garibaldi played an active role in the Italian Wars for Independence. A dedicated republican, he disliked dealing with aristocrats like Camillo Benso, Count Cavour (1810-1861) and Victor Emmanuel II (1820-1878), whom he felt moved slowly toward independence. When the American Civil War broke out in 1861, the Union government offered Garibaldi a commission as a major general. Garibaldi met with U.S. Minister Henry S. Sanford (1823-1891) in Brussels to discuss the commission and express his strong anti-slavery sentiments. Accounts differ on how much power he expected over the Union forces, but ultimately, the Lincoln administration did not agree to his proposed involvement in the American Civil War. In 1848, a series of liberal revolutions broke out across Europe. Popular uprisings quickly began in Sicily, Naples, Milan and Venice. Local nobles, including Pope Pius IX (1792-1878), promptly fled. Giuseppe Garibaldi led an army of peasants into Rome. In January 1849, revolutionaries held local elections of an assembly that declared the creation of the Italian Republic on February 9th. Two months later, Giuseppe Mazzini became Chief Minister of the new Italian government. He helped prepare a Constitution which guaranteed, among other things, freedom of religion and a right to free public education. However, the intervention of Austrian and French military forces led to a defeat of the republicans and a restoration of the Pope and nobles to power. Throughout the 1850s, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour and Sardinian Prime Minister, promoted Italian unification. He efficiently modernized Sardinia’s government and military and began creating correspondence networks with patriots throughout the Italian peninsula. In 1859, Count Cavour signed a secret alliance with French Emperor Louis Napoleon III to launch a resistance movement against Austrian forces in Milan and Venice. In June, Sardinian forces defeated Austrian troops at the battles of Magenta and Solferino. In the meantime, Garibaldi led an army of Italian volunteers to victory over the Austrians at the actions of Varese and Como. Behind the scenes, Sardinian, French and Austrian diplomats brokered a compromise whereby Sardinia would receive Lombardy, France gained Savoy and Nice, and Austria would maintain Venice. The precarious peace created by the end of the conflict lasted less than a year. When peasants in Messina and Palermo began to revolt against the government of Francis II, King of the Two Sicilies (1836-1894), Garibaldi led an army of 1,000 volunteers from all over the Italian peninsula (I Mille) to liberate Sicily from Neapolitan rule. He then began an invasion of the Kingdom of Naples, defeating a papal army hastily thrown together by Pope Pius’s followers. Victor Emmanuel II, King of Sardinia, arrived to take the head of Garibaldi’s volunteer army. Francis II held out in the fortress of Gaeta for three months before finally surrendering. In February 1861, Victor Emmanuel II called for the creation of an Italian Parliament, which declared him King of Italy. Although Garibaldi attempted to raise an army to take Rome and create a republic, Victor Emmanuel II negotiated quietly behind the scenes for French and Austrian troops to leave the peninsula. For nearly five years, the Kingdom of Italy continued to grow, wielding power throughout the peninsula except for Venice, which remained under Austrian control, and Rome, where the Papacy held sway. During the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Italy sided with Prussia against Austria. At war’s end, Italy received Venice with French support in return for accepting French control over Nice and Savoy. When the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) broke out in 1870, Napoleon III recalled all French troops from Rome. After a token resistance, Rome fell to Victor Emmanuel’s army in October. The Kingdom of Italy annexed Rome, unifying the peninsula for the first time in over a millennium.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.568157	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113235/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Nation Building and Reform 1700-1900, Italian Unification", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113208/overview	Constitutional Monarchy and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 3, Lesson 2 Discussion of the English Civil War and the events that led up to it, including the tensions between the Stuart kings and Parliament. It also covers the aftermath of the war, including the rise of Oliver Cromwell and the restoration of the Stuart monarchy, and the Glorious Revolution that established William and Mary as constitutional monarchs. The English Civil War adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA Background to the English Civil War England in the early modern period was a region of intense political, religious, cultural, and social divisions. One of the most significant difficulties for the country was the newly established Protestantism of Henry VIII that created many internal divisions. These divisions, coupled with a newly growing group with political power, brought intensity to the conflicts throughout the period. With the rise of the Stuart Dynasty, a new king from Scotland brought new divisions. These deep fissures would eventually crack, causing the English Civil War. In many ways, the English Civil War can be seen as an extension of the Thirty Years War that ravaged Europe during the 17th century. The result was a complete change in England’s political and cultural landscape. When Queen Elizabeth I died without an heir, James VI, her cousin, and King of Scots, succeeded her to the throne of England as King James I in 1603. This united Scotland and England under one monarch. He was the first of the Stuart dynasty to rule Scotland and England. He, and his son and successor, Charles I of England, reigned England during a period in which there were escalating conflicts with the English Parliament. One of the key problems that the new king James faced was the growth of a middle class in England that was powerful enough to have political power. The middle-class growth that arose from trade and mercantilism had enough capital that they could be seated in Parliament. This meant that James’ political fortunes were linked to his success in getting the middle-class Protestants to follow his ideas. To make matters more difficult for James, although he was a Protestant, he leaned more toward a broader Protestantism that did not emphasize some of the Church of England's distinct traditions. This would lead to deeper divisions between James and the Anglican middle class in Parliament. James I and the English Parliament James developed his philosophy about the relationship between monarch and parliament in Scotland, and never reconciled himself to the independent stance of the English Parliament and its unwillingness to bow readily to his policies. It was essential that both the King and Parliament understood their relationship in the same manner. Yet, this goal fell short under the new king. James I believed that he owed his superior authority to God-given right, while Parliament believed the king ruled by contract (an unwritten one, yet fully binding) and that its own rights were equal to those of the king. Charles I and Parliment King James I's reign proved fraught with tension, despite its successes in establishing English colonies in the New World. Time and again, the new king had butted heads with Parliament. But under James' successor and heir, King Charles I, England would plunge into chaos and discontent that culminated in civil war, and the new monarch's head on a chopping block. In 1625, Charles married French princess Henrietta Maria. Many members of the lower house of Parliament were opposed to the king’s marriage to a Roman Catholic. Although Charles told Parliament that he would not relax religious restrictions, he promised King Louis XIII of France, that he would do exactly that when Charles married his Catholic daughter, Henrietta Maria. Charles I’s attempt to impose taxes not authorized by Parliament contributed to the ongoing conflict between the king and Parliament and eventually resulted in the passing of the 1628 Petition of Right. Charles demanded over £700,000 to assist in helping fight the European war. The House of Commons refused and instead passed two bills granting him only £112,000. In addition, rather than renewing the customs due from Tonnage and Poundage for the entire life of the monarch, which was traditional, the Commons only voted them in for one year. Because of this, the House of Lords rejected the bill, leaving Charles without any money to provide for the war effort. After the Commons continued to refuse to provide money, Charles dissolved Parliament. By 1627, with England still at war, Charles decided to raise “forced loans,” or taxes not authorized by Parliament. Anyone who refused to pay would be imprisoned without trial, and if they resisted, they would be sent before the Privy Council. Although the judiciary initially refused to endorse these loans, they succumbed to pressure. While Charles continued to demand the loans, more and more wealthy landowners refused to pay, reducing the income from the loans and necessitating a new Parliament being called in 1627. However, because it did not meet the king’s requirements and threatened his political allies, Parliament was once again dissolved. Nevertheless, since Charles was unable to raise money without Parliament’s permission, he assembled a new one in 1628. The new Parliament drew up the Petition of Right, and Charles accepted it as a concession to obtain his subsidy. The Petition did not grant him the right of tonnage and poundage, which Charles had been collecting without parliamentary authorization since 1625. Charles I avoided calling a Parliament for the next decade, a period known as the “personal rule” or the “eleven years’ tyranny.” During this period, Charles’s lack of money determined policies. First and foremost, to avoid Parliament, the king needed to avoid war. Charles made peace with France and Spain, effectively ending England’s involvement in the Thirty Years' War. The English Civil War and Aftermath Although the English Civil War began in 1642, it was the second war within the English Civil War that proved the critical turning point in English History. In 1648, the Parliamentarians (Roundheads) claimed victory against the Royalist Cavaliers. Parliament became controlled largely by the Rump Parliament comprised primarily of extremists who supported Parliament over the king. Among the most important, if also unlikely, figures to arise from the chaos was Oliver Cromwell-an extremist himself renowned for his position as second-in-command of the New Model Army. With the Cavaliers' defeat, and Parliament in the hands of extremists, King Charles I's fate was sealed by the end of 1648. In January 1649, England executed its king as a traitor and established a commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell and the Commonwealth of England Oliver Cromwell was relatively obscure for the first forty years of his life. He was an intensely religious man (an Independent Puritan) who entered the English Civil War on the side of the “Roundheads,” or Parliamentarians. Nicknamed “Old Ironsides,” he was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to being one of the principal commanders of the New Model Army, playing an important role in the defeat of the royalist forces. The Commonwealth of England was the period when England, later along with Ireland and Scotland, was ruled as a republic following the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I (1649). The republic’s existence was declared by the Rump Parliament on May 19, 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in Parliament and a Council of State. During this period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, as part of what is now referred to as the Third English Civil War. In 1653, after the forcible dissolution of the Rump Parliament, Oliver Cromwell was declared Lord Protector of a united Commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland under the terms of the period now usually known as the Protectorate. The term “Commonwealth” is sometimes used for the whole of 1649 to 1660, although for other historians, the use of the term is limited to the years prior to Cromwell’s formal assumption of power in 1653. Cromwell died of natural causes in 1658, and his son Richard succeeded as Lord Protector. Richard sought to expand the basis for the Protectorate beyond the army to civilians. He summoned a Parliament in 1659. However, the republicans assessed his father’s rule as “a period of tyranny and economic depression” and attacked the increasingly monarchy-like character of the Protectorate. Richard was unable to manage the Parliament and control the army. In May, a Committee of Safety was formed on the authority of the Rump Parliament, removing the Protector’s Council of State, and was in turn replaced by a new Council of State. A year later monarchy was restored. In 1661, Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed. Royalists hung the body in chains in Tyburn, London, before throwing it into a pit and then severing the head. Cromwell's head was then stuck atop a spike outside Westminster Hall until 1685, and later sold to various owners until the mid-twentieth century. Restoration of the Stuarts Over a decade after Charles I’s 1649 execution and Charles II’s 1651 escape to mainland Europe, the Stuarts were restored to the English throne by Royalists in the aftermath of the slow fall of the Protectorate. For those who had remained loyal to King Charles I, they would find a new champion in his son, King Charles II. The Glorious Revolution adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA and World History Encyclopedia \| CC By-NC-SA The return of the Stuart Dynasty under Charles II (r. 1660 -1685) marked the beginning of the Restoration period. Charles II became known as the "Merry Monarch" not only for his generosity to friends (He gave the colony of Pennsylvania to his friend William Penn) and his love of festive parties and lovely actresses, but also due to his efforts to work cooperatively with Parliament. He received generous subsidies from his cousin, Louis XIV of France, and he used these funds to bribe members of Parliament to support his government. He also dispensed other gifts to prominent members of Parliament. For example, in 1663 he granted Anthony Ashley Cooper, the territory of Carolina, just south of the colony of Virginia. Charles II, however, had no legitimate children, so his younger brother, James, the Duke of York (and proprietor of the colony of New York) assumed the throne as James II in 1685. James II, however, was Roman Catholic, which was very troubling to members of Parliament. Members of parliament took solace in knowing that James II was an old man, and his two adult daughters and heirs, Mary and Anne, were both Protestant and married to Protestants. James II was more like his father and grandfather than his older brother, as he was openly dismissive of Parliament, and he believed in the divine right of kings. James had re-married a much younger Roman Catholic woman, Mary of Modena, and in 1688 she gave birth to a son, James. William and Mary According to English legal tradition, male heirs took precedence over female heirs, regardless of the age of the heirs. Members of Parliament were horrified that James II would be someday succeeded as king by a young, Roman Catholic prince, James III. Parliament decided to take action to prevent this outcome, and Parliament offered the throne to James II's eldest daughter, Mary, who was married to William of Orange, the Stadtholder of the Dutch republic. William was eager to accept this offer since England under James II was allied to his enemy, Louis XIV of France, who had waged a brutal war against the Dutch. William and Mary in 1688 crossed over to England with an army. Support for James II in England vanished, and without any warfare, William and Mary were crowned as William III and Mary II, King and Queen of England, Scotland, and Ireland. This event became known as the Glorious Revolution. This historical development was a revolution in which Parliament asserted itself as the sovereign authority in the state by deciding who was to be the monarch. The notion of divine right was thereby rejected. This event was glorious in that William and Mary were installed as constitutional monarchs without bloodshed, in England anyway. SUMMARY The 17th century was a time of turmoil in Europe. In France, Cardinal Richelieu, the chief minister to Louis XIII, was instrumental in consolidating royal authority and centralizing power by weakening the nobility and suppressing religious dissent. Louis XIV's reign solidified French absolutism and established a strong, centralized monarchy that would influence European politics for centuries to come. However, their policies also laid the groundwork for the social and economic tensions that would eventually lead to the French Revolution. In contrast, the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution established a constitutional monarchy in England, laying the groundwork for democratic governance. The Thirty Years War, while devastating, ultimately weakened the Holy Roman Empire and paved the way for the rise of nation-states. These events collectively contributed to the decline of feudalism, the rise of nationalism, and the development of modern political and economic systems.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.593616	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113208/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Early Modern Europe, Constitutional Monarchy and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113251/overview	African Resistance to European Imperialism Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 11, Lesson 4 A discussion of African resistance to European imperialism, focusing on the successful defense of Ethiopia led by Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu Betul, and other significant resistance movements like those of Samori Ture and Kinjikitile Ngwale. In the late 1800s, many European nations rushed to take part in the “scramble for Africa.” Great Britain led the way, controlling Egypt, Sudan, Kenya and South Africa. France established French West Africa, which included Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Ivory Coast, Dahomey and Nigeria, and French Equatorial Africa, which consisted of Chad, Gabon and parts of the Congo. Germany maintained colonies in Burundi, Tanzania and Rwanda. Even tiny Belgium’s ruler King Leopold held a large part of the Congo river valley as his personal fiefdom. Although European powers brought technology and modernization to Africa, they did so with the intention of extracting wealth from the continent. Millions of Africans faced ritualized degradation and exploitation at the hands of Europeans. Over time, many Africans found a variety of ways to not only carry out meaningful lives under foreign rule but actively resist colonial powers. The First Italo-Ethiopian War of 1895-1896 represented an important example of successful African resistance to European imperialism. Following the unification of Italy in 1871, Italian leaders sought to gain overseas colonies to provide raw resources for Italy’s growing industrial sector, find new lands for poor Italians to settle, and gain the prestige that came from being a colonial power. In 1889, Italy and Ethiopia signed the Treaty of Wuchale by which the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik II (1844-1913) acceded to Italy’s demands to occupy the province of Eritrea in return for Italian and British recognition of his regime. Deliberately writing different versions of the treaty in Italian and Amharic (one of the major languages of wider communication in Ethiopia), Italian diplomats claimed that Ethiopia had agreed to become an Italian protectorate. When Menelik II repudiated the treaty, Italian troops invaded in 1895. Aided by Empress Tatyu Betal (1851-1918), Menelik raised a 100,000-man army that included all the ethnic and religious minorities of Ethiopia. This powerful army won a significant victory over Italian forces at the Battle of Adwa in March 1896. In the Treaty of Addis Ababa (1896), Italy recognized Ethiopia’s independence. Spotlight On \| MENELIK II The son of the Negus (King) Haile Melekot (1824-1855) and a palace servant named Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo, Menelik was captured by the Ethiopian Emperor Tewodros II (1818-1868) and married to his daughter Altash. Following Tewodros’s suicide in 1868, Menelik slowly built-up allies among Ethiopia’s different ethnic groups and European powers such as the French and Italians. In 1883, he married his third wife, Taytu Betul. A member of the ruling family of Semien Province, Tatyu’s dynastic marriage to Menelik helped him solidify his claim as Ethiopian emperor in 1889. Together they founded the capital of Addis Ababa (New Flower) on the site of her imperial home. During the First Italo-Ethiopian War, Menelik and Tatyu worked tirelessly to rally the people of Ethiopia to resist the invading Italian forces. Following the war, the imperial couple helped to introduce post offices, electricity, motor cars and railroads to Ethiopia. Menelik died in 1913, Tatyu passed away four years later. In addition to Menelik and Tatyu, Samori Ture (1828- 1900) led a spirited resistance to European imperialism in West Africa. Born into the Mandika of Guinea in the 1830s, Samori created a coalition of Muslim groups that conquered parts of Mali, Senegal and the Ivory Coast to create the Wassoulou Empire in the 1860s. Although a skilled warrior, Samori lacked modern European-style artillery. He accordingly signed a treaty with the French Empire, giving up some land in return for a non-aggression pact. However, constant violations of the treaty by French colonial forces led to the outbreak of war in 1892. Adopting a “scorched earth” policy, Samori fled eastwards with his entire population. Although captured by the French six years later, Samori still remains one of the most revered anti- imperialist leaders in African history. While Samori fought the French in Guinea, a Matumbi-born Muslim prophet named Kinjikitile “Bokero” Ngwale (d. 1905) led the Maji Maji Rebellion against the German colonial government of Tanganyika. Urging his followers to put aside their ethnic differences, Bokero insisted that the “holy water” or maji he gave them would stop German bullets. Although executed by German officials in 1905, his followers held out against German forces for another two years. Over 100,000 died in the uprising.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.611010	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113251/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, The Second Wave of Imperialism 1700-1900, African Resistance to European Imperialism", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113206/overview	Africa and Summary Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 2, Lesson 4 Discussion of the impact of European colonization and the trans-Atlantic slave trade on Africa between 1500 and 1700, including the resulting rise of new kingdoms and religions in the African diaspora. Africa In the 17th and early 18th centuries, English, French and Dutch explorers began to colonize parts of the Americas and the Caribbean, partaking in the trans- Atlantic slave trade and exploiting people of African and Native American descent. This led to multiple slave uprisings, the most successful of which was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) led by Touissant L’Ouverture (1743-1803), which resulted in the first independent state in the new world governed by former slaves. By the early 1800s, a wave of additional revolutions created sovereign states like Mexico, Honduras, Colombia, Peru, Venezuela, Argentina and Chile. The African continent experienced many changes between the 15th and the 17th centuries. In some regions of Africa, Europeans only dealt with African intermediaries and never set foot into the interior. Africans who lived in coastal areas experienced the most significant changes. Some of the empires in the interior such as the declining Songhay Empire, the Hausa city-states, and the Kanem-Bornu Empire remained more focused on the trans-Saharan trade. In contrast, certain coastal kingdoms, such as Benin and Oyo, started to play an essential role in the emerging Atlantic trade. A rise in international trade helped create new kingdoms in the Great Lakes region around Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika. Bunyoro-Kitara emerged as one of the most important regional powers, ruling over the kingdoms of Karagwe, Burundi and Buganda. By the late 18th century, the Kingdom of Buganda and coastal Swahili City-states likewise became key players in the Atlantic world. Great Zimbabwe experienced influences from the Portuguese and the Omani Arabs, whose trading monopolies intersected in the Indian Ocean. The Portuguese tried to dominate the East African ivory and gold trade. They established significant fortifications in Mozambique and Mombasa while controlling regional trading hubs such as Paté, Lamu, Malindi, Pemba, Zanzibar and Kilwa. In the 1660s, the dominance of the Portuguese in East Africa would be challenged by not only the Swahili but their Arab allies, especially the Imamate of Oman (in southeast Arabia). The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade And Africans In The Making Of The Atlantic World Beginning in the Early Atlantic Age (1450 – 1640), a ‘third zone’ of commercial encounter sprang up along the West African coast. Different European nations, such as the Portuguese, Castilians (Spanish), Dutch, English and French, began exchanging goods with African traders and middlemen along the coasts. New markets for existing commodities started to open, which initially stimulated domestic trade. These new markets provided copper and ivory from the Congo Basin, textiles from Benin, and enslaved people from western Sudan. During the Middle Atlantic Age (1640 – 1800), English, Dutch, French, Danish and Spanish sugar planters in the Caribbean increased demands for slave labor. As European merchants began to pay West African chieftains for increasing numbers of slaves with produce and manufactured goods, the traditional practice of carrying goods from one African coastal area to another began to break down. The shift in trade away from Central and West Africa and toward the Atlantic World also brought about tremendous political changes. Powerful empires such as the Oyo and Benin began to play important diplomatic and economic roles in the region. Women rose to prominent roles in West and Central African kingdoms. For example, in the Kingdom of Dahomey, women served as soldiers and administrators. New emerging states and the development of new trading networks in West-Central Africa marginalized some of the existing power players, such as the Kingdom of Kongo. Spotlight On \| Afro-Caribbean Religions – Santeria And Candomblé In The African Diaspora The rise of the trans-Atlantic slave trade led to the spread of African religious practices through the African diaspora. The Yoruba people of present-day Nigeria were among the largest and the latest groups forcibly transported to the Americas. Many enslaved people retained memories of their religious practices while simultaneously merging such beliefs with those of other enslaved African groups and elements of Catholicism. In Cuba, these religious practices became known as Santeria; in Brazil, they were referred to as Candomblé. The name Santeria comes from comparisons some followers made between Roman Catholic saints (santos) and the Yoruba deities known as orishas. Many modern practitioners refer to the religion as “the religion of the orishas” or the “Lucumi religion.” In Santeria, we can find many practices such as divination and spirit possession gleaned from West African religious traditions. Santeria was initially practiced by enslaved people and later by people of African descent. Many exiles fleeing the Cuban Revolution brought the faith to the United States. Like Cuba, Brazil represented one of the largest importers of enslaved Africans. Salvador de Bahia became one of the centers for the practice of Nagô Candomblé. Like Santeria, its origins lay in Yoruba religious practices but also integrated Central Africa spiritual practices. Also, here, we can again find a duality of Catholic saints and African deities. After the downfall of the Oyo Empire and the rise of the Sokoto Caliphate, many Yoruba were forcefully enslaved and shipped across the Atlantic at the beginning of the 19th century. Because their faith resembled an organized religion, it made it easier to merge with Catholicism. An organized priesthood, complex religious ceremonies, and texts and prayers used in divination provided avenues for religious syncretism on many levels. Both Santeria and Candomblé are examples of hybrid and creolized religious systems. On the one hand, they created something new and contributed to a newly emerging Afro-Caribbean culture. On the other, the ritual practices using the Yoruba language continued to maintain a strong connection to Africa. SUMMARY Between 1500-1700 the world underwent tremendous changes. Contact with Europeans rattled the African continent and led to one of the biggest genocides in world history – the trans-Atlantic slave trade. During this four-century ordeal, slave traders forcibly transported 15 million Africans to the Americas. Both the political and economic landscape in West and West-Central Africa was forever altered. Products imported to the African continent through the Columbian exchange changed the cuisines and diets of people. An emphasis on the trade in human beings contributed to the downfall of such powerful kingdoms like the Kingdom of Kongo, the rise and influence of European colonial powers on the African continent, and a change in the power dynamics providing coastal states with larger political and economic clout than they had previously held.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.630521	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113206/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Expanding Empires, Europe and the Americas, 1500-1700, Africa and Summary", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85541/overview	Tennessee History Textbook and Video Lectures Overview Testing of the OER platform in progress, this is not yet a complete item. Text written by Dr. Carole Stanford Bucy. Chapter 1 Overview Chapter 1 Overview History begins with a place - the land and its features. People make journeys to this place we call "Tennessee". Tennessee history is the story of this place and of all the people - even you - who have ever been here. It is your story. Enjoy it. Enjoy knowing about all the places you see every day and how they came to be the way they are today. This Place We Call Tennessee Your story of Tennessee history begins with you and the place where you live. Look all around you. No matter where you go, Tennessee history is there. Have you ever been to a Nashville Predators game? Why did a hockey team in Tennessee name itself the "Predators"? If you go to a Tennessee Titans game, how are the Titans are a part of our history? How did that team get to Tennessee? What happened after they arrived? What about a trip to the Smoky Mountains? How are the Smokies different from the place where you live? How has the land influenced the history of the Smokies? This upcoming week, wherever you may go, take a look around you. What do you see? Start asking questions: What about that exit sign for Rock Castle on the Vietnam Veterans Bypass? What is Rock Castle? Who built it? Why has it been preserved as a historic site? Why is it so difficult to dig a deep hole in the ground in most parts of Tennessee? Chapter 1 Objectives Upon completion of this lesson with a 70% or above, students will be able to: - Explain how history must be approached as a story rather than disconnected lists of facts to be memorized. - Explain the overall approach to this course - Describe different methods of historical interpretation. - Identify & describe the basic features of Tennessee’s geography. - Explain how geography has influenced Tennessee’s history. - Interpret the point of view of "From Down in the Mississippi Mud Up to Rocky Top". Chapter 1 Reading From Down in the Mississippi Mud to Rocky Top: How the Land Has Shaped Tennessee's History Mississippi Mud When the sun goes down, the tide goes out, The people gather 'round and they all begin to shout, "Hey! Hey! Uncle Dud, It's a treat to beat your feet on the Mississippi Mud. It's a treat to beat your feet on the Mississippi Mud".1 Rocky Top Wish that I was on ole rocky top, Down in the Tennessee hills. Ain't no smoggy smoke on rocky top, Ain't no telephone bills. Rocky top, you'll always be, Home sweet home to me. Good ole rocky top, Rocky top Tennessee, rocky top Tennessee".2 For many years, when a traveler crossed the Mississippi River at Memphis there was a large sign in the middle of the bridge that said, "Welcome to the Three States of Tennessee," a reference to the symbolism of three stars on the Tennessee state flag and the state’s geographic diversity. When Memphis resident Winfield Dunn became governor of Tennessee in 1971, one of his first acts was to have those signs replaced with signs bearing the present slogan, "Welcome to the Great State of Tennessee." Dunn and many others saw the signs as divisive; he hoped that the new slogan would lessen the regional rivalries between the three grand divisions that are represented by the three stars on Tennessee's state flag. The changing of a slogan, however, could not change the vast differences among the people of East, Middle, and West Tennessee. Those differences— political, cultural, and economic—had been born early in the state’s history and reflected the state’s geographic diversity that has been a dominant theme of Tennessee history. "The state of Tennessee has been especially cursed with the evil of sectionalism. The three divisions, so effectually cut off from easy communication with one another and characterized by essentially different economic interest, have developed as separate entities, each one apart from the others, with an almost complete absence of a community of interest, or a common point of view. Consequently, a state of bitter antagonism has been the rule rather than the exception, making exceedingly difficult the adoption of any logical policy designed to benefit uniformly the interests of the whole state rather than those of a single section. Furthermore, the great variety of geographic features characterizing each of the three major political divisions led inhabitants to develop local jealousies and conflicts among themselves which served to complicate the larger sectional controversies already in existence." Stanley J. Folmsbee, History of Tennessee, Volume 1, 1960. The Grand Divisions of Tennessee Tennessee's first settlers were native people who built villages along the rivers of the area. Because the network of rivers was spread across the entire state, these Indian villages were frequently spread out and somewhat removed from other villages. When Tennessee became a state in 1796, it consisted of two pockets of Anglo-American settlements - one in upper East Tennessee and another beyond the Cumberland Plateau, some 250 miles west in the area of the lower Cumberland River, with Native-American tribes claiming the remainder of the territory. This land is now known as Tennessee and the patterns of its settlement were shaped long before Native Americans or Europeans set foot here. Why did people come to this area in the first place? What made them want to stay? How did they determine how to survive and support themselves? They survived according to how they could live off the land. How did the economy develop? The economy of each region was determined by how its settlers, Native American and European alike, used the land. How were their political positions shaped? They were in large part a result of people's economic interests. Even today, the differences caused by the state’s geography define the state today. The three stars on the state flag continue to serve as symbols of geographic differences that have influenced the state’s history. The regional rivalries undoubtedly began when the Cumberland settlements were founded more than 200 miles west of the Watauga settlements. Although both pockets of settlement were part of the state of North Carolina, each had separate concerns and interests. When the Revolutionary War ended, the people living in the area around the Watauga settlements attempted to create a new state to be named “Franklin.” The United States Congress did not accept this request for statehood, primarily because North Carolina opposed it. Had that area became a state, the Cumberland settlements would have been in a precarious position since they would have continued to be part of the state of North Carolina. These two regions continued to be rivals when Tennessee became a state in 1796. One famous feud that took place in early Tennessee history was a feud between John Sevier from East Tennessee and Andrew Jackson, a resident of Middle Tennessee. When the Chickasaw land in West Tennessee was opened to Anglo-American settlement with the removal of the Chickasaws, West Tennesseans felt the General Assembly spent too much money in Middle Tennessee. After threatening to secede from Tennessee in the 1840s and form the state of Jacksoniana, the General Assembly began appropriating more funds for road construction in West Tennessee to placate West Tennessee residents. East Tennessee also began discussing a similar plan in the 1840s to secede, but the topic never materialized to become more than political rhetoric. When it came time in 1843 to choose a site for the permanent capital for the state, both East and West Tennessee nominated numerous sites, with an attitude that seemed to be "anywhere but Nashville." To their dismay, despite their efforts, Nashville became the capital because the Cumberland River was navigable by steamboat. Tennessee has a great variety of rivers, landforms, climate regions, and plant and animal species. Numerous groups of people have settled in Tennessee beginning with Native Americans about 12,000 years ago. The lasting impact of Native Americans can be seen in the number of places with Native American names. In fact, the name “Tennessee” comes from the Native American word “Tanasi.” Settlers came to Tennessee to take advantage of its abundant natural resources, so it seems fitting to begin by describing the land of Tennessee. One of the best examples of how the land shaped Tennessee’s history can be seen in the state’s unique path in leaving the Union and joining the Confederate States of America at the beginning of the Civil War. No other state experienced such an intense debate on secession. As the national debate over the expansion of slavery intensified after the Mexican War, the rivalries between grand divisions were defined by slavery and ultimately led to Tennessee's secession. Even though the state did join the Confederate States of America in 1862, the debate in Tennessee was distinctly geographic in nature. The state was never fully united in support of the decision to leave the Union. In a February 1861 referendum East Tennessee, where the economy was not dependent on slaves, voted against even calling a state convention to address secession. West Tennessee, with a disproportionate number of slaves and a plantation economy, voted overwhelmingly in support of such a convention. It was Middle Tennessee that voted with East Tennessee against the calling of a convention. Four months later, after the attack on Fort Sumter and President Lincoln’s call for troops, the General Assembly passed Tennessee’s Declaration of Independence, subject to approval by the voters. In the June 1861 referendum on secession, once again the East Tennessee vote was pro-Union and West Tennessee, pro-secession. This time, however, Middle Tennessee shifted its vote and voted with West Tennessee in favor of secession. Tennessee became the eleventh and final state to leave the Union. When Tennessee seceded, most of the citizens in East Tennessee and many who lived in Middle Tennessee remained opposed to secession. A month after Tennessee seceded, a group of East Tennessee leaders met in Greeneville to consider the possibility of seceding from Tennessee as the western counties of Virginia did. Although they did not take East Tennessee out of the state, those feelings of divisiveness remained strong throughout the entire Civil War. After the voting rights of Tennessee’s ex-Confederates were restored in 1869 and the rights of the newly enfranchised freedmen were denied, the counties in West Tennessee where a large percentage of the state’s former slaves lived consistently voted Democratic in national and statewide elections. When the Democrats returned to power in 1870, they re-wrote the state constitution so that white Democrats could maintain political control of West Tennessee counties in which whites were in a minority. Middle Tennessee generally, but not always, voted with West Tennessee for Democratic candidates. Tennessee’s Republican Party, which had not existed before the Civil War, came into being with the ratification of the Constitution of 1870. East Tennessee, where the economy had not been centered on slavery, and the few African Americans who retained their voting rights consistently voted Republican, but those votes were a distinct minority unless the Democratic Party split its vote. Unlike the other states of the Confederacy that became known as "the solid South," the Democratic Party split from time to time over issues such as the payment of the state debt, prohibition, and woman suffrage, allowing a Republican candidate such as Alvin Hawkins in 1880, Ben Hooper in 1910, and Alfred Taylor in 1920 to be elected, often with support from Middle Tennessee Democrats. In 1891, John Buchanan who identified himself as a farm-labor candidate won the governor’s race without the support of either party. These voting differences, based on racial politics, made Tennessee unique from the other “Solid South” states. In Tennessee, the Democrats never had complete control of the state. With the coming of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, West Tennessee began to vote Republican as white voters who had formerly been conservative Democrats in Tennessee and the other states of the former Confederacy left the Democratic Party because of voter registration for African Americans. Although these changing voting patterns were in large part racial, it was the land and its uses that had led to those patterns in the first place. Geography shaped this state's history. It continues to define Tennessee today. Since the land was here long before any people were here, an examination of the state’s unique geography and its settlement is necessary for a complete understanding of the state’s history. Each of the state’s three grand divisions comprised of eight physiographic regions has a unique landscape that has determined Tennessee’s history. Although the boundaries of the three grand divisions roughly follow geographic lines of the Tennessee River in East and West Tennessee, the General Assembly by-laws determined the exact counties in each grand division. The first time that the grand divisions were mentioned was in the Tennessee Constitution of 1834, the state’s second constitution. By 1834, West Tennessee had been divided into counties with the departure of the Chickasaws after the War of 1812. Like the counties, the boundaries of the grand divisions are created by law. Over the years, a few counties on these two borders have requested to be moved to the adjoining grand division. The Physiographic Regions of Tennessee The land that became Tennessee was formed over millions of years. Long before the first humans came into this place, geologic changes sculpted the land. At one time Tennessee and the Southeast were covered by a shallow sea filled with small crustaceans that died out as the water became more and more shallow. Each of these shifts laid down large deposits of coal, iron, limestone, marble, and other minerals. In Middle Tennessee limestone, sandstone, and shale were deposited while great beds of coal were deposited in East Tennessee. As the earth shifted, the Appalachian Mountains and the rivers were formed. The earth cooled and glaciers covered North America. As these large sheets of ice began to melt, plants began to grow. As plant life developed, animals such as mastodons, camels, saber-toothed tigers, sloths, and even horses roamed Tennessee and all of North America. Humans followed the herds of mastodons into what became the state of Tennessee. According to archaeologists, the topography of the areas in which the most mastodon fossils have been found is the same as it was 10,000 years ago in spite of some human adaptations and modifications to the land. After the mastodons and wooly mammoths died out, humans began to settle in small villages along the rivers and streams of the area. Civilizations were born. (This is covered in detail in Chapter 2.) Within the state’s well-known three grand divisions, geologists and geographers have identified six major physiographic natural regions and 2 minor regions in Tennessee which provide a system for studying the land. (Note differences in the major and minor regions of the two maps shown below.) Each of these regions has unique characteristics from the rock found underground to the thickness of the soil itself. A brief examination of each region from east to west demonstrates that the geographic factors influenced Tennessee's history. In almost every case, these regions are part of larger geographic areas that extend far beyond the state’s borders. It is important to note that the boundaries of these physiographic regions are not precise and change as time passes. For this reason, no two maps of these regions, particularly those maps that have the physiographic regions superimposed over the 95 counties vary somewhat from map to map. TENNESSEE’S PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS NOTE THE DIFFERENCE IN THE TWO MAPS. IN WHICH REGION IS YOUR COUNTY LOCATED? The Unaka Range of the Appalachian Mountains The mountains that serve as the border between Tennessee and North Carolina attract more visitors than any other region of the state. Every year, millions of visitors from around the world flock to East Tennessee to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, part of the Unaka Range of the Appalachian Mountains system, the oldest mountain system in North America. The Appalachians extend from beyond the Canadian-United States border in the North into Alabama. The Unaka Range of the Appalachians is part of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and it extends across the eastern end of the state from the Nolichucky River, a tributary of the Watauga River, a tributary of the Holston River, to the Nolichucky River, a tributary of the French Broad River. Several sections of the Unakas have local names such as the familiar Great Smoky Mountains, the Bald Mountains, and the Unicoi Mountains. Clingmans Dome is the highest mountain in Tennessee, and the third-highest east of the Mississippi River. (Mount Mitchell across the border in North Carolina is the highest mountain in the Appalachians.) Clingmans Dome is one of twenty-five mountains in the state that are more than a mile in height. (Note: One of the most popular hikes in the Smokies is the hike up to Mount Le Conte Lodge. Some of you may have taken that hike and spent the night in the lodge.) Although the first Anglo-American settlers first crossed the mountains from Virginia and North Carolina and claimed the land as their own, the population of the area grew slowly. As soon as they arrived, they began displacing the Cherokees living in the mountains and the Anglo-American settlers and the Cherokees began signing treaties by which the Cherokees traded their ancestral lands in exchange for peace with the newcomers. The area's rough terrain discouraged all but the most determined settlers. Many who came from the thirteen English colonies simply passed on to lands that offered promise beyond the mountains, but the few who remained fiercely protective of their territory for generations to come. The people who stayed to become true mountain people were an independent group who needed little or no interaction with others outside the region. Due to the steep ridges in the Unakas, the people who lived in the area were isolated from outsiders. Since row farming was impractical due to the terrain and the short growing season, most of the early European settlers were subsistence farmers who often sold timber for income. Because of the remoteness of much of this area, “moonshining” also flourished in this area, particularly during prohibition. The coming of the automobile and the creating of the Great Smoky Mountain National Park in the 1930s made tourism a major part of the economy of this area. The area is also rich in mineral deposits of iron, copper, zinc, and manganese. Ethnologists believe that the name “Unakas” is a variation of the Cherokee word for “white.” Until about one hundred years ago, these mountains were covered with vast forests of American chestnut trees, which produced large white blossoms in the Spring. When the chestnut trees bloomed entire portions of the mountains seemed to turn “white,” which gave them their Cherokee name. For centuries, chestnut trees made up one-third of all the trees in the Smokies. Around 1900 a mysterious blight, a fungus, began to attack healthy chestnut trees in the United States. The fungus that caused the blight had been brought into the United States through a group of Japanese and Chinese Chestnut trees that were planted in the Bronx Zoo in 1904. The blight quickly began to spread through the air and by the 1940s, there were few chestnut trees left in the Smokies. Within fifty years, most of the mature chestnut trees in the Appalachians had died, making this one of the worst tragedies in the history of American forestry. Botanists estimate that before the blight attacked the chestnut trees, one in every four hardwood trees in the Appalachians was an American chestnut. Today all that remains are a few small spindly survivors. Volunteer State biology professor Joe Schibig was among a team of scientists who have worked with the American Chestnut Foundation to develop a blight-resistant chestnut tree. Author’s note: When Professor Schibig offered the faculty an opportunity to test one of the new species, my husband and I planted in our yard. Ten years later, the tree is thriving. Hopefully, this is an indication of success. Today, another blight is threatening large sections of hemlock in the region. The industrialization of the United States that developed after the Civil War, brought a new burst of energy to the Southern Appalachians. With the expansion of the railroad system, logging became a major industry of its own. Financed almost exclusively my investors from the Northeast, this boom had a profound impact on the region. By 1900, conservationists began to be concerned about the long-term impact of such massive logging in the mountains. Conservationists, making the connection between deforestation and the navigability of waterways, asked Congress and federal officials for help. Under Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, the U.S. Forest Service, under the Department of Agriculture conservation programs began so that the federal government could buy privately held property for the purpose of protecting the water flow of rivers and streams. In spite of tremendous opposition, the program succeeded. After World War I, concerned citizens in Knoxville and North Carolina organized a campaign to get support for the creation of a national park in the Unakas, which many called the Smokies. These citizens believed that the Smokies were endangered because of the large commercial timber companies had purchased large landholdings, in anticipation of cutting many of the forests of the region. The supporters of the idea of a park formed an organization and began raising money privately to buy the land from the timber companies. To create a national park, land would have to be purchased from more than 6000 landowners, large and small alike, if the national park was going to become a reality. Some estimated that it would cost over ten million dollars to buy the land. The park’s promoters saw the potential that a national park could have for the economy of the area and urged potential contributors to consider the future. Since the widespread ownership of automobiles was already bringing visitors to the mountains, the park boosters saw potential economic possibilities that could come from providing services to tourists. They believed a national park Chestnut would Tree, allow Nashville the region to take advantage of these opportunities. In 1926, Congress passed a bill for federal administration of the proposed park, but in order for the park to be created, Tennessee and North Carolina were going to have to donate thousands of acres of land necessary for a park. Residents of eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina had raised over a million dollars for the new park for the purchase of this land. The Tennessee and North Carolina legislatures then responded by passing bills in 1927 to each give two million dollars for the park, and the following year, John D. Rockefeller, Jr. gave the last five million dollars as a gift to the memory of his mother. In spite of this success in raising the necessary funds, opposition to the creation of a park from the timber companies who saw the park as a threat to their economic interests continued. These companies went to court to try to prevent the forced sale of their land under the laws of eminent domain. These lawsuits and the 1929 stock market crash stalled the project until President Franklin Roosevelt was able to convince Congress to appropriate $743,265.29 to purchase the remaining land for the new national park. Roosevelt himself came to Tennessee for the dedication and opening of the Great Smoky National Park on September 2, 1940. The flow of tourists into the region intensified after World War II and tourism transformed the economy of the region. The most controversial aspect of the creation of the park was the removal of over 4000 people who lived on the property. Some families had owned this land since the earliest days of settlement and did not want to live anywhere else. The National Park Service allowed many older people to stay in their homes for as long as they lived. Five elderly sisters continued to live in their cabin until well into the 1950s. One resident who was forced to move expressed the feelings of many when he said, "They tell me I can't break a twig nor pull a flower after there's a park. Nor can I fish with bait, nor kill a boomer, nor bear on land owned by my pap, and grandpap and his pap before him!" These independent folks did not want politicians in Washington telling them what they could and could not do. The automobile that became popular in the early years of the twentieth century, made tourism a kind of industry and brought visitors to many areas that were once isolated. Until the coming of the national park, the population remained sparse and isolated. Today the Great Smoky Mountain National Park encompasses over 500,000 acres of diverse wilderness from high mountain peaks such as Clingmans Dome to beautiful meadows such as Cades Cove. The park is one of the "most biologically diverse ecosystems in North America." The number of visitors to the Smokies ranks first among the entire national park system. This has become an important economic factor for Tennessee and North Carolina since these visitors spend millions of dollars at surrounding businesses. Unlike the wildfires that have plagued the mountain ranges in the Western United States, the Appalachians and the Smokies have not experienced as many severe fires. Lightning strikes were the major causes of many Smoky Mountain fires, and they were generally quickly contained and subdued. In November 2016, however, the combination of drought and high winds caused one of the worst fire disasters in Appalachian history. When the fire was first reported in late November, the park rangers thought that they could control it, but high winds allowed the fire to spread into Pigeon Forge and Gatlinburg, two of the state’s most popular tourist destinations. It quickly became critical that residents and tourists alike had to be evacuated quickly. By the time the fires were contained in mid-December more than 16,000 acres, a total of 24 square miles, had burned. Fourteen people were killed with many more injured. The Great Valley of the Tennessee River Like the people who settled the Appalachian Mountains, those who claimed the land which was sometimes referred to as the Ridge & Valley Country, between the Tennessee River and the mountains were largely self-sufficient families with few, if any, slaves. The settlers who came to this region became subsistence farmers with little need for a workforce beyond family members. They too were independent folks who often lived miles apart. Towns developed in the area where business could be conducted but their populations grew slowly. Those towns with river access became part of the state’s expanding transportation system; some of those communities often became the county seat, where the citizenry could conduct official business with the state, such as the registration of deeds, the probating of wills, and the payment of taxes. The land surface of the Great Valley is a low-lying area between the Cumberland Plateau and the Unaka Mountains. Ridges and valleys across the Great Valley vary in height from the 2600-foot Clinch Mountain to the 640-foot point where the Tennessee River crosses from Tennessee into Alabama just west of Chattanooga. In between the ridges are broad valleys with rich soil that makes much of this area ideal for farming. The Great Valley makes up almost twenty percent of the area of Tennessee. Although the Smoky Mountains can be seen from Knoxville, Sevierville, and Pigeon Forge, only Gatlinburg is actually in the mountains. At the southern end of the Great Valley sits Chattanooga, a city largely re-built by former Union soldiers who had been stationed in the area during the Civil War. After the war ended, these men saw investment potential in the region and hoped to establish Chattanooga as "the Pittsburgh of the South" because of its location near rich iron deposits. By the end of the 19th century, the Chattanooga Foundry and Pipe Company produced large volumes of pig iron used in machine shops and a variety of manufacturing plants, but the steel mills of Birmingham, Alabama quickly surpassed Chattanooga's production ability and earned that city the title of "Pittsburgh of the South." The coming of the Tennessee Valley Authority to the region in the 1930s boosted industrialization in the Great Valley. Industrialization led to dramatic growth in towns and cities such as Bristol, Kingsport, Johnson City, Alcoa, Oak Ridge, and Cleveland, as well as the larger cities of Knoxville and Chattanooga. Knoxville and Chattanooga, which were both located at specific points on the Tennessee River, are the third and fourth-largest cities in Tennessee. Knoxville, which was founded in 1791 before Tennessee became a state, was located just south of where the Holston and French Broad Rivers come together to form the Tennessee River. When football fans converge on Knoxville to watch "Big Orange" football, for a brief period of time, Neyland Stadium alone becomes the fifth largest "city" in Tennessee. The Knoxville campus of the University of Tennessee, sometimes known by its students as "the hill," lies at the edge of the Appalachian Mountains in the Great Valley of East Tennessee. The city of Chattanooga lies in the Moccasin Bend of the Tennessee River, nestled in between the ridges of Lookout Mountain and Signal Mountain. In the 1920s, Garnet Carter who lived atop Lookout Mountain began to consider the economic potential of his wife’s gardens. Frieda Carter had used the ordinary rocks that were abundant on the mountain to enhance their ten-acre property and filled her gardens with more than 400 native plants. In 1932, in the middle of the Depression, the Carters decided to open their gardens to the public with a small charge for admission. They realized that when the Depression ended, people would begin traveling further distances in their automobiles and would want to see special things along the way. They simply needed to find a way to let travelers know about the gardens so that they would want to visit the “Rock City Gardens” as they passed through Tennessee on their way to Florida. Garnet Carter came up with the idea of painting the roofs of barns with the slogan, “See Rock City.” Carter hired Clark Byers, a local painter, to paint “See Rock City” on barn roofs in nineteen states along highways heading south. The size of a barn roof alone gave drivers a great opportunity to learn about Rock City. This inexpensive but highly effective marketing plan soon made Rock City on Lookout Mountain a well-known tourist site. Soon everyone traveling by automobile knew about Rock City and tourists began to flock to Tennessee to see Rock City. When World War II ended, the Carters expanded their enterprise by incorporating Ruby Falls and an incline railroad up the side of Lookout Mountain to Rock City. Today, Rock City continues to be a major tourist attraction and continues to be operated by members of the Carter family. The Cumberland Plateau Every autumn on some Friday nights or Saturday mornings, a steady stream of automobiles bearing "Go Vols!" flags, makes its way on Interstate 40 east from middle Tennessee to Knoxville to watch a college football game at Neyland Stadium. No matter how fast those fans are driving, between Cookeville and Monterey, the traffic always slows down as the cars and commercial vehicles ascend the Cumberland Plateau. Drivers go up the flat-topped ridge that is a thousand feet higher than the Highland Rim where Cookeville is located. The Cumberland Plateau posed many geographic challenges to explorers, hunters, and settlers. When the James Robertson and John Donelson parties arrived in what is now Middle Tennessee to claim the land in the Cumberland Basin where Nashville and much of Sumner County sit today, they took circuitous routes to go around the Plateau rather than cross it directly from east to west. This area was generally ignored until the value of the area’s coal deposits and timber attracted entrepreneurs who saw financial opportunities in the region late in the nineteenth century. Known by some as “the Tableland,” “the Wilderness” or "the great wall of Tennessee," the Plateau served as a barrier that limited movement and provided isolation for Indians and English settlers alike. James Robertson, Thomas Sharp Spencer, and Daniel Boone who lived in western settlements of Virginia and North Carolina in the Watauga region came to the area as long-hunters on expeditions that lasted for months at a time. The barrier of the Plateau limited access to the mid-Cumberland River area where the hunting was good. There were only a few footpaths such as the Warrior's Path through the Cumberland Gap. Because the Plateau, rising 1000 feet about the Tennessee River Valley, was almost impossible to cross from east to west, James Robertson sent the women and children of his party with John Donelson on flatboats that floated down the Tennessee River from Fort Patrick Henry to the Ohio River, up the Ohio River to the Cumberland River, and then up the Cumberland to the Salt Lick when the Cumberland region was settled in 1779 and 1780. Only Robertson and a few men came by foot through the Cumberland Gap into Kentucky and then south into middle Tennessee. Going around the plateau was far easier than attempting to cross it directly. When roads such as the Avery Trace finally appeared on the Cumberland Plateau, they were simply trails connecting Knoxville and East Tennessee with Nashville and middle Tennessee. This prompted local Cumberland County historian Helen Krechniak to call the county "The Road to Somewhere Else." After the Civil War, the coming of the railroads brought economic development to the Cumberland Plateau. Northern developers saw the value of the area's coal and timber resources; railroad companies bought up much of the land on the Plateau as a source for coal to run the locomotives and timber for railroad ties. Much of the area of the Plateau continued to remain isolated at the end of the 20th century with subsistence farming continuing in isolated parts of the region. The Sequatchie Valley The Sequatchie Valley, a long valley in the Cumberland Plateau, is one of the most beautiful sites in the entire state. Driving from Chattanooga to Nashville along the northern side of Monteagle Mountain, the valley's rich farmlands can be seen from the mountain along Interstate 24. In 1834, University of Nashville geologist Gerard Troost visited the area and identified the large chasm on the Plateau as "the gulf," now part of the state park.12 The valley itself is noticeable because of its flatness, but on either side of it are the steep slopes of the Cumberland Plateau. The eastern escarpment is known as Walden's Ridge. Fall Creek Falls State Park is located in the Cumberland Mountains on the western escarpment. Here the Fall Creek Falls descend over 250 feet to make it the highest waterfalls in the eastern United States. In the heart of the valley lies the Sequatchie River, which runs the valley's length of over 100 miles from Grassy Cove above Crab Orchard to below Jasper. It flows into the Tennessee River near the location of the Chickamaugan villages of Nickajack and Running Water. The Unaka Range, the Great Valley, and the Cumberland Plateau became known as East Tennessee, with the Plateau serving as the dividing line between East and Middle Tennessee. By the time of the writing of the Constitution of 1834, the geographic uniqueness of the three grand divisions had become so accepted that the writers of the 1834 Constitution identified counties by name within each division so that the divisions became creations of state government. A few of the counties along the border between East and Middle Tennessee and the border between Middle and West Tennessee have moved from one grand division to another, the three grand divisions remain. THE HIGHLAND RIM Driving from Gallatin to Portland or Westmoreland in the northern part of middle Tennessee; driving from Nashville to Springfield; or driving from Lebanon to Carthage or Cookeville, cars must go up a steep hill that the local residents refer to as "the ridge." "The ridge" is actually the Highland Rim that surrounds the Central Basin on all sides. While the borders of the basin and the Highland Rim are indistinct in some places due to erosion, in Sumner and Robertson counties there is no doubt as to its location. From the Southern steps of the Tennessee capitol in Nashville, you can see the Highland Rim, surrounding the Central Basin in all directions. The eastern side of the Highland Rim was the site of several popular resorts where mineral waters from underground springs attracted visitors seeking cures for a variety of ailments in the early 20th century. Just east of Westmoreland, on the border between Sumner and Macon Counties, the 15 Epperson Springs Hotel and Resort was built after the Civil War. Many people believed that bathing in the waters from the spring cured many diseases. Visitors from all parts of the United States came to the Epperson Hotel, which was considered to be one of the most impressive buildings in middle Tennessee. It had 170 guest rooms, a grand ballroom, two large dining rooms, a billiard room, a barbershop, and a bowling alley. Although the hotel had been built before the Civil War, it was the coming of the railroad to Westmoreland that turned the hotel into a place for many tourists to visit. On the Fourth of July each year, the hotel held a large celebration. Many organizations held statewide conventions there. In the early morning hours of April 26, 1926, the Epperson Springs Hotel burned to the ground. It was not rebuilt. Today all that remains are ruins of a few concrete porches pushed off the side of a hill and a footpath leading into the valley below where the springs were once located. The hotels of Macon County's Red Boiling Springs also became important destinations for people looking for cures in the water from nearby Sulphur Springs. Most of these hotels were hit hard by the impact of the Great Depression on tourism and never recovered from the losses. When World War II ended, travelers sought out other more easily reached destinations, such as the beaches of Florida or the Smoky Mountain National Park. Red Boiling Springs became a shadow of the resort town it had been in the 1920s. In 2001, the economic climate of the town changed when the Nestle Company purchased the Bennett Hill Spring and built a bottling plant on the adjacent property. Nestle now produces several million gallons of water each year. It has become the largest employer in Macon County. Epperson Springs Hotel, located near Westmoreland, was one of Sumner County's first tourist attractions. People came from miles around to enjoy what they believed to be the healing powers of the spring water. Just across the Davidson County line in Robertson County, there is a town known as "Ridgetop." In the 1890s, wealthy Nashvillians built expensive summer homes in Ridgetop to escape the air pollution caused by industrialization. This area became known as “The Enclosure” because it was enclosed with a white picket fence. Train service between Ridgetop and Nashville allowed prosperous businessmen, such as George O’Bryan to move their families to “The Enclosure” during the summer and take the train into Nashville to work during the week. Today, the O’Bryan house is one of the few original houses left there. When Nashville doctors and other concerned citizens built a hospital for patients suffering from tuberculosis, a deadly lung disease, they built the Watauga Sanatorium in Ridgetop because they believed the quality of the air there was beneficial to persons with breathing disorders. Known as the "Home of the World's finest Dark Fired Tobacco," tobacco is the major agricultural crop raised in Robertson County as well as other counties on the Highland Rim. Iron deposits found by the early Cumberland settlers on the western side of the Highland Rim provided the raw material for Tennessee’s first industry. Some geologists consider the Western Highland Rim to be a separate physiographic region because of its unique characteristics. With an area of approximately, 7500 square miles, by itself, this area, which has been referred to as “cannonball country,” is one of Tennessee's largest regions.16 Less than 20 years after James Robertson’s arrival, he had begun to operate an iron furnace known as Cumberland Furnace and a forge that he named for his wife Charlotte, west of Nashville in what is now Dickson County. Pig iron from the furnace was made into bars at the forge. Robertson sold this profitable business to Montgomery Bell in 1804, and Bell expanded the operation using slave labor to perform this dangerous work. The local legends of the area include a story that Cumberland Furnace, one of Bell’s properties, provided the U.S. Army with the cannonballs that Andrew Jackson used to defeat the British at the Battle of New Orleans. At the peak of its production, the iron industry on the Western Highland operated at least nineteen furnaces as far west as the Decatur Furnace on the western side of the Tennessee River and the Iron City Furnace in Wayne County near the Alabama border. By the 1830s, however, so much of the timber in the areas surrounding the furnaces as well as the iron ore itself had been exhausted and many of the furnaces began to shut down operation. When Montgomery Bell attempted to sell his Bellview Furnace in 1839, he was unable to find a buyer. That property was still on the market at the time of Bell’s death in 1855. Bell’s Cumberland Furnace, however, continued to produce some iron until shortly before World War II. The Central (or Cumberland) Basin When the first French trappers and traders followed the Cumberland River from the Ohio upstream, they came to the mouth of a creek fed by a salt spring that flowed into the Cumberland River. There they saw an abundance of wildlife gathered around the salt lick that fed the creek as well as the beauty of the rolling hills surrounding the entire area. Deer, buffalo, and all manner of birds gathered around this salt lick that became known as the French Lick as well as other salt licks in the area. Tribes of Native Americans fought over these hunting grounds but by 1710, when the French trader Charles Charleville set up a trading post at the salt lick, the Cherokees and Chickasaws has pushed the Shawnees who had occupied this area out. English trappers and traders, known as long hunters because of the length of time they were away from their homes in Virginia and the Carolina colonies began to come in and out of this area and returned home laden with deer skins. It was the French Lick that James Robertson, a Longhunter, and surveyor, had identified as the location for a settlement that ultimately became Nashville. The Central Basin is a 600-foot-deep inverted dome in the middle of the state. One of the many nicknames for Nashville is "the Dimple of the State" because Nashville sits down in this 600-foot bowl, or dimple, properly called the Central Basin. A person driving along the interstate highways leading in and out of Nashville, you cannot help but notice the large cuts through solid limestone rock that were cut when the roads were built. This rearranging of the vertical element of the road by lowering the profile of the earth made driving easier and safer. In some places, the topsoil covering the limestone is no more than ten to twelve inches deep. Explosives must be used for almost all excavations in the basin. The Central Basin is a bed of limestone. Digging is difficult because there is such a shallow layer of topsoil covering the limestone in most areas of the basin. When the state capitol was built in the late 1840s and 1850s, the members of the Tennessee General Assembly insisted that the architect use only Tennessee materials in the construction of the building. Unfortunately, Tennessee limestone which was quarried in Davidson County near the building site proved to be quite soft and porous so that 100 years later the exterior of the building was deteriorating. After World War II ended, the General Assembly in the 1950s agreed that extensive work had to be done to replace the Tennessee limestone with more durable Indiana limestone. from the TN Capitol building pediments Most people who live in Nashville do not realize that they live "down in a bowl" until they leave town in any direction. Smog and polluted air began to be a major problem in Nashville with the industrialization of the city after the Civil War. Coal which was burned for fuel lingered in the Central Basin because of its unique geography. George Cate, a native Nashvillian, remembered the city as being covered by a grey haze from the use of coal on many occasions throughout the year. In the late 1940s, the burning of coal for heat and energy left so much soot in the air that his shirts were frequently grey with a white imprint of his tie where it has served as a stencil on the front of his shirts by the end of the day. According to Cate, coal pollution continued until a natural gas pipeline constructed after World War II under the Cumberland River near Ashland City allowed the city to gradually convert much of its heating to natural gas. Although there is far less use of coal in the Central Basin than there was fifty years ago, it remains under air pollution restrictions because soot blown into the air has a difficult time rising up out of the basin beyond the Highland Rim. Today, the standards of the Environmental Protection Agency have improved the air quality of the Central Basin. Early middle Tennessee settlers found a vast forest on the eastern side of the Central Basin. Although these trees were actually Virginia juniper, the settlers mistakenly called them red cedars and later established the Cedars of Lebanon State Park in Wilson County in recognition of this forest. Exposed limestone recessions known as sinkholes can be seen from many of the trails in the state park. Natural rock gardens in this forest are known as cedar glades, where the limestone comes up near the surface. In some of these glades, the topsoil is completely absent, however, nineteen rare and endangered species of plants grow profusely here and nowhere else in the world." (Thus, the town of Gladeville, Tennessee was named.) Few things can be successfully grown in this shallow soil heavily nurtured by lime, but bluegrass thrived in this soil. Gallatin itself was once the heart of Tennessee's bluegrass country and thoroughbred horse breeding was an important component of the Sumner County economy until recent years. An international steeplechase was held in Gallatin in the late 1920s but the Great Depression of the 1930s ended that enterprise. Although slave ownership was common in the Central Basin and the Highland Rim, only in the southernmost part of Middle Tennessee did slavery become a significant part of the economy. Nashville in the Central Basin became the capital of the state in large part because of the fact that the Cumberland River was navigable all the way to Nashville. Nashville developed as a commercial center with significant banking and transportation interests before the Civil War. The Western Valley of the Tennessee River When Tennessee seceded from the Union, several counties along the Tennessee River in West Tennessee voted against leaving the Union. The residents of those counties owned few slaves and were staunchly pro-Union during the Civil War, and after the war ended, they began voting Republican long before the population of the Plateau Slope and Mississippi River Valley. The Western Valley of the Tennessee River is a minor physiographic region. Some of the largest Clovis campsites of the earliest Paleo-Indian groups have been found in this long, narrow strip of land along the Tennessee River in West Tennessee. Here, the abundance of high-quality chert (flint) used in the making of tools and spear points aided the Paleo-Indian hunters, later known as the Eva people, in their pursuit of large mammals in the area. With the coming of the Tennessee Valley Authority in the 1930s, archaeologists began a comprehensive survey of the lands along the Tennessee River and its tributaries. Working at a site near the present town of Camden on the western side of the Tennessee River in 1940, they determined that a village existed there 4000 to 5000 years ago. (See chapter 2.) Today the Tennessee River in West Tennessee is quite different from the river on which the Donelson party traveled in 1780. With the building of the Pickwick Dam at the Tennessee-Alabama-Mississippi border and Kentucky Dam at the Tennessee-Kentucky border, the TVA widened the river considerably and opened that section of the river to commercial traffic up and down the river. In addition to the dams, the Johnsonville steam plant between the two dams near Waverly, produces electricity to heat over 400,000 homes in West Tennessee. This plant burns coal in ten furnaces to heat water and create steam that generates electric power; it is the oldest fossil plant in the TVA system. The Plateau Slope of West Tennessee Most of the counties of West Tennessee are on the Plateau Slope. Most people consider West Tennessee to be flat, but it slopes gently downward from the Western Valley of the Tennessee River to the Mississippi River. On the eastern side of the slope, it stands more than 300 feet above the Tennessee River and its western edge is almost 200 feet above the Mississippi River. From the time of statehood until the War of 1812, all of West Tennessee was considered to be part of a Congressional reservation for the Chickasaw Indians in spite of the claims of squatters who had moved into the area without permission. When the War of 1812 ended, General Andrew Jackson, now a national hero due to his victories as Horseshoe Bend and New Orleans, used threats and economic coercion to negotiate two treaties with the Chickasaws. With the Jackson Purchase of 1818, the Chickasaws abandoned all their claims to their tribal lands, opening almost twenty million acres of Chickasaw land in West Tennessee. Some Chickasaws held on to land holdings in upper Mississippi until the passage of the Indian Removal Act of 1830, but by 1820, West Tennessee was open to settlement. For the 2021 crop year, USDA Farm Service Agency’s certified cotton acres planted in Tennessee totaled 267,396 acres. Current reported acreage (acres will be added between now and the final report) is 4.9 percent more acres in 2021 than 2020’s 254,949 acres. Final reported acreage for the 2021 crop year will be published in January/February of 2022. The top five counties for cotton planted acres in Tennessee were Haywood, Crockett, Fayette, Lauderdale and Gibson Counties. The top five counties planted 59 percent of Tennessee’s total cotton acres. Image and Info Source: https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W442.pdf Since the climate and soil conditions of much of West Tennessee seemed ideal for the production of cotton, land speculators and buyers poured into the area. General James Winchester of Sumner County, along with General Andrew Jackson and John Overton of Davidson County invested heavily in land in West Tennessee. In 1821, these men founded the city of Memphis on the Mississippi River. With the coming of cotton production in West Tennessee also came a dramatic increase in the number of slaves in the state. Surplus slaves from the Atlantic states were sold to cotton producers in West Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The increased economic dependence on slavery in West Tennessee became a major factor as slavery became the subject of a national political debate in the 1850s. The Mississippi River Valley During the Woodland and Mississippian periods, prior to the coming of the Europeans, various native peoples settled along the Mississippi River. Although often short-lived, these villages were part of a vast trading network that existed up and down the river. The last of these pre-historic settlements produced an advanced agricultural chiefdom, now known as Chucalissa, that was still in existence and occupied by the Chickasaw tribe at the time of the crossing of the river by the Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in 1540-41. The entire Mississippi River Valley, the second minor physiographic region, was later claimed for France by Robert de Cavalier de la Salle, an explorer who led an expedition down the Mississippi River from French settlements in the Great Lakes region. (See chapters 2 & 3.) In the fall of 1811, Captain Nicholas Roosevelt departed from Pittsburgh in route to New Orleans as the commanding officer of the New Orleans, a newly manufactured steamboat that was expected to make history as the first steamboat to travel down the Ohio River to the Mississippi River and on to New Orleans. Throughout their voyage, they were able to see the Great Comet of 1811 as well as a solar eclipse. Although this voyage of the New Orleans later became legendary and did make history, it was not because of the success of its arrival in New Orleans. On December 16, just as the New Orleans crossed from the Ohio River to the Mississippi, the first of four of the New Madrid earthquakes shook the areas of Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio. Later considered to be the strongest earthquake to hit the eastern United States since the arrival of European settlers, over a period of two months these earthquakes caused much damage. For a brief period of time, the Mississippi River actually flowed north rather than south and in many places along the river, there were massive landslides. Reelfoot Lake in West Tennessee, the largest natural lake in the state, was created by these earthquakes. In some areas, the land itself rose or fell as much as twenty feet from their former elevations. The trees in one area near the Piney River sank completely below the level of the ground. Water almost immediately began to fill these places and created swamps. Over time, these swamps drained away and became upland forests or prairies ideal for the growing of soybeans and in a few cases cotton. Thus began the era of the steamboat on the Mississippi River and its tributaries. The coming of the steamboat meant that goods and passengers could travel from Pittsburgh to New Orleans in less than two weeks. Within ten years, the city of Memphis, named for the capital of ancient Egypt, was founded as a stopping point between St. Louis and New Orleans. Memphis became a major shipping point for Tennessee cotton that was sold in New Orleans. By the time of the Civil War, Memphis’s slave market, the largest in the mid-South, had become an important part of the city's thriving economy. Cotton became "king" across West Tennessee and large landowners who owned large numbers of slaves began talking about secession when California was ready to become a state. These wealthy landowners held a disproportionate amount of power in the General Assembly and began the push for secession as soon as South Carolina left the Union in December 1861. When the Civil War came to Tennessee, West Tennessee was the site of the major battle of Shiloh as well as numerous small battles and skirmishes led by the controversial Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest, a former Memphis slave trader, whose cavalry unit regularly raided railroad depots and burned bridges across West Tennessee until the end of the war. Despite losing the Civil War and then losing their voting rights, by 1870, the wealthy West Tennessee landowners had returned to political power and remained staunch Democrats until the coming of the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Tennessee’s River Systems The rivers and streams that appear in every physiographic region of Tennessee were the area’s first transportation system and the determining factor in where Native Americans and European settlers alike decided to live. Tennessee has three major river systems and almost the entire state is part of the Mississippi River system. There is only one small portion of the state in Polk County, east of Chattanooga where the water does not flow to the Mississippi River. The rivers and streams were the lifelines for Native Americans and settlers. Not only did it provide transportation, but it also provided water for crops and drinking. The places in the state where towns and cities developed were located on the rivers: Knoxville at the junction of the Holston and French Broad which then become the Tennessee River, Chattanooga, in a major bend in the Tennessee River, Memphis, on the Fourth Chickasaw Bluff above the Mississippi River, and Nashville on the Cumberland River between the mouths of the Salt Creek and Brown’s Creek. Rivers are difficult to measure and the lengths of rivers across the United States vary based on an array of measurements taken at different times. One source may list the Tennessee River as being 652 miles in length and the country’s twenty-third longest river, while another source states that the river is 935 miles long and the twelfth longest. The same is true for the Cumberland, one source claims that it is 688 miles long but another claims that it is 696 miles in length. Most sources say that the Cumberland River is the twenty-first longest river. Both the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers flow to the Ohio River which takes the water to the Mississippi River and out to the Gulf of Mexico, BUT the two rivers never cross or intersect. The closest that they get to each other is in the area now known as “the Land Between the Lakes.” The Tennessee River When a constitution was written in anticipation of statehood for Tennessee, the delegates at the 1796 constitutional convention decided to name the new state for a major geographic feature, the Tennessee River. The 886 mile-long Tennessee River begins just above Knoxville at a point where the Holston and French Broad Rivers converge to form a wider river. The three forks of the Holston River began in the mountains of Virginia and came together to form the Holston near the present-day town of Kingsport. The Watauga River, a tributary of the South Fork of the Holston, began at Grandfather Mountain in North Carolina. Further south, the Little Tennessee and Hiwassee Rivers flowed into the Tennessee River. The Powell and Clinch Rivers came together at the boundary of Anderson, Campbell, and Union Counties and then flowed into the Tennessee River in Roane County. Geologists believe that millions of years ago the Tennessee River was actually three separate streams that became connected with the shifts of the earth. The first maps on which this river appeared were done by French trappers and traders coming down from the French settlements in Canada. It then appeared on a 1755 British map and was called the “River of the Cherakees”. Its tributary that is now the Little Tennessee River was shown as the “Tenassee or Satico,” and the present-day Clinch River was labeled as the “Pelisipi.” Within a few years, it began to be called “the Tennessee,” presumably named for one of the Cherokees’ major villages, Tanasi. When the Tennessee Valley Authority was created to improve living conditions along the Tennessee River and its tributaries as part of President Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal program, the entire area of the Tennessee Valley received a major economic boost. As one of the poorest parts of the United States, the Tennessee Rivers’ frequent floods washed away topsoil and devastated the small subsistence farms on either side of the river. In addition to improving farming conditions, the coming of the TVA to the region provided jobs and raised the region’s standard of living. A dam that had been built during World War I for a gunpowder plant in the Muscle Shoals area of the Tennessee River served as the inspiration for the TVA, an unprecedented development in regional planning. Low dams were built along the Tennessee River itself to improve flood control and navigation, while high dams were built on its tributaries to provide hydroelectricity. Norris Dam, located between Anderson and Campbell Counties, northwest of Knoxville, was the first dam in the system to be finished in 1936. It was named for Nebraska Senator George Norris who pushed for such a system throughout the 1920s. THE TENNESSEE RIVER SYSTEM In recent years, the water of the Tennessee River, now often seen as a commodity, has created a political battle between Tennessee and Georgia. In 2008, the Georgia legislature angered many Tennesseans, including the mayor of Chattanooga, when it passed a resolution claiming a right to water from the Tennessee River to solve Atlanta's growing water problem. At issue was the precise location of the border between Tennessee and Georgia located at the 35th parallel. Georgia claimed that at the time the border was established in 1818, the line was marked slightly above below the 35th parallel, leaving Georgia with no rights. Until the Atlanta water crisis of 2008, no one contested the location of the line. Georgia State Senator David J. Shafer then claimed that the 35th parallel runs through the middle of a bend in the Tennessee River rather than slightly below the river as it is currently marked. In June 2011, Georgia House Speaker David Ralston suggested that Georgia give Tennessee an improved railroad in exchange for a port on the Tennessee River. When the Georgia legislature convened in early 2013, lawmakers introduced yet another resolution to gain access to the Tennessee River at Nickajack Lake by agreeing to acknowledge the current boundary between the two states as the official borders. the border would give Georgia access to Nickajack Lake. indicating the state lines of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee THE CUMBERLAND RIVER SYSTEM At the height of the American Revolution on December 22, 1779, John Donelson and some 30 families left the Fort Patrick Henry on the Holston River above the location of the present city of Knoxville, on a flotilla of flatboats that was to take them down the full length of the Tennessee River to the point where it flowed in the Ohio River. From there the flatboats would be moved against the current of the Ohio River some 12 miles east to the mouth of the Cumberland River and then up the Cumberland River to the site of what was to become a new settlement. The spot for this settlement had been identified by James Robertson, a long-hunter and surveyor for speculator Richard Henderson who had purchased much of Central Kentucky and Middle Tennessee from the Cherokees with the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals signed in 1775. Robertson's plan called for the Donelson party to rendezvous with a land party led by James Robertson that had left the fort two months earlier to walk through the Cumberland Gap and through the wilderness area called by some "Kentuck" at the point where water from a salt lick flowed into a creek that fed into the Cumberland River. In the four-month journey that followed, the Donelson party survived repeated attacks by Indians the treacherous currents of an area of the Tennessee River known as "The Suck," and "perilous white-water stretch known as Muscle Shoals," and then north. When the Donelson party finally arrived at the mouth of the Tennessee River where it flows into the Ohio River, they then faced maneuvering these boats up the Ohio River to the mouth of Cumberland and then up the Cumberland to the French Lick. Miraculously, after a journey of a thousand miles, they arrived at the French Lick, soon to be renamed Fort Nashboro, on April 24, 1780, four months after the arrival of the Robertson party. The route of the Donelson party's journey highlighted what geologist Edward Luther called the Tennessee River's many "peculiarities." Here in the western part of the state, the Tennessee River flows from south to north, unlike most normal rivers that flow downward to the nearest ocean. The Tennessee River defied such logic and flowed north to the Ohio River. Like the Tennessee River, the 668-mile Cumberland River follows an equally defiant course. It begins in eastern Kentucky near the small coal-mining town of Harlan and flows into the northern part of middle Tennessee before returning to Kentucky and flowing into the Ohio River east of the mouth of the Tennessee River in Kentucky. At one time, the Cumberland River may have been a tributary of the ancient Tennessee River that somehow was cut off during the shifting of the earth that created the Appalachian Mountains. Like the Tennessee River, the Cumberland River served as the primary transportation artery for early settlers. After the Civil War, the timber and coal interests of the upper Cumberland area used the river to get logs and coal to market in Nashville. Coal was loaded onto barges for the journey upriver as far as Byrdstown and Celina while logs were dropped in mass into the river, leading to gridlock on the river itself and disputes between the coal and timber interests of the state. Until the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers was responsible for the maintenance of all the rivers in the United States. In an effort to improve navigation on the Cumberland River, the Corps of Engineers built a series of 15 locks and dams up the Cumberland River from the Harpeth Shoals near Ashland City to the Big South Fork Recreation Area after World War I. Lock and Dam Number 1 was located at Nashville near Shelby Park. Six locks and dams were built down the river from Nashville and nine were built up the Cumberland. The dams raised the level of the Cumberland River from Burnside, Kentucky to Smithland, Kentucky, but they did not extend the river beyond its banks. After citizens of Sumner County saw what the TVA was able to do for the Tennessee River Basin, they began to ask for the Cumberland River to be placed under the TVA. In 1941 before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Tennessee Governor Prentice Cooper appeared before Congress and made a plea for the Cumberland Rivers’ inclusion into the TVA system. He told a congressional committee that "a mere glance at the map shows that geography alone is a compelling reason for the development of the Tennessee and Cumberland Valleys as a unit." Still, it did not happen. When World War II ended in 1945, it became clear that the locks and dams on the Cumberland were outdated due to the increase in traffic on the river. Towboats pushed great barges with petroleum products up and down the river, but it took forty-two hours to make the 400-mile round-trip from Nashville to the mouth of the Cumberland at Paducah, Kentucky. Half of the forty-two hours were spent going through the locks. Some of them were less than twenty miles apart. Raising the level of the river would shorten the time to make the trip. The Corps of Engineers agreed that the construction of two high dams between Nashville and Paducah would solve this problem, but by raising the level of the water so high that it poured over the original banks of its channel to create large lakes, farmers would lose their land. The Corps did not really think that these high dams were needed above Nashville in the upper Cumberland region, but it decided to build three high dams at Old Hickory, Carthage, and Celina to produce electricity. There clearly was going to be a need for additional electricity as these counties began to grow. Today, these dams provide recreational opportunities as well as flood control and electricity. Can you identify the location of your county on the maps above? In which river system is your county located? Note that not all of Sumner and Macon Counties are in the Cumberland River System. That part of those 2 counties is in the Green River system in Kentucky, the Ohio River system, and the Mississippi River system, but NOT the Cumberland. The rivers of Tennessee no longer resemble those rivers that beckoned early settlers, both indigenous tribes and Europeans alike, into this region. Dams along the Tennessee River, the Cumberland River, and their tributaries have greatly altered the landscape. The rivers and their tributaries of Tennessee except for a small area east of Chattanooga are part of the Mississippi River system. After emptying into the Ohio River on either side of Paducah, Kentucky, the water from the Tennessee River system and the Cumberland River system flows into the Mississippi River at Cairo, Illinois, and then out into the Gulf of Mexico through the Port at New Orleans. The Tennessee Divide Dividing the Tennessee River system and the Cumberland River system is a faint ridgeline known as the Tennessee Divide. The water on the northern side of this line flows to the Cumberland River while the water south of the line flows to the Tennessee River. There are a few spots in the Land Between the Lakes and on the Natchez Trace Parkway where the ridgeline can be seen. The changes in elevation were more noticeable to Native Americans and early Anglo-American travelers than they are today. In 1796, the year that Tennessee became a state, the divide was identified in a treaty between the United States and the Chickasaw Nation. Although the 1796 Tennessee Constitution of the state’s boundaries were listed as the crest of the Appalachians to the middle of the Mississippi Rivers, the lands west and south of the Tennessee Divide were “reserved” for Native Americans. Tennessee’s population grew rapidly after statehood and within fifteen years, American settlers had crossed the line and claimed the land for themselves. The 2 maps below show the divide as the southeastern boundary of the Cumberland River system, and the northeastern boundary of the Tennessee River system. Tennessee’s Forgotten Conasauga River There is a small part of southeastern Tennessee that is in neither the Tennessee River nor the Cumberland River system. Conasauga River Begins in North Georgia and flows northward into Polk County, east of Chattanooga before bending again and heading across Georgia into Alabama. RIVER BASINS OF TENNESSEE Basins as defined in the Inter-Basin Water Transfer Act: - The Mississippi River and all of its tributaries west of the Tennessee River Valley; - The Duck River, the Elk River, and the western Tennessee River Valley; - The lower Cumberland River to the downstream point of the mouth of the Caney Fork River, the Harpeth and the Stones Rivers; - The tributaries of the Barren River; - The upper Cumberland River, the Caney Fork, the Obey, and the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River; - The lower Tennessee River in East Tennessee up to and including the Hiawassee River; - The Conasauga River; - The Upper Tennessee River in East Tennessee upstream of the Hiwassee, the Little Tennessee, Clinch, & Emory Rivers; - The French Broad River and the Nolichucky River; and - The Holston River and the Watauga River. Tennessee's Borders Tennessee was originally claimed by the colony of North Carolina which claimed that its western border extended all the way to the Mississippi River. When North Carolina ceded its western lands beyond the Appalachians to the national government when George Washington became President, the Appalachian Mountains in the east and the Mississippi River in the west serve as natural boundaries of the territory that became the state of Tennessee. The state's northern and southern boundaries, however, are more subjective lines drawn by humans rather than nature. Consequently, both have been the subject of some debate between Tennessee and its neighboring states. The state's northern and southern boundaries at 36° 30 and 35 degrees were determined by the latitude lines of the colonies and later states of Virginia and North Carolina. The first survey of the Virginia-North Carolina border was conducted by a commission of surveyors from the two colonies in 1749. Peter Jefferson, the father of future President Thomas Jefferson was in one of the teams of surveyors. When the thirteen colonies declared their independence, the two states commissioned new surveys. In 1790 it was ceded by North Carolina and admitted as Tennessee in 1796. Surveyors who had begun at the Mississippi River located the northern border slightly further south than surveyors coming from the Appalachians, Kentucky, the fifteenth state of the Union, argued that the line drawn from the Mississippi River eastward was the correct border between the two states. Tennesseans, however, disagreed, saying that the border was further north. 36° 30 had been in the original English charters for the colonies of Virginia and North Carolina. After the American Revolution began and settlers were coming across the Appalachians in larger and larger numbers, each state appointed two commissioners to survey the line to the Mississippi River. Dr. Thomas Walker and Daniel Smith represented Virginia; Colonel Richard Henderson, the land speculator who had attempted to create the 14th colony of Transylvania, and William Bailey Smith were appointed by North Carolina. Disagreements plagued the effort, and they separated. When Walker completed his surveying the line to the Tennessee River in the West, he had misread his surveying instrument. The Walker Line, as it was to be called, was slightly further north than 36°30. After Tennessee became a state, Kentucky decided to try to reclaim the strip of land, but Tennessee refused. Thus, began years of litigation that were not settled until the two states reached a compromise in 1820 that placed the border from the Mississippi River to the Tennessee river at the true 36°30. From the Tennessee River to the Appalachians remained at the Walker Line, just slightly north. Imagine this: if Kentucky had succeeded in its claim, Clarksville, Tennessee today would be Clarksville, Kentucky! A similar difference of opinion about a line drawn by General James Winchester of Sumner County for the southern border. When Mississippi became a state in 1817, its leaders refused to accept the Winchester Line. The Winchester Line was actually too far North so its location as Winchester had drawn it actually benefitted Mississippi rather than Tennessee. After several years of disagreeing about the line, a special commission was appointed to settle the matter. Using astronomical observations, the commissioners determined that the true line was south of the Winchester Line, thus adding 215,927 acres to Tennessee. This report was not approved by the legislature of Mississippi until 1890. Recent surveys have indicated that the line was about a half-mile south of the true 35°. Bordered by eight other states, Tennessee is equaled only by Missouri in the number of neighboring states touching its borders, making it landlocked. Early trade routes had to use the rivers to carry goods down the rivers to the Gulf of Mexico and then to the markets of the east coast. The Appalachian Mountains made east-west travel difficult. Some 12,000 to 15,000 years after the first humans began coming into this area known as Tennessee, it has been the land that lured them here and the land that then determined where they settled, what they did, and how they interacted with people from other parts of the state as well as the nation. All of the many changes that had taken place in Tennessee history since the first people entered this land, occurred because of what had been here long before - the land. It was the land, our unusual geography, that created such a diverse population. That diversity had been here from the beginning of human settlement, yet the thing that caused the diversity has not changed since the first Paleolithic hunters first followed the wooly mammals into the place now known as Tennessee. More than anything else Tennessee's history has been shaped by its unique geography. History is about people. It is the story of their actions, their interaction with each other, their ideas, and their legacies. History has recorded a variety of groups coming into the area at different times over thousands of years. Some stayed; others moved on. Attracted by the land and its resources, people began to settle—first along the rivers and streams. In time, with minimal modifications and adaptations, they adjusted to the land. Some people are remembered because their names were attached to places—Jackson County, Blount County, Carter County Shelby County, Trousdale County, Johnson County, or Robertson County; the towns of Sevierville, Murfreesboro, McMinnville, or Winchester. The naming of a place for a person has long been an accepted way of honoring a person's accomplishments so that their achievements could live on long after that person had died. Many of the people for whom places in this state are named never came to this place called Tennessee. Neither George Washington, Albert Gallatin, nor Benjamin Franklin ever set foot in this place, yet at some time or another, people living here wanted to memorialize them with a name. There are "Washington" and "Franklin" cities, counties, streets, in every state in the United States, named for men known as "Founding Fathers" of this country. There are fewer places bearing the name of Albert Gallatin, yet at the time his name was given to the county seat of Sumner County in Tennessee he was among the most prominent and well-known men in the United States. The author of a 2010 biography of Gallatin titled his book, Gallatin: America's Swiss Founding Father, as a way of demonstrating to readers how important Albert Gallatin was. Few people living in Gallatin, Tennessee today know why he was given this honor. There is no place in Tennessee bearing the names of the songwriters Felice Bryant or Boudleaux Bryant, but a little song that they claimed to have written in less than an hour while taking a break from more serious writing is sung at every University of Tennessee athletic event. While the Bryants' names have been largely forgotten, "Rocky Top," their legacy can be heard from the highest peaks in East Tennessee to the Mississippi River. The story of Tennessee history is the story of people but the land, known as "the Ridge," "the Delta," "Rock City," or "Rocky Top" determined its history. This land that became Tennessee was formed over millions of years. Its land varies from the snow-capped peaks of the Appalachian Mountains to the "pancake flatness" of parts of West Tennessee. In between these two extremes, we have rolling hills. Shells of these animals are often found embedded in rocks found deep below the level of the topsoil. Long before the first humans came into this place geologic changes sculpted the land. At one time it was under a shallow sea filled with small crustaceans that died out as the water became more and more shallow. Trilobites, the most common of the sea animals, were generally three to four inches in length although a large fossil bed discovered in 1972 between Davidson and Cheatham Counties in 1972 included both larger and smaller shells. Each of these shifts laid down large deposits of coal, iron, limestone, marble, and other minerals. In Middle Tennessee limestone, sandstone, and shale were deposited while great beds of coal were deposited in East Tennessee. The age of these rocks varies from more than a billion years to just a few hours for those recently deposited on a sand bar here or there in a river. As the earth shifted, the Appalachian Mountains and the rivers were formed. The earth cooled and glaciers covered North America. As these large sheets of ice began to melt, plants began to grow. As plant life developed, animals such as mastodons, camels, saber-toothed tigers, sloths, and even horses roamed Tennessee and all North America. In 1971, excavation workers preparing the foundation for the First American National Bank Center in downtown Nashville found a cave containing both saber-toothed tiger remains as well as a few human remains while blasting through the solid limestone. During similar excavations for the Crockett Springs Golf Course near Williamson County's Cool Springs Galleria in 1977, archaeologists retrieved the partial skeleton of a mastodon. The archaeological history and the written history of our state tell the story of how humans explored and used this land. It has recorded a variety of groups coming into the area. Attracted by the land and its resources, people began to settle— first along the rivers and streams. In time, they adjusted to the land and began to use the land. How they were able to use the land more than anything else determined how the narrative of Tennessee's history came into being. The regional rivalries remain strong today. More than any other thing, the varied landscapes from East to West have shaped the state's history. “When civilization first peeped over the [mountains] and looked down on the gorgeous landscape below, I think she shouted, ‘Lo, this is paradise.’” ---Governor Robert Love Taylor, 1897 Test Your Knowledge: Why does Tennessee’s state flag have three states? Describe Tennessee’s physiographic regions and how the geography of each area shaped each area’s history. Draw the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers on a blank map of Tennessee. Identify the state’s borders and how they have changed. References 1 James Cavanaugh and Harry Barris, "Mississippi Mud," as first recorded by Bing Crosby in 1928. 2 Felice and Boudleaux Bryant, "Rocky Top," University of Tennessee-Knoxville website: http://www.utk.edu/athletics/tn_songs.shtml. Image Sources Image 1: https://sos.tn.gov/products/state-flag Image 2: http://reevesmaps.com/maps/map039.jpg by Charles A. Reeves, Jr. Image 3: https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/pub/blue_book/19-20/19-20tnhistory.pdf Image 4: https://www.flickr.com/photos/chucksutherland/49548913882/ Image 5: Dr. Carole Bucy's personal collection Image 6 & 7: https://foresthistory.org/research-explore/us-forest-service-history/policy-and-law/the-weeks-act/ Image 8: https://www.nps.gov/grsm/learn/historyculture/stories.htm Image 9 & 10: https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2016/11/photos-of-the-wildfires-near-gatlinburg-tennessee/509195/ Image 11: https://utsports.com/facilities/neyland-stadium/54 Image 12: https://www.seerockcity.com/ Image 13 - 17: Dr. Carole Bucy's personal collection Image 18: https://www.flickr.com/photos/chucksutherland/23081224816/in/album-72157712605454427/ Image 19: https://www.tnvacation.com/civil-war/place/4473/epperson-springs/ Image 20 & 21: https://tripintheusa.com/2017/12/22/hike-42-of-52-ore-pit-loop-trail-montgomery-bell-state-park/ Image 22 - 29: Dr. Carole Bucy's personal collection Image 31: Poster in the Sumner County Museum Image 32: https://publications.tnsosfiles.com/pub/blue_book/19-20/19-20tnhistory.pdf Image 33:Dr. Carole Bucy's personal collection Image 34:Dr. Carole Bucy's personal collection Image 35: https://extension.tennessee.edu/publications/Documents/W442.pdf Image 38: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_stem#/media/File:Mississippiriver-new-01.png Image 39: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_River#/media/File:Ohiorivermap.png Image 40: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holston_River#/media/File:Holstonrivermap.png Image 41: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Broad_River#/media/File:Frenchbroadrivermap.png Image 42: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/13356 Image 43: http://graphics8.nytimes.com/images/2008/02/22/us/22WaterMap.Pop.jpg Image 44: https://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/22/us/22water.html Image 46: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_River#/media/File:Cumberland_River_Watershed.png Image 47: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/landscapes/files/2016/04/Tennesseermfinal.jpg Image 48: https://www.lrn.usace.army.mil/Portals/49/siteimages/Missions/Water-Management/cumberland_basin.jpg Image 49: https://www.flickr.com/photos/usfwssoutheast/32744213824/ Image 50: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MobileAlabamaCoosa3.png Image 52: https://totallyhistory.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/13-Colonies.png Image 53: https://www.tngenweb.org/tnland/walker.htm Image 54: https://www.tngenweb.org/tnland/walker.htm Image 55: https://www.nationsonline.org/maps/USA/Tennessee_map.jpg Chapter 1 Video Lessons Video Lessons Tennessee History Introduction Tennessee's Grand Divisions Digging Deeper: Chapter 1 Resources Secondary Resources for Chapter 1 - Davidson, Donald, The Tennessee: The Old River: From Frontier to Secession (New York: Rinehart & Co., Inc. 1946) - --- --- The Tennessee, volume II: The New River Civil War to TVA (New York: Rinehart & Co., Inc., 1948) - Davis, Marcy B. Roadside Geology of Tennessee (Missoula, Montana: Mountains Press Publishing Company, 2019) - Fullerton, Ralph OI. And John B. Ray, eds., Tennessee: Geographical Patterns and Regions (Dubuque: Kendall Hunt, 1977) - Luther, Edward T. Our Restless Earth: the Geologic Regions of Tennessee (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1977) - McCague, James, The Cumberland (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1973) - Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation website: https://www.tn.gov/environment.html - The TNGENWEB Project: accessed at: https://www.tngenweb.org/index.html - Toplovich, Ann, “Cumberland River,” Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, updated in 2018 accessed at: https://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/cumberland-river/ - --- ---“Tennessee River System,” Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, updated 2010, accessed at: https://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entries/cumberland-river/ Chapter 2 Overview Chapter 2 Overview - The First People Introduction to the Subject of Tennessee Indians This lesson is about travel. Who came? What were those people like? Why did they stay? Why did they leave? What did they leave behind? How do we learn about those earliest people? As more groups came together in this place that you and I call "Tennessee", how did they interact with each other? Were those interactions positive or negative? We begin with the nomadic hunters of the Ice Bridge crossing a land bridge at the Bering Strait and following animals down into North America, Central America, and South America. Where in Tennessee can we find evidence about these people, what they did while they were here, and what their lives were like? Archaeologists and historians divide the history of Native Americans into 3 periods: - Prehistoric - Protohistoric - Historic. As you study this material, some of it will be familiar to most of you, but some of it may be quite new. Think about how each successive group built on the knowledge and technology of the previous generations. How much creativity these early Tennesseans had. The Protohistoric period in Tennessee history is the period of time between the explorations of the Spaniards, Hernando de Soto, and Juan Pardo, who came and departed quickly in the 1530s and ends with the coming of French and English traders about 100 years later. I encourage you to also locate and read Dr. John Finger's article "Tennessee Indian History: Creativity and Power" This article gives you a good overview beyond that which our textbook provides about this period of time and how the Tennessee tribes interacted with the Europeans. Dr. Finger makes an interesting argument in this article. Think about what his big point in writing this article was. Recommended Additional Reading: Finger, John R. “Tennessee Indian History: Creativity and Power.” Tennessee Historical Quarterly, vol. 54, no. 4, Tennessee Historical Society, 1995, pp. 286–305, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42627228. Lesson 2 Objectives Upon completion of this lesson with a 70% or above, students will be able to: - Describe the indigenous cultures of Tennessee’s native population from earliest times until 1763. - Explain how Native American cultures built upon the progress & accomplishments of earlier cultures. - Describe & compare the ways that European nations (Spanish, French, English) interacted with the Native people of Tennessee. - Explain how the Native American tribes interacted with the Europeans. - Describe how the Cherokees responded to the outbreak of war between France and England in 1754. - Explain how the outcome of the French and Indian War affected the “balance of power” that the tribes had maintained. Chapter 2 Reading The First Tennesseans “Still majestic in decay stand the great temple mounds. The temples that once crowned their heights, like the hands that built them, have long since crumbled to dust.” Thomas M.N. Lewis & Madeline Kneberg “I sing of the mountains that sing in me the cadences of plaintive earth and only give your back the land that framed the valley of my birth…. I sing of the mountains that sing in me Soft harmonies I’ve known from birth. I only give you back the land again And the plain magnificence of earth.” Phyllis Natalie Tickle & Margaret Bartlum Ingram Writing as Natalie Bartlum, 1982 Introduction No one can tell us for sure how long people have lived in Tennessee. Archaeologists estimate that humans have been in Tennessee for over 12,000 years. Historians have divided the years that humans have been in Tennessee into three time periods: The Prehistoric Era—the time before events of the past were recorded in writing; the Protohistoric Eras— the years between the arrival of the first Europeans and European settlement; and the Historic Era—the years since Europeans and Africans have lived here. Until the Civil Rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, textbooks had little history of North America before the arrival of Christopher Columbus. Textbooks directly presented the indigenous people in Tennessee and the United States as mere victims who became obstacles in the march of progress led by European settlers. Instead of beginning thousands of years earlier when the first Paleo-Indian hunters came into the Americas, history books began with 1492. They were filled with stories of the triumph of the strong over the weak. Instead of seeing the heterogeneity of each of the indigenous tribes, the Europeans simply saw them as one homogeneous group of people and made no effort to understand the differences and complexities of each tribe. When indigenous people were included in the historical narrative, they were depicted as violent resisters of progress. It is only in recent years that history books have acknowledged the sophisticated political abilities of the indigenous people. Instead of saying that the native people stood in the way of Anglo-Saxon progress in the telling of the story of Tennessee and United States history. These indigenous people were actively engaged in addressing the changes brought by contact with the Europeans and displayed great creativity in addressing these changes. The tribes quickly developed an understanding of European nations’ seemingly incessant quest for domination of the American continents. This enabled them to maintain a balance of power among Spain, France, and Great Britain until the end of the French and Indian War due to the tribes' understanding of geopolitics. Even until well into the eighteenth and early years of the nineteenth century, indigenous people provided invaluable assistance to the settlers that enabled the settlers to adapt to their new physical environments. As the populations of the United States grew and expanded westward, the policies of the United States government confined indigenous people to reservations which were in some cases far removed from their ancestral homelands. Native American children were forcibly removed from their parents and sent thousands of miles away in an effort to stamp out all vestiges of their native cultures and languages. Many of the tribes that were thriving civilizations at the time of the settlement of North America have been irradicated. Many tribal languages are now extinct with no one able to speak to them. The tribes had limited choices in how they could respond to the encroachment on their lands. They could resist, but when the thirteen English colonies were expanded the tribes recognized that they were greatly outnumbered by people with superior weaponry. They understood that entire tribes could be exterminated by resistance. Now historians recognize that it was quite a remarkable story that these tribal people were able to withstand the onslaught of the Europeans by using their creativity to wield power in dealing with the Europeans and Anglo- Americans. A major part of Tennessee history is the story of how one tribe—the Cherokees— was able to recognize the necessity of compromise as a way to hold on to a portion of their ancestral lands until the 1830s. Their sophisticated understanding of European politics enabled them to see that the only way to hold on to a part of their culture and way of life was to be negotiated and compromise. A list of treaties that were signed between the Tennessee tribes and Anglo-American settlers appears at the end of this chapter. Each time the settlers demanded more land for their rapidly expanding population. Each time they signed a treaty, they believed in the good faith of the agreement. Each time the agreement was broken with settlers “taking the law into their own hands” and moving onto tribal lands without permission. It was an extraordinary achievement that the Cherokees were able to hold on to a portion of their ancestral lands for as long as they did when many other tribes had long since been forced out. There are many sides to this story. There are many ways it has been told. Andrew Jackson, the President of the United States that signed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, believed that forcing the Native Americans to relocate across the Mississippi River was the only way to protect them. He felt that the government could not protect them from land-hungry settlers. More than any other tribe, the Cherokees, adapted and changed to survive. They allowed missionaries to come into their lands in East Tennessee and North Georgia to teach their children. They had their children baptized as Christians. They gave up almost all of their tribal customs and dressed like the Anglo-Americans, built houses like the Americans, and even wrote a constitution for their colony of New Echota, which became the capital of what they hoped would one day become a state. They accepted the European concept of private ownership of property and settled on farms. Sequoyah developed a Cherokee syllabary so that they would record their stories. The Cherokees published a newspaper. And yet, in the end, they were forced out. Despite the story of the Trail of Tears, none of this was discussed in Tennessee textbooks until the 1970s. In recent years, archaeologists have made great progress in providing information about the people who came here and settled here before the Europeans. From their extensive research, we now know that people came into this area that we call “Tennessee” at many different times over several thousand years that make up the Prehistoric Era. Within the Prehistoric Era, there were four distinct time periods in which people migrated or came into the region of Tennessee from another place. During these time periods, each generation of people built on the knowledge and technology of previous generations. By the time of the arrival of Europeans, complex civilizations could be found in North, Central and South America. The terms, “Paleo,” “Archaic,” “Woodland,” and “Mississippian,” are used to describe the culture that existed at a certain time. In addition to climate changes, adaptation, modification, mobility, and advancement over time. It has long been said that “history is written by winners.” It has only been since World War II that history has expanded to be more inclusive of all people’s stories, not just those who won wars and elections. Because the Europeans conquered North and South America, a great deal of evidence about these cultures was destroyed and forgotten. For example, archaeologists now know that the Mayans living on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico had a writing system that was almost totally destroyed. Like the Europeans, many American cultures studied the skies and were sophisticated astronomers. Much of what we know about the Native peoples who lived here in Tennessee before the coming of the Europeans was information that was handed down from generation to generation in Native American tribes, an oral tradition. It has only been recently that the creativity of the Native American tribes has been considered. Archeologists continue to work to learn more about the human cultures that were in Tennessee before the arrival of the Europeans. Indigenous People in Tennessee BEFORE the Coming of the Europeans PALEO-INDIAN PERIOD How and exactly when the first humans arrived in North America is a subject of great debate, due in large part to the development of new equipment and methods of research. The accepted theory for many years that that as the ice began to melt there a land bridge that was perhaps several hundred miles wide developed between Siberia in Northern Asia and Alaska in North America. Tall grasses replaced the ice as it melted. Small groups of hunters used the bridge to cross into North America from Asia, following herds of animals into North America as the ice melted. These people were known as “the Clovis people” because of the archaeological evidence found near Clovis, New Mexico. Similar artifacts have been found along the Cumberland River that are somewhat bigger with more cuts along the sides. These are known as Cumberland points. Archeologists working in Oregon, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Chile have now discovered evidence that humans could have come from different parts of Asia or southwestern Europe by boat before the Clovis people arrived. The story of humans in Tennessee begins with the last retreat of the Ice Age glaciers when a colder climate and forests of spruce and fir prevailed in the region. Late Ice Age hunters probably followed animal herds into this area some 12,000-15,000 years ago. These nomadic Paleo-Indians camped in caves and rock shelters and left behind their distinctive arrowheads and spear points. They may have used such stone-age tools to hunt the mastodon and caribou that ranged across eastern Tennessee. About 12,000 years ago, the region’s climate began to warm, and the predominant vegetation changed from conifer to our modern deciduous forest. Abundant acorns, hickory, chestnut, and beech mast attracted large numbers of deer and elk. Warmer climate, the extinction of the large Ice Age mammals, and the spread of deciduous forests worked together to transform the society of the state’s indigenous people. The Paleo-Indians were the first people to enter the area that became Tennessee as they tracked wooly mammoths, the giant furry mammals that provided much of their food supply. With great tusks, they were the ancestors of the modern elephant. Archaeologists examining the skeletal remains of these animals estimate that some were as tall as eleven feet high and weighed several tons. When a wooly mammoth was full-grown, its ivory tusks could be as long as sixteen feet in length. The wooly mammoths spent most of the day and night eating because they needed to eat about six hundred pounds of food each day to survive. The meat that one wooly mammoth provided could feed a small band of hunters for as long as two months. The skins or hides provided clothing as well as shelter. The bones were used for tools and weapons. To supplement their diets, the Paleo-hunters gathered fruits, nuts, and roots as they traveled in pursuit of the herds. Paleo-Indians lived in caves whenever they were available. Numerous examples of Paleo-Indian cave art have been found in Tennessee. (Dr. Joseph Douglas, professor of history at Volunteer State Community College, is considered to be the foremost expert in Tennessee cave art and has delivered papers at conferences across the United States on this subject.) Columbus, as well as Europeans from other countries, referred to the Americas as the New World even though North and South America were just as old as Europe. The rest of the world was the Old World. We know that one part of the world was not newer than another part. No one knows what the earliest people called themselves. When Christopher Columbus arrived on islands in the Caribbean and claimed the area for Spain, he called the people that he met “Indians” because he thought that he was in the Indies, near China. We have continued to call the first people here “Indians” because of the mistake of Columbus and the Europeans who came after him. Today, the language has changed and the term “Indian” is no longer widely used. Instead, scholars are using the phrase “Indigenous people” which more accurately describes the people. The nations of Europe as well as many of the civilizations of Central and South America developed written languages. They could record events that happened in the past so that people who lived at a later time could read about these events. No evidence has been discovered to date showing that the people living in the area that became Tennessee had written languages. The people here passed their history down by telling stories to their children. The first people who came into North America and Tennessee have been called “Paleo-Indians” because the word “Paleo” means ancient or very old. Their facial features, hair, and skin color may have looked like that of modern-day Asians. They came into North America in small groups of 25 to 50 people, often consisting of members of two or three families. Their primary source of food was the meat from the large mammals that they hunted. They came into our region because they hunted animals such as the mammoth, the wooly elephant, mastodons, and the giant bison. These animals roamed the area and often covered a large geographic area. The hunters followed them. These nomadic hunters ate wild plant foods such as fruits and nuts when they were available. Although these hunter-gatherers left no written descriptions of what they saw when they came here, thousands of pieces of evidence have survived. Archaeologists have recorded over 100 Paleo-Indian campsites across Tennessee. New evidence is discovered every year. The Paleo-Indians were creative and resourceful. When they killed a giant animal, they used every part of the animal. They ate the meat, used the skins for clothing and housing, and used the bones to make tools. They learned to make needles from the bones of animals so that they could sew animal skins into warm clothing. At first, they only had sharp sticks to use as they hunted. Gradually, they learned to sharpen stones that could be attached to a spear. They developed a unique spearhead to make it easier to kill large animals. These spearheads are called “Clovis points” because the first place that they were found was near Clovis, New Mexico. Archaeologists working at sites in that area have now dated some of their findings back as far as 13,000 years ago. Clovis points have been found all the way from Alaska to the Andes Mountains in South America. Many Clovis points have been found in all parts of Tennessee. Recent research since the 1990s has challenged the theory that the “Clovis people” were the first people on the American continents. In 1997, archaeologists working at Monte Verde, Chile in South America found evidence that humans had been there over 14,000 years ago, After developing spearheads, the Paleo-Indians devised a way to throw the spearheads from great distances by attaching them to long poles. These weapons were known as atlatls or throwing sticks. This made hunting much easier because they could attack the animal that they were hunting without getting so close to the animal. The hunters worked to improve their weapons and to make sharper spears. The early hunters also developed new ways to trap animals. The Clovis points that have been found in Tennessee are called “Cumberland points” because they were slightly different from those found in New Mexico. The Highland Rim was probably a popular hunting area during this time because many Paleo artifacts have been found in this area of Middle Tennessee. Can you tell the difference? ARCHAIC HUNTERS AND GATHERERS – THE ARCHAIC PERIOD As time passed, the earth became warmer, and the tall, lush grasses that provided the food for the wooly mammoths began to die. When the animals no longer had food, they too began to die out. These animals are all now extinct. Smaller animals that did not require so much food to live replaced the large mammals. During what is known as the Archaic Period, descendants of the Paleo-Indians began to settle on river terraces, where they gathered wild plant food and shellfish in addition to hunting game. Sometime between 3,000 and 900 B.C., natives took the crucial step of cultivating edible plants such as squash and gourds—the first glimmerings of agriculture. Archaic Indians thereby ensured a dependable food supply and freed themselves from seasonal shortages of wild plant foods and game. With a more secure food supply, populations expanded rapidly, and scattered bands combined to form larger villages. The climate of Tennessee, as well as the plants and animals, gradually became like the climate today. With this change, the Paleo period ended, and the Archaic Period began. (“Archaic” means no longer used.) The Archaic period ended around 1000 B.C. The Archaic people continued to hunt smaller animals in this region and gathered fruits, nuts, and seeds whenever available to supplement their diets. They continued to hunt with atlatls and spears, but they also created hooks, nets, and traps to help them catch or capture smaller animals. They also created small tools that they could use to use to prepare foods from wild plants. A common way that they began to use seed was to grind the seeds on a larger stone with a smaller stone to make cornmeal or a type of flour. A grinding stone became a basic food processing tool and continued to be used long after the arrival of the Europeans. Archaic Indians also realized that they could produce containers to hold the flour by weaving grasses together to form baskets. They developed the art of basket weaving and later cultures then improved on the basic ideas of weaving to create artistic baskets that were beautiful as well as useful. Like their Paleo-Indian ancestors, the Archaic peoples continued to follow animals and move from place to place. They began to camp in one location for longer periods of time. They also returned to the same place from year to year as the seasons changed. They often camped along the rivers of North America including the rivers of Tennessee. One of the main settlements was near the Tennessee River near the town of Camden in West Tennessee known as the Eva site. Archaeologists have given us a great deal of information about this site and have named the people who came to this site, the Eva people. From the evidence that has been found, we know that the Eva People ate clams that were found along the edge of the river. They also strung together odd items to make necklaces. Archaeologists have found necklaces made from bear and bobcat teeth, turtle bones, and clamshells. The Eva people had domesticated animals such as dogs that they kept with them. We also know that the Eva people did trade with Archaic people from other areas of North America because pieces of copper from the Great Lakes region were found at the site. They formally buried their dead in graves, which have been found at the site. Sometime between 3,000 and 900 B.C., natives took the crucial step of cultivating edible plants such as squash and gourds—the first glimmerings of agriculture. Archaic Indians thereby ensured a dependable food supply and freed themselves from seasonal shortages of wild plant foods and game. With a more secure food supply, populations expanded rapidly, and scattered bands combined to form larger villages. THE DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE – THE WOODLAND PERIOD The development of agriculture marked the ending of the Archaic Period and the beginning of the Woodland Period. Native Americans in Tennessee made the transition from societies of hunters and gatherers to well-organized tribal, agricultural societies dwelling in large, permanent towns. The cultivation of crops like corn encouraged the hunter-gatherers to stay in one place that was suitable for farming. Corn was first planted and grown in Central America, but the idea of cultivation of corn traveled from Central America to North America and even to Tennessee. Corn, beans, and squash became important sources of food; these three crops became known as the “three sisters.” Historians often refer to this way of life as “Three Sisters Agriculture.” The Woodland period also is marked by the appearance of pottery, which archaeologists have found across the state. The Woodland Indians used wet clay to shape bowls and containers that could hold food items. When the clay dried, it was often baked in an oven. They were then able to store food that they had grown during the summer throughout the winter This change from the hunter-gatherer life to a life of agriculture did not take place quickly. The Woodland people continued to hunt. The abundant supply of deer, bear, and small animals such as turkeys, ducks, and geese in Tennessee provided an important source of food for the Woodland Indians. During the Woodland period, hunters developed the bow and arrow, a more sophisticated weapon than the spear. This tool had first been developed in the Arctic region far north of Tennessee and the United States. This was a great technological advance from using spears. This allowed hunters to bring in additional game. Bows were usually about three feet in length and made of locust wood. The arrow shafts were made from the cane that grew along the river that had been cut into lengths of about 30 inches. The points on the arrows that we know as arrowheads were made from chert, a common rock. As the Woodland people began to settle in small villages, village life became more important. Loosely organized bands of hunters came together as tribes. They were able to live in larger communities because they had enough food to feed larger numbers of people. As they began to live in larger communities, they needed more order and rules to allow larger groups of people to live so closely together. They needed a leader or a council to make decisions for the good of the entire group. Certain leaders were given more power and authority. When these leaders died, they were buried in elaborate structures made of earth that are known as mounds. Some of the most impressive of these mounds, the Pinson Mounds, are near Jackson, Tennessee. Archaeologists believe that there were at least 17 earthen mounds in the Pinson Mounds complex. It covered more than 400 acres when it was used. Saul’s Mound found there is the second highest Indian mound north of Mexico. The Pinson Mounds site was used for elaborate ceremonies as well as burials. It is interesting to consider that these builders had little way of moving the soil to construct the mounds; they probably moved all the soil in the mounds in baskets. The Woodland Indians did not have a wheel to use to create a cart that would carry larger loads. Everything was carried in baskets. The Old Stone Fort, near Manchester, in East Tennessee at the forks of the Duck River is another ceremonial Woodland Indians-Era site in Tennessee. It too was used for ceremonies and took many centuries to build. Its name is misleading because it is not really a fort at all. It is a large, fifty-acre open area with intermittent embankments (stone walls) that were as much as six feet in height. For many years, early historians believed that these walls were built by early European explorers such as Hernando de Soto. In 1966, however, University of Tennessee archaeologists proved that Native Americans built these “walls” 2000 years earlier. Historians and archaeologists continue to investigate the purpose of this “fort.” Some now believe that it was used as an observatory to study the movement of planets and stars. This hypothesis was the result of archaeologists’ noting that at the time of the summer solstice, the entrance walls point toward the position of the sun. Today, the Old Stone Fort is part of the Old Stone Fort State Archaeological Park. FORMATION OF POLITICAL STRUCTURES & TRADE – THE MISSISSIPPIAN PERIOD The peak of prehistoric cultural development in Tennessee occurred during the Mississippian period (900 A.D.-1,600 A.D.). Cultivation of new and improved strains of corn and beans fueled another large jump in population. An increase in territorial warfare, as well as the erection of ceremonial temples and public structures, attest to the growing role of chieftains and tribalism in Indian life. Elaborate pottery styles and an array of personal artifacts such as combs, pipes, and jewelry marked the complex society of these last prehistoric inhabitants of Tennessee. The population of the Woodland Indian cultures in Tennessee and across North America grew with the development of agriculture. The Woodland Period was followed by the Mississippian Period which lasted from 900 A.D. to about 1600 A.D. Larger towns along rivers with more permanent buildings began to be built. As villages became larger, the need for organization greatly increased. Leadership was vested in a chieftain, and the chieftain positions were generally handed down in families. As the population grew, warfare among chiefdoms increased. Chiefdoms emerged across North and South America as well as in many other parts of the world. Large cities such as Cahokia, located across the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Missouri developed. Cahokia was ruled by a chief who inherited his position from his family. The mounds found here were very large with flattened tops where the chief could live. Cahokia was a large city with a population of as many as 30,000 people. During the Mississippian period, the areas in Tennessee along its rivers were highly populated. None of the towns in Tennessee during the Mississippian period were as large as Cahokia in Illinois, Moundville in Alabama, or Etowah in Georgia. Chucalissa, a large town, was located on the Mississippi River near Memphis. (To learn more about Chucalissa: https://www.memphis.edu/chucalissa/.) The Sellars Farm mound in Wilson County south of Lebanon is another good example of a Mississippian mound. Sandy, the statue below (image is from an exhibit at the Tennessee State Museum), was found on that site. The Mississippian period was the final chapter in the long human prehistory of Tennessee. The site of another Mississippian mound in Tennessee is in Sumner County, east of Gallatin. Archaeologist William E. Myer, from Carthage, first excavated the Castalian Springs mounds in the 1890s and found numerous stone box graves underneath inside a burial mound. For more information on these sites see: Museum on the campus of the University of Tennessee, Knoxville In East Tennessee, Mississippian cultures developed another along the Tennessee River at Hiwassee Island where the Hiwassee River comes into the Tennessee River. Dallas Island was a mile-long island that divided the Tennessee River into two channels. Large mounds were built at both the Hiwassee Island site and the Dallas Island site. The Hiwassee people were excellent basket-makers. They developed a way to make stronger roofs for their homes by weaving materials to construct the roof framework. Mississippian culture also developed in middle Tennessee along the Harpeth River and the Duck River. As the populations grew, warfare increased because people competed for fertile agricultural lands and a limited food supply. To protect their towns, they built walls or fences around the border of their town. Around 1300 A.D., something happened in these large population centers in North America. Many people died or moved away. For some reason, many of these sites were abandoned. What happened? No one knows for sure. When Christopher Columbus and the Spanish arrived at the islands of the Caribbean in 1492, many of the large chiefdoms such as Cahokia, Moundville, and Etowah in North America had broken up. No one knows precisely why this happened. By the time Europeans came to North America, the large chiefdoms that were in the United States had disappeared. Smaller tribes occupied the area that became the United States and Tennessee, but the large chiefdoms vanished. The first European incursions into Tennessee proved highly disruptive to the people then living in the region. In their futile search for gold and silver, Hernando de Soto’s band in 1541 and two later expeditions led by Juan Pardo encountered Native Americans. By introducing firearms and, above all, deadly Old-World diseases, such contacts hastened the decline of these tribes and their replacement by other tribes, notably the Cherokee. The advent of the gun brought about major changes in Native American hunting techniques and warfare. Indigenous tribes grew increasingly dependent on the colonial fur trade by supplying European traders with deer and beaver hides in exchange for guns, rum, and manufactured articles. This dependence, in turn, eroded the indigenous people’s traditional self-sufficient way of life and tied them ever closer to the fortunes of rival European powers. North America and Tennessee in 1492 The decline of the Mississippian culture left much of the middle of Tennessee void of villages and towns as shown on the map below. When the Europeans arrived in the area of Tennessee, they found only the remains of the Mississippian culture. There were no surviving Mississippians. There were, however, several tribes living in Tennessee. They were scattered across Tennessee and the Southeast. They lived in small villages and towns. Usually, the population of these towns was not larger than 400 people. The people who lived in each town were tied together through kinship. The towns that were members of a tribe were tied to other towns of their tribe. The large Mississippian chiefdoms had broken down and been replaced by the tribal associations that were better equipped to deal with the challenges that interaction with the Europeans brought. It was this creative ability to adapt and change that allowed the tribes to withstand the onslaught of the Europeans and hold on to a portion of their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi River until the Indian Removal that took place in the 1830s. (Some historians refer to the disintegration of the Mississippian chiefdoms as “devolution,” meaning that the indigenous people shifted from the complexity of the hierarchical chiefdoms to new tribal associations that were smaller, but autonomous with a more simplistic form of organizational governance. The Europeans saw themselves as superior to the tribal people living in the Americas when they arrived. Their Ethnocentrism prevented most of the Europeans from distinguishing one tribe from another. In the opinion of almost all of the Europeans, the Native peoples were simply one group of inferior people. The Europeans were unable to see many positive aspects of the Native tribes’ ways of living and working together. In the eyes of the Europeans, these people were primitive because they were different. The Cherokees The Cherokee tribe was the largest tribe in Tennessee and in the Southeast. Calling themselves “Ani-Yuniwiya,” the Cherokees were related to the Iroquois that lived in the Northeast. The Cherokee language is different from other tribal languages in Tennessee and is believed that the Cherokees and the Iroquois of the Northeast were once a single people. No one knows why the Cherokee moved to the South. There were many Cherokee settlements in North Carolina as well as Tennessee. European explorers called the settlements in Tennessee the Overhill settlements since they were across the Appalachian Mountains. English settlers in Virginia and the Carolinas referred to the Cherokees in Tennessee were known as the Overhill Cherokees. They lived in many small towns in the Smoky Mountains along the Little Tennessee River, the Hiwassee River, and the Tellico River as well as in western North Carolina and north Georgia. They were the largest tribe in the South and one of the largest tribes north of Mexico. The Cherokees had a sophisticated system of government. Each Cherokee village had its own Chief. The villages belonged to a larger Cherokees Confederation. The Cherokees chiefs from each village came together to discuss matters important to all the Cherokees. The Cherokee nation had a principal chief, but each town or village controlled life within that community. Cherokee society was divided into seven clans. Members of each clan lived in practically every town in the Nation. Each clan believed that all its members had a common ancestor. The clans took their names from some aspect of nature. Some of the clans were named for animals such as the Panther clan, the Bear clan, the Bird clan, the Deer clan, or the Wolf clan. Women were greatly respected by the Cherokees. They were both matrilineal, meaning that children were identified by their mother’s clan rather than father, and matrilocal. When a couple got married, they lived with the mother’s family, and children immediately became members of the mothers. The Cherokee tribe was the only group of Native Americans in the South that allowed women to participate in the making of decisions. Like other tribes in the Southeast, the Cherokees often had two homes. One was for warm weather and the other house was for winter. Their houses were like those of other Southeastern Indian tribes. In the summer, they lived in rectangular houses made of young trees that were placed into the ground close together. Smaller branches were then woven in basket fashion around these trees. They then covered the house with a mixture of clay and grass. Each house had a scooped-out fireplace in the center of the floor. The door and a hole in the roof for smoke to escape were the only openings in these houses. Some of the summer homes were long and had two or even three rooms. One room was for cooking. One room was for sleeping. Some families had a third room for eating and visiting. In the winter, their houses were known as “pit houses” because they were built around a hole that had been dug into the ground for warmth. The winter houses were round with pointed roofs. They were covered with a thick layer of clay to keep the heat inside the house. Each Cherokee village had a council house for meetings of the entire village. The council house was like the houses of the village, but they were much larger. In the center of the council house was a large pit where the “sacred fire” burned. When the Cherokees had important things to discuss, they met in their council house. Unlike other groups of people, the Cherokees allowed women to attend these meetings. They solved many conflicts at these meetings. They also made decisions about relations with other Cherokee towns and other Indian tribes. In these meetings, every decision had to be unanimous. The Cherokees believed in harmony and opposed open conflict. For this reason, these meetings often lasted for many days until all agreed. Chota, located on the Little Tennessee River was the largest of the Cherokee towns. It was located on the Little Tennessee River and was considered the capital of the Overhill towns. Chota had a large council house where 500 people could gather for important meetings. The chiefs from the Overhill towns often met at Chota. The Cherokees and other tribes of the Southeast divided responsibilities into “white” tasks and “red” tasks. The “white” leaders of a town took care of everyday activities within his community. The “red” leaders were generally warriors who made decisions regarding war. Although the Cherokee culture emphasized harmony, they went to war with other tribes if they felt it was necessary. The Cherokees frequently traveled between their villages. The river canoes that were built by the Cherokees were made of a variety of trees including pine, black walnut, or poplar. To build a dug-out canoe, a tree was selected and then cut. The log was then cut to the length needed. Before metal tools were available, the Cherokees often used fire to burn the center section of the tree. The fire was stopped from time to time so that the burned wood could be removed. Shells were often used as tools. After this was done several times, the center section of the canoe was hollow so that people could sit and ride in the canoe. The length of the original tree determined the number of people that could ride in one canoe. Longer canoes could hold more people. Dug-out canoes were ideal for use on the Tennessee River and its tributaries. Indigenous people could fish from the canoes with hooks made from deer and turkey bones. The Cherokees also made wooden paddles so that they could move the canoes upstream when necessary. The Shawnees The Shawnees had several villages along the Cumberland River in what is today Tennessee. The first French explorers to come into the region in the 1670s called the Cumberland River “le riviere des Chaouesnons,” meaning the “River of the Shawnees.” The Shawnees had established villages along the river with their principal village in the Cumberland region near the present site of Nashville. Because the Shawnee were located between the Chickasaws in the west and the Cherokee in the east, there were many conflicts over hunting rights. In 1714, the Cherokee and the Chickasaws came together to push the Shawnees out of Tennessee and north into the area that is now Ohio. Despite their relocation, the Shawnees continued to hunt in the Cumberland region until the 1740s. Although the Shawnees attempted to move back into the Cumberland area in 1756, but the Cherokees and Chickasaws prevented their return. The Chickasaws The Chickasaws were a small tribe that lived in northern Mississippi, Alabama, and West Tennessee. The Chickasaws did not build permanent villages in Tennessee and only had about six principal towns in northern Mississippi. Like other tribes in the area, the Chickasaws hunted, gardened, fished, and traded with neighboring tribes. The Chickasaws claimed a hunting area that included all the land that is West Tennessee today between the Tennessee River and the Mississippi River and much of Middle Tennessee. The Chickasaws’ tribal organization was like the structure of the Cherokees. Each Chickasaw village had a chief. The Chickasaws were known as brave warriors. Chickasaw boys were trained in the martial arts at an early age. They were taught to accept pain to show their bravery. War leaders had much power within the Chickasaw tribe. Chickasaw women did not have as much respect as Cherokee women. When the Spanish conquistador, Hernando de Soto, came through this area in 1540, the Chickasaws resisted and refused to help him. The area of West Tennessee was one of the Chickasaws’ favorite hunting grounds because there were so many animals in the area. The road that they used to come into Tennessee was known as the Chickasaw Trace. It later was called the Natchez Trace because it extended South to Natchez, Mississippi. Today, the Natchez Trace is a beautiful parkway that extends from Natchez to Nashville. Although the Chickasaws and the Cherokees claimed Middle Tennessee after working together to push the Shawnees out of Tennessee, neither tribe-built villages in the Cumberland area. There was a great deal of fighting over hunting privileges in the area of the Cumberland River. The indigenous people sometimes referred to this area as “the dark and bloody ground” because the competition among the tribes to control the area was so high. To learn more about the Chickasaws, read the Tennessee Encyclopedia entry for Chickasaws. The Creeks The Creeks only had a few settlements in the area of Chattanooga. They lived primarily in Georgia rather than Tennessee. The Creeks may have come into the Southeast from the West. The name "Creek” was given to the tribe by the English because these Indians lived along the Ocheese Creek. “Ocheese Creek Indians” was then shortened to become the “Creeks.” The Creeks and the Cherokees were enemies and fought against each other in such battles as the Battle of Taliwa, which took place in 1755. Nancy War, a Cherokee, became the heroine of that battle. Eventually, the Creeks banded together to form an organization called the Creek Confederacy that was like the Cherokee Confederation. To learn more about the Chickasaws, read the New Georgia Encyclopedia entry for Creek Indians. The Yuchis When European explorers began to enter the area that we now call “Tennessee,” the Yuchis (also known as the “Uchi, Chiscas, or Chestowees) lived on the southeastern part of the eastern section of Tennessee River near the mouth of the Hiwassee River in the area of what is now Bradley County. When the Spanish conquistadores and explorer Hernando de Soto came into North America in search of gold in 1541, he encountered Yuchis and described them as a powerful tribe. More than a century later, after the English colony of South Carolina was established, fur traders from the Carolinas, came across the Appalachians to trade with the indigenous tribes. This trade caused competition between the Cherokees and the Yuchis. As a way to eliminate the competition for trade, the Cherokees attacked the Yuchis and pushed them out of the area into South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. The Yuchis settled along the Chattahoochee River in North Georgia, and eventually joined the Creek Confederacy. The Yuchi were a small group that lived along the Tennessee River as well as in western Florida. Legend tells us that the name Yuchi means “faraway people.” They often referred to themselves as “children of the Sun. They were ultimately driven south, out of Tennessee and became part of the Creek Confederacy. Others of the Yuchi may have moved north into the area of southern Indiana. When Indian Removal forces the indigenous people to leave the area and relocate to Indian territory across the Mississippi River, the Yuchi separated themselves from the Creek Nation and established themselves as an independent tribe in what became Oklahoma. Some anthropologists and ethnographers believe that a few Yuchis, like the Cherokees, managed to escape the United States Army’s removal, and continued to live in the mountains of East Tennessee well into the twentieth The Proto-Historic Era—A Collision of Cultures: The Arrival of the Europeans Why did the first Europeans come to the Americas? The first came looking for a water route to Asia. Did they find it? No, but… Instead, they found two large continents with large native populations and ultimately a great deal of wealth. The Spanish were the first to arrive. Instead of a water route to Asia, they found in Central and South America great mineral wealth in the form of gold and silver mined by the exploitation of the native people. Spain quickly became the wealthiest nation of Europe and the target of other European nations: the French, Dutch, and English. When Christopher Columbus planted the Spanish flag in the Americas, the conquest “For God! Gold! And Glory! became the mantra of the Spanish conquistadores as they destroyed the empires of the Mayans, Aztecs, and Incas. The greatest weapon that helped the Spanish and other Europeans conquer the Americas was an invisible one: infectious diseases to which the Europeans had built up immunities that none of the people of the Americas had been exposed. A highly religious nation loyal to the Catholic Church, the Spanish believed that the Indians were heathen and had to be converted to Christianity and that the fact that so many of the native people died from disease proved that God was on their side. This high mortality rate de-stabilized the people of indigenous people making it easier for the Spaniard conquistadores to conquer much of Central and South America. Within thirty years of the arrival of Columbus on the island of what is now Haiti and the Dominican Republic, the Spanish had conquered and destroyed the Aztec civilization in what is Mexico and Incas in Peru on the west of South America. HERNANDO DE SOTO AND THE SPANISH COME TO TENNESSEE Believing that Florida was yet another island, the Spanish continued searching for wealthy civilizations in North America. They had heard rumors of seven cities of gold that were somewhere north of New Spain. After the fall of Peru, Emperor Charles V appointed Hernando de Soto, who had been second in command in the army of Francisco Pizarro when the Spanish conquered the Incan empire in Peru, to be governor of Cuba. De Soto was instructed to explore what he believed to be the islands north of in a search for a waterway that would take them to Asia and hopefully, sources of more wealth. In May 1539, Hernando de Soto and his army of more than 600 conquistadores left Havana, Cuba, and landed at what we know as Tampa Bay on the west coast of Florida. They then made camp on the Manatee River in Central Florida. While exploring the area around their camp, De Soto’s men found Juan Ortiz, a Spaniard who had been captured by a tribe of indigenous people while on an earlier Spanish expedition a year earlier. Ortiz became the translator for the expedition. Although de Soto had been ordered to convert the indigenous people to Catholicism and treat them well, he ignored his instructions and mercilessly made demands of the native peoples he encountered and mercilessly killed those who refused to obey his orders. After exploring North Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, and North Carolina, the De Soto party crossed the Appalachians where they encountered the Cherokees living in villages on the upper Tennessee River and its tributaries. Along the way, the Spaniards took women, horses, hogs, and food, but the tribal people living in North America resisted and the Spanish were unable to conquer what became the southeastern part of the United States. At this time, the Cherokees had a highly developed civilization, but De Soto’s arrival with diseases for which the Cherokees had no immunities, along with horses, vicious dogs, and weapons unlike any the Cherokees had seen, marked a major turning point for all the indigenous people that the Spaniards encountered. With their guns, horses, and vicious dogs, the Spaniards forced any native people that they encountered to give them food and other supplies. With a “scorched-earth” policy, the Spaniards often burned Indian villages as they explored the area of Florida, Georgia, and the Smoky Mountains. The infectious diseases that they carried, however, were the deadliest of all attacks on Native American tribes that they encountered. As word of their coming spread from Indian village to Indian village, the Indians tried to fight back. De Soto and his men crossed the Appalachian Mountains from what is now North Carolina into Tennessee through the Swannanoa Gap in late Spring 1540, and followed the French Broad River to Chiaha, an Indian village in what is now Jefferson County, Tennessee. The Chiaha initially welcomed the Spaniards, but when the Spaniards prepared to leave, they demanded to be given thirty women. Knowing that their warriors could not fight off the Spaniards with their superior weapons and vicious dogs, the tribal leaders abandoned their town and escaped to an island in the French Broad. When the Spanish awakened, the next morning, they quickly tracked down the Chiahans. DeSoto and the Chiahan leaders then negotiated a truce in which the Spaniards were given a group of males to serve as porters but no women. The Chiahans later merged with the Cherokees. The Spaniards continued their trek down the western side of the Unakas and then crossed into northwestern Georgia. De Soto’s army then crossed Alabama and Mississippi where they encountered the Chickasaws who lived along the Tennessee-Mississippi border. According to Chickasaw history, in December 1540, de Soto’s Spanish Conquistadores and the Chickasaws squared off on the opposite side of the Tombigbee River. Although the Chickasaw warriors were greatly outnumbered, they attempted to prevent the Spaniards from crossing the river, but the Spanish were determined to take refuge in the Chickasaw village across the river. When the Chickasaws assessed their situation, they decided to change courses and invite the Spaniards due to the freezing conditions of the weather. Secretly, however, the tribal leaders of the tribe made plans to attack these conquistadores whose arrogance and sense of entitlement demonstrated that they were not peaceful people. As spring approached, when de Soto announced that his army was leaving and demanded that many Chickasaws, both warriors and women, were going to be forced to accompany them as servants and concubines, the Chickasaw warriors launched their attack. To create chaos and confusion for the Spaniards, the warrior set fire to the village and began killing the Spaniards who were taken by surprise. Chickasaw historians believe that the Chickasaws, killed more than fifty of de Soto’s army, while the tribe suffered only one casualty. De Soto, himself survived the battle, but his army hastily retreated, leaving most of the possessions behind. De Soto and the conquistadores that remained in his army then crossed the Mississippi River and continued their search for gold. After spending another year wandering around what became the states of Arkansas and Louisiana, they turned back and headed to the Mississippi River. By this time, he had lost approximately half of his men. De Soto died of a fever somewhere along the banks of the Mississippi River. Ferriday, Louisiana; McArthur, Arkansas; and Lake Village, Arkansas all claim that he died in their area. One last thing de Soto's party brought and left behind: a herd of livestock, including wild hogs (what university has wild hogs as its mascot? Image Source: Http://arff.org/wildpigs De Soto’s men had found no gold or precious metals that could be extracted for profits. After De Soto died, his men became fearful that the Indians would find out that he was not a god and would kill the rest of them. For this reason, they buried him in the Mississippi River. The men who survived de Soto’s expedition finally made their way back to Mexico, empty-handed and disheartened. Tristán de Luna y Arellano came into what is now Tennessee twenty years after De Soto’s expedition. The purpose of the Luna expedition, however, was not to find mineral wealth but to extend the Spanish claims to La Florida. In his party was a Coosa woman who had been taken by De Soto’s party in 1540. She served as his translator. When this expedition ran out of food, they raided some of the villages of local indigenous people in the vicinity of Polk and Bradley counties in Southeastern Tennessee. The De Luna party then disintegrated and left. Juan Pardo led the last expedition of Spanish conquistadores into Tennessee. Pardo’s party came from South Carolina into the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina in 1566. A small party of Pardo’s men led by Sergeant Hernando Moyano crossed into Tennessee into the area of the Upper Nolichucky River. Pardo joined Moyano at the fortified town of Chiaha. Like de Soto, Pardo found no evidence of mineral wealth, and a short while later, returned to South Carolina. While their journals gave detailed descriptions of the land of Tennessee and the people who lived here, the Spanish decided that the Southeastern part of what became the United States did not have any sources of wealth for them. When the Spaniards found no mineral wealth, they departed and did not return to Tennessee. They did remain in the part of North America that is now known as the Southwestern United States. OTHER NORTH AMERICAN EXPLORERS Due to the incredible findings of wealth in the Americas, Spain became the wealthiest nation in Europe with an empire larger than the Roman Empire at his height. Spanish ships carried gold, silver, and sugar to the mother country. Envious of the wealth (and increasing power) of Spain, France, England, and Holland (the Netherlands) quickly began working to obtain similar empires and wealth. Around the time of the Pardo expedition, the French attempted to build Fort Caroline at the mouth of the St. Johns River on the coast of what is now Florida as a haven for French Protestants. Sensing that this fort was also built to provide the French with a base from which they could raid Spanish ships, Spain a fort, St. Augustine, and quickly destroyed any ambitions that France might have had to stake a claim to Florida. Had Spain found mineral wealth in the area that became the United States, the Spanish might have established large cities here. Ironically, the economy of the nation of Spain suffered because of their efforts in the Americas. Many young men left Spain because they believed that they could become rich in the Americas. The production of agricultural commodities and goods in Spain itself actually decreased because the colonies were making Spain such a wealthy country. Later, this hurt Spain, and after the English defeat of the Spanish Armada less than a hundred years after the arrival of Columbus, the Spanish empire was on the decline. NEW FRANCE In less than 50 years after the arrival of the Spanish in the Americas, the French planted their flag in North America with the arrival of Jacques Cartier, who entered the St. Lawrence Seaway, claimed the territory for France, and then named it New France. Initially, they were looking for a water route across North America to the Pacific Ocean. They soon began to look at opportunities that the northern parts of North American offered. Cartier found no mineral wealth, but those who followed him founded Quebec and eventually laid claim to the entire Mississippi River Valley. French traders accompanied by Catholic priests established good trading relations with the Native people they encountered and soon developed the trading of beaver furs, along with the furs of other animals, into a lucrative trading business. France also laid claim to two islands in the Caribbean, Martinique, and Guadeloupe, and soon had sugar plantations on those islands. Beaver hats quickly became quite popular in Europe, and the demands for furs increased. The Native tribes of Canada and the Great Lakes region were eager to trade furs for European goods, but with the coming of trade, the tribes of North America began to lose their independence. Until the French arrived, the Native people used every part of the body of the beaver. In addition to clothing, beaver parts were used to make knives, needles, medicines, and even dice. When beaver fur became a tradeable commodity, the remainder of the beaver were no longer used and were left to rot. In time, the over-killing of the beaver meant fewer furs to trade. As trade for beaver fur declined, the French traders began looking for other places where beavers lived in North America. They gradually began moving down the Mississippi River in search of trading partners. Although furs from animals living further south were inferior to the lush furs of the Canadian beaver, due to the long winters of Canada, French traders headed south. The depletion of the beaver population also caused the tribes to compete for trade. As the traders wanted more and more furs, the tribes killed more and more beavers. After the Spanish came into Tennessee and then departed, however, the indigenous people had little contact with Europeans for over one hundred years. Despite this isolation, the tribes did acquire European goods from time-to-time on trips to Spanish Florida. THE FRENCH TRAVEL DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER The French and the English came into Tennessee around the same time from different directions. The French came from the Great Lakes region, down the Mississippi River, while the English came from the colony of Virginia from across the Appalachian Mountains. The first French expedition led by Father Jacques Marquette, a Catholic priest, and Louis Joliet, a French fur trader, came down the Mississippi River from New France in search of trading partners. Still hoping that a passage across North America to the Pacific Ocean existed, in 1673, the Governor of New France ordered Father Marquette and Louis Joliet, a map maker and fur trader, to find the Northwest Passage. They organized a canoe expedition with five other Frenchmen and two Indian guides to travel down the Mississippi River. Along the way, they saw new lands that other Europeans had not seen, including the mouths of the Missouri River, the Ohio River, and the Arkansas River. They probably stopped at the bluffs where the city of Memphis, Tennessee stands today before they turned back and returned to Canada. Father Marquette wanted to return to the area to establish Catholic missions along the rivers that he saw, but he died before he was able to go back to the Mississippi River. Route of Marquette & Joliet; Source : www.kids.britannica.com FORT PRUD’HOMME Nine years later, another Frenchman came down the river to what is now Tennessee. Rene-Robert Cavelier, Lord La Salle, was sent by the king of France, Louis XIV, to go down the Mississippi River to its mouth. Having given up finding the Northwest Passage, La Salle wanted to establish the fur trade in this area. He led an expedition of 40 men in canoes down the Mississippi River. When they arrived at the Chickasaw Bluffs, the present location of Memphis, Tennessee, one of his men wandered away from the group and became lost near the mouth of the Hatchie River. La Salle built a temporary fort on the Chickasaw Bluffs that he named Fort Prud’homme. Prud’homme was the name of the man who was lost. When Prudhomme was found, the expedition continued its way to the Gulf of Mexico. La Salle claimed all the land that was drained by the Mississippi River for France. He named it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. After these French expeditions down the Mississippi River, French traders began to come into the area of Tennessee to trade with the Indians. One of these traders, Martin Chartier, married a Shawnee woman and lived with her on the Cumberland River near present-day Nashville. Traders referred to this place as the French Lick because there was a spot near the river where salt came out of the ground. French Claims in North America in Blue Fort Pud’Homme, near present-day Memphis; source: www.britannica.com AND FINALLY THE ENGLISH . . . . With the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, England was able to gain a foothold in North America. Founded in 1607 by a group of English businessmen who hoped to make a profit by planting a colony on the shore of North America, Jamestown, Virginia brought the first English settlers to North America. These “cavaliers” were soon followed by a group of English Separatists who wanted to break away completely from the Church of England, and then the largest group, the Puritans who arrived in what is now Massachusetts in 1630. Unlike the Spanish and French, the English who came to Massachusetts arrived with entire families – wives, children, and other relatives. Clearly, they were going to be a far greater threat to the Indian tribes of North America than the Spanish and French had been. England brought Scotland and Wales, along with Ireland, which was a colony of England, under one government in 1707 when Parliament passed the Act of Union. These began to call these four countries Great Britain at this time. By 1700, the English colonies were well established and thriving. As the population of Virginia and the other colonies grew, the people pushed further and further west. Soon there were people living near the eastern side of the Appalachian Mountains. The English began exploring the area of the mountains as they went into the mountains to trade with the Indians. Unlike the populations of New Spain and New France, when the English colonies planted along the Atlantic seaboard stabilized, their populations began to grow rapidly. Unlike the Spanish and French, the English often came as entire families, which caused the population to grow rapidly. Although the English colonies began on the coast, waves of colonists risked the treacherous crossing of the Atlantic Ocean for the opportunity that the colonies offered. Unlike in England where the lands were owned by a relatively small group, the colonies offered the opportunity to own land, something that was abundant in North America. For many who came, landownership symbolized true independence. As the population of the colonies grew, they pushed westward. Although the tribes attempted to resist this constant demand for more and more land, they were forced to compromise with the settlers by moving further west. By the mid-eighteenth century, tribes were being pushed into the Appalachian Mountains. Both the ambitious French and English wanted to have exclusive trading rights with the Cherokees as well as other tribes in the South. English merchants in South Carolina had begun acquiring furs from the Cherokees and carrying them back across the mountains on pack trains of mules to Charles Town where they were shipped to England. In 1748 the English shipped more than 160,000 furs to England. The tribes that traded with the English were paid in goods such as cloth, weapons, and iron goods. As the fur trade became increasingly profitable, the demand for furs increased to the point that Tennessee’s native wildlife was killed. As a way to keep their profitability of their fur trade, England and France hoped to create a military alliance with the southern tribes that often-fought limited tribal wars with each other. The same year that Joliet and Marquette came down the Mississippi River, General Abraham Wood, who operated a successful trading business in Virginia, secured the financial backing of an English investor in London to explore the area west of the Appalachians with an eye for potential trading partners. He hired James Needham and nineteen-year-old Gabriel Arthur to explore the lands across the Appalachians and investigate the possibility of potential trading partners with the Cherokees. Both Needham and Arthur wanted to become fur traders. When they reached a Cherokee village on the Little Tennessee River, they were surprised to find that the Cherokees owned over fifty guns and told them about “white people” living “down the river” living in brick houses. On their own initiative, the Cherokees had already instigated trade with the English in South Carolina and to a limited degree in Virginia. Needham wrote a detailed description of Chota, the primary town of the Cherokees, in his letter book. "The town of Chote is seated on ye river side, having ye clifts on ye river side on ye one side being very high for its defence, the other three sides trees of two foot or over, pitched on end, twelve foot high, and on ye topps scaffolds placed with parrapets to defend the walls and offend theire enemies which men stand on to fight, many nations of Indians inhabit downe this river . . . which they the Cherokees are at warre with and to that end keepe one hundred and fifty canoes under ye command of theire forts. ye leaste of them will carry twenty men, and made sharpe at both ends like a wherry for swiftness, this forte is four square; 300: paces over and ye houses sett in streets." (Note: The inconsistency in the spelling is a common characteristic of these early documents.) Needham then returned to Virginia to get goods to trade with the Cherokees, but was killed after arguing with his guide, “Indian John.” Despite this setback, Arthur, disguised as an indigenous man, remained in Chota and traveled with the Chota chief when the Cherokees raided Spanish settlements in Florida, as well as Shawnee villages on the Ohio River. The Shawnees later captured Arthur when they discovered that he was a white man. When the Shawnees released Arthur, they allowed him to return to Chota and the Chota chieftain there escorted him back to safety in Virginia. Their reports became invaluable in opening the way for trade among the settlers in the English colonies with the Cherokees. (Go to the Source: Abraham Wood’s description of the Needham & Arthur Expedition, 1673-1674 in his letter to John Richards, 22 August 1674) After visiting several of the Overhill Cherokee towns in 1730, Sir Alexander Cuming, who had arrived in Charles-town with the goal of gaining some type of alliance with the Cherokees and other tribes. Cuming managed to attend an assembly of Cherokees chief, and asked them to declare their allegiance to King George II. With no real authority from the king, Cuming demanded that Cherokee chiefs kneel with him as a way to show their allegiance to King George II, telling them that the now were required to obey the English king “in every thin, and that if they violated his promise, they would become no people.” Surprisingly, the chieftains obeyed Cuming and knelt with him. When Cuming’s translator later asked Cuming what his response would have been had the Cherokees refused to kneel, the translator later wrote that Cuming said, “If any of the Indians had refused…he intended to take a brand out of the fire that burns in the middle of the room and have set fire to the house. That he would have guarded the door himself and put to death everyone that endeavored to make their escape.” Cuming then named Moytoy, a Cherokee chieftain to be the Emperor of the Cherokee nation and answer to Cuming who represented King George. The Cherokees also agreed to relinquish “their crown, eagles tails, scalps of their enemies, as an emblem of their allowing his Majesty King George’s sovereignty over them, at the desire of Sir Alexander Cuming, in whom an absolute unlimited power was placed, without which he could not be able to answer to his majesty for their conduct. Cuming then convinced seven Cherokee warriors to travel to England to meet King George II and sign a treaty. The youngest of the chiefs who went to England was Attakullahkullah, or the Little Carpenter. After visiting London, the Cherokees signed an agreement with England that said that their tribe would trade only with the English. Attakullakulla pictured center of the group of warriors; source: https://ncpedia.org/cuming-sir-alexander Throughout the 1730s and 1740s, more and more hunters, known as long-hunters due to the length of time they were away from Virginia and the Carolinas, then began to cross the mountains regularly to trade with the Indians. Dr. Thomas Walker was like many ambitious Virginians who saw land speculation as a way to make money. Like George Washington’s brothers, who established the Ohio Land Company to acquire large amounts of land occupied the indigenous people across the Appalachians, and then sell it for a profit to land-hungry setters, Walker established a similar venture known as the Loyal Land Company in 1749. Chartered by the English parliament, the Loyal Land Company received an 8,000,000-land grant west of the Appalachians and came into Tennessee from Virginia by way of Kentucky and the Cumberland Gap. Walker and two other surveyors then set out to explore the area that they had acquired. They signed the Treaty of Fort Chiswell with the Cherokees at New River before leaving Virginia. The Walker party crossed the mountains, named the Cumberland Mountains and the Cumberland Gap, and then canoed down the Cumberland River, and naming it and the mountains it in honor of the Duke of Cumberland the brother of King George II. He later returned and established the border between what is now Kentucky and Tennessee which was known as the Walker Line at 36 degrees 30 latitude. The German immigrant Christian Gottlieb Priber arrived in the Georgia colony where he planned to establish a utopian community. Priber is one of the most mysterious of the Europeans who came into what became Tennessee. He appeared in Great Tellico, a Cherokee village in the mountains preaching to the Cherokees. He had chosen the Cherokees in part because of their beliefs about communal landownership and the fact that already in the 1730s the Cherokees harbored runaway slaves. Some historians have identified him as a Jesuit priest of the Catholic Church, while others maintained that he was a Presbyterian. Although he was accepted by the Cherokees for several years due to their receptiveness to his message, the English began to see him as a threat when he began urging the Cherokees to end their alliance with the British and establish trade relations with the French. In 1743, British agents arrested and imprisoned him in a prison on the Carolina coast where he died. Priber’s influence, however, remained with the Cherokees. He had planted the seeds of doubts about the motives of the British along with tribal nationalism that ultimately led to tribal discord when settlers from the colonies began to arrive after the French and Indian War. The Scots Irish Come to North America After many of the colonies were established, another group of people wanted to leave England. The English called them the Scots Irish. Originally the Scots Irish lived in Scotland, a country on the same island as England. For hundreds of years, the Scots and the English fought over the border between the two countries. When England acquired Ireland as its first colony and wanted to subdue the Catholics living there, Parliament issued land grants of property formerly belonging to the Catholic Church to Scotsmen who moved to Northern Ireland After Henry VIII’s break with the Catholic Church and establishment of the Church of England, most Scots accepted the Church of England (Anglican) for a while, but then like the Pilgrims and Puritans concluded that the Anglican Church had not gone far enough in purifying and reforming the Catholic Church. They felt that the only thing that had really changed was the fact that the King now replaced the Pope as head of the church. When Scotsman John Knox, an Anglican priest, began to study the reformation writings of John Calvin, a French lawyer and theologian exiled to Switzerland, Knox embraced Calvin’s ideas about church reform and established a Scottish version of Calvinism that became the structure for the Presbyterian Church. Calvinists believed in the idea that the church and the government should not be together. Like Roger Williams, they believed in the separation of church and state. England tried to make these people leave Scotland and move to the island of Ireland. They did not like living in Ireland because the Irish were Catholic. Many of them decided to move to America to live. Since most of them were without financial means to pay for the journey to North America, the only way that they could pay their way to North America was to agree to work for someone when they arrived. They came as indentured servants. They did not want to go to the Southern colonies because most of the people living there were members of the Church of England. They did not want to go to New England because there were so many Puritans in New England. Many moved to Pennsylvania because they would have freedom of religion there. After the Scots Irish worked in America for several years, they were given land so that they could become farmers. Most of the land that they were given was west of the English settlements. Soon there were Scots Irish living between the older English settlements and the Indians, which served as a buffer. The Scots Irish were known as fiercely independent people. They could survive in the woods. The men knew how to cut down trees and quickly build a cabin out of the logs. The Scots Irish women could milk cows and then churn the milk into butter. They knew how to make cloth from plants and wool. They did not need to live close to a town to survive. Many of the Scots Irish liked living away from any kind of authority. They believed that they could take care of themselves. They were willing to move into Indian territory to have land. As the population of the colonies grew, the Scots Irish spread further and further west. Soon they were to the Appalachian Mountains. They moved down the Appalachian Mountains into the mountains of Virginia and North Carolina. Many of the first settlers in Tennessee were Scots Irish whose families came to the colonies as indentured servants. When the American Revolution began, many Englishmen blamed the trouble on the Scots Irish. Note the path of the Scots Irish into Philadelphia, then westward to the crest of the Appalachian Mountains and down into the area that became the state of TN. Image Source: Tennessee State Library and Archives The French & Indian War The wealth from the New World made the nations of Europe very competitive with each other. This led to several wars over control of the Atlantic Ocean and control of the American continents between 1689 and 1776. Even though the continent of North America was large with vast amounts of unexplored territory, the Spanish, French, and the English vied to control North America. After the English defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588, Spain’s power declined. Great Britain and France continued to fight to control North America. The population of England’s thirteen colonies grew far faster than the populations of New Spain and New France. As a result of this, the settlers in the English colonies were constantly demanding more and more land as they pushed westward, dislocating Native tribes as they expanded. By the 1750s, enterprising Virginians saw an opportunity across the Appalachians to speculate in lands in the region of the Ohio River and formed the Ohio Land Company for the purpose of land speculation. When the company sent the younger brother of one of the members of this company to survey the land where the Ohio River begins when the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers come together, which is the location of the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. When the young surveyor, George Washington, arrived at this juncture, he found that the French had already claimed the land and built Fort Duquesne. The French were on better terms with the Native tribes of the area because the French did not demand land and wanted to trade furs for European goods. Young George Washington was run out of the area and barely escaped back to Virginia. This sparked the beginning of the French and Indian War. This war is sometimes called the “Great War for Empire.” In this war, many of the Indian tribes of North America joined the French. The indigenous people wanted to help the French push the British colonies out of North America so that the tribes could reclaim the land that they had held before the thirteen colonies were formed. Because of LaSalle’s journey from New France down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico, France claimed the entire Mississippi River Valley, the land below New France, south of the Great Lakes and west of the Appalachian Mountains. The Cherokees saw the outbreak of the war as an opportunity to attack the tribe’s long-time tribal enemy, the Creeks that lived just south of the Cherokees in the area that is now Georgia supported the French. Native American's views of war differed greatly from the ideas of war that the Europeans held. Europeans believed the outcome of a war was a clear military defeat with a clear winner and loser, whereas tribal warfare was limited to a few days and the winner taking only a few captives. They had no understanding of European warfare. NANYE-HI AND THE BATTLE OF TALIWA After the French and Indian War began, the Cherokees decided to go into Creek territory to raid their towns although the Creeks outnumbered the Cherokees. When the Cherokees went to north Georgia to fight their tribal enemies, the Creeks, Nanye-hi, the seventeen-year-old wife of Kingfisher, a Cherokee warrior, accompanies her husband into battle and even fought at his side. Legend has it that as she fought, she sang a Cherokee war song. When her husband was mortally wounded, Nanye-hi picked up his weapon and continued to fight. Her actions inspired the other Cherokees to continue the fight and the tide turned. The Cherokees won. After the battle, the Cherokees named Nanye-hi, the “Beloved Woman” of the tribe, the tribe’s highest honor for a woman. This battle became known in American history as the Battle of Taliwa (the place where the battle took place) even though the Cherokees did not name their battles. FORT LOUDOUN Since the Cherokees had signed a military alliance as well as a trade agreement with the British when Attakullakulla and six other Cherokee warriors went to London, the British wanted the Cherokees to help them defeat the French in Ohio River area. The Cherokees understood that they needed to comply because they had signed this military alliance with the British and asked only that Great Britain build a fort west of the Appalachians to protect the Cherokee towns from the French and the Creeks. The English agreed to build Fort Loudoun on the territory of the Overhill Cherokees on the banks of the Little Tennessee River. Troops from the South Carolina militia were sent to Fort Loudoun when it was completed. In the beginning, the Cherokees liked having the fort nearby and frequently visited it to trade with the British in exchange for building this fort, the Cherokee men agreed to go north into Ohio territory to fight with the British against the French. After fighting in the Ohio for a few months, the Cherokees tired of fighting and decided to return home. Relations between the Cherokees and the British at Fort Loudoun soon deteriorated, probably due in part to the arrogance and ethnocentrism of the British. Oconostota, who was regarded as the military leader of the Cherokees, was captured along with several Cherokee warriors, and imprisoned in South Carolina. When Oconostota was released, he killed a British officer, and the British retaliated by killing several of the warriors that they still held in captivity. When Oconostota returned home, the Cherokees decided that having a British fort on their land was a mistake and demanded that they leave. In March 1760, the Cherokees surrounded the fort so that the people inside could not get food. By August, the English were starving. Many were dying from the heat. The Englishrsurrendered the fort and asked the Cherokees to let them return to South Carolina. When the British, a group that included women and children as well as soldiers, had been walking for a day, the Cherokees suddenly attacked them near Tellico Plains. Several of the English were killed and the rest were taken as prisoners. When the war ended, the Cherokees who at one time had been loyal to the British found themselves as enemies of Great Britain. Over the next years, Attakullahkulla worked tirelessly to restore good relations between the British and the Cherokee people. In retaliation for the siege of Fort Loudoun and the attack on the British troops as well as their wives and children as they departed, royal authorities sent troops across the mountains. The politically-savvy Cherokees initiated peace negotiations and a truce as the British forces crossed the mountains. During these proceedings, the Cherokees asked that an officer visit each of the Cherokee villages on the Little Tennessee River to explain the terms of the treaty. The Cherokees wanted to be assured that if they signed this treaty, the British would honor it and enforce it. Lieutenant Henty Timberlake, a Virginia cartographer and journalist, volunteered for this duty. It took Timberlake more than twenty days to make his way down the Holston River to the villages of the Overhill Cherokees. He arrived in the village of Chief Ostenaco, who then gathered the tribal leaders for a meeting where Timberlake explained the provisions of the treaty. He returned to Virginia after spending more than a year in Cherokee country. Timberlake’s time among the Cherokees provided him with the opportunity to observe the tribe’s domestic lives. Included in the journal of his time with the Cherokees was a map, “A Draught of the Cherokee Country.” This map served as an important source of information for later travelers into Cherokee country. Timberlake provided descriptions of all the Cherokee villages on the lower Little Tennessee River along with specific information about each village. Lt. Timberlake’s 1762 Map of Cherokee Country; Image source: TN State Library & Archives: https://ncpedia.org/cuming-sir-alexander Treaty of Paris of 1763 and the Proclamation Line After a decisive battle in Canada between the English and the French, the French gave up. Representatives of Great Britain and France met in Paris, France and signed the Treaty of Paris of 1763 that officially marked the end of the war. By this treaty, France agreed to cede Great Britain all the land that France held in North America, including Canada and the land east of the Mississippi River. France gave Spain all the land that it claimed in North America west of the Mississippi River but retained posession of a small group of islands in the Caribbean that France owned. Can you think of a reason that the French were more willing to give up the vast expanse of territory in what is now Canada so that France could retain possession of a few islands? By 1763, what had happened to the beaver, the most lucrative business of the French? Their numbers were so diminished that the French were no longer able to make handsome profits from sales. Why were these islands so valuable? Think about sugar, a valuable agricultural commodity. The outcome of the French & Indian War caused a shift in the balance of power in North America that the tribes had been able to maintain. With the signing of the peace treaty, Great Britain now controlled all the land of North America east of the Mississippi River as well as Canada. The British empire was twice as big as it had been before the French and Indian War. This included the land that we now call Tennessee. Many Indian tribes lived in much of this land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, but they were not invited to Paris to attend the meetings between Great Britain and France. This exclusion was a telling sign of the ethnocentrism through which the Europeans regarded all Native indigenous people. The European nations treated these native tribes as if they did not even exist. With the French pushed out of North America, the British no longer needed the Indians as allies. As the population of the British colonies began to grow, royal authorities did not enforce the treaties with the various tribes. When the French and Indian War ended, Great Britain had a large public debt that had been incurred to pay for the war as well as an empire that was now twice as big as it had been before the war. Parliament and King George III realized that it was going to be difficult, if not impossible to protect settlers interested in land from crossing the Appalachians and claiming Indian territory. Parliament understood that to protect these colonists from fighting with the Indians over the land, a large number of troops would have to be stationed in the Appalachian Mountains. Maintaining an army cost money. With such large war debts, Great Britain simply could not afford to do this but needed to find a way to keep the Indians and the settlers from fighting. King George III and Parliament came up with a plan that became known as the Proclamation Line of 1763. By this proclamation, settlers could not cross the mountains and claim land. Settlers had to remain on the eastern side of the line. All the tribes were told that they had to completely move across the mountains, but that once they relocated, they would be left alone. (Can you see why the tribes agreed to this? Knowing what you know about the people who had already settled Britain's 13 colonies, do you understand why this was not going to work? Who would be the first to step across the line in defiance of the Proclamation and settle on the lands reserved for the Indians in Tennessee?) Proclamation Line of 1763; source https://socratic.org Source of Timeline: Tennessee Blue Book 2019-2020. Nashville: Secretary of State Tre Hargett, page 577. Making Connections with United States History South of the United States, in Mexico, the Olmec people lived at the same time as the Woodland Indians of North America. Archaeologists believe were among the groups that crossed from Asia through the Bering Straits and then done into North America, as one of the oldest civilizations in the Americas. The Olmecs influenced many civilizations that followed them. They were clever mathematicians and astronomers who made accurate calendars including one calendar that had 365 days for a year. They also had a written language that was destroyed by the Spanish conquistadores. The Impact of Words and Tips for Using Appropriate Terminology: Am I Using the Right Word? NATIVE The term Native is often used officially or unofficially to describe indigenous peoples from the United States (Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, Alaska Natives), but it can also serve as a specific descriptor (Native people, Native lands, Native traditions, etc.). DIVERSITY It's important to acknowledge the diversity of Indigenous Peoples' cultures, traditions, and languages throughout the Western Hemisphere. When teaching about a particular tribe or nation, learning and using accurate terms specific to the community can prevent stereotypes and encourage cultural understanding and sensitivity among your students. AMERICAN INDIAN OR NATIVE AMERICAN? American Indian, Indian, Native American, or Native are acceptable and often used interchangeably in the United States; however, Native Peoples often have individual preferences on how they would like to be addressed. To find out which term is best, ask the person or group which term they prefer. When talking about Native groups or people, use the terminology the members of the community use to describe themselves collectively. There are also several terms used to refer to Native Peoples in other regions of the Western Hemisphere. The Inuit, Yup'ik, and Aleut Peoples in the Arctic see themselves as culturally separate from Indians. In Canada, people refer to themselves as First Nations, First Peoples, or Aboriginal. In Mexico, Central America, and South America, the direct translation for Indian can have negative connotations. As a result, they prefer the Spanish word indígena (Indigenous), communidad (community), and pueblo (people). TRIBE OR NATION, AND WHY SO MANY NAMES? American Indian people describe their own cultures and the places they come from in many ways. The word tribe and nation are used interchangeably but hold very different meanings for many Native people. Tribes often have more than one name because when Europeans arrived in the Americas, they used inaccurate pronunciations of the tribal names or renamed the tribes with European names. Many tribal groups are known officially by names that include nation. Every community has a distinct perspective on how they describe themselves. Not all individuals from one community many agree on terminology. There is no single American Indian culture or language. The best term is always what an individual person or tribal community uses to describe themselves. Replicate the terminology they use or ask what terms they prefer. * TENNESSEE STATE ARCHEOLOGICAL PARKS AND AREAS The State of Tennessee has two State Archaeological Parks and five State Archaeological Areas. These Parks and Areas are generally accessible to the public, however, Sellars Farm, Johnston, Castalian Springs, and Mound Bottom require a State Parks or TDOA escort to visit. Below you will find links to information about each of these parks. Image Source: https://www.tn.gov/environment/program-areas/arch-archaeology/state-archaeological-parks-areas.html Tennessee Museums: - C.H. Nash Museum, Chucalissa - Old Stoe Fort Interpretive Museum, Manchester - Tennessee State Museum, Nashville - McClung Museum of Natural History and Culture, University of Tennessee - Knoxville Native Americans in Tennessee Today Today there are more than 10,000 Native Americans living in Tennessee They make up less than one percent of the Tennessee population. The Cherokees live in the Smokies along the North Carolina border. Today the Eastern Band of the Cherokee Indians hold 76 acres in two counties in East Tennessee as well as land in five counties of western North Carolina. The town of Cherokee, North Carolina is the headquarters for the Eastern Band of the Cherokees. The Choctaw Indians did not live in Tennessee until recently. They now live in West Tennessee in Shelby County Lauderdale County and Tipton County. The Choctaws did not come to Tennessee until the 1950s. They lived in Mississippi until 1830 when they were forced to move to Indian territory west of the Mississippi River. The Choctaws moved to Tennessee in 1952 to take jobs in Lauderdale County as sharecroppers. The Choctaws of West Tennessee are the only native-speaking American Indian community in Tennessee today. Every August, the Choctaws have a Choctaw Indian Heritage Festival at the Chucalissa village in the T. O. Fuller State Park near Memphis. They have worked to preserve their traditional culture and to educate other Americans about the contributions of Native Americans to the United States. As you travel across Tennessee, the influence of our Native Americans can be seen everywhere. You see many names that came from Native American languages. We have adopted so many words from the Native American languages that we often do not realize that these words came from Native Americans. For example, the name of the professional baseball team in Memphis is the Memphis Chicks. Memphis is located on the Chickasaw Bluffs of the Mississippi River. If you look at a map of Tennessee, you will see many names of places that came from Native American languages. The name of the city of Chattanooga comes from a Creek word for “rock coming to a big point.” The rock is Lookout Mountain, which provides a view of a wide area of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. Tennessee Portrait NANYE-HI (NANCY WARD) East Tennessee near Ft. Loudon/ Benton, TN (1738-1824) The only Native American woman in Tennessee about whom much has been written is Nanye-hi who is also known as “Nancy Ward.” Many legends about Nanye-hi known as the "Wild Rose of Cherokee", that have been handed down still exist. She lived in East Tennessee at the time the European settlers came across the Appalachian Mountains into the region and became the Beloved Woman of her tribe, the Cherokees. Nanye-hi was born sometime around 1738 and was the niece of Attakullakullah, the chief of the Overhill Cherokees. She was a member of the wolf clan. According to legend, she had beautiful, smooth skin and was married as a teenager to Kingfisher, a Cherokee. While her tribe was fighting the Creeks in Georgia, Nanye-hi accompanied her husband to the battle. After he was killed in battle, she took up his weapon and continued fighting the Creeks. Her action inspired her people and ultimately, they defeated the Creeks. When the story of her bravery spread among the Cherokees, she was chosen Aqiqaue, Beloved Woman of the Cherokees. Nanye-hi, a member of the Wolf Clan, was from the Cherokee town of Chota. In the Cherokee division of clans and towns into red/war and white/peace categories, Chota was the mother (oldest) white/peace town. Although Nanye-hi became the Beloved Woman because of her actions in the war with the Creeks, she was known as a person of peace. Nancy Ward wanted peace with the Anglo-Americans. The Cherokees believed that the Great Being spoke to the people through the Beloved Woman, the highest honor within the tribe. As Beloved Woman, Nanye-hi was given a voice in the Council of Chiefs, the body of males who determined whether the tribe would go to war. She also settled quarrels among the various members of the tribe. As settlers began to move westward into Cherokee territory, the Indians began to attack the settlers. The Beloved Woman was responsible for the preparation of the Sacred "Black Drink,” a holy tea drunk by Indian warriors prior to battle. For this reason, she was also called the "War Woman" and knew in advance the details of any approaching attack. Because she was a member of the council that called for war, she was able to warn John Sevier and the settlers at Fort Watauga of the attack that was planned for the summer of 1776. This warning enabled the settlers to reach the safety of the fort before the attack occurred. During one attack on the settlers, Lydia Bean, who had been one of the first European settlers, was captured and tied to a stake in a huge ceremonial mound. According to legend, Nanye-hi said, "No woman shall be burned at the stake while I am Beloved Woman" and Lydia Bean was freed. Lydia Bean then went with Nanye-hi to her lodge and taught her many customs of the Europeans. Nanye-hi learned to make butter and cheese from milk of "White Man's buffalo" from Lydia Bean. Nanye-hi later purchased cows and taught dairying to the Cherokees. Using native Tennessee roots as well as herbs and flowers found in abundance throughout the Tennessee countryside, the Cherokee women prepared and then shared with the settlers many of their remedies and secrets for curing a variety of diseases and injuries. When the conflicts between the Native Americans and the settlers finally ended, Nanye-hi lived for the remainder of her life in east Tennessee. Her grave can be found in Polk County south of Benton, Tennessee. Grave of Nanye-hi (Nancy Ward) Source of Photograph: https://www.allthingscherokee.com/nancy-ward-gravesite/ Treaties Between Indigenous Groups and Europeans Indian Treaties - Tennessee Here is a list of treaties between tribes and settlers that I began keeping a few years ago and continue to work on: - 1730 – Attakullahkullah to England – trade agreement - 1763 – Proclamation Line - 1768 – Treaty of Hard Labour - 1770 – Treaty of Lochaber - 1775 – Treaty of Sycamore Shoals - 1785 – Treaty of Hopewell – ceded area South of the Cumberland - 1785-86 – Treaty of Dumplin Creek (state of Franklin with Cherokees; not recognized by NC) – permitted settlement South of French Broad River - 1791 – Treaty of Holston – confirmed Transylvania Purchase - October 2, 1798 – First Treaty of Tellico - October 24, 1804? – Second Treaty of Tellico - 1804 – Third Treaty of Tellico - 1806 – Treaty of Washington - 1817 – Jackson and McMinn Treaty - 1817— Treaty of Turkey Town (Is the same as Jackson & McMinn Treaty?) - 1784 – Treaty of Fort Stanwix (Did it involve any land in TN?) - 1786 – Treaty of Coyatee – settlement as far South as Little TN River - 1818 – Treaty of Tuscaloosa (Jackson Purchase) with Chickasaws - 1819 – Calhoun Treaty - 1835 – Treaty of New Echota What conclusions can you draw from this list of treaties? * Source – The National Museum of the American Indian, Washington, D. C.: Accessed at: https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/informational/impact-words-tips Image Sources Image 1 & 2: http://www.cnn.com/2013/06/20/us/tennessee-cave-art/index.html Image 3: https://www.projectilepoints.net/Points/Pointphotos/ClovisTA4.jpg and http://www.lithiccastinglab.com/gallery-pages/2007novembercumberlandpointspage1.htm Image 4: www.wikipedia.org Image 5: Dr. Carole Bucy's Personal Collection Image 6: Source Google Earth, 2017 http://historic-memphis.com/memphis-historic/parks2/historicparks.html Image 7: Image 8: Dr. Carole Bucy's Personal Collection Image 9: Image 10: Image 11: www.nationalgeogrpahic.com Image 12: Charles Hudson, U of Georgia, https://tennesseehistory.org/de-soto-east-tennessee-may-june-1540/ Chapter 2 Video Lessons T Digging Deeper: Chapter 2 Resources Secondary Resources for Chapter 2 - Finger, John R. “Tennessee Indian History: Creativity and Power.” Tennessee Historical Quarterly, vol. 54, no. 4, Tennessee Historical Society, 1995, pp. 286–305, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42627228. - Gates P. Thruston, The Antiquities of Tennessee (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke and Co., 1890), 1-11, 15-18, 54-55,60-63. - Samuel Cole Williams (ed.), Early Travels in the Tennessee Country, 1540‑1800. (Johnson City, Tennessee: Watauga Press, 1928), 122‑129, 138‑141. - Samuel Cole Williams (ed.), Lieut. Henry Timberlake’s Memoirs, 1756—1765 (Marietta, Georgia: Continental Book Co., 1927), 75-81, 83-95.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.756690	Star Boe	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85541/overview", "title": "Tennessee History Textbook and Video Lectures", "author": "Rhonda Gregory" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88818/overview	Modern-World-Literature-Ebook Modern World Literature Volume 2: Age of Revolution Overview Textbook for Age of Revolution period to include works by selected authors. Modern World Literature Volume 2: Age of Revolution This is volume 2 of a five volume set for Modern World Literature. This volume covers the Age of Revolution.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.791575	12/16/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88818/overview", "title": "Modern World Literature Volume 2: Age of Revolution", "author": "Colleen McCready" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71420/overview	OpenEd-Grant-Evalutation-Rubric-final (PDF) Langara Open Education Grant - Evaluation Rubric (2020/21) Overview Open Education Grant - Evaluation Rubric from Langara College (2020/21) Open Education Grant - Evaluation Rubric Open Education Grant - Evaluation Rubric from Langara College (2020/21)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.810039	08/19/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71420/overview", "title": "Langara Open Education Grant - Evaluation Rubric (2020/21)", "author": "Darcye Lovsin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123202/overview	Introduction to OER Overview The objective of the Open Educational Resource (OER) tutorial is to provide learners with the knowledge and skills to effectively access, use, and contribute to freely available educational materials to enhance learning and teaching. Part I: Theory The objective of the Open Educational Resource (OER) tutorial is to provide learners with the knowledge and skills to effectively access, use, and contribute to freely available educational materials to enhance learning and teaching. Part II: Practice STEP TO DEPLOY A RESOURCE 1. Create a resource You can start to create your resource by using, MS Word, MS Power Point and start developing what you what to share such as course, tutorial, guideline, planning, according to your objective. 2. Search for image and video, cite all the copyrights There are many open and or free resource that you can use online For example: After choosing an image we should mentioned about the [Title, Author, License] which we could found on the meta data related to the image like below: The 2019 UNESCO Recommendation on Open Educational Resources (OER): supporting universal access to information through quality open learning materials - UNESCO License CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO Let's try another image: Open Science Pillars by Geyslein License CC BY-SA We can also add a video too, there are two ways to include video into your document: 1. Download the video and put it directly into your material - Advantage: Not losing the resource - Disadvantage: Big Size, Difficult to share and download 2. Reference to the video link at the original source - Advantage: flight weight - Disadvantage: Might lose the resource and link broken UNESCO, License CC BY-SA 3. Choose your own copyrights license The easy way to choose the copyrights for your document is to sort all the copyrights resources that you have used in your materials and choose similar to the most restrict one. In our case, we will used CC BY-SA, and if you are not sure of how to choose the copyrights license under creative common you can use the this website to support by just answering the question: https://chooser-beta.creativecommons.org/ 4. Create account in a platform To deploy your material and share to public you can create account on the OER platform such as: - https://hal.science/ - https://oercommons.org/ - https://www.merlot.org/ - https://www.open.edu/ 5. Insert Meta data and upload your resource Each platform will have it own meta data that you need to complete in order for your material to be an open resource. Some platform need a bit moderation before accepting your material to be public on their platform. 6. Add Pedagogy activity But to make your open resource become, open eduational resource you need to attach the pedagogy activity to the resource, like what we are doing now. Not only provide the open resource to student but also set up the course, teaching material and activity around it. So, Finally you have learned: - What is OER? - How to create one of your own? - How to cite other resource? - How to set up creative common to your material? - How to make your resource become OER? - How to deploy it in OER platform. So, now it is your turn to deploy your own. Part III. Quiz In order to assess your understanding, let's do some quiz. 1. What does "OER" stand for? A) Open Educational Resources B) Open Enterprise Resources C) Online Educational Resources D) Open Environment Resources 2. What is the primary benefit of using Open Educational Resources (OER)? A) They are more expensive than traditional textbooks B) They are freely available for anyone to use, modify, and share C) They require a subscription to access D) They are only available to universities and large institutions 3. Which of the following is a common format for OER materials? A) Video games B) Academic journals C) Textbooks, courseware, and multimedia D) Corporate reports 4. What type of license is commonly used for Open Educational Resources? A) Creative Commons licenses B) Copyrighted protection C) All rights reserved D) Public domain only 5. Which organization defines and promotes the use of OER worldwide? A) UNESCO B) World Bank C) World Health Organization (WHO) D) International Monetary Fund (IMF) 6. How can educators benefit from OER? A) By having access to free resources for teaching and learning B) By receiving paid royalties for using the materials C) By gaining exclusive access to high-priced research papers D) By limiting their content to a specific region or country 7. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of OER? A) Free and open to use B) Requires special software to access C) Can be adapted and modified D) Can be redistributed 8. OER can contribute to which of the following educational goals? A) Reducing the cost of education B) Limiting access to educational resources C) Increasing barriers to educational equity D) Preventing collaboration between students and teachers 9. Which of the following is an example of an OER? A) A university textbook available for purchase B) A video tutorial uploaded on YouTube under a Creative Commons license C) A proprietary online course with a subscription fee D) A lecture recording available only to enrolled students 10. Which of the following is a common challenge faced by educators when using OER? A) Lack of access to the internet B) Incompatibility with proprietary learning management systems C) Lack of teacher training to use and modify the resources D) OERs are too expensive for students to use	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.838682	12/19/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123202/overview", "title": "Introduction to OER", "author": "Kimheng SOK" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105351/overview	PROCESS BASED ASSESSMENT DESIGN PLAN Overview PROCESS BASED ASSESSMENT DESIGN PLAN PROCESS-BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Subject: Physical Education Grade Level: Grade 10 Topic: Fitness and Exercise (Workout Routine) INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson the students with 90% of accuracy should have: - Improved physical strength, cardiovascular endurance and posture. - Enhanced body composition and posture - Develop a sustainable workout routine ASSESSMENT TASK: Develop a consistent 15 days workout routine and improve the overall fitness levels of the participants. INSTRUCTIONS: Materials: Workout mat, Workout clothes, set of dumbbells (Optional) and Resistance bands (Optional) Process/ Mechanics: Week 1: Day 1: Warm up: 5 minutes of light cardio (Jumping jacks, jogging in place) Main Workout: 20 minutes full body workout (Squat, Lunges, push-ups, planks) Cool down: 5 minutes stretching Day 2: Rest day Day 3: Warm up: 5 minutes of light cardio Main Workout: 20 minutes full body workout (jogging, cycling, jumping ropes) Cool down: 5 minutes stretching Day 4: Warm up: 5 minutes of light cardio Main Workout: 20 minutes full body workout (Bicep curls, triceps extensions) Cool down: 5 minutes stretching Day 5: Rest day Day 6: Warm up: 5 minutes of light cardio Main Workout: 20 minutes full body workout (Squat, Lunges, and Leg Raises) Cool down: 5 minutes stretching Day 7: Rest day Week 2 Repeat the same workout plan as week 1, but increase the duration of each workout to 30 minutes Tips & Reminders: - Set clear goals - Warm up prior the workout - Follow proper form - Start slow and progress gradually - Listen experts - Stay Hydrated - Rest and Recover - Eat nutritious food - Keep your schedule maintained Time frame: The students will be given 15 days to perform the workout routine Submission: The submission will be through picture documentation or videos and will be submitted three days after the workout routine. RUBRICS: Instructions: - Read the rubric carefully and become familiar with the criteria and levels of performance. - Evaluate your work based on each criterion, comparing it to the descriptions provided in the rubric. - Your instructor will inform you when and how the rubrics will be applied. - Rubrics may be provided before the submission deadline, during the grading process, or both. - Pay attention to any specific instructions or notes provided within the rubric itself. - Seek clarification from your instructor if you have any questions or uncertainties regarding the rubric or evaluation process. - Use the rubric as a tool to enhance your understanding of the assignment and improve the quality of your work. - Your instructor will provide a specific due date and submission guidelines for your assignment. - Ensure that you meet the deadline and follow any formatting or submission requirements. ANALYTIC RUBRIC \| Excellent (11-15) \| Good ( 6-10) \| Fair( 1-5) \| Participation and Attendance \| Full participation attendance through 30- days workout challenge. \| Missed one or two workout sessions. \| Missed more than two workout sessions. \| Execution and Technique \| Consistently performs exercise with proper technique and full repetition of each set of exercise \| Struggles with proper form ( 2 reps left until reach of max repetition required) \| Struggles with proper form ( 5 reps left until reach of max repetition required) \| Progression and Improvement \| Demonstrates the workout in full duration and reach/exceed the max reps required for each exercise. \| Demonstrate the workout 2 minutes below the required duration and 3 reps below the required reps for each exercise. \| Little to no progression and improvement, 5 minutes below the required duration and 5 reps below the required reps for each exercise. \| Effort and Intensity \| \| (3 reps fall short) Occasionally struggles: \| (5 Reps fall short) Frequently struggle to: \| Self-Motivation and Accountability \| Demonstrates self-motivation and accountability by tracking progress, setting goals and making modification when necessary. \| Occasionally needs reminders or encouragement to stay motivated and accountable. \| Requires constant reminders and motivation to stay on track. \| REFERENCES: (APA, categorized, alphabetical) https://k12teacherstaffdevelopment.com/tlb/understanding-and-developing-an-authentic-assessment/ https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/staying-healthy/safe-exercise/ https://www.healthline.com/health/fitness-exercise/10-best-exercises-everyday#start-here https://www.muscleandfitness.com/workouts/workout-routines/30-exercises-should-be-your-fitness-routine/ Books: Journals: PREPARED BY: MEDALLA, MARK CLOWIE L. (markclowie.medalla@ctu.edu.ph) May 2023 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/. PREPARED BY: MEDALLA, MARK CLOWIE L. (markclowie.medalla@ctu.edu.ph) May 2023 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.898047	06/15/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105351/overview", "title": "PROCESS BASED ASSESSMENT DESIGN PLAN", "author": "MARK CLOWIE MEDALLA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97902/overview	Phonics Knowledge and Instruction Overview This module addresses phonics knowledge and instruction, beginning with the alphabetic principle. The module will continue to be modified to include other topics such as phoneme/grapheme mapping, syllable types, decoding/encoding, and morphemes to name a few. Check back to see what is new. Alphabet Knowledge Learning the alphabet letters and the associated sounds begins in preschool. According to the Texas PreKindergarten Guidelines, preschool children should be able to recognize, write, and name 20 letters and their associated sounds. This is not developmentally appropriate for children this young as they are still developing the necessary fine motor skills needed to write accurately and precisely. When children understand that each letter (grapheme) has an associated sound (phoneme), they are building their understanding of the alphabetic principle. Watch these two videos and take notes in your notebook (journal) to help you internalize what the alphabetic principle is. After watching these videos, write down a one-sentence definition of the Alphabetic Principle in your own words, followed by a short paragraph about why it is necessary for children to understand this concept and how it assists them in learning to read (decode) and write (encode). Teachers do not need to wait until children know all letters and associated sounds before beginning to help them decode simple words such as cat, run, and sod. For this reason, it is counterproductive for teachers to use a letter of the week approach to teaching the alphabet to children. Look at this Reading Rockets site to discover ideas about how to teach the alphabet and corresponding sounds. Reading Rockets Website Teaching the Alphabet Learning the alphabet is much more than being able to sing the ABC song. It is often mentioned by parents that their child can sing the song so they know all the letters. That is not accurate, usually. When assessing the alphabet, teachers have the letters out of order to determine if children actually know the visual representation (grapheme) of the letter out of context or if they have a song memorized. We do not teach letter of the week for this reason. It takes the letters out of context of sounds and words when teaching each letter in isolation. What help does this provide a child who already knows all their letters when they begin school? Will going over the letter L for an entire week help that child increase their knowledge and apply it to reading? Not without much more work to include higher level skills for them. A good recommendation is to teach 3-4 letters a week that do not look the same. For example, you would not teach a, c, and g together because they look too similar visually. By the same token, you would not teach e and i together. There are wonderful activities you can see about how to teach the alphabet and I have included one sample here about how to work with letters. How long do we work with the alphabet? Do we stop once all children in the class know all the letters? The answer is no. We will continue reviewing the letters and sounds they make into 3rd grade. We can use alphabet arcs, mystery letters, games, and movement activities to continue working on the alphabet and providing the constant connection between the sounds (phonemes) and visual representation of sounds (graphemes). Now you can see how important the phonological awareness section of this course was. Watch this video and keep in mind what your understanding was about teaching the alphabet. This particular video is the English alphabet, but spoken in a different country. The activities and directives are all still relevant and you can understand what they are doing. Keep in mind that this is a very long demonstration of how to use different activities with the alphabet arc, but we would use one of these with small groups at a time. This is a dyslexic child in an upper elementary grade. Here is a video using a modified alphabet arc to play a game about letter recognition and where the letters are in order. This is an important skill, as alphabetization begins in kindergarten and develops into alphabetization with dictionary skills in upper elementary grade levels. Graphemes Graphemes are the visual representation of the sounds we hear in English. At times, this is where children get confused and may not understand that although they hear the /j/ sound in a word it is spelled dge as in edge. The reason for this is because two letters will never end a word in English. Those letters are J and V. This is the same reason that have is not considered an irregular word even though it does not follow the silent e rule and make the A say its name. Reasons such as these is what can make spelling and reading difficult for children. We need to make sure we stop telling children that English is difficult and we just have to do the best we can. That adds in additional stress for children because they then believe it is all difficult and they just can't get it. It can also prevent children from learning the patterns in words that help them learn to read and spell accurately and fluently. Be ready to teach patterns and generalizations through multi-sensory methods to help children recognize the patterns in words. Here is a video about graphemes and the different types there are. How does this help you realize how the English language works? At times, knowing how to appropriately pronounce the sounds of the English language make it difficult to effectively teach phonics. This video has a child go through sounds to show how to pronounce each sound associated with the language. As you watch this video, practice saying each sound as well. Typically, we add an /uh/ at the end of sounds. For example, instead of saying /b/ we say /buh/. This changes the sounds of the word and adds an additional sound that is not actually part of the word. For you to be an effective reading teacher and help children develop their phonics knowledge, you must pronounce them accurately yourself. You did see a version of the video in the phonological awareness OER that focused on how the mouth is formed when making each of the sounds. The following video goes over strategies about how to teach children the sounds of letters in combination of how our mouths are formed. This is very similar to a Dyslexia Reading Intervention program called Reading by Design. I was trained in this program last summer and it is wonderful, even to use in a general ed classroom for all students. Watch this video and see how she uses hand gestures to help children learn how to know consonants, vowels, syllable types and more. This will help you in located appropriate activities in the next module and provide a foundation for the syllable types presented in the spelling module. How does this all tie together? You have phoneme/grapheme mapping which allows children to learn how to use their knowledge of sounds and letters to spell words using boxes. Phonics Instruction Explicit and systematic instruction is a must when it comes to phonics instruction. Some children may seem like they easily learn how to read and have no problem comprehending passages. The problem is in the necessary foundation all students need in phonics skills. While a child may seemingly gain phonics knowledge quickly and not need explicit instruction in the letter sounds, they will need explicit instruction in how the sounds work together to form words in reading and writing. Watch this vidoe to help you gain more understanding of how phonics skills should be taught. You will hear some repeated terms such as orthographic mapping, phonological awareness, and others in this next video. This emphasis is due to the importance of these concepts. Watch this video of Eri's Word Reading Skills to see how children typically develop in reading. m	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.916943	Leah Carruth	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97902/overview", "title": "Phonics Knowledge and Instruction", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90485/overview	Lesson 1 Section 2 Politics of Reconstruction Lesson 1 Section 3 The Meaning of Black Freedom Lesson 1 Section 4 Reconstruction and Women Lesson 1 Section 5 Racial Violence in Reconstruction Lesson 1 Section 6 Economic Development during the Civil War and Reconstruction Lesson 1 Section 7 The End of Reconstruction Reconstruction Overview Link to student view Unit 1 Lesson 1 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90485/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for this Unit 1 Lesson 1 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Ch-15.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction After the Civil War, much of the South lay in ruins. “It passes my comprehension to tell what became of our railroads,” one South Carolinian told a northern reporter. “We had passably good roads, on which we could reach almost any part of the State, and the next week they were all gone—not simply broken up, but gone. Some of the material was burned, I know, but miles and miles of iron have actually disappeared, gone out of existence.”1 He might as well have been talking about the entire antebellum way of life. The future of the South was uncertain. How would these states be brought back into the Union? Would they be conquered territories or equal states? How would they rebuild their governments, economies, and social systems? What rights did freedom confer on formerly enslaved people? The answers to many of Reconstruction’s questions hinged on the concepts of citizenship and equality. The era witnessed perhaps the most open and widespread discussions of citizenship since the nation’s founding. It was a moment of revolutionary possibility and violent backlash. African Americans and Radical Republicans pushed the nation to finally realize the Declaration of Independence’s promises that “all men are created equal” and have “certain unalienable rights.” White Democrats granted African Americans legal freedom but little more. When Black Americans and their radical allies succeeded in securing citizenship for freedpeople, a new fight commenced to determine the legal, political, and social implications of American citizenship. Resistance continued, and Reconstruction eventually collapsed. In the South, limits on human freedom endured and would stand for nearly a century more. Notes Title image “Contrabands,” Cumberland Landing, Virginia, 1862. Library of Congress. 1. Sidney Andrews, The South Since the War: As Shown by Fourteen Weeks of Travel and Observation in Georgia and the Carolinas (Cambridge, MA: Welch, Bigelow, 1866), 31. Politics of Reconstruction Reconstruction—the effort to restore southern states to the Union and to redefine African Americans’ place in American society—began before the Civil War ended. President Abraham Lincoln began planning for the reunification of the United States in the fall of 1863.1 With a sense that Union victory was imminent and that he could turn the tide of the war by stoking Unionist support in the Confederate states, Lincoln issued a proclamation allowing southerners to take an oath of allegiance. When just 10 percent of a state’s voting population had taken such an oath, loyal Unionists could then establish governments.2 These so-called Lincoln governments sprang up in pockets where Union support existed like Louisiana, Tennessee, and Arkansas. Unsurprisingly, these were also the places that were exempted from the liberating effects of the Emancipation Proclamation. Initially proposed as a war aim, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation committed the United States to the abolition of slavery. However, the proclamation freed only enslaved people in areas of rebellion and left more than seven hundred thousand in bondage in Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri as well as in Union-occupied areas of Louisiana, Tennessee, and Virginia. To cement the abolition of slavery, Congress passed the Thirteenth Amendment on January 31, 1865. The amendment legally abolished slavery “except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted.” Section Two of the amendment granted Congress the “power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.” State ratification followed, and by the end of the year the requisite three fourths of the states had approved the amendment, and four million people were forever free from the slavery that had existed in North America for 250 years.3 Lincoln’s policy was lenient, conservative, and short-lived. Reconstruction changed when John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln on April 14, 1865, during a performance of Our American Cousin at Ford’s Theater. Treated rapidly and with all possible care, Lincoln nevertheless succumbed to his wounds the following morning, leaving a somber pall over the North and especially among African Americans. The assassination of Abraham Lincoln propelled Vice President Andrew Johnson into the executive office in April 1865. Johnson, a states’-rights, strict-constructionist, and unapologetic racist from Tennessee, offered southern states a quick restoration into the Union. His Reconstruction plan required provisional southern governments to void their ordinances of secession, repudiate their Confederate debts, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment. On all other matters, the conventions could do what they wanted with no federal interference. He pardoned all southerners engaged in the rebellion with the exception of wealthy planters who possessed more than $20,000 in property.4 The southern aristocracy would have to appeal to Johnson for individual pardons. In the meantime, Johnson hoped that a new class of southerners would replace the extremely wealthy in leadership positions. Many southern governments enacted legislation that reestablished antebellum power relationships. South Carolina and Mississippi passed laws known as Black Codes to regulate Black behavior and impose social and economic control. Other states soon followed. These laws granted some rights to African Americans, like the right to own property, to marry, or to make contracts. But they also denied fundamental rights. White lawmakers forbade Black men from serving on juries or in state militias, refused to recognize Black testimony against white people, apprenticed orphaned children to their former enslaver, and established severe vagrancy laws. Mississippi’s vagrant law required all freedmen to carry papers proving they had means of employment.5 If they had no proof, they could be arrested and fined. If they could not pay the fine, the sheriff had the right to hire out his prisoner to anyone who was willing to pay the tax. Similar ambiguous vagrancy laws throughout the South reasserted control over Black labor in what one scholar has called “slavery by another name.”6 Black Codes effectively criminalized Black people’s leisure, limited their mobility, and locked many into exploitative farming contracts. Attempts to restore the antebellum economic order largely succeeded. These laws and outrageous mob violence against Black southerners led Republicans to call for a more dramatic Reconstruction. So when Johnson announced that the southern states had been restored, congressional Republicans refused to seat delegates from the newly reconstructed states. Republicans in Congress responded with a spate of legislation aimed at protecting freedmen and restructuring political relations in the South. Many Republicans were keen to grant voting rights for freedmen in order to build a new powerful voting bloc. Some Republicans, like U.S. congressman Thaddeus Stevens, believed in racial equality, but the majority were motivated primarily by the interest of their political party. The only way to protect Republican interests in the South was to give the vote to the hundreds of thousands of Black men. Republicans in Congress responded to the codes with the Civil Rights Act of 1866, the first federal attempt to constitutionally define all American-born residents (except Native peoples) as citizens. The law also prohibited any curtailment of citizens’ “fundamental rights.”7 The Fourteenth Amendment developed concurrently with the Civil Rights Act to ensure its constitutionality. The House of Representatives approved the Fourteenth Amendment on June 13, 1866. Section One granted citizenship and repealed the Taney Court’s infamous Dred Scott (1857) decision. Moreover, it ensured that state laws could not deny due process or discriminate against particular groups of people. The Fourteenth Amendment signaled the federal government’s willingness to enforce the Bill of Rights over the authority of the states. Because he did not believe African Americans deserved equal rights, President Johnson opposed the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment and vetoed the Civil Rights Act. But after winning a two-thirds majority in the 1866 midterm elections, Republicans overrode the veto, and in 1867, they passed the first Reconstruction Act, dissolving state governments and dividing the South into five military districts. Under these new terms, states would have to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, write new constitutions enfranchising African Americans, and abolish repressive “Black Codes” before rejoining the union. In the face of President Johnson’s repeated obstructionism, the House of Representatives issued articles of impeachment against the president. Although Johnson narrowly escaped conviction in the Senate, Congress won the power to direct a new phase of Reconstruction. Six weeks later, on July 9, 1868, the states ratified the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing birthright citizenship and “equal protection of the laws. In the 1868 presidential election, former Union General Ulysses S. Grant ran on a platform that proclaimed, “Let Us Have Peace,” in which he promised to protect the new status quo. On the other hand, the Democratic candidate, Horatio Seymour, promised to repeal Reconstruction. Black southern voters helped Grant win most of the former Confederacy. Reconstruction brought the first moment of mass democratic participation for African Americans. In 1860, only five states in the North allowed African Americans to vote on equal terms with whites. Yet after 1867, when Congress ordered southern states to eliminate racial discrimination in voting, African Americans began to win elections across the South. In a short time, the South was transformed from an all-white, pro-slavery, Democratic stronghold to a collection of Republican-led states with African Americans in positions of power for the first time in American history.8 Through the provisions of the congressional Reconstruction Acts, Black men voted in large numbers and also served as delegates to the state constitutional conventions in 1868. Black delegates actively participated in revising state constitutions. One of the most significant accomplishments of these conventions was the establishment of a public school system. While public schools were virtually nonexistent in the antebellum period, by the end of Reconstruction, every southern state had established a public school system.9 Republican officials opened state institutions like mental asylums, hospitals, orphanages, and prisons to white and Black residents, though often on a segregated basis. They actively sought industrial development, northern investment, and internal improvements. African Americans served at every level of government during Reconstruction. At the federal level, Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce were chosen as U.S. senators from Mississippi. Fourteen men served in the House of Representatives. At least 270 other African American men served in patronage positions as postmasters, customs officials, assessors, and ambassadors. At the state level, more than 1,000 African American men held offices in the South. P. B. S. Pinchback served as Louisiana’s governor for thirty-four days after the previous governor was suspended during impeachment proceedings and was the only African American state governor until Virginia elected L. Douglas Wilder in 1989. Almost 800 African American men served as state legislators around the South, with African Americans at one time making up a majority in the South Carolina House of Representatives.10 African American officeholders came from diverse backgrounds. Many had been born free or had gained their freedom before the Civil War. Many free African Americans, particularly those in South Carolina, Virginia, and Louisiana, were wealthy and well educated, two facts that distinguished them from much of the white population both before and after the Civil War. Some, like Antoine Dubuclet of Louisiana and William Breedlove from Virginia, owned enslaved laborers before the Civil War. Others had helped enslaved people escape or taught them to read, like Georgia’s James D. Porter. Most African American officeholders, however, gained their freedom during the war. Among them were skilled craftsmen like Emanuel Fortune, a shoemaker from Florida; ministers such as James D. Lynch from Mississippi; and teachers like William V. Turner from Alabama. Moving into political office was a natural continuation of the leadership roles they had held in their former communities. By the end of Reconstruction in 1877, more than two thousand African American men had served in offices ranging from local levee commissioner to U.S. senator.11 When the end of Reconstruction returned white Democrats to power in the South, all but a few African American officeholders lost their positions. After Reconstruction, African Americans did not enter the political arena again in large numbers until well into the twentieth century. Notes - Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: HarperCollins, 1988), xxv. - Statutes at Large, Treaties, and Proclamations of the United States of America, vol. 13 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1866), 737–739. http://www.freedmen.umd.edu/procamn.htm. - The House Joint Resolution proposing the 13th amendment to the Constitution, January 31, 1865; Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, 1789-1999; General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives. https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=40&page=transcript. - Andrew Johnson, “Proclamation 179—Granting Full Pardon and Amnesty for the Offense of Treason Against the United States During the Late Civil War,” December 25, 1868. Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=72360. - Edward McPherson, The Political History of the United States of America During the Period of Reconstruction. . . . (Washington, D.C.: Philp and Solomons, 1871), 80–82. - Douglas A. Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name: The Re-enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II (New York: Random House, 2008). - A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875, Statutes at Large, 39th Congress, 1st Session, 27. https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=014/llsl014.db&recNum=58. - Eric Foner, Freedom’s Lawmakers: A Directory of Black Officeholders During Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 1996). - See Ward McAfee, Religion, Race, and Reconstruction: The Public School in the Politics of the 1870s (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998); and Hilary Green, Educational Reconstruction: African American Schools in the Urban South (New York: Fordham University Press, 2016). - Foner, Freedom’s Lawmakers. - Ibid., xi. The Meaning of Black Freedom Land was one of the major desires of the freed people. Frustrated by responsibility for the growing numbers of freed people following his troops, General William T. Sherman issued Special Field Order No. 15, in which land in Georgia and South Carolina was to be set aside as a homestead for the freedpeople. Sherman lacked the authority to confiscate and distribute land, so this plan never fully took effect.1 One of the main purposes of the Freedmen’s Bureau, however, was to redistribute lands to formerly enslaved people that had been abandoned and confiscated by the federal government. Even these land grants were short-lived. In 1866, land that ex-Confederates had left behind was reinstated to them. Freedpeople’s hopes of land reform were unceremoniously dashed as Freedmen’s Bureau agents held meetings with the freedmen throughout the South, telling them the promise of land was not going to be honored and that instead they should plan to go back to work for their former enslaver as wage laborers. The policy reversal came as quite a shock. In one instance, Freedmen’s Bureau commissioner General Oliver O. Howard went to Edisto Island to inform the Black population there of the policy change. The Black commission’s response was that “we were promised Homesteads by the government. . . . You ask us to forgive the land owners of our island. . . .The man who tied me to a tree and gave me 39 lashes and who stripped and flogged my mother and my sister . . . that man I cannot well forgive. Does it look as if he has forgiven me, seeing how he tries to keep me in a condition of helplessness?”2 In working to ensure that crops would be harvested, agents sometimes coerced formerly enslaved people into signing contracts with their former enslavers. However, the bureau also instituted courts where African Americans could seek redress if their employers were abusing them or not paying them. The last ember of hope for land redistribution was extinguished when Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner’s proposed land reform bills were tabled in Congress. Radicalism had its limits, and the Republican Party’s commitment to economic stability eclipsed their interest in racial justice. Another aspect of the pursuit of freedom was the reconstitution of families. Many freedpeople immediately left plantations in search of family members who had been sold away. Newspaper ads sought information about long-lost relatives. People placed these ads until the turn of the twentieth century, demonstrating the enduring pursuit of family reunification. Freedpeople sought to gain control over their own children or other children who had been apprenticed to white masters either during the war or as a result of the Black Codes. Above all, freedpeople wanted freedom to control their families.3 Many freedpeople rushed to solemnize unions with formal wedding ceremonies. Black people’s desires to marry fit the government’s goal to make free Black men responsible for their own households and to prevent Black women and children from becoming dependent on the government. Freedpeople placed a great emphasis on education for their children and themselves. For many, the ability to finally read the Bible for themselves induced work-weary men and women to spend all evening or Sunday attending night school or Sunday school classes. It was not uncommon to find a one-room school with more than fifty students ranging in age from three to eighty. As Booker T. Washington famously described the situation, “it was a whole race trying to go to school. Few were too young, and none too old, to make the attempt to learn.”4 Many churches served as schoolhouses and as a result became central to the freedom struggle. Free and freed Black southerners carried well-formed political and organizational skills into freedom. They developed anti-racist politics and organizational skills through antislavery organizations turned church associations. Liberated from white-controlled churches, Black Americans remade their religious worlds according to their own social and spiritual desires.5 One of the more marked transformations that took place after emancipation was the proliferation of independent Black churches and church associations. In the 1930s, nearly 40 percent of 663 Black churches surveyed had their organizational roots in the post-emancipation era.6 Many independent Black churches emerged in the rural areas, and most of them had never been affiliated with white churches. Many of these independent churches were quickly organized into regional, state, and even national associations, often by brigades of free Black northerners and midwesterners who went to the South to help the freedmen. Through associations like the Virginia Baptist State Convention and the Consolidated American Baptist Missionary Convention, Baptists became the fastest growing post-emancipation denomination, building on their antislavery associational roots and carrying on the struggle for Black political participation.7 Tensions between northerners and southerners over styles of worship and educational requirements strained these associations. Southern, rural Black churches preferred worship services with more emphasis on inspired preaching, while Black urban northerners favored more orderly worship and an educated ministry. Perhaps the most significant internal transformation in churches had to do with the role of women—a situation that eventually would lead to the development of independent women’s conventions in Baptist, Methodist, and Pentecostal churches. Women like Nannie Helen Burroughs and Virginia Broughton, leaders of the Baptist Woman’s Convention, worked to protect Black women from sexual violence from white men. Black representatives repeatedly articulated this concern in state constitutional conventions early in the Reconstruction era. In churches, women continued to fight for equal treatment and access to the pulpit as preachers, even though they were able to vote in church meetings.8 Black churches provided centralized leadership and organization in post-emancipation communities. Many political leaders and officeholders were ministers. Churches were often the largest building in town and served as community centers. Access to pulpits and growing congregations provided a foundation for ministers’ political leadership. Groups like the Union League, militias, and fraternal organizations all used the regalia, ritual, and even hymns of churches to inform and shape their practice. Black churches provided space for conflict over gender roles, cultural values, practices, norms, and political engagement. With the rise of Jim Crow, Black churches would enter a new phase of negotiating relationships within the community and the wider world. Notes - Leslie Harris and Daina Ramey Berry, eds., Slavery and Freedom in Savannah (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2014), 167. - Steven Hahn et al., eds., Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, Series 3, Volume 1: Land and Labor, 1865 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 442–444. - Heather Andrea Williams, Help Me to Find My People: The African American Search for Family Lost in Slavery (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012). - Booker T. Washington, Up From Slavery (New York: Doubleday, 1900), 30. - Henry H. Mitchell, Black Church Beginnings: The Long-Hidden Realities of the First Years (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2004), 141–174. - Benjamin Mays and Joseph Nicholson, The Negro’s Church (New York: Russell and Russell, 1933), 29–30. - Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 92. - See Virginia W. Broughton, Virginia Broughton: The Life and Writings of a National Baptist Missionary, ed. Tomeiko Ashford Carter (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 2010); Shirley Wilson Logan, We Are Coming: The Persuasive Discourse of Nineteenth-Century Black Women (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1999), 168; and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, “Religion, Politics, and Gender: The Leadership of Nannie Helen Burroughs,” in Judith Weisenfeld and Richard Newman, eds., This Far by Faith: Readings in African-American Women’s Religious Biography (New York: Routledge, 2014), 157. Reconstruction and Women Reconstruction involved more than the meaning of emancipation. Women also sought to redefine their roles within the nation and in their local communities. The abolitionist and women’s rights movements simultaneously converged and began to clash. In the South, both Black and white women struggled to make sense of a world of death and change. In Reconstruction, leading women’s rights advocate Elizabeth Cady Stanton saw an unprecedented opportunity for disenfranchised groups. Women as well as Black Americans, North and South, could seize political rights. Stanton formed the Women’s Loyal National League in 1863, which petitioned Congress for a constitutional amendment abolishing slavery.1 The Thirteenth Amendment marked a victory not only for the antislavery cause but also for the Loyal League, proving women’s political efficacy and the possibility for radical change. Now, as Congress debated the meanings of freedom, equality, and citizenship for formerly enslaved people, women’s rights leaders saw an opening to advance transformations in women’s status, too. On May 10, 1866, just one year after the war, the Eleventh National Women’s Rights Convention met in New York City to discuss what many agreed was an extraordinary moment, full of promise for fundamental social change. Elizabeth Cady Stanton presided over the meeting. Also in attendance were prominent abolitionists with whom Stanton and other women’s rights leaders had joined forces in the years leading up to the war. Addressing this crowd of social reformers, Stanton captured the radical spirit of the hour: “now in the reconstruction,” she declared, “is the opportunity, perhaps for the century, to base our government on the broad principle of equal rights for all.”2 Stanton chose her universal language—“equal rights for all”—with intention, setting an agenda of universal suffrage. Thus, in 1866, the National Women’s Rights Convention officially merged with the American Anti-Slavery Society to form the American Equal Rights Association (AERA). This union marked the culmination of the long-standing partnership between abolitionists and women’s rights advocates. The AERA was split over whether Black male suffrage should take precedence over universal suffrage, given the political climate of the South. Some worried that political support for freedmen would be undermined by the pursuit of women’s suffrage. For example, AERA member Frederick Douglass insisted that the ballot was literally a “question of life and death” for southern Black men, but not for women.3 Some African American women challenged white suffragists in other ways. Frances Harper, for example, a freeborn Black woman living in Ohio, urged them to consider their own privilege as white and middle class. Universal suffrage, she argued, would not so clearly address the complex difficulties posed by racial, economic, and gender inequality.4 These divisions came to a head early in 1867, as the AERA organized a campaign in Kansas to determine the fate of Black and woman suffrage. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and her partner in the movement, Susan B. Anthony, made the journey to advocate universal suffrage. Yet they soon realized that their allies were distancing themselves from women’s suffrage in order to advance Black enfranchisement. Disheartened, Stanton and Anthony allied instead with white supremacists who supported women’s equality. Many fellow activists were dismayed by Stanton’s and Anthony’s willingness to appeal to racism to advance their cause.5 These tensions finally erupted over conflicting views of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Women’s rights leaders vigorously protested the Fourteenth Amendment. Although it established national citizenship for all persons born or naturalized in the United States, the amendment also introduced the word male into the Constitution for the first time. After the Fifteenth Amendment ignored sex as an unlawful barrier to suffrage, an omission that appalled Stanton, the AERA officially dissolved. Stanton and Anthony formed the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), while suffragists who supported the Fifteenth Amendment, regardless of its limitations, founded the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The NWSA soon rallied around a new strategy: the New Departure. This new approach interpreted the Constitution as already guaranteeing women the right to vote. They argued that by nationalizing citizenship for all people and protecting all rights of citizens—including the right to vote—the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments guaranteed women’s suffrage. Broadcasting the New Departure, the NWSA encouraged women to register to vote, which roughly seven hundred did between 1868 and 1872. Susan B. Anthony was one of them and was arrested but then acquitted in trial. In 1875, the Supreme Court addressed this constitutional argument: acknowledging women’s citizenship but arguing that suffrage was not a right guaranteed to all citizens. This ruling not only defeated the New Departure but also coincided with the Court’s broader reactionary interpretation of the Reconstruction amendments that significantly limited freedmen’s rights. Following this defeat, many suffragists like Stanton increasingly replaced the ideal of universal suffrage with arguments about the virtue that white women would bring to the polls. These new arguments often hinged on racism and declared the necessity of white women voters to keep Black men in check.6 Advocates for women’s suffrage were largely confined to the North, but southern women were experiencing social transformations as well. The lines between refined white womanhood and degraded enslaved Black femaleness were no longer so clearly defined. Moreover, during the war, southern white women had been called on to do traditional men’s work, chopping wood and managing businesses. While white southern women decided whether and how to return to their prior status, African American women embraced new freedoms and a redefinition of womanhood. The Civil War showed white women, especially upper-class women, life without their husbands’ protection. Many did not like what they saw, especially given the possibility of racial equality. Formerly wealthy women hoped to maintain their social status by rebuilding the prewar social hierarchy. Through Ladies’ Memorial Associations and other civic groups, southern women led the efforts to bury and memorialize the dead, praising and bolstering their men’s masculinity through nationalist speeches and memorials. Ladies’ Memorial Associations (LMAs) grew out of the Soldiers’ Aid Society and became the precursor and custodian of the Lost Cause narrative. Proponents of the Lost Cause tried to rewrite the history of the antebellum South to deemphasize the brutality of slavery. They also created the myth that the Civil War was fought over states’ rights instead of slavery, which was the actual cause. LMAs and their ceremonies created new holidays during which white southerners could reaffirm their allegiance to the Confederacy and express their opposition to Black rights. For instance, some LMAs celebrated the anniversary of Stonewall Jackson’s death on May 10.7 Through these activities, southern women took on political roles in the South. Southern Black women also sought to redefine their public and private lives. Their efforts to control their labor met the immediate opposition of southern white women. Gertrude Clanton, a plantation mistress before the war, disliked cooking and washing dishes, so she hired an African American woman to do the washing. A misunderstanding quickly developed. The laundress, nameless in Gertrude’s records, performed her job and returned home. Gertrude believed that her money had purchased a day’s labor, not just the load of washing, and she became quite frustrated. Meanwhile, this washerwoman and others like her set wages and hours for themselves, and in many cases began to take washing into their own homes in order to avoid the surveillance of white women and the sexual threat posed by white men.8 Similar conflicts raged across the South. White southerners demanded that African American women work in the plantation home and instituted apprenticeship systems to place African American children in unpaid labor positions. African American women combated these attempts by refusing to work at jobs without fair pay or fair conditions and by clinging tightly to their children. Like white LMA members, African American women formed clubs to bury their dead, to celebrate African American masculinity, and to provide aid to their communities. On May 1, 1865, African Americans in Charleston created the precursor to the modern Memorial Day by mourning the Union dead buried hastily on a race track turned prison.9 Like their white counterparts, the three hundred African American women who participated had been members of the local Patriotic Association, which aided freedpeople during the war. African American women continued participating in federal Decoration Day ceremonies and, later, formed their own club organizations. Racial violence, whether city riots or rural vigilantes, continued to threaten these vulnerable households. Nevertheless, the formation and preservation of African American households became a paramount goal for African American women. For all of their differences, white and Black southern women faced a similar challenge during Reconstruction. Southern women celebrated the return of their brothers, husbands, and sons, but couples separated for many years struggled to adjust. To make matters worse, many of these former soldiers returned with physical or mental wounds. For white families, suicide and divorce became more acceptable, while the opposite occurred for Black families. Since the entire South suffered from economic devastation, many families were impoverished and sank into debt. All southern women faced economic devastation, lasting wartime trauma, and enduring racial tensions. Notes - “To the Women of the Republic,” address from the Women’s Loyal National League supporting the abolition of slavery, January 25, 1864, SEN 38A-H20 (Kansas folder); RG 46, Records of the U.S. Senate, National Archives. https://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/WomensLoyalNationalLeague.pdf. - Proceedings of the Eleventh National Women’s Rights Convention, Held at the Church of the Puritans, New York, May 10, 1866 (New York: Johnston, 1866). - Frederick Douglass, “We Welcome the Fifteenth Amendment: Addresses Delivered in New York, on 12–13 May 1869,” The Frederick Douglass Papers. Series One, Speeches, Debates, and Interviews, eds. John W. Blassingame and John R. McKivigan (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1991), 213–219. - Faye E. Dudden, Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011). - Louise Michele Newman, White Women’s Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 3–8. - Sue Davis, The Political Thought of Elizabeth Cady Stanton: Women’s Rights and the American Political Traditions (New York: New York University Press, 2008), 158. - Caroline E. Janney, Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 94. - Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, The Secret Eye: The Journal of Ella Gertrude Clanton Thomas, 1848–1889, ed. Virginia Ingraham Burr (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990), 272–273. - David Blight, Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001), 65–71. Racial Violence in Reconstruction Violence shattered the dream of biracial democracy. Still steeped in the violence of slavery, white southerners could scarcely imagine Black free labor. Congressional investigator Carl Schurz reported that in the summer of 1865, southerners shared a near unanimous sentiment that “You cannot make the negro work, without physical compulsion.”1 Violence had been used in the antebellum period to enforce slave labor and to define racial difference. In the post-emancipation period it was used to stifle Black advancement and return to the old order. Much of life in the antebellum South had been premised on slavery. The social order rested on a subjugated underclass, and the labor system required unfree laborers. A notion of white supremacy and Black inferiority undergirded it all. White people were understood as fit for freedom and citizenship, Black people for chattel slave labor. The Confederate surrender at Appomattox Court House and the subsequent adoption by the U.S. Congress of the Thirteenth Amendment destroyed the institution of American slavery and threw southern society into disarray. The foundation of southern society had been shaken, but southern whites used Black Codes and racial terrorism to reassert control over formerly enslaved people. Racial violence in the Reconstruction period took three major forms: riots against Black political authority, interpersonal fights, and organized vigilante groups. There were riots in southern cities several times during Reconstruction. The most notable were the riots in Memphis and New Orleans in 1866, but other large-scale urban conflicts erupted in places including Laurens, South Carolina, in 1870; Colfax, Louisiana, in 1873; another in New Orleans in 1874; Yazoo City, Mississippi, in 1875; and Hamburg, South Carolina, in 1876. Southern cities grew rapidly after the war as migrants from the countryside—particularly freed people—flocked to urban centers. Cities became centers of Republican control. But white conservatives chafed at the influx of Black residents and the establishment of biracial politics. In nearly every conflict, white conservatives initiated violence in reaction to Republican rallies or conventions or elections in which Black men were to vote. The death tolls of these conflicts remain incalculable, and victims were overwhelmingly Black. Even everyday violence between individuals disproportionally targeted African Americans during Reconstruction. African Americans gained citizenship rights like the ability to serve on juries as a result of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Fourteenth Amendment. But southern white men were almost never prosecuted for violence against Black victims. White men beat or shot Black men with relative impunity, and did so over minor squabbles, labor disputes, long-standing grudges, and crimes of passion. These incidents sometimes were reported to local federal authorities like the army or the Freedmen’s Bureau, but more often than not such violence was unreported and unprosecuted.2 The violence committed by organized vigilante groups, sometimes called nightriders or bushwhackers, was more often premeditated. Groups of nightriders operated under cover of darkness and wore disguises to curtail Black political involvement. Nightriders harassed and killed Black candidates and officeholders and frightened voters away from the polls. They also aimed to limit Black economic mobility by terrorizing freedpeople who tried to purchase land or otherwise become too independent from the white enslavers they used to rely on. They were terrorists and vigilantes, determined to stop the erosion of the antebellum South, and they were widespread and numerous, operating throughout the South. The Ku Klux Klan emerged in the late 1860s as the most infamous of these groups. The Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was organized in 1866 in Pulaski, Tennessee, and had spread to nearly every state of the former Confederacy by 1868. The Klan drew heavily from the antebellum southern elite, but Klan groups sometimes overlapped with criminal gangs or former Confederate guerrilla groups. The Klan’s reputation became so potent, and its violence so widespread, that many groups not formally associated with it were called Ku Kluxers, and to “Ku Klux” meant to commit vigilante violence. While it is difficult to differentiate Klan actions from those of similar groups, such as the White Line, the Knights of the White Camellia, and the White Brotherhood, the distinctions hardly matter. All such groups were part of a web of terror that spread throughout the South during Reconstruction. In Panola County, Mississippi, between August 1870 and December 1872, twenty-four Klan-style murders occurred. And nearby, in Lafayette County, Klansmen drowned thirty Black Mississippians in a single mass murder. Sometimes the violence was aimed at Black men or women who had tried to buy land or dared to be insolent toward a white southerner. Other times, as with the beating of Republican sheriff and tax collector Allen Huggins, the Klan targeted white politicians who supported freedpeople’s civil rights. Numerous Republican politicians, perhaps dozens, were killed, either while in office or while campaigning. Thousands of individual citizens, men and women, white and Black, had their homes raided and were whipped, raped, or murdered.3 The federal government responded to southern paramilitary tactics by passing the Enforcement Acts between 1870 and 1871. The acts made it criminal to deprive African Americans of their civil rights. The acts also deemed violent Klan behavior as acts of rebellion against the United States and allowed for the use of U.S. troops to protect freedpeople. For a time, the federal government, its courts, and its troops, sought to put an end to the KKK and related groups. But the violence continued. By 1876, as southern Democrats reestablished “home rule” and “redeemed” the South from Republicans, federal opposition to the KKK weakened. National attention shifted away from the South and the activities of the Klan, but African Americans remained trapped in a world of white supremacy that restricted their economic, social, and political rights. White conservatives would assert that Republicans, in denouncing violence, were “waving a bloody shirt” for political opportunity. The violence, according to many white conservatives, was fabricated, or not as bad as it was claimed, or an unavoidable consequence of the enfranchisement of African Americans. On December 22, 1871, R. Latham of Yorkville, South Carolina, wrote to the New York Tribune, voicing the beliefs of many white southerners as he declared that “the same principle that prompted the white men at Boston, disguised as Indians, to board, during the darkness of night, a vessel with tea, and throw her cargo into the Bay, clothed some of our people in Ku Klux gowns, and sent them out on missions technically illegal. Did the Ku Klux do wrong? You are ready to say they did and we will not argue the point with you. . . . Under the peculiar circumstances what could the people of South Carolina do but resort to Ku Kluxing?”4 Victims and witnesses to the violence told a different story. Sallie Adkins of Warren County, Georgia, was traveling with her husband, Joseph, a Georgia state senator, when he was assassinated by Klansmen on May 10, 1869. She wrote President Ulysses S. Grant, asking for both physical protection and justice. “I am no Statesman,” she disclaimed; “I am only a poor woman whose husband has been murdered for his devotion to his country. I may have very foolish ideas of Government, States & Constitutions. But I feel that I have claims upon my country. The Rebels imprisoned my Husband. Pardoned Rebels murdered him. There is no law for the punishment of them who do deeds of this sort. . . . I demand that you, President Grant, keep the pledge you made the nation—make it safe for any man to utter boldly and openly his devotion to the United States.”5 The political and social consequences of the violence were as lasting as the physical and mental trauma suffered by victims and witnesses. Terrorism worked to end federal involvement in Reconstruction and helped to usher in a new era of racial repression. African Americans actively sought ways to shed the vestiges of slavery. Many discarded the names their former enslavers had chosen for them and adopted new names like “Freeman” and “Lincoln” that affirmed their new identities as free citizens. Others resettled far from their former plantations, hoping to eventually farm their own land or run their own businesses. By the end of Reconstruction, the desire for self-definition, economic independence, and racial pride coalesced in the founding of dozens of Black towns across the South. Perhaps the most well-known of these towns was Mound Bayou, Mississippi, a Delta town established in 1887 by Isaiah Montgomery and Ben Green, formerly enslaved by Joseph and Jefferson Davis. Residents of the town took pride in the fact that African Americans owned all of the property in town, including banks, insurance companies, shops, and the surrounding farms. The town celebrated African American cultural and economic achievements during their annual festival, Mound Bayou Days. These tight-knit communities provided African Americans with spaces where they could live free from the indignities of segregation and the exploitation of sharecropping on white-owned plantations.6 Notes - Carl Schurz, Report on the Condition of the South, ed. Michael Burlingame (1865; repr. New York: Arno Press, 1969), iii. - Douglas R. Egerton, The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era (New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2014), 296. - Elaine Frantz Parsons, Ku-Klux: The Birth of the Klan During Reconstruction (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015). - “A Defense of the Ku Klux,” Chester [S.C.] Reporter, January 11, 1872. - Sallie Adkins to Ulysses S. Grant, May 20, 1869. Letters Received, Source Chronological File, Container #7, 1868–1870: President’s Letters, Folder: May–December 1869, Record Group 60, General Records of the Department of Justice, National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, Maryland. - Nell Irvin Painter, Creating Black Americans: African-American History and Its Meanings, 1619 to the Present (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 158. Economic Development during the Civil War and Reconstruction The Civil War destroyed and then transformed the American economy. In 1859 and 1860, wealthy southern planters were flush after producing record cotton crops. Southern prosperity relied on over four million enslaved African American to grow cotton, along with a number of other staple crops across the region. Cotton fed the textile mills of America and Europe and brought great wealth to the region. On the eve of war, the American South enjoyed more per capita wealth than any other slave economy in the New World. To their enslavers, these people constituted their most valuable assets, worth roughly $3 billion.1 Yet this wealth obscured the gains in infrastructure, industrial production, and financial markets that occurred north of the Mason-Dixon Line, a fact that the war would unmask for all to see. In contrast to the slave South, northerners praised their region as a land of free labor, populated by farmers, merchants, and wage laborers. It was also home to a robust market economy. By 1860, northerners could buy clothing made in a New England factory, or light their homes with kerosene oil from Pennsylvania. The Midwest produced seas of grain that fed the country, with enough left over for export to Europe. Farther west, mining and agriculture were the mainstays of life. Along with the textile mills, shoe factories, and iron foundries, the firms that produced McCormick’s wheat harvesters and Colt’s firearms displayed the technical advances of northern manufacturers. Their goods crisscrossed the country on the North’s growing railroad network. An extensive network of banks and financial markets helped aggregate capital that could be reinvested into further growth. The Civil War, like all wars, interrupted the rhythms of commercial life by destroying lives and property. This was especially true in the South. From 1861 onward, the Confederate government struggled to find the guns, food, and supplies needed to field an army. Southerners did make astonishing gains in industrial production during this time, but it was never enough. The Union’s blockade of the Atlantic prevented the Confederacy from financing the war with cotton sales to Europe. To pay their troops and keep the economy alive, the Confederate Congress turned to printing paper money that quickly sank in value and led to rapid inflation. In many cases, Confederate officials dispensed with taxes paid in cash and simply impressed the food and materials needed from their citizens. Perhaps most striking of all, in the vast agricultural wealth of the South, many southerners struggled to find enough to eat. The war also pushed the U.S. government to take unprecedented steps. Congress raised tariffs and passed the first national income tax in 1862. In late 1861, Congress created the nation’s first fiat currency, called greenbacks. At first, the expansion of the currency and the rapid rise in government spending created an uptick in business in 1862–1863. As the war dragged on, inflation also hit the North. Workers demanded higher wages to pay rents and buy necessities, while the business community groaned under their growing tax burden. The United States, however, never embarked on a policy of impressment for food and supplies. The factories and farms of the North successfully supplied Union troops, while the federal government, with some adjustments, found the means to pay for war. None of this is to suggest that the North’s superior ability to supply its war machine made the outcome of the war inevitable. Any account of the war must consider the tangled web of politics, battles, and economics that occurred between 1861 and 1865. But the aftermath of the war left portions of the Confederacy in ruins. State governments were mired in debt. White planters had most of their capital tied up in enslaved laborers, and so lost most of their wealth. Cotton remained the most significant crop, but the war changed how it was grown and sold. Planters broke up large farms into smaller plots tended by single families in exchange for a portion of the crop, a system called sharecropping. Once cotton production resumed, Americans found that their cotton now competed with new cotton plantations around the world. For the South as a whole, the war and Reconstruction marked the start of a period of deep poverty that would last until at least the New Deal of the 1930s. Emancipation was the single most important economic, social, and political outcome of the war. Freedom empowered African Americans in the South to rebuild families, make contracts, hold property, and move freely for the first time. Republicans in the South attempted to transform the region into a free-labor economy like the North. Yet the transition from slave labor to free labor was never so clear. Well into the twentieth century, white southerners used a combination of legal coercion and extralegal violence to maintain systems of bound labor. Vagrancy laws enabled law enforcement to justify the arrest of innocent Black men and women, and the convict-lease system meant that arbitrary arrests often resulted in decades of forced, uncompensated labor. But this new form of servitude, which continued until World War II, was only the most extreme example of an array of economic injustices. In the later nineteenth century, poor whites would form mobs and go “white-capping” to scare away Black job seekers.2 Lacking the means to buy their own farms, Black farmers often turned to sharecropping. Sharecropping often led to cycles of debt that kept families bound to the land.3 Victory did not produce a sudden economic boom for the rest of the United States, either. The North would not regain its prewar pace of industrial and commodity output until the 1870s. But the war did prove beneficial to wealthy northern farmers who could afford new technologies. Wartime labor shortages promoted the use of mechanical reapers, reducing demand for labor, boosting farm yields, and sowing the seeds of inequality. Wartime laws also transformed the relationship between the federal government and the American economy. New tariff laws sheltered northern industry from European competition. The Morrill Land Grant helped create colleges such as the University of California, the University of Illinois, and the University of Wisconsin. With the creation of the national banking system and greenbacks, Congress replaced hundreds of state bank notes with a system of federal currency that accelerated trade and exchange. This was not to say that Republican policy worked for everyone. The Homestead Act, meant to open the West to small farmers, was often frustrated by railroad corporations and speculators. The Transcontinental Railroad, launched during the war, failed to produce substantial economic gains for years. The war years forged a close relationship between government and the business elite, a relationship that sometimes resulted in corruption and catastrophe, as it did when markets crashed on Black Friday, September 24, 1869. This new relationship created a political backlash, especially in the West and South, against Washington’s perceived eastern and industrial bias. Conflicts over emancipation and civil rights quickly gave way to long political conflict over the direction of American economic development. Notes - Leonard L. Richards, Who Freed the Slaves? The Fight over the Thirteenth Amendment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015), 258. - William Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880–1930 (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1993), 23. - Blackmon, Slavery by Another Name. The End of Reconstruction Reconstruction ended when northerners abandoned the cause of the formerly enslaved and Democrats recaptured southern politics. Between 1868 and 1877, and especially after the Depression of 1873, economic issues supplanted Reconstruction as the foremost issue on the national agenda. The biggest threat to Republican power in the South had been the violence and intimidation of white Democrats. Only the presence of federal troops in key southern cities prevented Reconstruction’s quick collapse. But the United States never committed the personnel required to restore order and guarantee Black southerners the rights promised by the Fourteenth Amendment. Republicans and Democrats responded to economic uncertainty by retreating from Reconstruction. War-weary from a decade of military and political strife, so-called Stalwart Republicans turned from the idealism of civil rights to the practicality of economics and party politics. They won particular influence during Ulysses S. Grant’s first term as president (1868–1872). By the early 1870s, Stalwart Republicans assumed control of Republican Party politics. Meanwhile, New Departure Democrats—who focused on business, economics, political corruption, and trade—gained strength by distancing themselves from pro-slavery Democrats and Copperheads. In the South, they were called Redeemers. White southerners initially opposed the Redeemers and instead clung tightly to white supremacy and the Confederacy, but between 1869 and 1871, the Redeemers won support from white southerners by promising local rule by white Democrats, rather than Black or white Republicans. By 1871, Redeemers won political control and ended Reconstruction in three important states: Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia. In September 1873, Jay Cooke and Company declared bankruptcy, resulting in a bank run that spiraled into a six-year depression. The Depression of 1873 crushed the nation’s already suffering laboring class and destroyed whatever remaining idealism northerners had about Reconstruction. In the South, where many farms were capitalized entirely through loans, sources of credit vanished, many landowners defaulted, and farmers entered an already oversaturated labor market. Wages plummeted and a growing system of debt peonage trapped workers in endless cycles of poverty. The economic turmoil enabled the Democrats to take control of the House of Representatives after the 1874 elections, blunting the legislature’s capacity to any longer direct Reconstruction. On the eve of the 1876 presidential election, the nation still reeled from depression. Scandals sapped trust in the Grant Administration. By 1875, Democrats in Mississippi hatched the Mississippi Plan, a wave of violence designed to intimidate Black activists and suppress Black voters.1 The state’s Republican governor pleaded for federal intervention, but national Republicans ignored the plea. Meanwhile, Rutherford B. Hayes, a Republican, won a landslide victory in the Ohio gubernatorial election without mentioning Reconstruction, focusing instead on fighting corruption and alcohol abuse and promoting economic recovery. His success made him a potential presidential candidate. The stage was set for an election that would end Reconstruction as a national issue. Republicans chose Rutherford B. Hayes as their nominee; Democrats chose Samuel J. Tilden, who ran on honest politics and home rule in the South. Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina would determine the president. Despite the enduring presence of Reconstruction in those states, white conservatives organized violence and fraud with impunity. With the election results contested, a federal special electoral commission voted along party lines—eight Republicans for, seven Democrats against—in favor of Hayes. Democrats threatened to boycott Hayes’s inauguration. Rival governments arose claiming to recognize Tilden as the rightfully elected president. Republicans, fearing another sectional crisis, reached out to Democrats. In what became known as the Compromise of 1877, Democrats conceded the presidency to Hayes on the condition that all remaining troops would be removed from the South and the South would receive special economic favors. Hayes was inaugurated in March 1877. In April, the remaining troops were ordered out of the South. The compromise allowed southern Democrats, no longer fearing reprisal from federal troops or northern politicians for their flagrant violence and intimidation of Black voters, to return to power. After 1877, Republicans no longer had the political capital—or political will—to intervene in the South in cases of violence and electoral fraud. In certain locations with large populations of African Americans, such as South Carolina, freedpeople continued to hold some local offices for several years. Yet, with its most revolutionary aims thwarted by 1868, and economic depression and political turmoil taking even its most modest promises off the table by the early 1870s, most of the promises of Reconstruction were unmet. \| Military District \| State \| Readmission \| Conservative Takeover \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| District 1 \| Virginia \| 1870 \| 1870 \| \| District 2 \| North Carolina \| 1868 \| 1870 \| \| South Carolina \| 1868 \| 1877 \| \| \| District 3 \| Alabama \| 1868 \| 1874 \| \| Florida \| 1868 \| 1877 \| \| \| Georgia \| 1870 \| 1871 \| \| \| District 4 \| Arkansas \| 1868 \| 1874 \| \| Mississippi \| 1870 \| 1876 \| \| \| District 5 \| Texas \| 1870 \| 1873 \| \| Louisiana \| 1868 \| 1877 \| \| \| None \| Tennessee \| 1866 \| 1869 \| Table. This table shows the military districts of the seceded states of the South, the date the state was readmitted into the Union, and the date when conservatives recaptured the state house. Notes - Nicholas Lemann, Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006), 170–209. Conclusion Reconstruction in the United States achieved Abraham Lincoln’s paramount desire: the restoration of the Union. The war and its aftermath forever ended legal slavery in the United States, but African Americans remained second-class citizens and women still struggled for full participation in the public life of the United States. The closing of Reconstruction saw North and South reunited behind the imperatives of economic growth and territorial expansion, rather than ensuring the full rights of its citizens. From the ashes of civil war, a new nation faced fresh possibilities while enduring old problems. Primary Sources IX. Primary Sources 1. Freedmen discuss post-emancipation life with General Sherman, 1865 Reconstruction began before the War ended. After his famous March to the Sea in January of 1865, General William T. Sherman and Secretary of War Edwin Stanton met with twenty of Savannah’s African American religious leaders to discuss the future of the freedmen of the state of Georgia. In the excerpt below, Garrison Frazier, the chosen spokesman for the group, explains the importance of land for freedom. The result of this meeting was Sherman’s famous Field Order 15, which set aside confiscated plantation lands along the coast from Charleston, S.C. to Jacksonville, FL. for Black land ownership. The policy would later be overruled and freedpeople would lose their right to the land. 2. Jourdon Anderson writes his former enslaver, 1865 Black Americans hoped that the end of the Civil War would create an entirely new world, while white southerners tried to restore the antebellum order as much as they could. Most enslavers sought to maintain control over their formerly enslaved laborers through sharecropping contracts. P.H. Anderson of Tennessee was one such former enslaver. After the war, he contacted his formerly enslaved laborer Jourdon Anderson, offering him a job opportunity. The following is Jourdon Anderson’s reply. 3. Charlotte Forten teaches freed children in South Carolina, 1864 Charlotte Forten was born into a wealthy Black family in Philadelphia. After receiving an education in Salem, Massachusetts, Forten became the first Black American hired to teach white students. She lent her educational expertise to the war effort by relocating to South Carolina in 1862 with the goal of educating formerly enslaved people. This excerpt from her diary explains her experiences during this time. 4. Mississippi Black Code, 1865 Many southern governments enacted legislation that reestablished antebellum power relationships. South Carolina and Mississippi passed laws known as Black Codes to regulate Black behavior and impose social and economic control. While they granted some rights to African Americans – like the right to own property, to marry or to make contracts – they also denied other fundamental rights. Mississippi’s vagrant law, excerpted here, required all freedmen to carry papers proving they had means of employment. If they had no proof, they could be arrested, fined, or even re-enslaved and leased out to their former enslaver. 5. General Reynolds describes lawlessness in Texas, 1868 Most histories of the Civil War claim that the war ended in the summer of 1865 when Confederate armies surrendered. However, violent resistance and terrorism continued in the South for over a decade. In this report, General J.J. Reynolds describes the lawlessness of Texas during Reconstruction. 6. A case of sexual violence during Reconstruction, 1866 These documents chronicle a case in the wider wave of violence that targeted people of color during Reconstruction. The first document includes Frances Thompson and Lucy Smith’s testimony about their assault, rape, and robbery in 1866. The second document, demonstrates one way that white Southerners denied these claims. In 1876, Thompson was exposed for cross-dressing. For twenty years she successfully passed as a woman. Southerners trumpeted this case as evidence that widely documented cases of violence, sexual and otherwise, were fabricated. 7. Frederick Douglass on remembering the Civil War, 1877 Americans came together after the Civil War largely by collectively forgetting what the war was about. Celebrations honored the bravery of both armies, and the meaning of the war faded. Frederick Douglass and other Black leaders engaged with Confederate sympathizers in a battle of historical memory. In this speech, Douglass calls on Americans to remember the war for what it was—a struggle between an army fighting to protect slavery and a nation reluctantly transformed into a force for liberation. 8. Johnson and Reconstruction cartoon, 1866 This print mocks Reconstruction by making several allusions to Shakespeare. The center illustration shows a Black soldier as Othello and President Andrew Johnson as Iago. Johnson’s slogans “Treason is a crime and must be made odious” and “I am your Moses” are on the wall. The top left shows a riot in Memphis and at the top a riot in New Orleans. At the bottom, Johnson is trying to charm a Confederate Copperhead. General Benjamin Butler is at the bottom left, accepting the Confederate surrender of New Orleans in 1862. This scene is contrasted to the bottom right where General Philips Sheridan bows to Louisiana Attorney General Andrew Herron in 1866, implying a defeat for Reconstruction. Click on the image for more information. 9. Fifteenth Amendment print, 1870 This 1870 print celebrated the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment. Here we see several of the themes most important to Black Americans during Reconstruction: The print celebrates the military achievements of Black veterans, the voting rights protected by the amendment, the right to marry and establish families, the creation and protection of Black churches, and the right to own and improve land. Unfortunately, many of these freedoms would be short-lived as the United States retreated from Reconstruction. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Nicole Turner, with content contributions by Christopher Abernathy, Jeremiah Bauer, Michael T. Caires, Mari Crabtree, Chris Hayashida-Knight, Krista Kinslow, Ashley Mays, Keith McCall, Ryan Poe, Bradley Proctor, Emma Teitelman, Nicole Turner, and Caitlin Verboon. Recommended citation: Christopher Abernathy et al., “Reconstruction,” Nicole Turner, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Blight, David. Race and Reunion: The Civil War in American Memory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. - Blum, Edward J. Reforging the White Republic: Race, Religion, and American Nationalism, 1865–1898. Baton Rouge: LSU Press, 2007. - Cimbala, Paul A. Under the Guardianship of the Nation: The Freedmen’s Bureau and the Reconstruction of Georgia, 1865–1870. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003. - Downs, Gregory P. After Appomattox: Military Occupation and the Ends of War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2015. - ———. Declarations of Dependence: The Long Reconstruction of Popular Politics in the South, 1861–1908. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2014. - Edwards, Laura F. A Legal History of the Civil War and Reconstruction: A Nation of Rights. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2015. - Egerton, Douglas R. The Wars of Reconstruction: The Brief, Violent History of America’s Most Progressive Era. New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2014. - Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. New York: HarperCollins, 1988. - Franke, Katherine M. “Becoming a Citizen: Reconstruction Era Regulation of African American Marriages.” Yale Journal of Law and Humanities 11, no. 2 (1999): 251–310. - Hahn, Steven. A Nation Under Our Feet: Black Political Struggles in the Rural South from Slavery to the Great Migration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2003. - Higginbotham, Evelyn Brooks. Righteous Discontent: The Women’s Movement in the Black Baptist Church, 1880–1920. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993. - Hunter, Tera W. To ’Joy My Freedom: Southern Black Women’s Lives and Labors After the Civil War. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. - Janney, Caroline E. Remembering the Civil War: Reunion and the Limits of Reconciliation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013. - Jones, Jacqueline. Labor of Love, Labor of Sorrow: Black Women, Work, and the Family, from Slavery to the Present. New York: Basic Books, 2010. - Kantrowitz, Stephen. More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829–1889. New York: Penguin, 2012. - Lemann, Nicholas. Redemption: The Last Battle of the Civil War. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2006. - Masur, Kate. An Example for All the Land: Emancipation and the Struggle over Equality in Washington, D.C. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. - Nelson, Megan Kate. Ruin Nation: Destruction and the American Civil War. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2012. - Parsons, Elaine Frantz. Ku-Klux: The Birth of the Klan During Reconstruction. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. - Richardson, Heather Cox. The Death of Reconstruction: Race, Labor, and Politics in the Post–Civil War North, 1865–1901. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001. - ———. West from Appomattox: The Reconstruction of America After the Civil War. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008. - Rosen, Hannah. Terror in the Heart of Freedom: Citizenship, Sexual Violence, and the Meaning of Race in the Postemancipation South. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2009. - Saville, Julie. The Work of Reconstruction: From Slave to Wage Laborer in South Carolina 1860–1870. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994. - Silber, Nina. The Romance of Reunion: Northerners and the South, 1865–1900. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997. - Wilson, Charles Reagan. Baptized in Blood: The Religion of the Lost Cause, 1865–1920. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2009	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:34.996062	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90485/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Reconstruction, Growth, and Transformation, Reconstruction", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56595/overview	Cambodian Art and Architecture Overview This is a unit I created for a section of my art history course. Our community college has a sizeable population of Cambodian immigrants with an interest in learning about their heritage. Most art history survey courses in the United States do not sufficiently expose students to the culture of Southeast Asia. Historical Overview In Cambodia during the 12th century, Khmer kings built a “temple mountain” with five towers in the shape of lotus flowers called Angkor Wat (means “city that is a temple”). This vast religious complex, originally dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu and later associated with Buddhism, was believed to spread blessings out to the world. Both Hinduism and Buddhism originated in India and spread to Southeast Asia through peaceful means. Once these religious systems travelled southward, the Khmer people transformed what they had imported and made it their own. They adapted Buddhist ideas and Hindu deities to their own tastes and customs, creating a uniquely Cambodian art culminating in a golden age at Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat's Mandala Design The plan of Angkor Wat’s architecture resembles a mandala. A mandala (Sanskrit for “circle”) is a sacred diagram of the universe. You can see a sample mandala here. This one is from Tibet: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amitayus_Mandala.jpeg A mandala is composed of repeating geometric shapes--often a square enclosing smaller circles. Sometimes, it includes a triangle or a cruciform. Looking at a mandala pattern calls one into a state of meditation and tranquility. The eye moves slowly from the design’s periphery to its nucleus—a kind of inner journey. Alternatively, one could start at the center and proceed outward in ever larger shapes as a dropped stone spreads rings in a pool of water. A mandala can be experienced through architecture as well. For example, the Buddhist monument Borobudur, built in Java, Indonesia, c. 800 CE, is conceived as a vertical mandala. As one climbs up the steep stairs ten levels towards enlightenment, three worlds are represented in stone: the world of greed/desire, the world of forms, and the world of formlessness where the Buddha resides. For a video on Borobudur, see http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/592/video To enter the mandala structure of Angkor Wat, a traveler crosses a long causeway with water on all sides. The moat around the structure symbolizes the sea surrounding Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain where Vishnu resides. The main complex is a square building with entrances at four corners. One proceeds up steps through sculpture-filled enclosures and archways to a central sanctuary crowned by five lotus towers. You have reached the axis-mundi, the center of the world according to local belief. What if you personally had the opportunity to visit Angkor Wat today? Would you consider your trip a pilgrimage—an uplifting journey to awaken your spirit? This module is designed to give you the feeling of a pilgrimage to Angkor Wat. Group Exercise / Discussion Students will need access to a computer, iPhone, or iPad to view images and their own journal (an unlined notebook with blank pages set aside for this class.) Each student will put all Cambodia-related notes and sketches in a journal and turn it into the instructor to be graded after the module. They will work in small groups for much of the module, but the end-product should be a journal of their own, an individual process of exploration. To get started, watch together the first ten minutes of the 2008 World Heritage film: “Angkor and Mogao.” If desired, you could extend the module to include the Mogao caves at Dunhuang, an oasis on the Silk Road, Gansu province, China. If you do not have access to Kanopy Streaming through your library, show another short video about Angkor Wat such as this one by National Geographic https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/world-heritage/angkor/ Form small groups of two or three students. Ask them to discuss what they learned about Angkor Wat’s architecture or sculpture from the film. They should write down key points from the film and/or questions they would like to have answered. Working informally in groups or on their own, students should consult the photographs of Angkor Wat and related temples under the heading “Cambodia/Angkor” on the Asian Historical Architecture website https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/index For each stone structure listed under the “Angkor” designation, they will find photos and a diagram of each temple. The diagrams show the temple’s mandala shape. For insight into the life around the temples at that time, watch the Virtual Reality animation of Angkor Wat at https://artsandculture.google.com/exhibit/DAKCaZFzDpVCKw Highlights from Asian Historical Architecture website “Face Towers” at Angkor Thom and Bayon Temple https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/935/cambodia/angkor/angkor-thom-north-gate https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/20/cambodia/angkor/bayon-temple (Bayon Temple photo gallery, see photos number 5, 35-36, and 53) Large “strangler” trees of rain forest spreading roots over Ta Som Temple https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/892/cambodia/angkor/ta-som-temple Ta Som Temple Photo Gallery, see photos number 44-45 Devata (female deities) at Thommanon Temple https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/sid/31/cambodia/angkor/thommanon-temple Thommanon Temple Photo Gallery, see photos number 5-9 Question to Address in Journals What in the gates, stairways, and “face towers” do you find interesting? What characteristics of these stone carvings project power or benevolence? What physical features make the sculptures of Buddhas and Hindu gods/goddesses come alive? Which sculptures or architectural features have an impact on you? What emotions do they inspire? You do not have to have in-depth knowledge of their specific meaning in Khmer culture to respond to them as art or as reflections of shared human experience. Discuss your reactions with members of your group. Write down your group’s responses to share with the whole class. Approaches to Looking and Thinking According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung (1875-1961), our personal unconscious rests on a deeper layer of memory shared by all humans. He calls this submerged mental layer common to all cultures and time periods the collective unconscious and the ancient images or patterns of thought found there, archetypes. For example, the mandala and labyrinth are archetypes. The circular mandala creates a picture of perfect balance. Such sacred circles not only appear in Eastern art but also in stained glass windows of Christian cathedrals. Jung said stones represent another archetype symbolizing eternity. Mountains are associated with ancestors. Angkor Wat is conceived as a stone mountain. Stone is the basic material for monuments in various cultures. For example, Mount Rushmore, a tribute to four American presidents, was carved from a cliff face in South Dakota. Consider how females are represented at Angkor Wat. Do you see parallels with female representations in Greek or Christian art or only differences? Which attributes seem distinctively Cambodian? Drawing such comparisons, we notice common themes or basic patterns, such as the fierce female warrior or the celestial maiden. Jung says we benefit from considering universal patterns in myth and art. We gain fresh understandings that help us make meaning in our own lives. Here are a few archetypes: all-seeing deities, creation stories, fierce avengers, humorous pranksters, sensuous beauties. You’ll think of more. Aside from these general patterns, we certainly want to study the specific religious meanings attached to these sculptures and temple architecture as they were understood within their original context. We need to do more research about Cambodian art, focusing on examples of Cambodian sculpture in American museum collections accessible through their websites. Terminology Apsara: celestial maiden Bodhisattva: A Buddha-to-be who holds back from entering a state of nirvana out of compassion for the world’s suffering Brahma: Hindu god of creation, four faced and four-armed Churning of the Ocean of Milk: Legend of gods and demons churning the primordial sea in a battle to obtain the elixir of life using the body of a serpent as rope and Mount Mandara as the paddle. Durga: Hindu goddess, slayer of the buffalo demon Face Towers at Bayon Temple and Angkor Thom: Monumental in size, facing four directions; Not sure which sacred figure they represent; may be modelled after the King’s face Ganesha: Elephant face on human body with big belly, Hindu god of success Hanuman: Monkey hero featured in the Indian epic Ramayana Lokeshvara: Bodhisattva of Compassion, always has seated Buddha in topknot of hair Mount Meru: Angkor Wat symbolizes this cosmic mountain, home of the gods, the axis mundi Naga-Enthroned Buddha: Naga is serpent, a local symbol of water and fertility, associated with Khmer origins. Naga protects the Buddha by shading him with his hood and making a throne of its coils. Parvati: Spouse of or female personification of Shiva Sampot: Traditional Khmer dress, skirt-cloth wound around waist and drawn between legs Shiva: Hindu God, both destroyer and creator, has Third Eye (inner vision) Shiva as Nataraja: Within a ring of fire, the Hindu god performs the cosmic dance, destroying ignorance Focus Group of Sculptures The following list of eight Hindu and Buddhist sculptures and their descriptions are accessible online at The Cleveland Museum of Art website. All sculptures are available through this link except for Nataraja): http://www.clevelandart.org/art/collection/search?search=cambodia&only-open-access=1 For Nataraja, Shiva as the Lord of Dance (from South India, not Cambodia) http://www.clevelandart.org/art/1930.331 - Head of Shiva, 12th century (1940.53) - Durga as the Slayer of the Buffalo Demon, 10th century (1996.27) - Flying Hanuman, 10th century (1987.43) - Head of Lokeshvara, 7th century (1955.47) (Note: This is Buddhist, a bodhisattva) - Ganesha, c. 600, (1987.147) - Naga-Enthroned Buddha, 12th century, (1963.263) - Apsara, c. 1200, (1938.304) - Nataraja, Shiva as the Lord of Dance, c. 1000 CE (Note: This is from India) On a similar Nataraja at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, see Farisa Khalid article at Smart History.org. https://smarthistory.org/shiva-as-lord-of-the-dance-nataraja/ More stone carvings of interest: - Standing Brahma: (See image and scroll down page for audio description by curator) https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/38265 - Shiva and Parvati: (Watch video embedded in article. http://www.asianart.org/collections/shiva-and-parvati - “Churning the Ocean of Milk” panel at Angkor Wat . You can find good study images through ArtStor database if you have access through your library. Here is an introductory article by Dr. Melody Rod-ari with a video embedded at the end. The video is called “World Monument Fund at Angkor Wat: The Churning of the Sea of Milk Gallery.” https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ap-art-history/south-east-se-asia/cambodia-art/a/angkor-wat Traditional Cambodian Art in the United States For an example of traditional Cambodian art thriving today, watch video on ceramic master Yary Livan, a survivor of Khmer Rouge genocide residing in Lowell, MA. The video is embedded in the article at the end: https://www.wbur.org/artery/2017/07/28/cambodian-ceramicist-lowell Background Reading on Cambodian Art and Architecture Jessup, Helen Ibbitson. Art and Architecture of Cambodia. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004. Jessup, Helen Ibbitson and Thierry Zephir, eds. Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millenium of Glory. Washington D. C.: National Gallery of Art, 1997. Kerlogue, Fiona, “Introduction,” in Arts of Southeast Asia. London: Thames & Hudson, 2004, 7-23. Stone, Richard, “Divining Angkor,” National Geographic Vol. 216 no. 1 (July 2009): 26-55. Background Reading on Shared Patterns in Mythology and Art Across Cultures Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with A Thousand Faces. Bollingen Series XVII Third Edition. Novato, California: New World Library, 2008. Jung, Carl G., and M.L. von Franz, Joseph I. Henderson, Jolande Jacobi, Aniela Jaffé. Man and his Symbols. London: Aldus Books: 1964. Journal Assignment and Criteria for Assessment of Journal Over two weeks, create 5-10 sketches in your journal on Cambodian art or architecture, labelling them with specific terminology (such as found on this handout). Don’t worry--it is okay if you have not had any prior art training! Focus on a single feature of the stone carving--for example, the face, hair or floral pattern of the gateway or niche. Consider what the figure is holding and how the body is posed. Draw a diagram of a temple at Angkor Wat or any mandala interesting to you. Next to your sketches write a few sentences using the terminology and explaining the religious meanings you learned from your research. Do you recognize any archetype (theme or symbol common in many cultures; for example, a creation myth)? Think of the art in two ways: from the perspective of a Khmer person in ancient Cambodia and as an art history student (you!) in contemporary times. Another way you can create a journal is through scrapbooking images found in magazines or online and physically cutting them out with scissors and pasting them into your journal with a glue-stick. Be sure to add commentary and terminology, even designs, to give the imagery your own personal stamp. Students who wish to insert their chosen photos and compose text digitally can find templates and produce beautiful color documents. Depending on the instructor’s preferences, many options for the journal are possible. However, urging students to physically draw the art requires them to slow down and really look at the art closely. Sample Criteria for Assessment of Journal _______Student comprehends specific terminology of interest to them _______Student completes at least 5 sketches labelled with names _______Student takes risks, explores material new to them _______Thoughtful commentary on archetypes _______Journal includes notes about group discussions/awareness of other students’ reactions _______Journal shows student’s sincere involvement in idea of pilgrimage	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.044159	Visual Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56595/overview", "title": "Cambodian Art and Architecture", "author": "Arts and Humanities" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97503/overview	Favorite Theorists Overview This week in your reading, you were introduced to many of the pioneering theorists who have helped develop Early Childhood Education into what it is today. For this assignment, please create a a few slides (either PowerPoint or Google slide will work) of your favorite theorist in Child Development, either one you read about today or someone else you know about from other classes. You will do this with your group. Make sure you and your group communicate this week and begin to think about what theorist you will focus on. Once you have agreed on a theorist begin researching individually and come to class prepared so you can begin designing your slides as a group in-person. When slides are completed, have 1 person from your group upload the slides here! Slide Requirements: 1. Tell us who they are. 2. Why they are your favorite 3. One thing you wish you could ask them. Group Activity This week in your reading, you were introduced to many of the pioneering theorists who have helped develop Early Childhood Education into what it is today. For this assignment, please create a a few slides (either PowerPoint or Google slide will work) of your favorite theorist in Child Development, either one you read about today or someone else you know about from other classes. You will do this with your group. Make sure you and your group communicate this week and begin to think about what theorist you will focus on. Once you have agreed on a theorist begin researching individually and come to class prepared so you can begin designing your slides as a group in-person. When slides are completed, have 1 person from your group upload the slides here! Slide Requirements: 1. Tell us who they are. 2. Why they are your favorite 3. One thing you wish you could ask them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.058546	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97503/overview", "title": "Favorite Theorists", "author": "Maribel Duran" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/126645/overview	The OAS Hub Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit Overview This Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit is designed to support educators in identifying, evaluating, curating, and authoring/remixing resources. Getting Started with OER Information Open Educational Resources (OER) refer to any teaching and learning materials that reside in the public domain or have been released under a license that permits no-cost access, use, adaptation, and redistribution. Open Educational Practices (OEP) refer to collaborative teaching and learning practices that help educators to advance a culture of sharing and active learning through OER, including: - Collaboration: connect with educators with diverse expertise, brainstorm innovative ideas, contribute resources and best practices, get and give feedback, reflect and share our successes and challenges with our global community. - Curation: identify, evaluate, organize, and share resources that meet our learning objectives. - Design: create high-quality instructional materials by utilizing supports, like authoring templates and planning tools. Think deeply about how we design resources to meet the unique needs of our learners. Reflect and refine resources for continuous improvement. - Leadership: present, train, and share with others to build awareness and advocacy. Practice Which Open Educational Practices are you interested in advancing in your work? Get started with Open Educational Resources and Practices by: - Registering & creating an OER Commons profile. - Joining the OAS Train the Trainers Group. - Exploring group resource folders and adding new folders. - Posting and replying to group discussions. Need help registering? Please read the help articles here. How to Create an Account. Identify OER Information Before searching for resources to use in your work, what considerations do you make? - Are there any specific content gap areas in my existing courses? For example, I might have an urgent need for math modeling or STEM literacy resources. - Are there new types of digital materials that I would like to integrate into my existing courses? For example, I might want to offer my students more opportunities to use interactive games and simulations. - Are there innovative teaching and learning strategies that I would like to incorporate into my instructional plan? For example, I might desire to try some kinesthetic learning or guided inquiry activities. - Are there current events and news topic areas that I need resources for? For example, I might be interested in finding the latest resources on climate change or refugees. Practice Type keyword(s) into the Search Bar or use Advanced Search to identify additional search criteria, such as material type, educational level, and more. Once you get your search results, you can further filter them. You can also browse resource collections, groups, and hubs, such as the OAS Hub for the Americas with continuous learning collections for different content areas/practices and audiences, working groups for content areas and specific projects, and more. Need help searching? Read the help articles here: How to use Search, Advanced Search, and Filter Evaluate OER Information What makes a resource high-quality? What do you specifically look for in a resource to use in your work? Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Explore the different Evaluation Tools below: Practice Choose a tool or tools to explore further. How might you customize these tools to create your own evaluation criteria? Evaluate a resource using your own criteria by writing your review as a comment on the resource. Curate OER Information Share an example of something you have curated. There are many ways that we thoughtfully collect and organize things that are important to us. Our homes are representations of how we curate collectables, art, books, plants, etc. We also curate articles and photos using social media like twitter, instagram, facebook, and pinterest. 1. What considerations do you make when curating resources to use in your work? Here are some curation considerations from OER Commons' digital librarians: - User-Centered Design: The first step our digital librarians take in curation is to research their intended audience. Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards. What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? - Identify and Select Resources: Next digital librarians select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the OER Commons curation criteria of having open licensing, being up to date and relevant, and high-quality. - Describe and Organize of Resources: Digital librarians put a lot of consideration into how they describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience. They add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search. They create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections. - Share and Promote Resources: Digital Librarians utilize collaborative spaces, like Hubs and Groups to share resources. They also use social media tools, like the twitter; newsletter mailings; and in person and virtual presentations and trainings to promote their collections with a larger audience. 2. Brainstorm your curation plans User-centered Design: Who are we curating for? What are their needs and preferences, learning goals and standards? What is top of mind and of the utmost importance to them currently? Identify and Select Resources: Select resources that 1.) Address the user's needs and 2.) Meet the your evaluation criteria shared last week Describe and Organize of Resources: How will you describe and organize resources so that they are easy to access and use by their intended audience? Such as add relevant and appropriate tags directly to resource descriptions to support ease of discovery in search and create clearly labeled shared folders and subfolders to support accessibility of resource collections Share and Promote Resources: What methods will you use to promote your curated resources? Such as social media, blogs, newsletters, listervs, websites, presentations and trainings Practice Submit an open educational resource to share in the OER Commons library: Click Submit a Resource in our group and add the link and descriptive information. Create folders / subfolders and save resources you want to use and share: In group resourses click on New and add the title of the folder. To save resources, click Save on the resource and select the folder you wish to save it to. For inspiration, check out this example of a group curating language learning resources for the Pathways Project at Boise State University. Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate directly on the resource by clicking Add New Tag. OER Authoring & Remixing	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.080350	02/26/2025	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/126645/overview", "title": "The OAS Hub Open Educational Resources & Practices Starter Kit", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107709/overview	Plan resources. Overview This learning module (Lesson 3 of Unit 3) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on internal management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. Project managers have lots of resources at their disposal (e.g., time, budget, and talent). To make the most of the resources available, project managers need to plan the use of these resources through the lifecycle of the project. Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Describe the resource management process. - Create RACI chart. - Forecast, allocate, and level resources. What is resource planning? \| 5 minute watch Even though ProjectManagement.com is a software company, they have long-produced a series of informational "chalk talks" hosted by Jennifer Whitt Bridges, who is a PMP. These short videos are suitable for explaining basic project management topics and are widely available on YouTube. What is a RACI chart? \| 6 minute read & 5 minute watch Read this article on how-to create a RACI chart by Forbes Advisor (2022). If you'd like to see this material in another format, check out this short video. Test your knowledge. - Which letter do we assign to the person who is accountable for an item getting done? - R - A - C - I - D - T/F: Informed folks need to be looped into the progress of a project but not consulted or overwhelmed with the details of every task. - True - False	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.103377	08/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107709/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, Internal Management, Plan resources.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107511/overview	2.1.2 Knowledge Check (with solutions) 2.1.3 Bonus Assignment - Charter & Stakeholder Grid Develop charter. Overview This learning module (Lesson 1 of Unit 2) is part of a course called Project Management Fundamentals and may either be completed individually as a stand-alone topic, or part of a trio of learning modules on external management, or as part of the course. Learning outcomes. In project management, charters are the essential document for initiating a project. Project charters capture key project information and help ensure all stakeholders are "on the same page." Upon successful completion of this module, you'll be able to: - Describe the chartering process. - List elements of a project charter. - Create project charter. What is a project charter? \| 5-10 minute read Porf. Christianson considers his Project Management Fundamentals textbook a work-in-progress (version 0.5). It is available at OER Commons as PDF download. He also provides a nice companion student workbook also available as a PDF download. For each chapter, the workbook provides a skeletal outline and knowledge checks (with answer keys). In many chapters, there are exercises and examples. It may be provided to students as a whole workbook or subsections may be provided with each chapter. Read chapter 4 (Project Charter) of Christianson's Project Management Fundamentals text (PDF resource attached). FYI: J. Scott Christianson is a professor at the University of Missouri and has an interesting website about technology (from AI to blockchain to crypto and everything in between). How do I develop a project charter? \| 5 minute watch Even though ProjectManagement.com is a software company, they have long-produced a series of informational "chalk talks" hosted by Jennifer Whitt Bridges, who is a PMP. These short videos are suitable for explaining basic project management topics and are widely available on YouTube. What are the key elements of a project charter? \| 4 minute read Read this article about the (12) elements of a project charter by ProjectEngineer.net (2022). Test your knowledge. - Project charters provide high-level details obout the proposed project, but do not provide the "mandate" or formal authorization to start the project. - True - False - Which of the following elements are contained in a project charter? Select all that apply. - Broad description - Business case - Summary budget - Summary schedule (with major milestones) - High-level requirements BONUS: Putting what you learned in action. If you are using the Project Management Fundamentals course over the course of a semester, it is often effective to engage students in teams on a term project. I have had students work with for-profit, governmental, and non-profit (i.e. NGO) organizations to plan events, create digital products, and also prepare strategic initiatives. To support this idea of a project that allows students to apply what they've learned on an actual project, I have created a series of five transparent assignments: - External Management - charter creation and stakeholder analysis - Internal Management - team contract and RACI chart creation - Scope Management - work breakdown structure and disctionary creation - Schedule Management - Network analysis to identify critical path and Gantt chart creation - Risk Management - Risk identification and analysis, creation of risk register I have omitted the Cost Management competency group because often student projects do not have a budget, other than that of the students time. Project Work 1 > External Management For a project you and your team are about to start, try creating a charter and a stakeholder grid. These two project management tools are essential in the initiation and planning phases of a project - the charter is the authorization document and the stakeholder grid allows you to understand how may influence your project. A set of transparent assignment instructions (resource attached) have been provided that includes the following: - the purpose of the assignment, - the knowledge and skills that will be developed by the assignment, - the task involved, - a checklist of what will need to be accomplished, - a rubric of how to assess your work, and - a sample of finished work. Transparent assignments are a way for you to get clarity on expectations (see the "Unwritten Rules").	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.133866	08/07/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107511/overview", "title": "Project Management Fundamentals, External Management, Develop charter.", "author": "Paul Szwed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79865/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in crossword web design web design crossword or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.155036	05/03/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79865/overview", "title": "web design crossword", "author": "joel paulma" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97719/overview	SLIDE Into Accessibility Overview Are you new to accessibility? This resource is meant to be your entry point into the creation of accessible content with familiar tools such as Microsoft Office and Google Docs. You will learn about five practices that can have a significant impact on the learner experience for all students, especially those who rely on assistive technology for their access to the curriculum. Introduction Are you new to accessibility? This resource is meant to be your entry point into the creation of accessible content with familiar tools such as Microsoft Office and Google Docs. You will learn about five practices that can have a significant impact on the learner experience for all students, especially those who rely on assistive technology for their access to the curriculum. To help you remember these practices, we've created the mnemonic SLIDE, which stands for: - Styles are used for section headings. - Links are descriptive and meaningful. - Images have text descriptions. - Design is perceivable, with high contrast. - Evaluation is holistic and authentic. Each of the practices is also described in more detail in a playlist of closed-captioned videos with step-by-step directions you can follow at your own pace. Pause the videos, try things out, and reach out to us if you have any questions. While the practices are explained in the context of creating an accessible document, with one exception (Styles) the techniques apply to slide decks as well. Once you've watched the videos, put your new skills into practice with a document you will revise based on the best practices you’ve learned about in the videos. Styles Section headings will help you break up your content and make it easier to understand through “chunking.” Section headings will also be helpful to your learners who use screen readers. With a special keyboard shortcut or touch gesture, they can navigate by heading to find the section with the most relevant content. This can save them valuable time when navigating long documents. However, not all section headings are created equal in the digital world. It is not enough for you to just select the text and choose formatting options to make it stand out (by making it bold and increasing the text size). You also need to assign an appropriate heading style. Slide titles can perform a similar function as headings in your slide decks: they orient the reader and improve navigation. Use the Outline view (View, Outline) to review your slide titles in Microsoft PowerPoint and make sure they are unique and descriptive. Links Your learners who are screen reader users can also use a keyboard shortcut or touch gesture that brings up a list of links on a web page or document. If several links read as “click here” or “learn more” when presented on a list, they will find it difficult to determine what will happen when a link is selected. Make sure your links are meaningful on their own, without the surrounding text to provide additional context. Images Screen readers can only describe images if you provide a text description for them (also known as alternative text). The text description can also take the place of the images to ensure important information is not lost if your learners turn off images to save bandwidth on a device with a poor connection or a limited data plan. Design Use color to add visual appeal and make your content more inviting to learners, but remember that text with low contrast will be difficult to see and require more effort to read. Provide good color contrast to help your learners focus more of their energies on gaining an understanding of the information, rather than on overcoming barriers caused by poor design. You can check the contrast using a free checker such as the Colour Contrast Analyzer from TPGi. Evaluation Use the accessibility checker in your authoring tool if one is available to make sure your work meets basic accessibility requirements. Just remember that even the best of these automated accessibility checking tools have their limitations due to the subjective nature of many accessibility techniques. For example, an automated checker can determine if an image has alternative text, but it will not indicate whether the alternative text accurately describes the content of the image. As long as you keep the limitations of these checkers in mind and don’t see them as a replacement for learning accessibility best practices, they can make a valuable contribution to your accessibility work. The best automated checkers will include extensive guidance on how to fix identified errors, and will be a valuable tool for building your knowledge of accessibility. The ultimate measure of whether content is accessible or not, however, is how well it supports learners in reaching their goals. You should seek feedback from users of assistive technologies along with the results of accessibility checkers to ensure content is usable for all. Try it yourself! Are you ready to put what you learned from the videos into practice? This activity will allow you to check your understanding of the new practices you have learned, and you can contact us at any time if questions arise as you explore your new accessibility skills. Use the provided Google Docs document and apply the techniques discussed in the videos to improve the heading structure, include descriptive hyperlinks that make sense out of context, and add alternative text to the images. When you are done, use the built-in Office accessibility checker (or the Grackle add-on for Google Suite) to check your work. There are also “after” versions of each document you can use as exemplars.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.180413	10/05/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97719/overview", "title": "SLIDE Into Accessibility", "author": "Luis Perez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95382/overview	PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Overview This Open Educational Resource text has been created from a combination of original content and materials compiled and adapted from a number of open text publications. Attributions are more clearly delineated in the License and Attributions area of this textbook, including descriptions of which sections were edited prior to their inclusion. This Open Textbook is designed to be a comprehensive coverage of Psychopathology and Abnormal behavior in a clinical context, reflecting past and current research, including coverage of the DSM-5. Note from the author* : The variability of the in text citations and the absence of foot notes, reflect the very nature of this compilation of various source materials. We hope that this will not distract the reader. Original texts can be found by following the attribution url, for those interested in original authors, especially when a reference to research has been made. Dr. Sonja Miller is a Clinical Psychologist and Visiting Assistant Professor at Suny Albany and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Hudson Valley Community College (at the State University of New York at Albany). Minimal adjustments made By Dr. Debra J Matchinsky at North Hennepin Community College include the name of the text and cover image created by Dr. Matchinsky using free images from Pexels.com. PSYC 2320 Power Points will be made available in the Appendix during the Fall of 2020. Clinical Perspectives In ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Hudson Valley Community College Table of Contents - 1. Overview to Understanding Abnormal Behavior & Introduction and Methods of Research - Why it matters: Overview to Understanding Abnormal Behavior & Introduction and Methods of Research - Introduction to Abnormal Behavior - The Trouble with Defining Abnormality - The Social Impact of Psychological Disorders - What are Psychological Disorders? - What Causes Abnormal Behavior? - Introduction to the History of Mental Illness - History Of Mental Illness from the Stone Age to the 20th century - Introduction to Research Methods in Abnormal Psychology - Types Of Research Studies - In The News: Uprisings sparked by George Floyd’s murder – Racial Discrimination and Mental Health Deterioration - REAL STORIES : Rosenhan experiment - Putting it all together: Module 1 Review - 2. Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior and Therapeutic Orientations - Why it Matters: Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior and Therapeutic Orientations - Introduction to Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior - Biological Perspectives of Psychological Disorders - Trait Theory - Psychodynamic Perspective - Behavioral Perspective - Cognitive Perspective - Humanistic Perspective - Sociocultural Perspective - Positive Psychology Movement - Introduction to Therapeutic Orientations - Psychoanalysis And Psychodynamic Therapy - Humanistic And Person-Centered Therapy - Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance And Mindfulness-Based Approaches - Emerging Treatment Strategies - In the News : Nutritional Approaches in Prevention and Management of Mental Disorders - REAL STORIES : Celebrities who speak openly about mental illness - Putting it all together: Module 2 Review - 3. Classification, Diagnosis and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Why it matters: Classification, Diagnosis and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Introduction to Clinical Diagnosis and Classification Systems - How Are Abnormal Behavior Patterns Classified? - The Diagnostic Procedure - Steps in the Diagnostic Process - Introduction to Clinical Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Characteristics of Psychological Assessments - Clinical Interview and Mental Status Examination - Intelligence Testing - Personality Assessment - Behavioral, Multicultural and Neurological Assessments - In the news : The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic – A challenge to Psychological resilience - Real Stories: Kendra Webdale (Kendra’s law) – Our Notions of Risk and Liberty - Putting it all together: Module 3 Review - 4. Stress-Related Disorders - Why it matters: Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders - Introduction to Trauma- and Stressor- Related Disorders - Stressors - Reactive Attachment Disorder - Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder - Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - Acute Stress Disorder - Adjustment Disorders - Trauma Treatment - Trauma- and Stressor- Related Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In the news: Innovative Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - Real Stories: Meet a Mother and Her 7-Year-Old With PTSD - Putting it all together: Module 4 Review - 5. Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Why It Matters: Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Introduction to Anxiety Disorders - Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Specific Phobia - Panic Disorder And Agoraphobia - Social Anxiety Disorder - Separation Anxiety and Selective Mutism - Treatments For Anxiety And Related Disorders - Introduction to Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Body Dysmorphic Disorder - Hoarding Disorder - Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder) - Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder - Treatment Of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder And Related Disorders - Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive Compulsive Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News - Real Stories: Howie Mandel – Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and ADHD - Putting It All Together: Module 5 Review - 6. Dissociative Disorders Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders, and Psychological Factors Affecting Physical Health - Why it Matters: Dissociative Disorders and Somatic Symptom Disorders - Introduction To Dissociative Disorders - Defining dissociation - Dissociation And Trauma - Dissociation and Sleep - Introduction to Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders - Somatic Symptom Disorder and Related Disorders - Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions and Treatments - Personality Styles And Applications To Behavioral Medicine - Dissociative and Somatic Symptom Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Debate Persists Over Diagnosing Mental Health Disorders, Long After ‘Sybil’ - Real Stories: Sarah Desjardins -Coming Face to Face with Dissociative Identity Disorder - Putting it all Together: Module 6 Review - 7. Depressive and Bipolar Disorders/Mood Disorders and Suicide - Why it Matters: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders - Introduction to Depressive Disorders - Major Depressive Disorder - Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) - Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder - Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) - Perinatal Depression - Introduction to Disorders Involving Alterations in Mood - Bipolar Disorder - Cyclothymic Disorder - Suicide - Theories and Treatments of Depressive and Bipolar Disorders - Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: “Sad” myth or reality? - Real Stories: The Devil and Daniel Johnston - Putting it all Together: Module 7 Review - 8. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders - Why it Matters: Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders - Introduction to Substance Disorders - Key Features of Substance Disorders - Disorders Associated with Specific Substances - Theories and Treatment of Substance Use Disorders - Non-Substance-Related Disorders - Substance Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In the News: Prescribing Prescription Drugs/ Opioid Crisis in America - Real Stories: “Benny” – Living Sober - Putting it all together: Module 8 Review - 9. Feeding and Eating Disorders; Elimination Disorders; and Sleep-Wake Disorders - Why it Matters: Feeding and Eating Disorders; Elimination Disorders; and Sleep-Wake Disorders - Introduction to Feeding and Eating Disorders - Feeding Disorders - Eating Disorders - Theories and Treatment of Eating Disorders - Introduction to Elimination Disorders - Clinical Presentation, Etiology And Assessment And Treatment of Elimination Disorders - Introduction to Sleep-Wake Disorders - Sleep-wake Disorders and Treatment - Eating, Elimination, Sleep-Wake Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In Research: The Global Problem of Insufficient Sleep and Its Serious Public Health Implications - Real Storeis: Portia de Rossi -Unbearable Lightness: A Story of Loss and Gain - Putting it all Together: Module 9 Review - 10. Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, and Gender Dysphoria - Why it Matters: Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, and Gender Dysphoria - Introduction to Paraphilic Disorders - Paraphilic Disorders of the DSM-5 - Theories and Treatments of Paraphilic Disorders - Introduction to Sexual Dysfunctions - Sexual Disorders - Theories and Treatment of Sexual Dysfunctions - Introduction to Gender Dysphoria - Defining Gender Dysphoria - Theories and Treatment of Gender Dysphoria - Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, - 11. Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - Why it Matters: Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - Introduction to the Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - The phenomenology of schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders - History of schizophrenia - The Cognitive Neuroscience of Schizophrenia - Risk Factors for Developing Schizophrenia - Treatment of Schizophrenia - Introduction to Other Psychotic Disorders - Brief Psychotic Disorder - Schizophreniform Disorder - Schizoaffective Disorder - Delusional Disorders - Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Monitoring Online Discussions About Suicide Among Twitter Users With Schizophrenia - Real stories: Elyn Saks “A tale of mental illness – from the inside” - Putting It All Together: Module 11 Review - 12. Personality Disorders and Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders - Why it matters: Personality Disorders and Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders - Introduction to Personality Disorders - Cluster A Personality Disorders - Cluster B Personality Disorders - Cluster C Personality Disorders - Personality Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - Introduction to Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders - Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder - Intermittent explosive disorder - Pyromania - Kleptomania - Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Golden State Killer Joseph DeAngelo pleads guilty - Real Stories: Marsha Linehan – Expert on Mental Illness Reveals Her Own Fight - Putting It All Together: Module 12 Review - 13. Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Why it Matters: Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Introduction to Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder) - Autism Spectrum Disorders - Learning and Communication Disorders - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Motor Disorders - Neurodevelopmental Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Famous People with Autism - Real Stories: Stephen Wiltshire – amazing people with savant syndrome - Putting It All Together: Module 13 Review - 14. Neurocognitive Disorders - Why it Matters: Neurocognitive Disorders - Introduction to Neurocognitve Disorders - Characteristics of Neurocognitive Disorders - Delirium - Neurocognitive Disorder due to Alzheimer’s Disease - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Neurological Disorders other than Alzheimer’s Disease - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Substances/ Medications; HIV Infection; Another General Medical Condition - Neurocognitive Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Robin Williams, the American actor and comedian, committed suicide on August 11, 2014. - Real Stories: The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research is dedicated to finding a cure for Parkinson’s disease (PD) - Putting It All Together: Module 14 Review - 15. Ethical and Legal Issues - Why it Matters: Ethical and Legal Issues - Introduction to Ethical and Legal Issues - Competency and General Ethical Principles - Ethical Standards - Ethical and Legal Issues in Providing Services - Forensic Issues in Psychological Treatment - In The News: Ethical controversies – Conversion therapy - Real Stories: Virginia Tech shooting - Putting It All Together: Module 15 Review	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.286590	Social Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95382/overview", "title": "PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS", "author": "Psychology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88953/overview	Digital learning in the pandemic - cultural heritage resources by and for educators Overview This handbook from Europeana Education and European Schoolnet showcases best practices and examples of digital learning during the pandemic. It provides a resource to help educators throughout Europe find innovative, ready-to-use educational material. During the 2020–2021 academic year, the global pandemic gave the Europeana community of educators the opportunity to become more relevant in their work of integrating digital culture in learning practices and to grow even further. Events such as the Europeana Education Competition 2021 and the new MOOC Digital Education with Cultural Heritage created additional online opportunities for professional development, opening Europeana to even more educators interested in using digital technologies and new pedagogies with quality content. Europeana Education and European Schoolnet have created this handbook to showcase the best practices of the year and help colleagues all over Europe to find innovative ready-to-use educational material. We are confident that these resources will support educators during the next school period for online, offline and hybrid teaching and learning environments. This handbook takes inspiration from the Teaching with Europeana Blog, and just like the Blog, focuses on eight topics:, Art, Diversity and Inclusion, Environment, History, Language Subjects, Music, Philosophy, STEAM (STEM + Arts). It shares Learning Scenarios (LS) and Stories of Implementation (SoI) that not only relate to a topic, but also introduce innovative techniques, methodologies, key competences and more. The handbook is available in English, German, Spanish, French, Italian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian and Turkish. Dowload the pdf versions here!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.305501	Language Education (ESL)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88953/overview", "title": "Digital learning in the pandemic - cultural heritage resources by and for educators", "author": "History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111226/overview	Introduction to Linguistics Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning - My OER Goals & Purpose: Este recurso sirve como herramienta para mis estudiantes de posgrado que necesitan repasar los temas fundamentales de la lingüística. Por re-mezclar este contendio, lo adaptaré para incluir los temas necesarios para contextualizar el contendio principal del curso, lo cual se trata del bilingüismo dentro de los Estados Unidos. - My Audience: La audiencia en esta instancia consiste en estudiantes de maestría de español. -Existing Resources: Ciertos recursos ya recopilados para este libro me sirven. New Resources: Mi intención es complementar esta información con otros recursos OER que incluyen actividades para mis estudiantes. OER Item Introduction To Linguistics Learning Objective: Upon completing this undergraduate introduction to linguistics course, students should be able to: Understand the Fundamental Concepts of Linguistics: Define and explain core linguistic concepts, including phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Analyze and Describe Language Structures: Analyze the structures of various languages, identifying patterns and rules governing sound, word formation, sentence structure, and meaning. Demonstrate Knowledge of Language Variation: Recognize and explain regional, social, and cultural variations in language, considering factors such as dialects, accents, and sociolinguistic factors. Apply Linguistic Methods to Analyze Real-world Data: Utilize linguistic methods and tools to analyze real-world linguistic data, such as spoken or written texts, and draw informed conclusions about language structures and usage. Discuss Historical and Evolutionary Aspects of Languages: Examine historical changes in languages and understand the principles of language evolution, tracing language families and understanding language change over time. Explore the Relationship between Language and Cognition: Investigate the connection between language and cognitive processes, including the study of psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, and the cognitive aspects of language use. Evaluate Societal and Cultural Impacts of Linguistic Diversity: Assess the impact of linguistic diversity on societies and cultures, considering issues of language endangerment, language revitalization, and the role of language in identity. Engage in Critical Thinking about Language and Communication: Develop critical thinking skills to evaluate linguistic theories, research methodologies, and their implications for understanding human communication. Apply Knowledge to Practical Linguistic Analysis: Apply theoretical knowledge to practical linguistic analysis, demonstrating the ability to describe and analyze linguistic phenomena in diverse languages and contexts. Effectively Communicate Linguistic Concepts: Communicate linguistic concepts and analyses clearly and coherently, both in written and oral formats, demonstrating effective communication skills within the field of linguistics. Engage in Ethical Language Research Practices: Demonstrate an understanding of ethical considerations in linguistic research, including respect for linguistic diversity, the rights of language communities, and responsible research practices. Develop a Lifelong Interest in Linguistics: Foster curiosity and appreciation for linguistics as a field of study, encouraging students to pursue further exploration and engagement with linguistic topics beyond the introductory course. By achieving these learning objectives, students will gain a solid foundation in linguistics and be prepared for more advanced coursework in the field.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.332299	12/18/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111226/overview", "title": "Introduction to Linguistics", "author": "Ally Milner" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85678/overview	Library Orientation 6: African-American History Online Overview Part 6 of 15. Introduces the database African-American History Online. Includes outlines for an assignment and a quiz. Welcome You may want to put your contact information under "Resources." Introduction African-American History Online is a database of primary and secondary sources related to the African-American experience, from precolonial times to the present day. Covering everything from news to research to biography, this is an excellent database of books, articles, and media. Module Objectives - Successfully use African-American History Online to find an appropriate resource. - Create a single annotated bibliography entry based on a resource obtained from African-American History Online. Readings and Resources Library eResources Web Page: https://www.sheltonstate.edu/instruction-workforce-development/library-services/eresources/ Readings and Videos Shelton State Libraries subscribes to African American History Online as an academic resource and to provide students with materials related to our mission as an HBCU. AAHO is a collection of primary and secondary sources focused on 500 years of the African-American experience. To access African American History Online: - From the library's main web site, select eResources from the tiled menu or the left-hand menu. - Select African American History Online from the list. - You will need your MyShelton credentials to access this resource. Searching African American History Online is as easy as a Google search, but provides targeted, vetted results that are appropriate for citation in academic papers. Two important points: - If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire. - The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right. Assignment Restricting the student to the assignment submission module in your course management software is a second option. Introduction - This assignment will illustrate your ability to utilize African-American History Online to find an appropriate academic research resource. - Completing this assignment will give you one piece of your final annotated bibliography. Submissions will be graded and corrected versions can be used in your final assignment. Objectives Create an annotated MLA or APA citation for a resource you found on African-American History Online. Instructions - Watch the videos and read the documentation in this module related to African-American History Online. - Navigate to African-American History Online and search using the topic you chose in the discussion from Module 2. - Select a resource that fits your topic and read or watch it. - Using the citation tools provided, select the MLA or APA citation format and copy and paste the citation into the assignment. MLA or APA can be utilized, but be consistent. Use either MLA or APA consistently throughout this class. - Write a brief paragraph that summarizes the resource. - If you have trouble finding a resource, don't hesitate to contact your instructor. Submission Requirements This assignment can be submitted via email in the text of the message or as a PDF or MS Word attachment. This assignment is worth 5 points. 2 points: Proper Citation Format 3 points: Annotation (spelling and grammar count) Example In your final document, the citation should have a hanging indent, as per the example of the final project. Different databases provide different citation styles, even within the database. Projects for subject-level courses will require you standardize your entries to suit the format that the instructor requires. For this project, you need only copy and paste the citation from the database. MLA: Yount, Lisa. “Carver, George Washington.” George Washington Carver, Facts On File, 2014. African-American History, online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=4565&itemid=WE01&articleId=158148. Accessed 18 Aug. 2021. A fascinating brief biography of George Washington Carver. I had no idea he painted, knit, and did embroidery, or that these items were on display. APA: Yount, L. (2014). Carver, George Washington. In George Washington Carver. New York: Facts On File. Retrieved August 18, 2021, from online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=4565&itemid=WE01&articleId=158148. A fascinating brief biography of George Washington Carver. I had no idea he painted, knit, and did embroidery, or that these items were on display. Quiz Change the instructions to fit your needs. Use the quiz module of your course management software to ask questions. Here are mine, but you will have to modify them to suit your own library requirements: - African-American History Online does not contain primary sources. FALSE - You can only use African-American History Online for history classes. FALSE - African-American History Online doesn't contain any media or images. FALSE - African-American History Online provides citation suggestions. TRUE - African-American History Online is only available from computers in the library. FALSE Introduction This quiz will test your knowledge of African-American History Online. Objectives - Confirm that you have retained key information about African-American History Online. Instructions - There are 5 true-false questions. - You have 15 minutes for this quiz. - Please use the Chrome browser for best performance. - Once you start the quiz, you must complete it; there are 2 attempts. You cannot save to return to later. If you log out, you cannot return to the quiz. - The attempt with the highest score will be graded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.355620	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85678/overview", "title": "Library Orientation 6: African-American History Online", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85682/overview	Library Orientation 11: EBSCOhost Search Overview Part 11 of 15. Introduces the database EBSCOhost Search from the Alabama Virtual Library (AVL). Includes outlines for an assignment and a quiz. Welcome You may want to put your contact information under "Resources." Introduction EBSCOhost Search is a collection of subject-specific and general databases. You can limit your search to full-text items, guaranteeing that the resource you need is right there on your screen. A great place to do research on almost any topic, EBSCOhost provides access to media, books, and news items from as far back as the early 1900s. Limiters allow you to focus on specific time periods or publication types. Module Objectives - Successfully use EBSCOhost Search to find an appropriate resource. - Create a single annotated bibliography entry based on a resource obtained from EBSCOhost Search. Readings and Resources - Library eResources Web Page: https://www.sheltonstate.edu/instruction-workforce-development/library-services/eresources/ - Alabama Virtual Library (AVL) Website: http://www.avl.lib.al.us Readings and Videos EBSCOhost is one of the most popular resources available through the Alabama Virtual Library (AVL). A general subject database, it provides parallel publications (items that have also been published in print) on a wide range of topics and from sources that are news, general interest, and academic in nature. This is a great place to start any research. To get to EBSCOhost: - Navigate to the AVL (http://www.avl.lib.al.us (Links to an external site.)) and make sure you have access. - Select the grey box on the far right of the menu bar, "All Resources." - Scroll down until you see "EBSCOhost Search." Look in the grey boxes at the labels, not at the icons above them. Searching EBSCOhost is just as easy as searching Google, only the results are easier to filter and significantly more reliable. Anything you find in EBSCOhost is appropriate for use in an academic paper or project. Once you've completed a search, you may have too many results. EBSCOhost provides ways to narrow your search that will allow you to get the best possible resources for your project. EBSCOhost results have many tools and features. Watch below to see how to listen to the items you find, how to share and save them, and how to cite them. Two important points: - If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire. - The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right. Assignment Restricting the student to the assignment submission module in your course management software is a second option. Introduction - This assignment will illustrate your ability to utilize EBSCOhost Search to find an appropriate academic research resource. - Completing this assignment will give you one piece of your final annotated bibliography. Submissions will be graded and corrected versions can be used in your final assignment. Objectives - Create an annotated MLA or APA citation for a resource you found on EBSCOhost Search. Instructions - Watch the videos and read the documentation in this module related to EBSCOhost Search. - Navigate to EBSCOhost and search using the topic you chose in the discussion from Module 2. - Select a resource that fits your topic and read or watch it. - Using the citation tools provided, select the MLA or APA citation format and copy and paste the citation into the assignment. MLA or APA can be utilized, but be consistent. Use either MLA or APA consistently throughout this class. - Write a brief paragraph that summarizes the resource. - If you have trouble finding a resource, don't hesitate to contact your instructor. Submission Requirements This assignment can be submitted via email in the text of the message or as a PDF or MS Word attachment. This assignment is worth 5 points. 2 points: Proper Citation Format 3 points: Annotation (spelling and grammar count) Example In your final document, the citation should have a hanging indent, as per the example of the final project. Different databases provide different citation styles, even within the database. Projects for subject-level courses will require you standardize your entries to suit the format that the instructor requires. For this project, you need only copy and paste the citation from the database. MLA: Fisk, Anna. “‘Stitch for Stitch, You Are Remembering’: Knitting and Crochet as Material Memorialization.” Material Religion, vol. 15, no. 5, Dec. 2019, pp. 553–576. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080/17432200.2019.1676621. The connection between fiber crafts – specifically knitting and crochet – is explored and evaluated as a way for individuals to connect with the past. Knitting as a memory enhancer and to forge connections with loved ones reminds me of people who say that their love language is feeding people. APA: Fisk, A. (2019). “Stitch for Stitch, You Are Remembering”: Knitting and Crochet as Material Memorialization. Material Religion, 15(5), 553–576. https://doi.org/10.1080/17432200.2019.1676621 The connection between fiber crafts – specifically knitting and crochet – is explored and evaluated as a way for individuals to connect with the past. Knitting as a memory enhancer and to forge connections with loved ones reminds me of people who say that their love language is feeding people. Quiz Change the instructions to fit your needs. Use the quiz module of your course management software to ask questions. Here are mine, but you will have to modify them to suit your own library requirements: - EBSCOhost Search is available through the Alabama Virtual Library (AVL). TRUE - EBSCOhost Search is a general subject database. TRUE - EBSCOhost Search provides full-text materials. TRUE - EBSCOhost Search allows you to download MP3s of your article. TRUE - EBSCOhost Search has PDFs of all articles. FALSE Introduction This quiz will test your knowledge of EBSCOhost Search. Objectives - Confirm that you have retained key information about EBSCOhost Search. Instructions - There are 5 true-false questions. - You have 15 minutes for this quiz. - Please use the Chrome browser for best performance. - Once you start the quiz, you must complete it; there are 2 attempts. You cannot save to return to later. If you log out, you cannot return to the quiz. - The attempt with the highest score will be graded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.380276	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85682/overview", "title": "Library Orientation 11: EBSCOhost Search", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85685/overview	Library Orientation 14: Physical Resources Overview Part 14 of 15. Introduces the library's physical resources. Includes outlines for an assignment and a quiz. Welcome You may want to put your contact information under "Resources." Introduction Even in our modern times, you may need a book. The information you need may only be published in a physical resource, your instructor may require it, or you might just want to feel a book in your hands. There are lots of reasons libraries continue to collect physical resources. In addition to the above, sometimes the physical resource is more cost effective or significantly easier to use. Module Objectives - List physical resources available in the Shelton State Libraries. - Successfully obtain a physical resource from the Shelton State Libraries. - Create a single annotated bibliography entry based on an obtained physical resource. Readings and Resources Readings and Videos Most of our library materials are searchable through the OPAC, or online library catalog. This makes the catalog a great place to go to find physical resources as well as eresources. (Exceptions: A to Z World Food, CQ Researcher, and most of the Alabama Virtual Library, all of which are covered in their own modules.) Navigation to the OPAC from the library web page couldn't be easier. It's the first option on the tiled menu. If you are interested in eresources, the OPAC will let you limit your search to eresources from our Ovid Nursing collection, Credo Reference, African-American History Online, Films on Demand, Salem Press, and some of the Alabama Virtual Library. This video shows you how to find ebooks in the OPAC. And this video shows you how to find media. The library has access to many educational and dramatic videos which can be helpful when trying to learn a concept or understand a piece of literature. Print books, reserves, medical models, and other physical items are also searchable in the OPAC. If you would like, you can turn on your borrowing history to keep track of what you have checked out over the course of the semester. Staff cannot see your borrowing history and at the end of the semester, it is wiped out. This is not retroactive and must be turned on every semester. Assignment Restricting the student to the assignment submission module in your course management software is a second option. Introduction - This assignment will illustrate your ability to utilize the physical collection to find an appropriate academic research resource. - Completing this assignment will give you one piece of your final annotated bibliography. Submissions will be graded and corrected versions can be used in your final assignment. Objectives - Create an annotated MLA or APA citation for a resource you found in the physical collection. Instructions - Watch the videos and read the documentation in this module related to the physical collection. - Navigate to EBSCOhost and search using the topic you chose in the discussion from Module 2. - Select a resource that fits your topic and read or watch it. - Using the citation tools provided, select the MLA or APA citation format and copy and paste the citation into the assignment. MLA or APA can be utilized, but be consistent. Use either MLA or APA consistently throughout this class. - Write a brief paragraph that summarizes the resource. - If you have trouble finding a resource, don't hesitate to contact your instructor. Submission Requirements This assignment can be submitted via email in the text of the message or as a PDF or MS Word attachment. This assignment is worth 5 points. 2 points: Proper Citation Format 3 points: Annotation (spelling and grammar count) Example In your final document, the citation should have a hanging indent, as per the example of the final project. Different databases provide different citation styles, even within the database. Projects for subject-level courses will require you standardize your entries to suit the format that the instructor requires. For this project, you need only copy and paste the citation from the database. MLA: McNeil, Gil. The Beach Street Knitting Society and Yarn Club. 1st pbk. ed., Hyperion, 2010. A quick fiction read that seamlessly weaves knitting into ideas of family and female friendship. Not my normal read, but a nice story about women supporting women in a time of need. APA: McNeil, G. (2010). The beach street knitting society and yarn club (1st pbk.). Hyperion. A quick fiction read that seamlessly weaves knitting into ideas of family and female friendship. Not my normal read, but a nice story about women supporting women in a time of need. Quiz Change the instructions to fit your needs. Use the quiz module of your course management software to ask questions. Here are mine, but you will have to modify them to suit your own library requirements: - The only physical resources available in the library are books. FALSE - All books can be checked out and removed from the library. FALSE - Books are shelved by the author's last name. FALSE - The library has computers and printers that you can use. TRUE - You can find a book if you know what color the binding is. FALSE Introduction This quiz will test your knowledge of the physical collection. Objectives - Confirm that you have retained key information about the physical collection. Instructions - There are 5 true-false questions. - You have 15 minutes for this quiz. - Please use the Chrome browser for best performance. - Once you start the quiz, you must complete it; there are 2 attempts. You cannot save to return to later. If you log out, you cannot return to the quiz. - The attempt with the highest score will be graded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.405242	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85685/overview", "title": "Library Orientation 14: Physical Resources", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85680/overview	Library Orientation 8: CQ Researcher Overview Part 8 of 15. Introduces the database CQ Researcher. Includes outlines for an assignment and a quiz. Welcome You may want to put your contact information under "Resources." Introduction CQ Researcher is the Sage database of the Congressional Quarterly, a publication that is aimed at providing members of Congress up-to-date and well-researched information on topics in the news and current events. Module Objectives - Successfully use CQ Researcher to find an appropriate resource. - Create a single annotated bibliography entry based on a resource obtained from CQ Researcher. Readings and Resources Library eResources Web Page: https://www.sheltonstate.edu/instruction-workforce-development/library-services/eresources/ Readings and Videos Shelton State subscribes to CQ Researcher to provide students with research on current event topics. This resource is great for current event papers and argument papers. To access CQ Researcher: - From the library's main web site, select eResources from the tiled menu or the left-hand menu. - Select CQ Researcher from the list. - Your MyShelton credentials will be required for access. CQ Researcher allows you to search by keyword or by browsing, which makes it perfect if you need help selecting a topic. Two important points: - If you are planning to share an item, be sure to use the share option and not the URL from the address bar, which will expire. - The works cited options contain all of the information you will need to make a citation; however, check the suggested option against whatever resource your instructor wants you to use for citation. There may be some slight differences and your instructor is always right. Assignment Restricting the student to the assignment submission module in your course management software is a second option. Introduction - This assignment will illustrate your ability to utilize CQ Researcher to find an appropriate academic research resource. - Completing this assignment will give you one piece of your final annotated bibliography. Submissions will be graded and corrected versions can be used in your final assignment. Objectives Create an annotated MLA or APA citation for a resource you found on CQ Researcher. Instructions - Watch the videos and read the documentation in this module related to CQ Researcher. - Navigate to CQ Researcher and search using the topic you chose in the discussion from Module 2. - Select a resource that fits your topic and read or watch it. - Using the citation tools provided, select the MLA or APA citation format and copy and paste the citation into the assignment. MLA or APA can be utilized, but be consistent. Use either MLA or APA consistently throughout this class. - Write a brief paragraph that summarizes the resource. - If you have trouble finding a resource, don't hesitate to contact your instructor. Submission Requirements This assignment can be submitted via email in the text of the message or as a PDF or MS Word attachment. This assignment is worth 5 points. 2 points: Proper Citation Format 3 points: Annotation (spelling and grammar count) Example In your final document, the citation should have a hanging indent, as per the example of the final project. Different databases provide different citation styles, even within the database. Projects for subject-level courses will require you standardize your entries to suit the format that the instructor requires. For this project, you need only copy and paste the citation from the database. MLA: Lee, K. (1943). Civilian apparel. Editorial research reports 1943 (Vol. II), 1943, http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1943070900. Accessed 18 Aug. 2021. With a focus on wartime rationing, this article delves into what clothing was rationed during World War II. I had no idea that yarn/wool for knitting purposes would also be rationed. APA: Lee, K. (1943). Civilian apparel. Editorial research reports 1943 (Vol. II). http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/cqresrre1943070900 With a focus on wartime rationing, this article delves into what clothing was rationed during World War II. I had no idea that yarn/wool for knitting purposes would also be rationed. Quiz Change the instructions to fit your needs. Use the quiz module of your course management software to ask questions. Here are mine, but you will have to modify them to suit your own library requirements: - CQ Researcher is available freely to everyone, like Google. FALSE - CQ Researcher is full of research done for government bodies. TRUE - CQ Researcher is only for English Literature research. FALSE - CQ Researcher cannot be cited. FALSE - CQ Researcher is browseable and searchable. TRUE Introduction This quiz will test your knowledge of CQ Researcher. Objectives - Confirm that you have retained key information about CQ Researcher. Instructions - There are 5 true-false questions. - You have 15 minutes for this quiz. - Please use the Chrome browser for best performance. - Once you start the quiz, you must complete it; there are 2 attempts. You cannot save to return to later. If you log out, you cannot return to the quiz. - The attempt with the highest score will be graded.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.428098	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85680/overview", "title": "Library Orientation 8: CQ Researcher", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70977/overview	Introduction to Research course (LS 101) Overview This 2-credit course provides an introduction to research by learning to identify, find, evaluate, incorporate, and cite appropriate sources using a range of research tools. This course is designed for an online class environment and was taught as such in Spring 2020. The course materials have been collaboratively developed by Tacoma Community College librarians, and uses a combination of openly licensed, open access, and library resources. About this course Course description: This 2-credit course provides an introduction to research by learning to identify, find, evaluate, incorporate, and cite appropriate sources using a range of research tools. This course is designed for an online class environment. The course materials have been collaboratively developed by Tacoma Community College librarians, and uses a combination of openly licensed, open access, and library resources. Course learning outcomes: - Follow a plan for finding information using a variety of tools. - Use a strategic inquiry process to guide and refine your information needs and search strategies. - Demonstrate basic use of electronic search - Describe the purpose of citation in general, and create standard APA and MLA citations - Develop familiarity with sources of evidence, methods, and modes of discourse. - Identify and explain the differences between major types of information resources (e.g., books, lay periodicals, scholarly journals, wikis, etc.) and when and how to use them. This content is available as: - Open Canvas course - Downloadable course cartridge (.imscc file)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.448095	Tacoma Community College Library	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70977/overview", "title": "Introduction to Research course (LS 101)", "author": "Full Course" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70798/overview	Clinical Perspectives In ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Hudson Valley Community College Overview This Open Educational Resource text has been created from a combination of original content and materials compiled and adapted from a number of open text publications. Attributions are more clearly delineated in the License and Attributions area of this textbook, including descriptions of which sections were edited prior to their inclusion. This Open Textbook is designed to be a comprehensive coverage of Psychopathology and Abnormal behavior in a clinical context, reflecting past and current research, including coverage of the DSM-5. Note from the author* : The variability of the in text citations and the absence of foot notes, reflect the very nature of this compilation of various source materials. We hope that this will not distract the reader. Original texts can be found by following the attribution url, for those interested in original authors, especially when a reference to research has been made. *Dr. Sonja Miller is a Clinical Psychologist and Visiting Assistant Professor at Suny Albany and Adjunct Professor of Psychology at Hudson Valley Community College (at the State University of New York at Albany). PSYC 210 Power Points will be made available in the Appendix during the Fall of 2020. Clinical Perspectives In ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Hudson Valley Community College Table of Contents - 1. Overview to Understanding Abnormal Behavior & Introduction and Methods of Research - Why it matters: Overview to Understanding Abnormal Behavior & Introduction and Methods of Research - Introduction to Abnormal Behavior - The Trouble with Defining Abnormality - The Social Impact of Psychological Disorders - What are Psychological Disorders? - What Causes Abnormal Behavior? - Introduction to the History of Mental Illness - History Of Mental Illness from the Stone Age to the 20th century - Introduction to Research Methods in Abnormal Psychology - Types Of Research Studies - In The News: Uprisings sparked by George Floyd’s murder – Racial Discrimination and Mental Health Deterioration - REAL STORIES : Rosenhan experiment - Putting it all together: Module 1 Review - 2. Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior and Therapeutic Orientations - Why it Matters: Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior and Therapeutic Orientations - Introduction to Contemporary Perspectives on Abnormal Behavior - Biological Perspectives of Psychological Disorders - Trait Theory - Psychodynamic Perspective - Behavioral Perspective - Cognitive Perspective - Humanistic Perspective - Sociocultural Perspective - Positive Psychology Movement - Introduction to Therapeutic Orientations - Psychoanalysis And Psychodynamic Therapy - Humanistic And Person-Centered Therapy - Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Acceptance And Mindfulness-Based Approaches - Emerging Treatment Strategies - In the News : Nutritional Approaches in Prevention and Management of Mental Disorders - REAL STORIES : Celebrities who speak openly about mental illness - Putting it all together: Module 2 Review - 3. Classification, Diagnosis and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Why it matters: Classification, Diagnosis and Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Introduction to Clinical Diagnosis and Classification Systems - How Are Abnormal Behavior Patterns Classified? - The Diagnostic Procedure - Steps in the Diagnostic Process - Introduction to Clinical Assessment of Abnormal Behavior - Characteristics of Psychological Assessments - Clinical Interview and Mental Status Examination - Intelligence Testing - Personality Assessment - Behavioral, Multicultural and Neurological Assessments - In the news : The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic – A challenge to Psychological resilience - Real Stories: Kendra Webdale (Kendra’s law) – Our Notions of Risk and Liberty - Putting it all together: Module 3 Review - 4. Stress-Related Disorders - Why it matters: Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders - Introduction to Trauma- and Stressor- Related Disorders - Stressors - Reactive Attachment Disorder - Disinhibited Social Engagement Disorder - Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - Acute Stress Disorder - Adjustment Disorders - Trauma Treatment - Trauma- and Stressor- Related Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In the news: Innovative Treatments for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder - Real Stories: Meet a Mother and Her 7-Year-Old With PTSD - Putting it all together: Module 4 Review - 5. Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Why It Matters: Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Introduction to Anxiety Disorders - Generalized Anxiety Disorder - Specific Phobia - Panic Disorder And Agoraphobia - Social Anxiety Disorder - Separation Anxiety and Selective Mutism - Treatments For Anxiety And Related Disorders - Introduction to Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders - Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder - Body Dysmorphic Disorder - Hoarding Disorder - Trichotillomania (Hair-Pulling Disorder) - Excoriation (Skin-Picking) Disorder - Treatment Of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder And Related Disorders - Anxiety Disorders and Obsessive Compulsive Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News - Real Stories: Howie Mandel – Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder and ADHD - Putting It All Together: Module 5 Review - 6. Dissociative Disorders Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders, and Psychological Factors Affecting Physical Health - Why it Matters: Dissociative Disorders and Somatic Symptom Disorders - Introduction To Dissociative Disorders - Defining dissociation - Dissociation And Trauma - Dissociation and Sleep - Introduction to Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders - Somatic Symptom Disorder and Related Disorders - Psychological Factors Affecting Other Medical Conditions and Treatments - Personality Styles And Applications To Behavioral Medicine - Dissociative and Somatic Symptom Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Debate Persists Over Diagnosing Mental Health Disorders, Long After ‘Sybil’ - Real Stories: Sarah Desjardins -Coming Face to Face with Dissociative Identity Disorder - Putting it all Together: Module 6 Review - 7. Depressive and Bipolar Disorders/Mood Disorders and Suicide - Why it Matters: Depressive and Bipolar Disorders - Introduction to Depressive Disorders - Major Depressive Disorder - Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia) - Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder - Premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD) - Perinatal Depression - Introduction to Disorders Involving Alterations in Mood - Bipolar Disorder - Cyclothymic Disorder - Suicide - Theories and Treatments of Depressive and Bipolar Disorders - Depressive and Bipolar Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: “Sad” myth or reality? - Real Stories: The Devil and Daniel Johnston - Putting it all Together: Module 7 Review - 8. Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders - Why it Matters: Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders - Introduction to Substance Disorders - Key Features of Substance Disorders - Disorders Associated with Specific Substances - Theories and Treatment of Substance Use Disorders - Non-Substance-Related Disorders - Substance Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In the News: Prescribing Prescription Drugs/ Opioid Crisis in America - Real Stories: “Benny” – Living Sober - Putting it all together: Module 8 Review - 9. Feeding and Eating Disorders; Elimination Disorders; and Sleep-Wake Disorders - Why it Matters: Feeding and Eating Disorders; Elimination Disorders; and Sleep-Wake Disorders - Introduction to Feeding and Eating Disorders - Feeding Disorders - Eating Disorders - Theories and Treatment of Eating Disorders - Introduction to Elimination Disorders - Clinical Presentation, Etiology And Assessment And Treatment of Elimination Disorders - Introduction to Sleep-Wake Disorders - Sleep-wake Disorders and Treatment - Eating, Elimination, Sleep-Wake Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In Research: The Global Problem of Insufficient Sleep and Its Serious Public Health Implications - Real Storeis: Portia de Rossi -Unbearable Lightness: A Story of Loss and Gain - Putting it all Together: Module 9 Review - 10. Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, and Gender Dysphoria - Why it Matters: Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, and Gender Dysphoria - Introduction to Paraphilic Disorders - Paraphilic Disorders of the DSM-5 - Theories and Treatments of Paraphilic Disorders - Introduction to Sexual Dysfunctions - Sexual Disorders - Theories and Treatment of Sexual Dysfunctions - Introduction to Gender Dysphoria - Defining Gender Dysphoria - Theories and Treatment of Gender Dysphoria - Paraphilic Disorders, Sexual Dysfunctions, - 11. Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - Why it Matters: Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - Introduction to the Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders - The phenomenology of schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders - History of schizophrenia - The Cognitive Neuroscience of Schizophrenia - Risk Factors for Developing Schizophrenia - Treatment of Schizophrenia - Introduction to Other Psychotic Disorders - Brief Psychotic Disorder - Schizophreniform Disorder - Schizoaffective Disorder - Delusional Disorders - Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Monitoring Online Discussions About Suicide Among Twitter Users With Schizophrenia - Real stories: Elyn Saks “A tale of mental illness – from the inside” - Putting It All Together: Module 11 Review - 12. Personality Disorders and Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders - Why it matters: Personality Disorders and Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorders - Introduction to Personality Disorders - Cluster A Personality Disorders - Cluster B Personality Disorders - Cluster C Personality Disorders - Personality Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - Introduction to Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders - Oppositional Defiant Disorder and Conduct Disorder - Intermittent explosive disorder - Pyromania - Kleptomania - Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Golden State Killer Joseph DeAngelo pleads guilty - Real Stories: Marsha Linehan – Expert on Mental Illness Reveals Her Own Fight - Putting It All Together: Module 12 Review - 13. Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Why it Matters: Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Introduction to Neurodevelopmental Disorders - Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder) - Autism Spectrum Disorders - Learning and Communication Disorders - Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - Motor Disorders - Neurodevelopmental Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Famous People with Autism - Real Stories: Stephen Wiltshire – amazing people with savant syndrome - Putting It All Together: Module 13 Review - 14. Neurocognitive Disorders - Why it Matters: Neurocognitive Disorders - Introduction to Neurocognitve Disorders - Characteristics of Neurocognitive Disorders - Delirium - Neurocognitive Disorder due to Alzheimer’s Disease - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Neurological Disorders other than Alzheimer’s Disease - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Traumatic Brain Injury - Neurocognitive Disorder Due to Substances/ Medications; HIV Infection; Another General Medical Condition - Neurocognitive Disorders: The Biopsychosocial Perspective - In The News: Robin Williams, the American actor and comedian, committed suicide on August 11, 2014. - Real Stories: The Michael J. Fox Foundation for Parkinson’s Research is dedicated to finding a cure for Parkinson’s disease (PD) - Putting It All Together: Module 14 Review - 15. Ethical and Legal Issues - Why it Matters: Ethical and Legal Issues - Introduction to Ethical and Legal Issues - Competency and General Ethical Principles - Ethical Standards - Ethical and Legal Issues in Providing Services - Forensic Issues in Psychological Treatment - In The News: Ethical controversies – Conversion therapy - Real Stories: Virginia Tech shooting - Putting It All Together: Module 15 Review APSY 338 See Course Content in the above section. Survey of the behavior disorders, including the psychoses, psychoneuroses, mental deficiencies, and other forms of psychopathology. Prerequisite(s): A PSY 101, and 203 or 327. COURSE OBJECTIVES: I love teaching this course, and my intentions are: (a) To provide you with an overview of the field of abnormal psychology and major psychological problems; (b) To familiarize you with the causes of psychopathology from several different theoretical perspectives; (c) To illustrate an integrative view of human suffering and related research about abnormal behavior; (d) To educate you about new trends and treatment strategies for psychological disorders (e) And most importantly, to give you a perspective on human suffering that may help you live well when life is hard.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.554287	Social Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70798/overview", "title": "Clinical Perspectives In ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY Hudson Valley Community College", "author": "Psychology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/9052/overview	Study for the US Citizenship Test Florida Study Guide (download from Resource Library) Overview This study guide will help you prepare for the US citizenship test. The citizenshiptest is a one-to-one interview with a US CIS officer. The test has three areas.The US CIS officer wants to know:• that you understand and can answer these questions about US government,history and geography.• that you understood and answered the questions on your N-400 formcorrectly.• that you can read, write and speak English.This study guide will help you prepare for the test. It will teach you how to answerall the questions.Each chapter presents some information about the US government, history orgeography. Use that information to write answers to the questions at the end ofeach chapter. Then do the multiple-choice exercises. If you have time you can goback and practice asking and answering the questions with a partner.There is also a dictation practice in the last 4 chapters. These are sentences usedby the US CIS to show that you can write in English. Your answers don't have tobe perfect. Have a partner read the questions and answers (from the lists at the endof this book). Write the answers. Check your answers. You don't have to writeperfectly to pass this test.Finally, there are questions about the information on your N-400 form. Writeanswers to these questions, and then practice answering these questions with apartner. The officer will ask you about the information on your N-400 form. Youmay be asked to explain some of your answers to show that you understand thequestion and have answered it correctly. Section 1 This study guide will help you prepare for the US citizenship test. The citizenshiptest is a one-to-one interview with a US CIS officer. The test has three areas.The US CIS officer wants to know:• that you understand and can answer these questions about US government,history and geography.• that you understood and answered the questions on your N-400 formcorrectly.• that you can read, write and speak English.This study guide will help you prepare for the test. It will teach you how to answerall the questions.Each chapter presents some information about the US government, history orgeography. Use that information to write answers to the questions at the end ofeach chapter. Then do the multiple-choice exercises. If you have time you can goback and practice asking and answering the questions with a partner.There is also a dictation practice in the last 4 chapters. These are sentences usedby the US CIS to show that you can write in English. Your answers don't have tobe perfect. Have a partner read the questions and answers (from the lists at the endof this book). Write the answers. Check your answers. You don't have to writeperfectly to pass this test.Finally, there are questions about the information on your N-400 form. Writeanswers to these questions, and then practice answering these questions with apartner. The officer will ask you about the information on your N-400 form. Youmay be asked to explain some of your answers to show that you understand thequestion and have answered it correctly.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.571820	04/29/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/9052/overview", "title": "Study for the US Citizenship Test Florida Study Guide (download from Resource Library)", "author": "Charles LaRue" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68800/overview	Blood : Lifeline of Humans Overview Blood : Structure and Function Blood : Structure and composition . Made By: Dr. Santosh Kumar Tripathi Department of Zoology Mahatma Gandhi P.G. College, Gorakhpur Definition: Blood is a type of fluid connective tissues. pH of Blood is 7.4 (slightly alkaline). It is mesodermal in origine. Composition of Blood; - Blood Plasma - Blood Cells Functions of Blood: Blood has three main functions: transport, protection and regulation. Blood transports the following substances: Gases, namely oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2), between the lungs and rest of the body. Nutrients from the digestive tract and storage sites to the rest of the body	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.585981	06/20/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68800/overview", "title": "Blood : Lifeline of Humans", "author": "Dr. Santosh Kumar Tripathi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64737/overview	3rd Grade Social Distancing Learning Packet Overview This packet assists parents and teachers transition to distance learning. Turn your classroom into a distance learning environment!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.603343	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64737/overview", "title": "3rd Grade Social Distancing Learning Packet", "author": "Reading Foundation Skills" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90922/overview	Archimedes' Principle Overview Here is a paragraph about Archimedes' Principle. Reading One day, Archimedes was summoned by the King of Sicily to investigate if he had been cheated by a Goldsmith. The King said he had given a Goldsmith the exact amount of gold needed to make a crown. However, when the Crown was ready, the king suspected that the Goldsmith cheated and slipped some silver into the crown, keeping some of the gold for himself. The King asked Archimedes to solve the problem. . But there was a catch he couldn't do any damage to the crown. he found a way to solve the kings problem. Archimedes needed to check the crowns density to see if it was the same as the density of pure gold. Density is a measure of an object's mass divided by its volume. Pure gold is very dense, while silver is less dense. So if there was silver in the crown, it would be less dense than if it were made of pure gold. But no matter what it was made of, the Crown would be the same shape, which means the same volume. So if Archimedes could measure the mass of the Crown first and then measure its volume, he could find out how dense it was. But it is not easy to measure crowns volume. It has an irregular shape that's different from a simple box or ball. You can't measure its size and multiply like you might for other shapes. The solution Archimedes realized was to give the Crown a bath by placing it in water and seeing how much water was displaced, he could measure the volume. Then he'd calculate the density of the crown. If the crown was less dense than pure gold, then the Goldsmith most definitely cheated the king. When Archimedes went back to the king and did his test, the story says he found that the Goldsmith had indeed cheated the king and slipped some silver in. These days, using the way in object displaces water. To measure volume is called Archimedes principle. The next time you take a bath you can see Archimedes Principle in action and maybe you'll have a genius idea of your own.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.616512	03/12/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90922/overview", "title": "Archimedes' Principle", "author": "enfal başak" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76193/overview	Corvids by Amy Martin Overview This is an exciting presentation about the birds known as corvids. Corvids by Amy Martin This is a presentation detaiiling the beautiful and exciting birds known as corvids.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.632751	01/07/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76193/overview", "title": "Corvids by Amy Martin", "author": "Amy Martin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106482/overview	Importance of Theory in Nursing Overview Other nursing theories, such as those from Callista Roy, emphasize the client system model. This view views the individual as a set of interrelated systems that strive to maintain balance in the face of various stimuli. These factors can include physiological, psychological, social, developmental and spiritual needs. These systems can also include stress levels, which are considered a risk factor for disease. First Nursing theories are crucial for nurses as they help them to report, explain, and predict their everyday experiences. These theories also enable them to develop policies that address issues such as remuneration and working environments. Nursing theories can be NRS 493 Benchmark Capstone Project Change Proposal down into four categories: the person, the environment, health, and nursing. This article will explore each of these and how they relate to one another. The Individual Nursing theory is a group of concepts and their relationships to describe, explain, predict or prescribe (Walker & Avant). It is often used by nurses as a guide to organize and analyze patient information. A nurse's power is increased through theoretical knowledge because it provides a standardized method of assessing a patient and responding to their needs. This can help a nurse feel more confident and provide better care for their patients. Nursing theories are also useful nrs 493 capstone project change proposal presentation they help nurses address new challenges as they arise throughout their careers. They also provide a framework from which to build further knowledge. Theories vary in scope, with those that are broad and abstract known as grand theories. Middle-range and practice theories are more precise and focus on specific aspects of nursing. An example would be Dorothea Orem's Self-Care Theory, which focuses on the patient's ability to care for themselves and their families. This may include their beliefs, emotions and stress levels. The Environment As nurses advance in their careers or move to different settings, they often encounter situations that call for different strategies and approaches. When they need help addressing these challenges, they can turn to nursing theories for guidance. One of the most relevant nursing theories is Florence Nightingale’s Environment Theory, which outlines what a patient needs to heal. According to this theory, nurses can manipulate the patients’ environment in order to help nature restore the patients’ health. This includes providing favorable conditions such as cleanliness, light, warmth and quiet. Additionally, this theory NRS 493 Individual Success Plan the differences between nursing and medicine, saying that nursing is an art while medicine is a science. Nurses must be loyal to medical plans while still following their own professional judgment. This approach is similar to practice nursing theories, which are situation-specific and provide frameworks for nursing interventions. These theories typically have more direct impacts on the patient than middle-range and grand theories. Health Nursing theories can help nurses identify and treat patients with a variety of conditions. Nurses must be able to assess the needs of each individual patient, communicate effectively and implement a standardized method for providing care. Nursing theories also provide a framework from which to build on new insights and ideas. Florence Nightingale, considered to be the founder of modern nursing, emphasized the importance of addressing patient environmental issues. Her 13 nrs 493 topic 1 lopes activity tracker kr of nursing suggest that the best way to encourage healing is to offer patients a nurturing environment. Other nursing theorists have delved into different aspects of patient health. For example, Imogene King developed the Theory of Goal Attainment, which focuses on the interaction between nurses and patients as they work together to achieve patient goals. Other theorists, such as Martha Rogers, have explored the concept of unitary humans. She believes that human beings and their environments are infinite energy fields in constant exchange, producing patterns. Nursing Nursing theories set the foundation of clinical practice. They offer a framework that nurses can use to build upon their existing knowledge, allowing them to develop a more systematic way of providing care. This method allows nurses to feel more confident in their ability to treat patients, which ultimately leads to better results. Nurses can find a variety of different ways to use nursing theory in their daily practice. For example, Florence Nightingale’s theory of caring NR501 Importance of Theory in Nursing on the importance of nurturing surroundings. This can help patients to feel more comfortable and at ease, which may lead them to be more receptive to health recommendations. Other nursing theories, such as those from Callista Roy, emphasize the client system model. This view views the individual as a set of interrelated systems that strive to maintain balance in the face of various stimuli. These factors can include physiological, psychological, social, developmental and spiritual needs. These systems can also include stress levels, which are considered a risk factor for disease. More Info: 2SEC Nursing theories are crucial for nurses as they help them to report, explain, and predict their everyday experiences. These theories also enable them to develop policies that address issues such as remuneration and working environments. Nursing theories can be NRS 493 Benchmark Capstone Project Change Proposal down into four categories: the person, the environment, health, and nursing. This article will explore each of these and how they relate to one another. The Individual Nursing theory is a group of concepts and their relationships to describe, explain, predict or prescribe (Walker & Avant). It is often used by nurses as a guide to organize and analyze patient information. A nurse's power is increased through theoretical knowledge because it provides a standardized method of assessing a patient and responding to their needs. This can help a nurse feel more confident and provide better care for their patients. Nursing theories are also useful nrs 493 capstone project change proposal presentation they help nurses address new challenges as they arise throughout their careers. They also provide a framework from which to build further knowledge. Theories vary in scope, with those that are broad and abstract known as grand theories. Middle-range and practice theories are more precise and focus on specific aspects of nursing. An example would be Dorothea Orem's Self-Care Theory, which focuses on the patient's ability to care for themselves and their families. This may include their beliefs, emotions and stress levels. The Environment As nurses advance in their careers or move to different settings, they often encounter situations that call for different strategies and approaches. When they need help addressing these challenges, they can turn to nursing theories for guidance. One of the most relevant nursing theories is Florence Nightingale’s Environment Theory, which outlines what a patient needs to heal. According to this theory, nurses can manipulate the patients’ environment in order to help nature restore the patients’ health. This includes providing favorable conditions such as cleanliness, light, warmth and quiet. Additionally, this theory NRS 493 Individual Success Plan the differences between nursing and medicine, saying that nursing is an art while medicine is a science. Nurses must be loyal to medical plans while still following their own professional judgment. This approach is similar to practice nursing theories, which are situation-specific and provide frameworks for nursing interventions. These theories typically have more direct impacts on the patient than middle-range and grand theories. Health Nursing theories can help nurses identify and treat patients with a variety of conditions. Nurses must be able to assess the needs of each individual patient, communicate effectively and implement a standardized method for providing care. Nursing theories also provide a framework from which to build on new insights and ideas. Florence Nightingale, considered to be the founder of modern nursing, emphasized the importance of addressing patient environmental issues. Her 13 nrs 493 topic 1 lopes activity tracker kr of nursing suggest that the best way to encourage healing is to offer patients a nurturing environment. Other nursing theorists have delved into different aspects of patient health. For example, Imogene King developed the Theory of Goal Attainment, which focuses on the interaction between nurses and patients as they work together to achieve patient goals. Other theorists, such as Martha Rogers, have explored the concept of unitary humans. She believes that human beings and their environments are infinite energy fields in constant exchange, producing patterns. Nursing Nursing theories set the foundation of clinical practice. They offer a framework that nurses can use to build upon their existing knowledge, allowing them to develop a more systematic way of providing care. This method allows nurses to feel more confident in their ability to treat patients, which ultimately leads to better results. Nurses can find a variety of different ways to use nursing theory in their daily practice. For example, Florence Nightingale’s theory of caring NR501 Importance of Theory in Nursing on the importance of nurturing surroundings. This can help patients to feel more comfortable and at ease, which may lead them to be more receptive to health recommendations. Other nursing theories, such as those from Callista Roy, emphasize the client system model. This view views the individual as a set of interrelated systems that strive to maintain balance in the face of various stimuli. These factors can include physiological, psychological, social, developmental and spiritual needs. These systems can also include stress levels, which are considered a risk factor for disease. More Info:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.650459	07/08/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106482/overview", "title": "Importance of Theory in Nursing", "author": "Ruby Barker" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99910/overview	Respectfulness – EPIC Decisions Overview In this lesson, students will demonstrate their understanding of respectfulness through discussion with their classmates. An optional infographic activity is provided. This lesson is based on a video about the life of Carl Erskine and the respect he showed others. Lesson Overview Please adapt the lesson activity to fit your students' abilities and interests. Introduction In this lesson, students will demonstrate their understanding of respectfulness through discussion with their classmates. An optional infographic activity is provided. This lesson is based on a video about the life of Carl Erskine and the respect he showed others. Video Clip Respectfulness from The Best We’ve Got: The Carl Erskine Story (3:34) Grades 9 – 12 Themes - Respectfulness - Acceptance - Humility - Grace Objectives During this lesson, students will: - Define respectfulness towards self. - Identify at least five examples of respectful behavior towards self. - Create a graphic representation of at least five self-respect behaviors and attitudes. Essential Questioning Students should be able to answer these questions by the end of this lesson: - What is respectfulness? - How is respectfulness shown to others? - What respectful behaviors do I show to others? Indiana Academic Standards - INSS Employability Skills 9-10.SE.5 Able to show care for people like them and people different from them. - INSS Employability Skills 9-10.LS.3 Create presentation media for a variety of audiences. - INSS Employability Skills 11-12.WE.4 Demonstrate perseverance through work-, service-, or project-based learning experiences. - INSS Employability Skills 11-12.LS.12 Complete activities and assignments thoroughly and accurately. Download the attached PDF document for complete lesson materials. Download the attached Word version for fully accessible document. (Coming Soon)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.673935	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99910/overview", "title": "Respectfulness – EPIC Decisions", "author": "Sociology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76806/overview	TPACK FRAMEWORK IN CLASS Overview a weak knowledge about the TPACK model can be evidenced in English teachers due to the little use of the digital tools they have. However, it can be assumed that the integration of technologies into the educational process in a model-based way is in progress. In this way, the TPACK model is undoubtedly a theme to promote in the Institution, due to its transformative and integrative nature of knowledge. It can be implemented to the methodologies and teaching strategies according to the Curricular guidelines established in the English curriculum of the Ministry of Education. Consequently, the TPACK model as a practice in the classroom takes on important nuances that need to be investigated in order to establish the relationship between the TPACK model and teaching in the context of English as a subject. TPACK TECHNOLOGY, PEDAGOGY AND CONTENT KNOWLEDGE A few years ago a model called TPCK appeared, difficult to pronounce, to which it was decided to add an A, so that it became TPACK (in English: Technology, Pedagogy And Content Knowledge), which is an extension of the expression Pedagogical Content Knowledge de Shulman (1986) (PCK). This author appreciated that the teacher's knowledge of the scientific field or specialty subject and his pedagogical knowledge were, or could be, separated and should be united. Thus, content knowledge refers to WHAT to teach and pedagogical knowledge to HOW to do it. Thus the expression: "pedagogical knowledge of the content" is different from the pedagogical knowledge about how to teach in general, while it is different from the knowledge of a finished area, of being an expert in a certain content, which does not ensure that it is known how to teach it. The expression tries to combine, or better to intersect, both dimensions, thus becoming a: Practical knowledge on how to teach what is supposed to be taught in a given area The core of the TPACK is made up of three forms of primary knowledge. Technology (TK), Pedagogy (PK) and Content (CK). These three forms of knowledge, or better, these three sectoral knowledge, are interrelated giving rise to specific knowledge as I explain below, following the guide itself that is given on the TPACK website. “An effective integration of technology with pedagogy, around a specific subject, requires the development of a certain sensitivity towards the dynamic, transactional relationship between these components of knowledge located in specific contexts. Individual teachers, course, school-specific factors, demographics, culture, and other factors ensure that each situation is unique, and there is a unique combination of content, technology, and pedagogy that each teacher will apply, in each course, to according to his vision of teaching ”. A translation of the model with the addition of very interesting contextual and process elements is the one made by the flipped classroom and which I reproduce below. The three primary elements and their intersections two by two, plus the intersection of the three elements give rise to seven dimensions that, briefly, I point out adapting the description of Koehler and Mishra, (2009), not without first adding that the ideal situation, trend It would be that the three rings totally overlap, something that, as it is understood, will not happen easily. I recommend reading this article by Punya Mishra and Matthew J. Koehler. If you want to see an author who has worked a lot on this model, Judi Harris, you can watch the video that I include here	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.693386	01/30/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76806/overview", "title": "TPACK FRAMEWORK IN CLASS", "author": "Erika Vilcacundo" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106590/overview	OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [8.NS] Overview The intent of clarifying statements is to provide additional guidance for educators to communicate the intent of the standard to support the future development of curricular resources and assessments aligned to the 2021 math standards. Clarifying statements can be in the form of succinct sentences or paragraphs that attend to one of four types of clarifications: (1) Student Experiences; (2) Examples; (3) Boundaries; and (4) Connection to Math Practices. 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: 8.NS.A.1 Cluster: 8.NS.A - Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational numbers. STANDARD: 8.NS.A.1 Standards Statement (2021): Know that real numbers that are not rational are called irrational. Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| 7.NS.A.2, 7.NS.A.3 \| 8.NS.A.2, HS.NQ.A.1, HS.NQ.A.2 \| N/A \| 8.NS.A.1 8.NS.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Terminology - Rational numbers are numbers that can be represented by a ratio where “a” is an integer, and “b” is a non-zero whole number (e.g. natural number set). - Rational numbers have decimal expansions that terminate in zeros or eventually repeat. - Irrational numbers cannot be represented by a ratio and would include non-terminating, non- repeating decimals. Teaching Strategies - Students should be provided with experiences to use numerical reasoning when describing decimal expansions. - Students should be able to classify real numbers as rational or irrational. - Students should know that when a square root of a positive integer is not an integer, then it is irrational. - Students should use prior knowledge about converting fractions to decimals learned in 6th and 7th grade to connect changing decimal expansion of a repeating decimal into a fraction and a fraction into a repeating decimal. - Emphasis is placed on how all rational numbers can be written as an equivalent decimal. The end behavior of the decimal determines the classification of the number. Examples - Understand that every number has a decimal expansion. - For rational numbers show that the decimal expansion terminates or repeats eventually. - Convert a decimal expansion which terminates or repeats eventually into a rational number expressed as a fraction. - Illustrative Mathematics: - Student Achievement Partners: 2021 Oregon Math Guidance: 8.NS.A.2 Cluster: 8.NS.A - Know that there are numbers that are not rational, and approximate them by rational numbers. STANDARD: 8.NS.A.2 Standards Statement (2021): Use rational approximations of irrational numbers to compare size and locate on a number line. Connections: Preceding Pathway Content (2021) \| Subsequent Pathway Content (2021) \| Cross Domain Connections (2021) \| Common Core (CCSS) (2010) \| 8.NS.A.1 \| HS.NQ.A.2 \| 8.AEE.A.2 \| 8.NS.A.2 8.NS.A Crosswalk \| Standards Guidance: Teaching Strategies - Students should use visual models and numerical reasoning to approximate irrational numbers. Boundaries - Locate the approximate location of irrational numbers on a number line and estimate the value of expressions. - For decimal approximations, the concept for this grade level extends to comparing irrational numbers to at least the hundredths place on a number line. Examples - Compare the size of irrational numbers, locate them approximately on a number line diagram, and estimate the value of square roots. For example, - Start with locating the nearest perfect squares and obtain closer and closer successive decimal approximations. - Using successive approximations, estimate the decimal expansion of , such as by showing that is between 4 and 5, then closer to 4 (between 4.0 and 4.5) on a number line. - Estimate the value of . - By truncating the decimal expansion of , show that is between 1 and 2, then between 1.4 and 1.5, and explain how to continue on to get better approximations. - Illustrative Mathematics: - Student Achievement Partners:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.736146	07/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106590/overview", "title": "OREGON MATH STANDARDS (2021): [8.NS]", "author": "Mark Freed" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22538/overview	Teen Living FCCLA Illustrated Talk Star Event Project Overview This project is given as part of a Teen Living class with the objective of incorporating the CTSO FCCLA into course curriculum. The illustrated talk STAR event asks students to identify an issue facing Family and Consumer Science, Teens, or related occupations and create a presenation about it. There are so many issues that the students can choose from! This project leads students to examine the issues in the world around them and come up with ways to solve those issues. The resource being shared is a a student created example of a completed project by Ariel and Faith Moua on Teens and Distracted Driving. Rubric for the Illustrated Talk star event given by FCCLA can be found here Section 1 This project is given as part of a Teen Living class with the objective of incorporating the CTSO FCCLA into course curriculum. The illustrated talk STAR event asks students to identify an issue facing Family and Consumer Science, Teens, or related occupations and create a presenation about it. There are so many issues that the students can choose from! This project leads students to examine the issues in the world around them and come up with ways to solve those issues. The resource being shared is a a student created example of a completed project by Ariel and Faith Moua on Teens and Distracted Driving. Rubric for the Illustrated Talk star event given by FCCLA can be found here	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.753350	04/13/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22538/overview", "title": "Teen Living FCCLA Illustrated Talk Star Event Project", "author": "Shanna Haws" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70038/overview	5 Components of Information Literacy Build a WordPress Blogsite Developing Research Strategies Google Sites Help How to avoid Plagiarism? How to do Boolean searching in Google? Information Literacy and the World Wide Web What constitute Plagiarism? Enhancing Information Literacy Skills Overview According to ACRL (2016), Information Literacy (IL) is the “set of skills needed to find, retrieve, analyze, and use information.” Myriad of information over the internet was growing and was becoming accessible. Therefore, as teachers we should teach and help students to develop skills and competencies in searching the Web and using information for intellectual and holistic growth to successfully thrive in this digital age. In this lesson we will provide quality web-based resources for students to explore Information Literacy and the salient sub-topics on Plagiarism and Web Searching. The following activities allow students to gain in-depth understanding of our topic. Happy Teaching! Collaborative Learning Allow students to use the common communication platform like Google Hangouts, FB Messenger, Google Docs etc. Provide ground rules in discussion forum to foster mutual respect. Use email to allow flexible report submissions. Information Literacy According to ACRL, Information Literacy (IL) is the “set of skills needed to find, retrieve, analyze, and use information.” Myriad of information over the internet was growing and becoming accessible. Therefore, as students, it is vital to develop your skills and competencies in searching the Web and to use information for intellectual and holistic growth and be competitive in this digital age. In this lesson we will optimize quality web-based resources to explore the topic. You are required to perform learning activities to gain in-depth understanding of our topic. Activity: 1. Group discussion - Form a group of four. Assign a moderator and follow division of labor. - Formulate a question for discussion 2. Submit a group report Guided questions: 1. Describe Information literacy. What encompasses information literacy? 2. Identify a credible website and a compromised website? 3. What literacy skills that you need to develop the most? Why? Poster Making This is a classroom activity. Provide recognition for three best posters. Collaborate with co-teachers and parents for judging students' works. PLAGIARISM Photo credits: https://as1.ftcdn.net/jpg/01/73/64/42/500_F_173644278_dJqrMAsMpOX0gwGQEfnvAo9QF5X8KTuo.jpg Plagiarism is a serious academic offense. Copying other people’s works in any form without giving proper credit is tantamount to stealing or dishonesty. To save you from unnecessary problems of committing such offense, we will explore the topic. Activity: 1. Get a partner 2. Create Poster 3. Class presentation Guided question: 1. How do you describe plagiarism? 2. Cite example of plagiarism case? 3. What is the consequence of plagiarism? How to avoid it? Discussion Forum Provide students guideline and access to online discussion forum tools to ignite engagement. Choose from Padlet, Edmodo, or Schoology. SEARCHING SKILL Not all information on the internet are useful and authentic. More often, we have waisted precious time looking for the information we need. Therefore, as students, it is vital to develop skills and competencies in searching information from the Web. Activity: 1. Discussion Forum. 2. Post your answer to any of the questions and make a comment to at least 2 of your classmates’ posts. Guided questions: 1. Describe Boolean Search in 200 words. 2. How do you benefit from developing skills in searching? 3. What issue did you usually experience when searching over the internet? 4. How would you improve your searching skills? ePortfolio Allow students to explore using affective learning domain by writing insights, reflection and realization on a topic. Create/adapt and then provide students Rubrics covering all task. Always give constructive, formative, and timely feedback. Activity: 1. Create a blog (WordPress, Google Sites) 2. Write your insights, reflection and realization on a topic. An ePortfolio is your final assignment. Feel free to write your insights, reflections, and realizations on a topic. Your write-up must be at least 800 words. Refer to Rubric to guide you in accomplishing your deliverables. Credits Check all references. Always give credit where the credit is due. Images credits Blog\| http://www.thebluediamondgallery.com/tablet/images/blog.jpg Hand https://as1.ftcdn.net/jpg/01/73/64/42/500_F_173644278_dJqrMAsMpOX0gwGQEfnvAo9QF5X8KTuo.jpg Students on computer\| https://cdn.pixabay.com/photo/2014/07/06/09/37/students-385356_960_720.jpg References Bernnard, Bobish, Hecker, Holden, Hosier, Jacobsen, Loney, Bullis (n.d.). Plan: Developing Research Strategies https://courses.lumenlearning.com/informationliteracy/chapter/plan-developing-research-strategies/ Framework for Information Lietracy for Higher Education. (2017). https://library.defiance.edu/ld.php?content_id=33786268 frccbcc. (2017). How to do Boolean Searching in Google? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izxz19agnXM Seminole State Library. (2014). 5 Components of Information Literacy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1ronp6Iue9w Sullivan, M & Scott, T. (1999). ASCD. Information Literacy and the World Wide Web. University of Malta. (n.d.).How to avoid Plagiarism? https://www.um.edu.mt/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/261324/avdplagiarism.pdf University of Oxford. (n.d.). Plagiarism https://www.ox.ac.uk/students/academic/guidance/skills/plagiarism?wssl=1 CONGRATULATIONS !	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.788815	Speaking and Listening	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70038/overview", "title": "Enhancing Information Literacy Skills", "author": "Reading Informational Text" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70084/overview	Understanding Theme & Big Ideas Overview This is an activity that includes student's own ideas and beliefs about the central ideas and important parts of the text. Students will also do a bit of writing to support their opinions. This activity gets at the heart of a text. I see this as introductory to deeper dives into theme. This lesson could be structured to be online or face to face. This is written as a class activity but an online discussion could easily be created after students had followed the protocol a few times and seen the discussion that results. This could easily work in many classrooms through high school. Goal/Objective: Goal/Objective: Who knew that finding just one sentence, one phrase, and one word could have so much meaning for a piece of reading? Today my challenge is for you to think about your reading and find meaningful pieces that are important to the story and you. Directions: Iowa Core Standard: I can determine a theme or central idea of a text. (RL6.2) Nebraska State Standards: LA 3.1.6.d Summarize a literary text and/or media, using key details to identify the theme. LA 4.1.6.d Summarize a literary text and/or media, using key details to identify the theme. LA 5.1.6.d Summarize and analyze a literary text and/or media, using key details to explain the theme. LA 6.1.6.d Summarize and analyze a literary text and/or media, using key details to explain the theme. LA 7.1.6.d Summarize, analyze, and synthesize a literary text and/or media, using key details to support interpretation of the theme. SUCCESS CRITERIA- I will know if I am successful if I can choose or create a meaningful sentence, phrase, and word from a whole text and explain why it is important to the meaning of the text. Steps: 1. You will read the poem "Grown Up" together as a class. https://www.readworks.org/article/Grown-Up/05741df0-d7ad-40be-b34d-627e0539db83#!articleTab:content/ As you read note or highlight important sentences, phrases, or words that stand out as being very meaningful. Be thinking of what the author wants you to take away from reading his/her story and what might be the moral or lesson. Think about what are the big ideas? What is important? What stands out to you? This is pushing you to think about the themes of this reading. 2. When you are finished reading: Together as a class, fill in the worksheet below with a sentence , (copy this sentence exactly as it appears in the text using quotes) phrase ("... write phrase" OR "Write phrase...") and word. Together, pick the choice the majority of the class feels the strongest about and complete the bottom reflective piece. Please tell why the class chose this and why it is meaningful to the class. There are many lines so you plent of room to explain. 3. Next, you will complete the same worksheet with another reading passage The Lottery. Be ready to share your ideas with your classmates in a discussion. You will need to think about your reasons for choosing any of the 3 choices. Pick the choice you feel the strongest about and complete the bottom reflective piece. Please tell why you chose this and why it is meaningful to you and the text. There are many lines so you have plenty of room to explain. Click the link and make a copy of this form to record your answers or the attachment below.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.811113	Reading Literature	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70084/overview", "title": "Understanding Theme & Big Ideas", "author": "English Language Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70532/overview	Elevator Pitch Overview The elevator pitch is a format for presenting yourself in a brief and unexpected encounter (like a ride on an elevator) with someone who might be able to help you find a job, secure an internship or connect with people who can help you. The key is to use just a few key sentences to present yourself effectively. It’s easy, but it takes practice, practice, practice. Use the following template to fill in the information and then practice with a friend or classmate. 15-Second Elevator Pitch Goal: To help participants understand the importance of a 15 second elevator pitch to market their employability skills.. Objectives: By the end of this exercise, participants will understand the purpose of a 15 second elevator pitch and create one. The elevator pitch is a format for presenting yourself in a brief and unexpected encounter (like a ride on an elevator) with someone who might be able to help you find a job, secure an internship or connect with people who can help you. The key is to use just a few key sentences to present yourself effectively. It’s easy, but it takes practice, practice, practice. Use the following template to fill in the information and then practice with a friend or classmate. Use this scenario to practice: While Jane is at the hospital visiting her grandmother, she just happens to find herself in the lunchroom standing next to a woman with a name badge that identifies her as the director of nursing. She decides to make a quick pitch. Use the template as a starter and then change it and/or add to it a bit to make it come across natural and smooth. But keep it short. Here’s how it might sound: Excuse me. My name is Jane Richards and I’m visiting my grandmother here. I see that you are the director of nursing. I hope it’s OK but I wanted to let you know that I’m looking for a job in the healthcare field and I wondered if you might know of any jobs in this facility. I know I would enjoy working in this field because I volunteer at a nursing home and I really enjoy working with the people there and helping the nurses. This field is a good match for me because I’m really good with people, I get good grades in science and math and I’m not afraid of working hard. I’m very detail-oriented and committed to excellence. Do you know if this hospital has an entry-level position for a dedicated, hardworking person like me? Now it’s your turn: Think of a scenario that you might find yourself in and develop your own 15-second elevator pitch using this template. Hello, my name is _______________ (Skip this if you know the person) and I’m looking for a job in the field of __________________________. (Be specific about the field, but general about the position.) I know I would enjoy working in this field because _____________________ (State why; do you have any experience?) This field is a good match for me because I ___________________________ ___________________________________________________________ (Mention skills and experience. Even if you don’t have experience in the field, you can mention your attributes like creative, curious, detail-oriented, committed to excellence, etc.) Do you know of any jobs in this field or do you know anyone who works in this field that you might be able to introduce me to?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.825316	07/28/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70532/overview", "title": "Elevator Pitch", "author": "Tamica Mickle" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94942/overview	Cross-Cultural Interactions in New England Overview This lesson introduces students to early New England and the Puritan settlement of the region. Introduction This resource provides lesson materials for exploring Native American and Puritan/Separatist interactions in colonial New England Did the Puritans have fun? The first part of this lesson revolves around challenging our expectations of who the Puritans were. Begin by asking students what they know about the Puritans and what they think of them. Students will probably say that they were serious, stern, or did not like to have fun. Next, use this resource to watch the video on Puritan furniture from the period: https://www.oercommons.org/courses/thought-the-puritans-were-dour-think-again Were the Puritans ethical? The next part of the lesson involves analyzing primary sources produced by John Winthrop and John Cotton. Students will look at the provided powerpoint with this lesson and analyze the primary sources in small groups to answer this question: was the puritan colonization of the "New World" ethical? https://www.oercommons.org/courses/reading-like-a-historian-puritans	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.838841	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94942/overview", "title": "Cross-Cultural Interactions in New England", "author": "Primary Source" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102222/overview	SWAYAM OER for Empowering Teachers. Overview SWAYAM OER for Empowering Teachers. OER for Empowering Teachers OER provides teachers with the opportunity to create, share, and remix materials for their individual classrooms. The flexibility of OER allows educators to customize educational content to their students' skills and learning styles. Additionally, it can provide lower-cost alternatives to physical textbooks and supplies. OER thus offers teachers a more time-effective, cost-effective, and flexible way to innovate and create educational resources. What is OER for Empowering Teachers Open Educational Resources (OER) is a term used to describe free and openly licensed materials that can be used, reused, edited, and shared through digital technologies. It provides teachers with access to a variety of resources that can be incorporated into learning activities. OER empowers teachers by giving them the autonomy to create original content and create customized, dynamic learning experiences for students. Overview OER for Empowering Teachers Open educational resources (OER) have already impacted educational systems around the world. In higher education more specifically, it has benefited learners, and has influenced institutional strategic plans and policies. Additionally, the benefits of OER also extend to staff in higher education, such as academic staff. For this group, OER can provide opportunities for collaboration, promote curriculum innovation and student led content development, as well as contribute to university teachers’ much needed continuing professional development. In this paper, we examine the potential of OER to build capacity of academic staff in higher education, in particular to overcome some equity and access issues that they may face. It also examines some existing activities and strategies for professional development in higher educational institutions and provides some recommendations for academics, academic developers, institutions, and the sector in general.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.852181	03/28/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102222/overview", "title": "SWAYAM OER for Empowering Teachers.", "author": "MANIKANDAN I" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100154/overview	Learning Activity Sheets in Mathematics 10 Overview This learning activity sheet is about generating patterns where learners can identify terms and nth terms in a sequence as well as it helps them formulate general terms of a sequence. This learning activity sheet is about generating patterns where learners can identify terms and nth terms in a sequence as well as it helps them formulate general terms of a sequence.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.867535	01/24/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100154/overview", "title": "Learning Activity Sheets in Mathematics 10", "author": "JOSIE SHENA LAZAGA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100656/overview	Sequences Overview Sequences are ordered lists of numbers (called "terms"), like 2,5,8. Some sequences follow a specific pattern that can be used to extend them indefinitely. For example, 2,5,8 follows the pattern "add 3," and now we can continue the sequence. Sequences can have formulas that tell us how to find any term in the sequence. Sequences Sequences Definition: A sequence is a set of numbers in a specific order. 2, 5, 8,…. is an example of a sequence. Note that a sequence may have either a finite or an infinite number of terms. The terms of a sequence are the individual numbers in the sequence. If we let a1 represent the first term of a sequence, an represent the nth term, and n represent the term number, then the sequence is represented by a1, a2, a3, ….,an, … In the example above, a1=2, a2=5, a3= 8, etc. Arithmetic Sequences Definition: An arithmetic sequence is a sequence in which each term, after the first, is the sum of the preceding term and a common difference. An arithmetic sequence can be represented by a1, a1 +d, a1 + 2d, …. In the sequence 2, 5, 8, ….. the common difference is 3. The sequences 1, 3, 5, 7, ….. and 2, 8, 14, 20, ….. are examples of arithmetic sequences. Each has the property that the difference between any two immediate successive terms is constant. The existence of a common difference is the characteristic feature of an arithmetic sequence. To test whether a given sequence is an arithmetic sequence, determine whether a common difference exists between every pair of successive terms. For example, 4, 8, 9, 16, 32, …. is not an arithmetic sequence because the difference between the first two terms is 4, but the difference between the second and third terms is 8. If a1 is the first term of an arithmetic sequence, an the nth term, d is the common difference, a formula for finding the value of the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is: an = a1 + (n – 1)d The formula for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence may be used to find any term of the sequence. This is done by choosing the appropriate value of n and substituting in the formula above. For example, find the 75th term of the sequence 2, 5, 8,…… a75 = a1 + (n – 1)d. Since a1 = 2, n = 75, d = 3, then a75 = 2 + (75 – 1)(3) = 2 + (74)(3) = 2 + 222 = 224 Thus, a75 = 222.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.882080	02/07/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100656/overview", "title": "Sequences", "author": "Gunjan Khattar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97744/overview	UbD 2.0 - Ecosystems: Deserts Overview Lesson plan for desert within unit about ecosystems. Stage 1 - Desired Results ESTABLISHED GOALS \| 4.3.4.C. Understand that the elements of natural systems are interdependent.4.3.4.C.1. Identify some of the organisms that live together in an ecosystem. 10 4.3.4.C.2. Understand that the components of a system all play a part in a healthy natural system. 70 4.3.4.C.3. Identify the effects of a healthy environment on the ecosystem. 70 PA.4.6.4. Environment and Ecology: Ecosystems and their Interactions: Pennsylvania's public schools shall teach, challenge and support every student to realize his or her maximum potential and to acquire the knowledge and skills needed to:4.6.4.A. Understand that living things are dependent on nonliving things in the environment for survival.4.6.4.A.1. Identify and categorize living and nonliving things. 2 4.6.4.A.2. Describe the basic needs of an organism. 25 4.6.4.A.3. Identify basic needs of a plant and an animal and explain how their needs are met. 67 4.6.4.A.4. Identify plants and animals with their habitat and food sources. 54 4.6.4.A.5. Identify environmental variables that affect plant growth. 54 4.6.4.A.6. Describe how animals interact with plants to meet their needs for shelter. 83 4.6.4.A.7. Describe how certain insects interact with soil for their needs. 20 4.6.4.A.8. Understand the components of a food chain. 15 4.6.4.A.9. Identify a local ecosystem and its living and nonliving components. 9 4.6.4.A.10. Identify a simple ecosystem and its living and nonliving components. 92 4.6.4.A.11. Identify common soil textures. 3 4.6.4.A.12. Identify animals that live underground. 110 4.6.4.C. Identify how ecosystems change over time. \| Transfer Students will be able to independently use their learning to… \| \| Students will be able to independently use their learning to infer living and nonliving components of ecosystems and how they might interact with and depend on one another. \| Meaning UNDERSTANDINGS \| ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS \| \| \| Aquistion Students will know… \| Students will be skilled at… \| \| \| Stage 2 - Assessment Evidence Evaluative Criteria \| Assessment Evidence \| 3-D Model Quiz Test \| PERFORMANCE TASK(S): \| Overall, students will be graded on their knowledge and understanding of ecosystems. \| OTHER EVIDENCE: \| Stage 3 - Learning Plan Learning Activities: Summary of Key Learning Events and Instruction What learning experiences and instruction will enable students to achieve the desired results? How will the design W = Help the students know Where the unit is going and What is expected? Help the teacher know Where the students are coming from (prior knowledge, interests)? H = Hook all students, and Hold their interest? E1 = Equip students, help them Experience the key ideas and Explore the issue? R = Provide opportunities to Rethink and Revise their understandings and work? E2 = Allow students to Evaluate their work and its implications? T = be Tailored (personalized) to the different needs, interests, and abilities of learners? O = Be Organized to maximize initial and sustained engagement as well as effective learning? - At the beginning of our lesson I will ask the students to tell me what they think an ecosystem is and what they know about deserts. I will make a list on the board of everything they tell me (W). - Then before I begin our lesson I will ask the students what about ecosystems and deserts in particular they want to learn. I will take the things they tell me and the needs of my students into consideration and work them into my lesson(s) (T). - I will have the sudents use virtual reality so that they can experience a desert ecosystem (H). - I will go through a power point covering the lesson (E1). - At the end of the power point, I will put images on the board of living and nonliving things and ask the students to identify what would be present in a desert ecosystem and what would not be (E1). - Then, I will have the students build some sort of 3-D model depicting a desert in class so I can help them with any questions they might have (R). - I will set a date/time for the model to be due and at that time the class will be allowed to show their model to the class and talk about it (E2). - I will also set a date to have a quiz about deserts and a unit test on everything they have learned about all ecosystems. I will have a calendar on the board in my classroom with all of these dates and we will go over the calendar every day so I can remind them about these upcoming assisnments/assessments (O).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.912080	10/06/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97744/overview", "title": "UbD 2.0 - Ecosystems: Deserts", "author": "Julia Lane" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110665/overview	Education Standards Identifying Fairy Tales Overview Google Slides presentation made to introduce students to the elements of a fairy tale and hand signals they will use during a read aloud as each element presents Description Use the slideshow to introduce students to the elements of a fairy tale and hand signals they will use during a read aloud as each element presents. Review character and setting parts of story as needed. After the read aloud, discuss how each element showed up. Assessment: Observation of students using hand signals. Have each student draw pictures and describe fairy tale elements from the story you just read or other stories they know. Preparation: Personalize your presentation by replacing the black and white photos with images of your own student models showing the hand signals.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.932541	12/01/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110665/overview", "title": "Identifying Fairy Tales", "author": "Pamela Maggio" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106263/overview	Text Structure Overview During this OER, students will be introduced to the five types of informational text structures. After doing so, they will be able to proficiently identify what structure is being used in a passage. 6th Grade This is a great resource for introducing text structures!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.948713	07/03/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106263/overview", "title": "Text Structure", "author": "Blake Lamb" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87674/overview	BOOK EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF KURDISTAN Overview Many children’s nursery rhymes have interesting origins such as Here We Go Around the Mulberry Bush which originated in an exercise yard for female prisoners in Wakefield Prison in England or Ring Around the Rosie which refers to the Great Plague of 1665 ending with the line “Ashes, ashes, we all fall down” (supposedly everyone dies). ENGLISH,SIENCE,SOCIAL STUDIES, This is a collection of rhymes and activities for wild edible plants found in Kurdistan and in many other countries suitable for upper elementary, junior and high school students. It is of special interest to students of botony.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.966338	Robert Majure	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87674/overview", "title": "BOOK EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF KURDISTAN", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88248/overview	Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist Overview Looking for a presentation designing company to improve your client's attraction? Mybusiness Visual is the leading PowerPoint Presentation company serves best presentation to attract your clients as they having Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist to design best presentation to deliver the Outsource Powerpoint Presentation Support. Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist Looking for a presentation designing company to improve your client's attraction? Mybusiness Visual is the leading PowerPoint Presentation company serves best presentation to attract your clients as they having Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist to design best presentation to deliver the Outsource Powerpoint Presentation Support. Looking for a presentation designing company to improve your client's attraction? Mybusiness Visual is the leading PowerPoint Presentation company serves best presentation to attract your clients as they having Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist to design best presentation to deliver the Outsource Powerpoint Presentation Support.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:35.978669	11/23/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88248/overview", "title": "Ex-McKinsey Presentation Specialist", "author": "Henryil Rospin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103888/overview	Jump Rope for Heart Overview This is a physical education lesson plan that teaches jump rope skills and some of its health benefits. Hook This is a physical education lesson plan where students learn how to jump rope and how it benefits their health. \| I will show my students a video of professional jump rope athletes to get their attention. The athletes do several tricks. The students will enjoy watching the performance, which should motivate them to learn. \| Opening Many kids play with a jump rope for fun, which is great because it is a physical activity that is good for their health! Standard 5: The physically literate individual recognized the value of physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and social interaction traditional three learning environments- the teacher candidate works with others to create environments that support individual and collaborative learning and encourage positive social interaction, active engagement in education, and self-motivation. Individual jump rope practice, group jump rope, students helping other students, end competition for self-motivation. Learning Objectives: Students will jump rope using proper technique. Students will collaborate and demonstrate good social behavior. Students will learn how to keep their heart rate up by jumping rope and why it's essential; to get their heart rate up, build bone density, balance, daily cardio, social interaction, etc. Instructional Agenda: Have students sit down together and face the teacher for instruction. Show the students a jump rope and find out what they know about it. Once the discussion is over, play a video for the students showing them Jump Rope for Heart. Once the video is over, demonstrate how to jump rope, i.e., hand placement, feet placement, arm and wrist motion, and timing. Ask for a volunteer to show the class how to jump rope so that students feel more comfortable and capable. After instruction, discuss how jumping rope can benefit our health. (10 minutes) Spread students across the gymnasium and instruct them to jump rope- taking breaks when needed. Play music in the background and observe each student. (15 minutes) After observing each student, separate them into groups of 3 to attempt group jump roping. Have one student holding each end of the rope and the 3rd student between them, ready to jump. Play music in the background as they practice. (15 minutes) Closing event is a group competition to see who can jump rope the longest without stopping. (5 minutes) For the assessment, have each student write on paper how jumping rope can benefit their help. To physically assess each student, have them jump rope four times while observing hand placement, feet placement, and arm and wrist motion. Essential Questions It's essential that the students understand what the point of all of this is. Students should understand the benefits of jump rope and physical activity. 1. How is jump rope beneficial to our health? 2. What is “Jump Rope for Heart”? 3. In what ways can people jump rope? 4. Why is exercise good for us? \| Vocabulary Students should know what all of these words mean. - rope - jump - cardio - heart - balance - timing - health Materials and Resources Instructional Materials: jump ropes, “Jump Rope for Heart” educational video. https://youtu.be/DCzhrVmowQ0 Professional jump rope athletes video: https://youtu.be/TUUhF-R4V5M Resources: 1 jump rope per student, long jump ropes for group practice, and a speaker for music. Assessments Formative: During the learning process, ask each student to jump rope and monitor their performance. Summative: After the students have learned how to jump rope, each student must jump rope three times in a row. After the physical assessment, each student must write down why jump rope benefits their health. Scaffolding SPED: Place circle markers in a straight line on the floor, leaving about a foot in between. Have the student attempt to jump from each title to the next. Have the students swing the jump rope over their heads and then step over it on the ground. ELL: Have the student watch the same videos as the rest of the class. Spend separate time with the student showing them visual tutorials on how to jump rope. Use hand signals whenever possible to help the student understand. High Ability: For the high-ability students, have them attempt different jumping techniques, like jumping on one foot. High-ability students can try double Dutch with other students.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.000800	05/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103888/overview", "title": "Jump Rope for Heart", "author": "Haylee Haas" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102978/overview	Second activity Third activity What is Ecosystem? and Different Types of Ecosystem Who Wants to be a Millionaire ECOSYSTEM CLASS Overview By the end of this lesson, students should be clear on the concept, types of ecosystems and how to conserve them. BASIC CONCEPTS Basic Concepts What is an ecosystem? An ecosystem is a system formed by a set of organisms, the physical environment in which they live (habitat), and the biotic (living beings) and abiotic (non-living elements, such as the soil or air) relationships established between them. The species of living beings that inhabit a given ecosystem interact with each other and with the environment, determining the flow of energy and matter that occurs in that environment. Types of ecosystems Aquatic Ecosystem: They are characteried by the presence of water as the main component and are the most abundant type of ecosystem. They constitute almost 75% of all known ecosystems. This group includes the ecosystems of the oceans and those of fresh or salty inland waters, such a rivers, lakes and lagoons. Terrestrial ecosystems: They take place on the earth's crust and out of water in various types of relief: mountains, plains, valleys, and deserts. There are important differences between them in temperature, oxygen concentration, and climate, so the biodiversity of these ecosystems is large and varied. Some examples of this type of ecosystem are forests, scrublands, steppe, and deserts. Five activities you can do to care for and conserve ecosystems: Take care of the water Reduces energy consumption Recycle Consume responsibly Create green areas ACTIVITIES According to the explanation and the video, do the following activities This activity will be solved individually or in pairs, as you prefer. First activity Based on the video you will do the following activity. The activity consists of putting the correct types of ecosystems in the group to which they belong (aquatic ecosystem or terrestrial ecosystem). Second activity This activity consists of choosing which animals live in each ecosystem shown in the images, so that the frog can advance and reach the goal. Remember, the more correct guesses you get, the faster you will get there. Third activity Taking into account what has been explained, you must complete the following crossword puzzle with the corresponding word to which the concept described in each point belongs. LET'S PRACTICE TOGETHER LAST ACTIVTY The activity will be solved together with all the classmates in order to make clear the knowledge seen in class. Answer the 5 questions indicating if it is true or false taking into account the video seen above. Remember that you have one help, you can phone a friend and ask him to help you with a question you don't know.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.029387	04/18/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102978/overview", "title": "ECOSYSTEM CLASS", "author": "Mara de los Angeles Aguilar Fonseca" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77643/overview	Clouds Pre-Assessment Overview This is a very simple pre-assessment that assesses students' knowledge based on a very short video at the beginning of the form. The questions are all multiple choice and all answers are in the video. The Attached link will force a copy to the presentation where there is another force copy Google Form Pre Assessment. All pictures and video in the form are licensed and attributed accordingly according to Creative Commons Rules and Regulations. Clouds Pre-Assessment This is a very simple pre-assessment that assesses students' knowledge based on a very short video at the beginning of the form. The questions are all multiple choice and all answers are in the video. The link will force yu to make a copy of the google Slides Pressentation that has the pre assessment that is als a forced copy link. All pictures and video in the form are licensed and attributed accordingly according to Creative Commons Rules and Regulations.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.046740	Taylor Gates	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/77643/overview", "title": "Clouds Pre-Assessment", "author": "Assessment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64288/overview	Continuous Learning Resource Suggestions (pdf) Continuous Learning Resources (xls) OSPI Continuous Learning Resource Suggestions Overview In response to school closures due to COVID-19, OSPI content experts have curated a selection of links to external organizations providing high-quality online educational materials – courses, lessons, videos, physical and outdoor activity suggestions, etc. Please note that in many cases, these resources are free to use online but are not openly licensed for wide scale reuse and adaptation. Continuous Learning Resources In response to school closures due to COVID-19, OSPI content experts have curated a selection of links to external organizations providing high-quality online educational materials – courses, lessons, videos, physical and outdoor activity suggestions, etc. Please note that in many cases, these resources are free to use online but are not openly licensed for wide scale reuse and adaptation. These resource suggestions fit into the larger framework below that should guide district strategies as we sort through his unprecedented situation together. - Keep Students at the Center Intentional outreach to continue building relationships and maintain connections. Help students feel safe and valued. At minimum, plan to do the following: - Plan for Student Learning: Build on each student’s strengths, interests and needs and use this knowledge to positively impact learning. - Develop a Weekly Plan and Schedule: Offer routines and structures for consistency and to balance think time, work time and play time for health and well-being. - Contact Families: Partner to support student learning through ongoing communication and collaboration. This will not look the same for every student and family—safety remains the priority. - Design Learning for Equity and Access Plan and deliver content in multiple ways, so all students can access learning. - Teach Content: Set goals using knowledge of each student, and Washington state student learning standards. - Deliver Flexible Instruction: Consider how to deliver content depending on tools and resources accessible to each student. Delivery of instruction may include paper, pencil and phone contact, email, technology-based virtual instruction or a combination to meet diverse student needs. - Engage Families: Communicate with families about engagement strategies to support students as they access the learning. Families are critical partners. - Assess Student Learning Manage and monitor student learning and plan what’s next for learning. - Check Student Learning: Use a variety of strategies to monitor, assess and to provide feedback to students about their learning. - Make Instructional Adjustments: Use formative assessment results to guide their reflection on effectiveness of instruction and to determine next steps for student learning. - Engage families: Communicate with and seek input from families about assessment results in order to inform next steps. Except where otherwise noted, this work by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. This resource contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them. Image by Free-Photos from Pixabay	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.073002	Barbara Soots	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64288/overview", "title": "OSPI Continuous Learning Resource Suggestions", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64386/overview	Space Theme Math Worksheets Overview Designed for children from preschool and up. Space theme math worksheets that make learning in the classroom or at home fun. Space Theme Math Worksheets Designed for children from preschool and up. Space theme math worksheets that make learning in the classroom or at home fun.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.090992	03/25/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64386/overview", "title": "Space Theme Math Worksheets", "author": "Cosmic Cubs" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91322/overview	Artifact Resource Guide Genial.ly Interactive Presentation Mystery Box Worksheet Virtual Mystery Box Overview Archaeologists use evidence from sites and records to tell the story of peoples’ cultures. In this online activity, students will analyze a virtual "box" with 3D models of mystery artifacts from a specific location and time period to create a story about the people who used them. Encourage students to think about how these items connect to one another and what the artifacts can tell us about the people that used them. This resource is part of Jefferson Patterson Park and Museum’s open educational resources project to provide history, ecology, archaeology, and conservation resources related to our 560 acre public park. More of our content can be found on YouTube and SketchFab. JPPM is a part of the Maryland Historical Trust under the Maryland Department of Planning. Introduction Archaeologists use evidence from sites and records to tell the story of peoples’ cultures. In this online activity, students will analyze a virtual "box" with 3D models of mystery artifacts from a specific location and time period to create a story about the people who used them. Encourage students to think about how these items connect to one another and what the artifacts can tell us about the people that used them. Attached documents can be printed or completed using a document editor. Students will need to use a computer with internet access to view the 3D model portion of the activity. Materials Needed - Computer with Internet Access - Students will need the Genial.ly link below to access the 3D models for the activity - Artifact Resource Document - "Artifact Resource Guide.pdf" attached below - Artifact Analysis Chart - "Artifact Analysis Chart.pdf" attached below - Mystery Box Worksheet - "Mystery Box Worksheet" attached below Activity This activity is made to be performed in 3 main stages: Analysis, Inference, and Presentation. Before beginning, make sure all students have an Artifact Resource Document, Artifact Analysis Chart, Mystery Box Worksheet, and are able to load the Genial.ly page on a computer. Artifact Analysis (20 minutes) Objective: Students will record information about artifacts from the prehistoric inhabitants of Maryland using evidence from object analysis. Materials: Computer, Artifact Resource Manuals Procedure: Assist students with accessing and navigating the Genial.ly 3D models on their computers. Students may do the activity individually or in groups. Students will: ● Analyze one artifact (groups of less than 6 will have to analyze more than one) ● Fill out the corresponding row on the Mystery Box Artifact Analysis sheet ● Students will share their answers with each other to fill out the entire sheet Inferences Worksheet (20 minutes) Objective: Students will be able to make inferences about how people lived based on artifacts and summarize their findings. Materials: Mystery Box Worksheets Procedure: Students will complete the worksheet in order to uncover the story of the artifacts from their mystery boxes by making inferences about the people who used them. The Big Reveal - Presentations (10 minutes) Objective: Students will be able to present their analysis and interpretation of their artifacts to their peers in the form of a story. Procedure: Two students or groups will pair and present their stories to each other.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.115205	JPPM Admin	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91322/overview", "title": "Virtual Mystery Box", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96098/overview	Task 2 Task 3 WHAT IS AN NGO AND WHAT DO THEY DO? English language Intensive Course Overview Протягом останніх десятиліть Північноатлантичний Альянс набуває посиленого розширення, зростає активність взаємодії представників збройних сил різних країн в рамках ООН, миротворчих сил та інших міжнародних організацій і структур — все це свідчить про необхідність забезпечення мовної комунікації між учасниками мультинаціональних проектів. Не викликає сумнівів, що чим складніше завдання, які доводиться вирішувати в ході міжнародного співробітництва, тим більш глибокою і якісної повинна бути лінгвістична підготовка військовослужбовців, які беруть участь в їх розв‘язанні, тим більше ґрунтовними мають бути її організація і забезпечення. Враховуючи, що сьогодні міжнародні військові контингенти часто створюються для вирішення раптово виникаючих завдань, і в такому випадку значна частка успіху залежить від уміння відповідного військового відомства тієї чи іншої країни забезпечити цілеспрямовану мовну підготовку своїх представників в найкоротші терміни, між країнами-учасницями «НАТО» було досягнуто згоди про стандартизацію підходу до оцінки рівня знань по двом офіційним мовам НАТО (англійської та французької) (англ. SLP — Standardized Language Profile) — STANAG 6001 (NATO Standardization Agreement). Відповідно до встановлених Стандартом критеріїв глибини й якості знань володіння мовою визначаються по чотирьом аспектам (розуміння на слух, усне мовлення, читання і письмо) та по шести рівням (0-5). INTRODUCTION Протягом останніх десятиліть Північноатлантичний Альянс набуває посиленого розширення, зростає активність взаємодії представників збройних сил різних країн в рамках ООН, миротворчих сил та інших міжнародних організацій і структур — все це свідчить про необхідність забезпечення мовної комунікації між учасниками мультинаціональних проектів. Не викликає сумнівів, що чим складніше завдання, які доводиться вирішувати в ході міжнародного співробітництва, тим більш глибокою і якісної повинна бути лінгвістична підготовка військовослужбовців, які беруть участь в їх розв‘язанні, тим більше ґрунтовними мають бути її організація і забезпечення. Враховуючи, що сьогодні міжнародні військові контингенти часто створюються для вирішення раптово виникаючих завдань, і в такому випадку значна частка успіху залежить від уміння відповідного військового відомства тієї чи іншої країни забезпечити цілеспрямовану мовну підготовку своїх представників в найкоротші терміни, між країнами-учасницями «НАТО» було досягнуто згоди про стандартизацію підходу до оцінки рівня знань по двом офіційним мовам НАТО (англійської та французької) (англ. SLP — Standardized Language Profile) — STANAG 6001 (NATO Standardization Agreement). Відповідно до встановлених Стандартом критеріїв глибини й якості знань володіння мовою визначаються по чотирьом аспектам (розуміння на слух, усне мовлення, читання і письмо) та по шести рівням (0-5). Цей курс, що складається з трьох окремих частин і поділений за видами мовленнєвої діяльності, призначений для слухачів, які приєднуються до інтенсивного курсу вивчення іноземної мови для отримання навичок володіння англійською мовою на Рівні 3 відповідно до мовного стандарту STANAG 6001. SECTION 1 SKIMMING, SCANNING AND SELECTIVE READING Visit the WWF‘s website (https://wwf.panda.org) and pick out the information to fill in the Association Application Form provided below. Частина 1 «Analytical Reading Skills» присвячення формуванню і розвитку навичок аналітичного читання для досягнення зазначеного вище рівня, що передбачає здатність читати автентичні тексти з повним їх розумінням і за широким колом тем та інтересів. На Рівні 3 знань відповідно до мовного стандарту STANAG 6001 читач повинен демонструвати абсолютне розуміння всіх стилів і видів писемного мовлення, представлених у публікаціях та періодичних виданнях фахового спрямування, спеціалізованої літературі для освіченої аудиторії та текстах абстрактного змісту із складною мовою. Частина 1 «Analytical Reading Skills» побудована таким чином, щоб розвинути у слухача курсу здатність самостійно й ефективно використовувати читання як засіб навчання, коректно тлумачити прочитане та бачити й розуміти приховану в тексті інформацію (SECTION 1 Skimming, Scanning and Selective Reading).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.136493	08/02/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96098/overview", "title": "English language Intensive Course", "author": "Volodymyr Liutyi" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98534/overview	Plenary Session: Re-Engaged Teaching: Stories From Beyond The Digital Divide Overview Notes from BELTA 2022 Plenary Workshop Discussion Plenary Workshop Notes Abstract: This interactive discussion explores English teaching sustainability and interdependent professional communities. Engage in a mixture of personal narrative, audience polling, and Bangladeshi academic research. Add a dash of American pop culture and meditate on stunning Arizona landscapes. Leave with a renewed commitment to keep yourself and your teaching practice invigorated.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.166389	Lecture	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98534/overview", "title": "Plenary Session: Re-Engaged Teaching: Stories From Beyond The Digital Divide", "author": "Languages" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107432/overview	Mid Year Meeting minutes 2022_10_19 2022 October MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes Overview MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes October 2022 MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes October 2022 MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes October 2022 MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes October 2022 MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes October 2022	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.184856	Stephanie Roth	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107432/overview", "title": "2022 October MLA SR Caucus-Mid Year Meeting Minutes", "author": "Leila Ledbetter" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107799/overview	https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ynnqao7qQ6Q undecagon20 Untitled WaterPoisoning20230609_b_p1 WaterPoisoning20230609_b_p2 WaterPoisoning20230609_b_p3 Space Force Overview Space Force: Civic Activities that promote Wellness Space Force: Health Collage & Data Logs All personal information removed except medicine, is medicine and is importaint for reliability of information to be collected. please also include reference to https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107797 Health Logs: example: for each rounded ¼h, format: date-format YYYYMMDDHHmmssnnn 202308162028ssnnn_ <---(as a key) to the database. there can be multiple entries within the same time-stamp. Time, location -- like this: EARTH_NorthAmerica_UnitedStates_FL_Brevard_SpaceCoast_CITY_nearestIntersectionOrGPSaddress. (3.)what: awake, eat, sleep, work, play... Example: ... 202308162030ssnnn;EARTH_NorthAmerica_UnitedStates_FL_Brevard_SpaceCoast_HIPPA_censor;study 202308162045ssnnn;EARTH_NorthAmerica_UnitedStates_FL_Brevard_SpaceCoast_HIPPA_censor;study 202308162100ssnnn;EARTH_NorthAmerica_UnitedStates_FL_Brevard_SpaceCoast_HIPPA_censor;bed-routine ... copy food log as image "Food Label" in collage style reference to Alpha-Numeric references for format style, record urine and bowel movements and measure portions whenever feasible to dicern nature and science. Collage guidelines: Use the grocer's list when digitizing images to text for ease of re-ordering stock. Space Force: Environmental Protection Please see required read of: Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 40 §20.9 Published by Office of the Federal Registrar National Archives and Records Administration. Community Service: When allocating a scheduled roadway Debris Maintenance consult the local Fire Department for further informations. Remember to note that when someone is picking up litter, safety training requirements should be enforced, for the safety of civil duty. Include response informational resources to all personnel as required by law. Especially in cataloging 1. Artifacts, 2. Animal & Biological Waste, 3. medicines and medical delivery tools, 4. Other small quantity Hazardous Material(s), 5. personal Information destruction procedure & Identity protection (especially with un-opened U.S. Mail, 6. Sensitive wastes (such as ammunition casings & concern) to begin certain findings of possible crime scene and investigations discovery 7. Homelessness awareness and Permit "well"-checking reports via the non-emergency Local Police Department. Mostly, however; we will focus on relocating non-biodegradable litter near the heavy traffic areas: like roadways, walkways, and sub-commercial avoid residential areas inbetween no-trespassing and protected land areas. Litter removal guide-lines: (a.) Assess potential hazards first. Never approach moving vehicles, avoid eye-contact and body gestures that may attempt to (avoid) communication that is distracting to motor-vehicle operators. Be prepared for inclement weather, and prepare to have at hand: Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) appropriate. Also, include high-visibility and first-aid; as may be necessary. Never disturb Animal remains -- or, food wastes without consulting Animal Control and having the proper training to do so. Be aware of (broken transparent glass fragments) and Wildlife, including insects and Dangerous or Venomous insects and the like. (b.) Know the area and assert an estimation of the duration of location cleaning. Bring, but do not store, the appropriate tools (broom, or rake), never leave tools un-attended. (PPE suggestions:) security vest, sun care products, long pants, gloves, safety glasses or safety goggles (anti-fog, and UV protective when necessary), sanitized shoes and apparel before spreading potential disease, a hat and mask may be optional. (Tool suggestions:) including grabbers, bucket, rake, broom, golf-cart or other vehicle should have Secondary Priority to Landscape Activity. Always remember, we-the-people are a team and use all of your resources available to stay in communication; However, technology may be sensitive to extrems (heat, sweat, rain etc...) Plastic Bags: Mem or Letter Adapters and artifacts found in future generations requireing photo dump and evedance forensic data. X-ray statistics of evolution type human D. Omochron20 cell virus YouTube video claiming "Omochron20" computer virus allowing FBI monotoring [set] red flag = false; Polar Caps: $L [= \sqrt{Q^2-U^2}]$ Air Force Resilience -- Barriers to Mental Health, Wellness & Resilience Cross-Functional Team Initiative Submission Form 26+zero English Alphabet ====================================================== we admit that 8 colors is too few. 2,2,2 {r,g,b} [0\|\|1] = 2 * 2 * 2 ($2^2$) is 8 next, 3 is $3^3=27$ - 1 {the English Alphabet}: @ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ Darkness > then > light @= [000,000,000] "blackness" Z= [255,255,255] "white" Polar omit all "bcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxy" << establishing a standard https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ynnqao7qQ6Q RED,GREEN,BLUE seprate from eachother is alphabeticlly reversed @ A-alpha (opaqueness) B-BLUE 3 C, D, E, F, G-GREEN 02 H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R-RED wavelength -- 1 S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z; \| arriving \| _ \| departing \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\|\|\| Red 000 \| Green 000 \| Blue 000 \| dental: UNICODE NAMING CONVENTION OF STANDARDS pending... in ternary: red,green,blue = \| @ \| A \| B \| C \| D \| E \| F \| G \| H \| I \| J \| K \| L \| M \| N \| O \| P \| Q \| R \| S \| T \| U \| V \| W \| X \| Y \| Z \| DARKEST TO LIGHNESS: 000 < 24BITNATURAL ,list (left to right) \| \| 100 \| \| 200 \| \| 010 \| \| 110 \| \| 210 \| \| 020 \| \| 120 \| \| 220 \| \| 001 \| \| 101 \| \| 201 \| \| 011 \| \| 111 -- GREY, ($1\over2$); GRAY \| \| 211 \| \| 021 \| \| 121 \| \| 221 \| \| 002 \| \| 102 \| \| 202 \| \| 012 \| \| 112 \| \| 212 \| \| 022 \| \| 122 \| \| 222 << SATURATED \| ^^ - UNFORTUNATELY - this list is not ordered. \| THIS LIST IS: (Machine Number Format = Right to Left) "as a number is" \| \| \| 000 \| #000000 \| \| 001 \| #000080 \| \| 002 \| #0000FF \| \| 100 \| #800000 \| \| 101 \| #800080 \| \| 102 \| #8000FF \| \| 010 \| #008000 \| \| 200 \| #FF0000 \| \| 011 \| #008080 \| \| 201 \| #FF0080 \| \| 012 \| #0080FF \| \| 202 \| #FF00FF \| \| 110 \| #808000 \| \| 111 \| #808080 \| \| 112 \| #8080FF \| \| 020 \| #00FF00 \| \| 210 \| #FF8000 \| \| 211 \| #FF8080 \| \| 021 \| #00FF80 \| \| 022 \| #00FFFF \| \| 212 \| #FF80FF \| \| 120 \| #80FF00 \| \| 121 \| #80FF80 \| \| 122 \| #80FFFF \| \| 220 \| #FFFF00 \| \| 221 \| #FFFF80 \| \| 222 \| #FFFFFF \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.225425	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107799/overview", "title": "Space Force", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71695/overview	Intro to Looping or Repeat in Computer Science Overview This is a lesson to be used by teachers in the PreK-2nd grades. It involves students learning a computer science concept without a device and with lots of physical movement. All of the needed resources are linked or included. Looping or Repeat in Computer Science Lower primary students need lots of practice using computer science concepts. This resource includeds full body movement as well as work with code to reinforce the concept of a loop or repeat. It integrates into math and literature units when teaching patterns and sequencing. This resource is written for teachers. Most students in the lower primary grades would find the reading of the directions too overwhelming. Getting Started Resources needed: - Access to Go Noodle and other links in the lesson on the web - Access to songs that have repeating lines/verses - For example: "The Ants Go Marching" - Unit where students are learning about patterns and/or sequencing - Vocabulary - Loop - somthing that is done more than once in a row - Repeat - somthing that is done more than once in a row - Effiecient - quickest and simplest The Lesson Activity One (In this activity students will be introduced to vocabulary): - Play the video/song "Banana, Banana, Meatball" from Go Noodle while students sing and dance along. You may want to play it more than once. - Review what a pattern looks like - something that repeats - and play the video/song again while students look for those patterns/repeats and how many times the pattern repeats. - They should notice the "Banana, Banana, Meatball" right away and it repeats six times. - The other repeats are: - "Nod, clap, shake your hips" - "Loud, loud, quiet, quiet" - "Elbow, stomach, stomach, elbow" - Some students may also not that the verse "Make a pattern, make a patterm, Let's make a pattern" repeats twice several times in the song - The other repeats are: - Give the directions for "banana, banana, meatball" six times and have students follow those directions six times. Show them what that would look like if you wrote down the words: - banana, banana, meatball - banana, banana, meatball - banana, banana, meatball - banana, banana, meatball - banana, banana, meatball - banana, banana, meatball - Talk about how this could be made more efficient if you had to write those directions. Students should come up with something like, "Do banana, banana, meatball" six times. - Next, students work with a partner and give the partner directions to do something more than once and then come up with a more efficient way. They can use the other patterns from the song "Banana, banana, meatball" or come up with their own. - For example: Turn around, turn around, turn around, turn around or more efficiently Turn around four times. - They should notice the "Banana, Banana, Meatball" right away and it repeats six times. Activity Two (In this activity students will be introduced to using written numbers to the take place of saying the number of times to loop or repeat): - Play and sing "Baby Shark" - Project the lyrics for "Baby Shark" - Students take turns finding the repeats and circle them and put a number to show how many times it is repeated/looped. - For example: 4. Now have the students tell you how to rewrite the song more efficiently. "3 times sing Baby shark with 6 doos". Continue this with the rest of the song. (The Baby Shark original and more efficent lyrics are attached to this section.) Activity Three (In this activity students will use a new song and work independently or with a partner to find the repeats) - Play and sing "Fred the Moose" - Pass out "Fred the Moose" lyrics and students work indepentdenly or with a partner to find and circle the repeats with the number of times they are repeated. - As a class share work and discuss what they have learned about repeats, loops, and effiecincy. Follow Up After completing this lesson have students watch for repeats or loops that can be made more efficient. It can be in directions, in other songs, in books, and even in shapes. Use the vocabulary words often and include them on your word wall. When students begin coding the concept of looping or repeating will more easily understood and transferred to code. Using code efficently will make sense as well.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.250605	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71695/overview", "title": "Intro to Looping or Repeat in Computer Science", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108219/overview	Animals for 2nd Grades Overview 2nd Grades Unit 10 Animals One can use EDPUZZLE to prepare some interactive activities for students. You can click the link below for an example; https://edpuzzle.com/media/64f6ca560712ca401d1d89ee English for 2nd Grades 2nd Grades Unit 10 Animals	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.267680	Duran AYKAN	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/108219/overview", "title": "Animals for 2nd Grades", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111505/overview	Rhythm and Movement Overview 1st or 2nd grade students will review the basic rhythms using quarter notes, eighth notes, and a quarter rest. They will clap and speak the rhythms and then perform the rhythms with their feet and unpitched instruments. General Music Rhythm Lesson Grade Level: 1st or 2nd students Learning Goals: - Students will be able to identify quarter notes, eighth notes, and quarter rests in a four beat pattern. - Students will be able to clap and speak four beat patterns with accuracy. (Ta, ti-ti) - Students will be able to walk to a steady beat throughout the room. - Students will be able to stomp four beat patterns with their feet. - Students will be able to play four beat patterns using rhythm sticks. Steps: - Students will sit on the floor in front of the teacher. - Students will be shown individual rhythm cards and will be asked to identify them. They will be asked the name, nickname, how many beats, and how many sounds. - Students will be shown a four beat rhythm card. They will be told to clap and speak the rhythm once the teacher says, "One, two, clap and speak." The teacher will point along with each beat. - If the majority speaks the rhythm, card correct, they will be shown another card and asked to perform it. - Students will then be asked to stand and walk their feet to the beat of the drum the teacher is playing without talking. If students can do this successfully, they will move to the next step. - Students will be asked to face the teacher who will show them a rhythm card. First they will clap the rhythm, then they will stomp it. - Students will be told to stomp the rhythm around the room while speaking it as a class. They will repeat the rhythm until the teacher has the, stop and the game repeats with a new card. - Students will then be given a set of rhythm sticks. They will play the rhythms on the sticks as they walk around the room. - Students will carefully put away the rhythm sticks and return to their circle spots after the activity. Sound example of rhythm sticks: Rhythm Sticks Video example of rhythm and four beat patterns: Rhythm Practice with Quarter Notes and Eighth Notes Assessments: - The teacher will observe the students for understanding by watching their feet for steady	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.281759	01/07/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/111505/overview", "title": "Rhythm and Movement", "author": "Anne Anderson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94162/overview	The Sound Chain Overview This is an auditory memory activity, based mainly on listening and which is big on concentration powers. Gets a bit noisy but double the fun! Memory ACTIVITY OBJECTIVE: This is an auditory memory activity, based mainly on listening and which is big on concentration powers. Gets a bit noisy but double the fun! ACTIVITY DESCRIPTION: The activity starts with a child starting a pattern of finger snaps or claps (for example, two snaps and a clap). The next child must do the same pattern and add a pattern of his or her own. The activity goes on with each child repeating the entire pattern along with adding a new one each time. The child who forgets or makes a mistake in between is ‘out’ and the last one remaining wins.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.294873	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94162/overview", "title": "The Sound Chain", "author": "Special Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70778/overview	Groups of the Periodic Table Overview In this activity, students will learn the location of the following categories on the periodic table while creating their own version including a key. Categories Included: - Alkali Metals - Alkaline Earth Metals - Halogens - Noble Gases - Metals - Nonmetals - Metalloids - Transition Metals - Inner Transition Metals The Soft Chalk Activity includes interactive checks throughout and includes information on valence electrons and determining groups and periods for elements. Groups of the Periodic Table This activity helps students learn the location of certain categories of the periodic table. Students will need a blank periodic table and colored pencils or markers to help them label the specific categories. The categories mentioned are alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, noble gases, halogens, transition metals, inner transition metals, metals, nonmetals and metalloids. The activity is a Soft Chalk activity with interactive review elements embedded into it. The periodic table is organized into categories based on similar properties and number of valence electrons. Complete the following activity to learn about these categories. Periodic Table Categories Soft Chalk Lesson	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.309401	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70778/overview", "title": "Groups of the Periodic Table", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98353/overview	Internet safety? Overview This lesson demontrates three golden rules to safely navagating the internet! The internet? The Internet is a worldwide system of computer networks It is currently a network of networks in which users at any one computer can, if they have permission, get information from any other computer It holds the conetent of the world and is at the hands of anyone who wants it intentionaly or not Examples of safety risks. Using the internet also comes at a cost no matter who you are or your background. The idealism around the risks are somewhat not talked about, however are still relevant to the anyone using it. 1. Internet scammers: These are people who want to use you and your information for their benefit even if it means doing something to hurt you or your image. 2. Cyber bullying: With the content of the world at anyones hands it can be very easy to judge someone based off a little clip or article that the media or internet picks up. Comments, photos, and information, can easily make people feel down or less human like with words that may not seem mean, however they are in fact very harsh and cruel. Safety practices. When using the internet you can easily practice using the internet safely with these three golden rules! 1. Make sure the site is verified and does not have risky text in the title 2. Don't say yes to everything, meaning strangers and people you don't know 3. Make sure you use the correct wording when searching soemthing new, you may get more than what you asked for. Now that you have seen the three golden rules in action, lets see what mom and dad have to say about them! let's talk! Sit down with a parent and discuss the three golden rules and see what they have to add to each! 1. Are you applying yourself like this currently? 2. Can you do anything currently to implement these three strategies? 3. Safety is never easy, but how do the golden rules help make work?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.324867	10/30/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98353/overview", "title": "Internet safety?", "author": "william Mccloud" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78784/overview	Practice Module for PD: Online Teaching and Learning: Establishing Community in Online Courses Overview In this course, we will focus on trends in higher education, and on strategies and informed practices to increase student engagement through community building. Overview Online education is a rapidly growing trend. In fact, according to a survey of institutions of higher education conducted annually by the Babson Survey Research Group, though overall enrollment rates have declined, the number of students enrolling in online courses continues to increase significantly each year. That number increased by more than 200,000 from the previous year. Though the numbers of students enrolling in online education continues to grow, student success in online courses does not always compare to that of their counterparts in face-to-face courses. So what can we do to ensure that our online students attain the same levels of success as those in face-to-face courses? We know that learning is a social experience. It's not all about what a student can read in a textbook. Nor is it all about information that an instructor can impart through a lecture. Students gain knowledge from the instructor, from the course content, and from other students. Interaction with instructor and peers helps students experience differing opinions and perspectives, and helps to develop soft skills that can be transferred into other areas of the learners' lives. So how do we keep our online students engaged, learning and interacting to maximize their learning potential? In this course, we will focus on tools, activities, and strategies that will help us develop more effective learning communities in the online environment. This module focuses on some of the recent trends and statistics that are available to highlight the importance of community-building for online learners. A Sense of Presence Here are my instructor notes! Hello? ... Is anybody out there? Think about some online course experiences you've had as a learner/participant. I know that you have all been teaching online courses for a while, but think about some that you have taken. Have you ever had one in which you did not have opportunity to interact with the instructor... or other students... or even content? I have. And as a student, that can be pretty frustrating. Imagine our novice students in an environment where they don't know where to go or what to do. They'd be left wondering: - "What should I be doing?" - "Where is my instructor?" - "Where is ANYBODY?" - "I must've done something wrong... What did I do to get here?" Most learners have a need for social interactions that facilitate learning. As an instructor, you have the responsibility of helping your learners feel secure about their learning environment, so that do not feel isolated, and so that they are more comfortable and ready to learn. Establishing a sense of presence in the online environment is critical to helping your students feel connected. Instructor presence throughout the online learning environment offers students the feeling of being there in the classroom, with the instructor and being together with other learners. But how do you do that as an instructor? Following the criteria established through QC2 (Odessa College's faculty course, Quality Course Components) is a great start. Here are a few examples that are discussed in QC2. - Providing students easy to follow navigation instructions so that they know what to click on and how to get started helps them to feel more comfortable and confident inside the course. - Easy to find information about the instructor (such as a "Faculty Information" link from the navigation panel) can provide students with phone numbers and email addresses for their instructor, but also can provide a brief bio of the instructor to help them get a sense of their instructor's personality, an overview of what they can expect from their instructor, and perhaps even a picture or video so that the learners can put a face (and voice!) with the name. All of this information help the learners to see that their instructor is a living, breathing person, and that they have someone with whom they can connect. - Providing a welcome announcement and a welcome video is another way to help students feel more comfortable when they're getting started. But also sending an email to the students before the class begins can help to start establishing that sense of presence even before the course opens. - Detailed grade feedback helps your students really sense that the instructor is there... and that the instructor cares.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.340509	03/30/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78784/overview", "title": "Practice Module for PD: Online Teaching and Learning: Establishing Community in Online Courses", "author": "Julie Lyon" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93903/overview	Learning Domain: Knowledge Constructor Standard: Students plan and employ effective research strategies to locate information and other resources for their intellectual or creative pursuits. Learning Domain: Knowledge Constructor Standard: Students evaluate the accuracy, perspective, credibility and relevance of information, media, data or other resources. Learning Domain: Knowledge Constructor Standard: Students curate information from digital resources using a variety of tools and methods to create collections of artifacts that demonstrate meaningful connections or conclusions. Learning Domain: Knowledge Constructor Standard: Students build knowledge by actively exploring real-world issues and problems, developing ideas and theories and pursuing answers and solutions. Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Evaluate the validity, reliability, and credibility of sources when researching an issue or event Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Determine the kinds of sources and relevant information that are helpful, taking into consideration multiple points of view represented in the sources, the types of sources available, and the potential uses of the sources Learning Domain: Social Studies Skills Standard: Create strategies to avoid plagiarism and respect intellectual property when developing a paper or presentation Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources. Learning Domain: Writing for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects Standard: Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Evaluate authors' differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the author's claims, reasoning, and evidence. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in History/Social Studies Standard: Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources. Learning Domain: Writing for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects Standard: Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content. Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of primary and secondary sources, connecting insights gained from specific details to an understanding of the text as a whole. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Evaluate authors’ differing points of view on the same historical event or issue by assessing the authors’ claims, reasoning, and evidence. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Integrate and evaluate multiple sources of information presented in diverse formats and media (e.g., visually, quantitatively, as well as in words) in order to address a question or solve a problem. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Integrate information from diverse sources, both primary and secondary, into a coherent understanding of an idea or event, noting discrepancies among sources. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write arguments focused on discipline-specific content.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.372098	Unit of Study	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93903/overview", "title": "Digital Media Literacy in Social Studies", "author": "Social Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69636/overview	Lesson Rubric Overview This rubric is designed to evaluate social studies lessons under the Iowa Core Social Studies Standards. Rubric Please identify how much you agree/disagree with the following statements. This lesson aligned with the Iowa Core Social Studies Standards. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson is aligned with the stated Learning Goals. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson contains age appropriate materials. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson allows students opportunities to show their learning. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson allows for student collaboration. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson utilizes technology in an effective manner. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This student would lead to high student engagement. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| This lesson is relevant to a student's understanding of the modern world. \| Strongly Disagree \| Disagree \| Somewhat \| Agree \| Strongly Agree \| \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.390457	Josh Battern	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69636/overview", "title": "Lesson Rubric", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83558/overview	Learning Pathways in Numeracy Resources for PreK - Grade 3 Reentry Main Menu Washington State Early Learning and Development Guidelines PreK - Grade 3 Reentry: Developmental Progressions Overview Development is sequential, with skills building on prior knowledge and learning. Young students pass through many key milestones on their way toward end-of-year standards. These progressions in literacy and numeracy show how learning unfolds across multiple grade levels allows teachers to identify what knowledge and abilities students possess at the start of the year and what comes next, so they can meet each student where they are and address any gaps that may exist. Developmental Progression Resources The COVID-19 pandemic may have disrupted opportunities young students have to participate in classroom-based learning with peers, but children have undoubtedly continued to learn and grow. Even without disruptions to their formal education, children’s development across PreK–3rd grades is naturally wide-ranging. Students who are the same age or are in the same grade can often display differing skills and abilities from one another, based in part on what experiences and opportunities they have had as well as their innate biology and tendencies. Students this age can also experience periods of rapid growth, stagnation, and even regression, at times. The wide range of skills expected at entry to school may be even more pronounced than usual during the 2021-22 school year. Examples of developmental progressions available to teachers, PreK–3rd grade include: Early Literacy Pathways \| OSPI and AESD The Early Literacy Pathways support educators, caregivers and families in understanding and supporting children's development in the areas of social-emotional development, cognitive development, language, and literacy development, and reading and writing development. Learning Pathways in Numeracy \| OSPI and AESD The Learning Pathways in Numeracy features progression pathways for the development of numeracy concepts. It can be used as a quick reference to isolate children’s learning along a particular pathway and determine the next steps in learning that would move children forward along a particular pathway. GOLD®\| Teaching Strategies As part of the WaKIDS Whole-child Assessment teachers use the developmental progressions from Teaching Strategies, called GOLD® Objectives for Development and Learning, to assess students across six domains: social-emotional, cognitive, language, physical, literacy and math. The developmental progressions in Teaching Strategies GOLD® span from birth through 3rd grade and may be useful for identifying the sequence of development in high-priority areas for students across the early grades. District administrators and teachers trained to use Teaching Strategies GOLD® can access the GOLD® Objectives for Development and Learning in the My Teaching Strategies® online assessment platform Washington State Early Learning and Development Guidelines: Birth Through 3rd Grade \| OSPI, Thrive by Five, and Washington State Department of Early Learning The Washington State Early Learning and Development Guidelines: Birth Through 3rd Grade outlines what children know and are able to do at different stages of their development through third grade. This resource was designed with both educators and families in mind. Attribution and License Attribution Icons from the Noun Project: growth by Rockicon, Family by DewDrops, evaluative assessment by ahmad, resources by Becris, School by PJ Souders from the Noun Project License Except where otherwise noted, this curated resource collection by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction and Washington Association of Educational Service Districts is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. This document contains links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any monitoring by OSPI or AESD. Please confirm the license status of any third-party resources and understand their terms of use before reusing them.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.418722	Washington OSPI OER Project	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/83558/overview", "title": "PreK - Grade 3 Reentry: Developmental Progressions", "author": "Barbara Soots" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97596/overview	UbD 2.0 - Linear Functions Overview A lesson plan outlining the teaching of linear functions at a Grade 8-9 level. Stage 1 - Desired Results ESTABLISHED GOALS \| Students will show understanding of the following standards according to the Common Core curriculum: \| Transfer Students will be able to independently use their learning to… \| \| Meaning UNDERSTANDINGS \| ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS \| \| \| Aquistion Students will know… \| Students will be skilled at… \| \| \| Stage 2 - Assessment Evidence Evaluative Criteria \| Assessment Evidence \| \| Students will show their understanding of these concepts by completing problems using the concepts in question. \| PERFORMANCE TASK(S): \| \| OTHER EVIDENCE: \| Stage 3 - Learning Plan Learning Activities: Summary of Key Learning Events and Instruction What learning experiences and instruction will enable students to achieve the desired results? How will the design W = Help the students know Where the unit is going and What is expected? Help the teacher know Where the students are coming from (prior knowledge, interests)? H = Hook all students, and Hold their interest? E1 = Equip students, help them Experience the key ideas and Explore the issue? R = Provide opportunities to Rethink and Revise their understandings and work? E2 = Allow students to Evaluate their work and its implications? T = be Tailored (personalized) to the different needs, interests, and abilities of learners? O = Be Organized to maximize initial and sustained engagement as well as effective learning? 1.00 Bell Ringer - Review of Algebra at the previous level [W, H, E1, R] - Problems having students plug a number into an expression for "x" and solving for "y." - Problems having students graph a linear function from a given equation in slope-intercept form. 1.03 Go over Bell Ringer as a class, students asked to talk through problems. [W, H, E1, R] 2.00 Manipulating Equations - Solving an equation for the dependent variable [W, E1, R, E2, T] 2.01 Work through examples to show different methods/rules of manipulating equations., solving equations for "y." [W] 2.02 Students work on example problems using these methods by themselves or in pairs. [E1, R] 2.03 The solutions to problems are given by students verbally. Any contradictions or questions are worked out on the board by teacher or students. [E1, R, E2, T] 3.00 Graphing Linear Functions [W, E1, R, E2, T] 3.01 Work through examples to show manipulation of functions to solve for "y" to then graph the lines on coordinate planes. [W] 3.02 Students work on example problems using these methods by themselves or in pairs. [E1, R] 3.03 Student volunteers draw their solutions on the board. Any contradictions or questions are discussed as a class. [E1, R, E2, T] 4.00 Creating an Equation from the Graph of a Line [W, E1, R, E2, T] 4.01 Work through examples to show how the graph of a line can be analyzed to find the slope ("m") and y-intercept ("b") to write the function in slope-intercept form ("y=mx+b"). [W] 4.02 Students work on example problems using these methods by themselves or in pairs. [E1, R] 4.03 The solutions to problems are given by students verbally. Any contadictions or questions are settled/shown on the board by teacher or students. [E1, R, E2, T] 5.00 Transformations of a Line [W, E1, R, E2, T] 5.01 Work through examples to show how adding/subtracting a constant to the independent variable or the y-intercept shifts the line left/right or up/down. [W] 5.02 Work though examples to show how scalars can increase, decrease, or flip the slope of a line. [W] 5.03 Students work on example problems using these methods by themselves or in pairs. [E1, R] 5.04 Student volunteers draw their solutions on the board. Any contradictions or questions are discussed as a class. [E1, R, E2, T] 6.00 Inverse of Linear Functions [W, E1, R, E2, T] 6.01 Work through examples to show manipulating linear functions to solve for the independent variable, now making it the dependent variable, then show how the graph of this inverse function is the reflection of the original function across the line y=x. [W] 6.02 Show that a linear function and its inverse are perpendicular to each other. [W] 6.03 Show via substitution of one function into the other solves for the point of intersection of the two lines. [W] 6.04 Students work on example problems using these methods by themselves or in pairs. [E1, R] 6.05 Student volunteers work out and draw their solutions on the board. Any contradictions or questions are discussed as a class. [E1, R, E2, T] 7.00 Real World Problems [W, E1, R, E2, T] 7.01 Work through an example to show what to look for in a real world problem to write an equation for the function required to find the solution asked for. [W] 7.02 Students work on two example problems by themselves or in pairs using the methods shown. [E1, R] 7.03 The solutions to problems are given by students verbally. Any contadictions or questions are settled/shown on the board by teacher or students. [E1, R, E2, T] 8.00 Homework Practice [E1, R, E2, O] 8.01 Students are assigned problems using the concepts of the lesson to practice for homework. Solutions are made available for students to check their work. [E1, R, E2] 8.02 Students will be graded at the beginning of next class based on completion. [O] 8.03 Any further questions or clarifications that students require on particular homework problems will be answered by student volunteers, who will work out their solutions on the board and explain their work. [E1, R, E2, T] 9.00 Quiz [O] - Students complete an quiz that requires them to show their work and solutions to problems where the skills learned in this lesson are required to solve the problems in question.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.448581	09/29/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97596/overview", "title": "UbD 2.0 - Linear Functions", "author": "Jalen Steiner" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70886/overview	Water Balloon Toss - Grade 8 Overview Middle school lessons utilize local phenomenon and are organized by grade bands. By designing instruction around local phenomenon, students are provided with a reason to learn shifting the focus from learning about a disconnected topic to figuring out why or how something happens. #Going 3D with GRC Lesson - Force and Motion Student Science Performance Phenomenon: Sometimes when a person throws a water balloon at me I can catch it without it breaking and sometimes it breaks when I try to catch it. Gather: Students explore ways to fill and break balloons in a consistent manner and determine criteria for the problem (e.g., 4-meter underhand toss, drop 2 meters onto grass, drop 1 meter onto concrete) and how to change variables inconsistent ways. Materials – Water Balloons, water, and bins, measuring tape/meter stick, large syringes, and other objects upon request. Students design a solution to the problem of increasing the proportion of water balloons that survive collisions without breaking. Students plan and carry out an investigation to test the effectiveness of their solution to the problem of dropping balloons without causing them to break. Students use a model to organize data from the experiment and find patterns in the data to use as evidence to support an explanation for your solution of successfully dropping balloons without causing them to break. (Teacher Hint- This activity is definitely an outside activity on a warm day. The focus of this investigation is twofold. One is to help students understand the engineering design - is the figure on the engineering process at the end of the lesson. Students must determine how much water will be added to the balloon. Establish minimum criteria throughout the investigation based upon the strength of balloons. Encourage students to construct a data table to record proportions.) Reason: 5. Students develop a model to show the system of forces acting on a balloon when it is successfully dropped (without breaking the balloon). (This could be done as a poster.) Class Discussion: Q: Why did you select the criteria you did in defining the problem? Q: How does your model show the forces acting on the balloon? Q: What causes the balloon to break? Q: Why is the way the forces are distributed on impact important to the design? Q: How can we use the laws of motion to make sense of this phenomenon? Q: What are some examples of analogous phenomena? (Teacher Hints: It is important students understand that each group is defining the problem and limitations placed on a solution. Focus on the forces, engineering design, and how the design was tested. The laws of motion should be used conceptually not by a number - an object in motion stays in motion - the sum of the forces acting on an object determines the motion of the object - the momentum of an object increases with increasing mass and/or velocity. Analogous phenomena are phenomena with the same causes but the different contexts (e.g., bumpers on cars that have crumple folds to distribute the force of a collision over time, high jump pits have soft landing foam, springs on a car to soften the ride.) Communicate Reasoning: 6. Students construct an explanation for how the system you have engineered operates to change how the forces acting on the balloons cause fewer balloons to break. (Teacher Hints: Students focus on both the way the system operates as well as how the design distributes the force of impact over both time and area. Key core ideas for this challenge: 1) an object in motion tends to stay in motion until acted upon by a force, 2) for every force there is an equal and opposite force, and 3) the force is proportional to the mass and velocity of the object.) *See attached document below for full lesson. Additional Lessons can be found at #Going 3D with GRC (Gathering, Reasoning and Communicating). Original authors were: Kathy Ulrich, Delene Butler, and H. Guy.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.468870	Jamie Rumage	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70886/overview", "title": "Water Balloon Toss - Grade 8", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106278/overview	Plot Elements Guided Notes Presto - Short Film Seventh Grade by Gary Soto Plot Elements with Short Films Overview This is a lesson to help students identify plot elements in different texts. It is designed for 7th grade students in the ELA classroom. The graphic organizer on the Google Slides helps the students stay organized and provides a visual of plot diagramming. The short film is funny and engaging for the students. Instructions In this lesson students will learn about plot elements and practice analyzing a text for the different elements. Step 1 - Provide the guided notes for the students so they can be knowledgeable of the terminology. Step 2 - Students will analyze a short film for the different plot elements. Explain that this will lead to analyzing a short story for plot elements next. Step 3 - Watch and discuss the first short film, Presto. Model to the students how to analyze the different sections to correctly complete a plot diagram. Step 4 - Watch another short film (select one of your choice) and allow students to work with a partner, while observing the students and checking for understanding. Step 5 - The third short film (your choice) provides students with the opportunity to complete the assignment independently. This will provide the data on who has a solid understanding of plot elements and who needs more instruction. Step 6 - Read the short story 7th Grade by Gary Soto. While reading, discuss the different plot elements. Model to students how to analyze the text for meaning and allow students to participate while using the new academic vocabulary.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.489855	Teaching/Learning Strategy	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106278/overview", "title": "Plot Elements with Short Films", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104455/overview	Education Standards Be A Decision Maker! Climate Action Challenge Environmental Literacy Lesson Plan.docx Overview The lesson plan focuses on the students playing the role of adult effective decision-makers who can help the planet and imagine its future. Students will build upon their knowledge of climate change causes, effects, and solutions. Students use the four-language skills in content based and language instructions class. They work cooperatively and collaboratively utilizing different higher thinking skills. Students are assigned to write their reflection about the lesson using Google forms and turn their ideas for the planet future into a projects. Photo was made by Salwa Aly using Canva App Salwa Aly's Climate Action Challenge Environmental Literacy Lesson Plan.docx I hope this lesson plan would be useful to other teachers. Please use as little paper as possible in class because you will save a lot of trees by doing so. An Overview of The Lesson Plan This lesson plan focuses on using role-playing to help students become decision-makers and in control of the future of the planet according to the decision they make in the present. Content-based and laguage instruction, collaboration, project based learning, the four language skills, and different technological skills will be utilized in this lesson plan.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.516084	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/104455/overview", "title": "Be A Decision Maker! Climate Action Challenge Environmental Literacy Lesson Plan.docx", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90450/overview	https://www.education.com/game/typing-fun-facts/ Video: Importance of Water in Life Overview This lesson is about water, language arts, and math are both incorporated in this lesson. Students in first grade will enjoy these games and activities as they are learning. Water As you watch the video pay attention to the facts you learn. Once you have seen the video you will go to Education.com (attachment above) and write a short paragraph of one to two facts you have learned about water from the video. You may watch the video as many times as needed. Bubble Buster: Addition to 10 Watch the video to refresh your mind on lessons discussed in class. Then go to Education.com (attached above) and play the math game. Instructions on how to play the game are on the site. You may watch the video as many times as needed.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.534268	02/26/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90450/overview", "title": "Video: Importance of Water in Life", "author": "Aubrey Thomas" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90350/overview	Equation Set Up Practice Highschool Linear Equation Notes Solving Equation Practice Youtube Explanation Linear Equations Overview Linear Equations Lesson Students will be learning how to set up and solve linear equations in real world settings and also mathmatical settings. To practice setting up these equations students can use https://courses.lumenlearning.com/prealgebra/chapter/solve-money-applications/ This is the first task. To set up the equation students must create a table to identify the values of the equation. (Further instructions on lumen learning) After writing the equation,the second task is solving the problem through distribution, combining like terms, and isolating variables. Students can use https://www.khanacademy.org/math/algebra/x2f8bb11595b61c86:solve-equations-inequalities#x2f8bb11595b61c86:linear-equations-variables-both-sides for practice problems. OAS PA.A.1.2 Use linear functions to represent and explain real-world and mathematical situations.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.555471	02/23/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90350/overview", "title": "Linear Equations", "author": "Arianna Camerlin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90297/overview	Hands-On Math Overview Great math activities for the students to keep them engaged. Math Activities In this lesson we will work on our math skills for the second grade. I will hand out some math worksheets for the students to work on but to help make it more hands on and engaging for the students we will use M&M's or Skittles to subtract or add to the equation. Another activity we can do in the lesson would be to place numbers all over the room and then let the students get out of their chair and go around with a paper and find all the hidden numbers and add them up to see who finds them all and adds them up correctly. This is a great activity because hands on involvement is very good for the classroom as well as getting them out of their seats so they can get rid of some of their energy. Each student will be able to count by 5's and listen to directions and use conprehension skills. The last activity is actually one I saw in class today that was amazing and really had the students involved and engaged. Martin, L. (n.d.). The importance of hands-on learning in child education. The Importance of Hands-On Learning in Child Education. Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://blog.friendscentral.org/benefits-of-hands-on-learning 30+ amazing candy math activities for Kids. Math Geek Mama. (2020, June 7). Retrieved February 22, 2022, from https://mathgeekmama.com/candy-math/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.568447	02/22/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90297/overview", "title": "Hands-On Math", "author": "Morgan Taylor" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90721/overview	Transport audio Overview Transport audio Transport audio Transport audio Transport audio	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.586953	03/07/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90721/overview", "title": "Transport audio", "author": "Shadman Mammadli" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84255/overview	Creating a wearable wildlife tracking device with Micro:Bit Overview Can you code & utilize a Micro:bit to create a species counter to track local wildlife? Can you design a way to make it into a “wearable device”? Can you report the data and as a whole class discuss biodiversity? The goal of this project is to integrate the two together to make the technology more relevant and impactful. Biodiversity describes the variety of species found in Earth’s terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems. The completeness or integrity of an ecosystem’s biodiversity is often used as a measure of its health. Why is diversity important in an ecosystem? Design Challenge Title: Tracking Wildlife with a “custom” design wearable Author(s): Jackie Druck & Trista Mullin \| Background and Question/Challenge:Background: Students will be learning about coding as well as about the internal functions of a computer/processor in STEM.They also will be learning about ecosystems in their science curriculum.The goal of this project is to integrate the two together to make the technology more relevant and impactful. Biodiversity describes the variety of species found in Earth’s terrestrial and oceanic ecosystems. The completeness or integrity of an ecosystem’s biodiversity is often used as a measure of its health. Why is diversity important in an ecosystem?Question/Challenge: Can you code & utilize a Micro:bit to create a species counter to track local wildlife? Can you report the data and as a whole class discuss biodiversity?Lesson Plan: Modified from Micro:bits lesson - Protecting animals on land - Spot the species \| \| \| SDG Goal: Goal 15 - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss \| Why is this challenge relevant to students? This challenge is relevant to students because it will help them monitor wildlife in their own environment. It will also be a relevant example of how technology can make their life easier - rather than keeping a physical paper tally, they can use the device to obtain data. \| Constraints/Criteria: \| Materials: Micro:bitIpadPresentationSupplies to possibly design wearable: \| Math, Science, T&E, CS Standards: Skills for Analyzing and Investigating Environmental Issues - Identify and develop action strategies, including design solutions, appropriate for addressing a range of environmental issues at community and regional levels. They describe how their action strategies and design solutions might impact environmental quality and other people now and in the future. PENNSYLVANIA INTEGRATED STANDARDS FOR SCIENCE, ENVIRONMENT, ECOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, AND ENGINEERING GRADE 5 - Earth and Human Activity PA Computer Science Standards:1B-CS-01: Describe how internal and external parts of computing devices function to form a system.1B-CS-02: Model how computer hardware and software work together as a system to accomplish tasks.1B-DA-06: Organize and present collected data visually to highlight relationships and support a claim.1B-DA-07: Use data to highlight or propose cause and effect relationships, predict outcomes, or communicate an idea. \| \| Problem Solving Practice(s)/Process(s): \| Coding Activities/Lessons: \| \| STEM Career Connections: Opportunities are available in business, industry, government, education and research. A few examples are; Allied animal industries (feed and equipment manufacturers, breeding associations, meat processors, food distributors, pharmaceutical firms)Breeding and livestock marketing organizations. Extension educators with animal science training at state and local level. Food processors and meat packers.Veterinarians’ services and clinics. Government agencies (marketing, forecasting, environmental regulation, disease control). \| Literature Connections: STEM Jobs in Wildlife Conservation by Emma Berne Genetics Expert Joanna L. KelleyBiodiversity Toolkit \| \| Attachments/Student Handouts: Teacher Presentation \| \| \| Additional Resources/Notes: \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.606328	Jackie Druck	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84255/overview", "title": "Creating a wearable wildlife tracking device with Micro:Bit", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110658/overview	Pronouns exercise Overview This assignment is about pronouns; it helps to test students understanding. Complete the following sentences using the correct pronoun. 1. Sara told her friend that .................... could not go to her house today. 2. Tom is waiting for his turn. Do not make ....................... wait too long. 3. Ali loves pizza. ................. buys it every wednesday for dinner. 4. The students waved to .................. teacher when they left the classroom. 5. I invited ....................... friends to my party. It was a great day. 6. She forgot ................... her keys.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.619158	12/01/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110658/overview", "title": "Pronouns exercise", "author": "Th AL" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78033/overview	Education Standards Earth's Changing Surface Overview 8.MS-ESS2-1 7.MS-ESS2-2 Earth's Changing Surface 8. MS-ESS2-1 7. MS-ESS2-2	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.636886	03/11/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78033/overview", "title": "Earth's Changing Surface", "author": "Sara Catanese" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91433/overview	Lesson Plan Part 2 Lesson Plan: Inclusive Education and Gamification Overview Lexi Perepelecta, Anthony Prakash, Taylor Sim Lesson Plan #1: Get to Know Your Classmates Part 1 Lesson Plan 1 entails the incorporation of gamification through the VARK model. It relates to the Alberta Program of Studies by 1) Anticipate, value, and support diversity and learner differences and 2) Remove barriers within learning environments. This plan is targeted towards grade 6 students in their health class. Lesson Plan #2: Get to Know Your Classmates Part 2 https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1G4KuFC8neCkW3i-bzjPm-ppvvx_CFMG3VWbX1H-5BM8/edit?usp=sharing_eil_se_dm&ts=6228f6bb This Lesson builds on from the first by focusing on the strategies that were discovered. We now apply gamification through a relay race based on which students feel they learn better. This focuses on the topics in line with the Alberta Program of Studies with 1) Trying out new strategies to see how good or bad they go. 2) Understanding what your strengths and weaknesses are. Again, this is based on grade 6 students in their Health class.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.654897	Lexi Perepelecta	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/91433/overview", "title": "Lesson Plan: Inclusive Education and Gamification", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75210/overview	Lit Review: Game-Based Learning Overview This literature review looks at the impacts of game-based learning in the classroom, specifically how it impacts student engagement and student achievement. Literature Review: Game-Based Learning in the Classroom Alyson Sten Fairfield University This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. Abstract The purpose of this literature review is to analyze the effectiveness of game-based learning (GBL) in the classroom. Beginning with how game-based learning is defined and the different gaming principles, we will review current research to understand and evaluate its effectiveness in student engagement and student achievement. Over the past decade, game-based learning has grown tremendously in the classroom. According to Jan and Gaydos (2016), if you considered using digital games to help students learn in 2003, people would have thought of you as a “maverick and unconventional.” Today, even though game-based learning is more widely known, and used by many teachers, clarifications on game-based learning are vital for moving forward (Jan & Gaydos, 2016). In fact, a survey published by the Games and Learning Publishing Council shows that 55% of nearly 700 teachers have students play games at least weekly (Takeuchi & Vaala, 2014). However, a closer examination into the types of games and more importantly, the outcomes on student learning are necessary when considering GBL for the classroom. The goal of this paper is to shed light on what game-based learning is, and isn’t, and why it might be a good choice for student learning. Defining Game-Based Learning Game-based learning refers to the borrowing of certain gaming principles and applying them to real-life settings to engage students to achieve learning outcomes (Trybus 2015). However, there is a difference between gamification and game-based learning. Gamification is the integration of game elements like point systems, leader boards, or badge systems to typical learning activities. On the other hand, game-based learning involves designing learning activities so that game principles and characteristics are embedded within the learning activities themselves. Research shows that both gamification and game-based learning promote student engagement and motivation in learning, however, they do not necessarily result in improved learning outcomes (Chen & Hwang, 2014), we will discuss this more in-depth later in the paper. Games feature elements may include rules, goals, interaction, feedback, problem-solving, competition, story, and fun, though not all of the elements are needed to successfully gamify a learning activity. (Vandercruysse, Vandewaetere, & Clarebout, 2012). Jan and Gaydos (2016) have defined four types of games for learning based on the major reasons they are used to help people learn. The first, motivation games, has the fun element associated with it and no doubt has a high impact on student engagement, however, “it is often equivocal if students are really learning,” for example, “enhanced motivation can be the result of having more freedom to chat with other or being able to deviate from routine tasks” (Jan & Gaydos, 2016). The second type, drill and practice games, are seen more regularly in the mainstream classroom because of their close alignment to mainstream curriculum and instruction. However, they are not designed for learning new concepts and have little to do with higher-order thinking skills. The third type, content mastery games, are similar to drill and practice in that they closely align to mainstream curriculum and instruction models, however, they differ in that they address more challenging issues, like misconceptions in their game design. Finally, the fourth type, 21st-century competency games, situates players in authentic contexts with genuine problems and are informed and designed by cognitive science and context-laden learning theories. However, this game type is more challenging to take up in mainstream schools. One reason may be that teachers might not have the expertise to use them (Jan & Gaydos, 2016). To further understand game-based learning and consider and evaluate its effectiveness in the classroom, we must understand the different ways in which GBL is conceptualized. Jan and Gaydos (2016) synthesize this in three different ways. The three models: (1) GBL as a learning approach driven by game technologies, (2) GBL as a pedagogical approach informed by game design concepts, (3) GBL as a learning approach driven by both game technologies and corresponding pedagogies. When game-based learning is a learning approach driven by game technologies, learning takes place as a result of gameplay. The criticism of this concept is that it is not as suitable for mainstream schools and better for self-directed learning because of its place of play and learning style. When game-based learning is a pedagogical approach informed by game design concepts, learning takes place in gamified learning activities. When game-based learning as a learning approach driven by both game and technologies and corresponding pedagogies, learning takes place as a result of the game and associated activities, such as guidance and scaffolds from teachers, interactions with peers, and other sources. The criticism of both of these concepts is that there needs to be more teacher training to advance teachers’ design expertise. Impacts on Student Engagement The motivational psychology involved in game-based learning allows students to engage with educational materials in a playful and dynamic way. Game-based learning is not just creating games for students to play, it is designing learning activities that can introduce concepts, and guide users towards an end goal through the use of competition, points, incentives, and feedback loops (Pho & Dinscore, 2015). These concepts have become increasingly popular as a way to engage students in learning. Willis (2011) refers to this type of engagement from game-based learning as the dopamine motivation. “The popularity of video games is not the enemy of education, but rather a model for best teaching strategies” (Willis, 2011). For example, games can insert players at their achievable challenge level and reward player effort and practice with acknowledgment of incremental goal progress, not just the final product. Willis (2011) explains the fuel for this process is the pleasure experience related to the release of dopamine. Some teachers use games in the classroom because students, being digital natives and growing up with interactive media, are simply far less interested in texts and graphics that they cannot interact with (Jan & Gaydos, 2016). Research suggests that games can foster higher intrinsict motivations in game-based environments and motivate students to learn through competition (Burguillo, 2010). While appealing to a digitally native generation is one theory for the high impact GBL has on student engagement, one study set out to find out what specific indicators and game design elements have a positive effect on student engagement or enjoyment in a GBL environment. Wang and Lieberoth (2015) used the game Kahoot! To study the effects of points and audio on concentration, engagement, enjoyment, learning, motivation, and overall classroom dynamics. Based on the observations in the four different classrooms studied, the use of audio in Kahoot! had the largest impact on classroom dynamics in terms of interaction, response, and spirit. The audio and music produced more energy in the room, and opened up for a more interactive environment, revealing a significantly positive relationship. The best effect on classroom dynamics was achieved through the combination of both points and audio/music and points alone, while still positive, had more of a limited positive impact. The results show that variation in the use of audio and points had a significant difference for concentration, engagement, enjoyment, motivation and engagement (Wang & Lieberoth, 2015). While the study conducted by Wang and Lieberoth, and like many others, examine players’ interests and/or attitudes towards game-based learning using questionnaires, another study conducted by Hsieh, Lin, and Hou (2015) sought out to research specific behavior and engagement patterns for primary students in a game-based learning environment. Their study “visualized the learning process and provided evidence that the game can consistently increase student’s engagement in the game-based learning environment (Hsieh, Lin, and Hou, 2015). Results from the study demonstrated that both male and female students exhibited the same sequential behaviors, such as expressing frustration, murmuring continually, or smiling. Differences were also observed, for example, male students often demonstrated more engaged behaviors with continuous self-conversations, not as present of a behavior in female participants. Both male and female students presented both verbal and nonverbal behaviors when they were confused. The study conducted by Hsieh, Lin, and Hou (2015) should be of particular interest to both educators and researchers. Its findings and methods for observing how students respond to conflicting questions during gameplay can provide insight and an important modeling opportunity for educators to supply appropriate scaffolds for students. This may also help educators and researchers to develop better gaming mechanisms to help students engage in meaningful learning (Hsieh, Lin, Hou, 2015). Impacts on Student Achievement While a positive relationship exists between student engagement and game-based learning, the correlation between student achievement/learning outcomes and game-based learning is slightly more ambiguous. According to research by Chen and Hwang (2014), game-based learning is an effective approach in promoting students’ learning motivation, however, recent discoveries have found that game-based learning might not be as significant in student learning outcomes if they are developed without embedding appropriate learning strategies. Perhaps one of the most effective strategies is prompting, according to Yang, Chu, and Chiang (2018). Chen, Zhang, Qi, and Yang (2020) echo the same sentiment through their research which examines the extensive work that needs to be done in order for teachers to effectively carry out game-based learning in the classroom to yield positive student learning outcomes. It is not to say positive relationships between game-based learning and student achievement do not exist, they most certainly do, the above research just suggests certain factors need to be in place in order for game-based learning to be more than just a high impact on engagement. Hwa (2018) research on primary school children ages seven to nine, indicates that digital-game based learning is more effective than traditional classroom-based learning in acquiring mathematical knowledge. Conclusion Game-based learning has a transformative power to disrupt a textbook learning culture and is a more promising approach to developing necessary 21st-century skills. In a society that allows many to become content area experts without formal education and with content knowledge and information so readily available and quickly changing, one’s ability should not be defined on what they know. Instead, Jan & Tan (2013) believe emphasis should be placed on the ability to construct new knowledge, solve problems, collaborate with others, organize activities, and manage communities. Research shows that there is a positive relationship between game-based learning environments and student engagement. Perhaps, instead of seeing this as “only engagement” we need to understand the bigger impact this can have for 21st-century skills and how we currently define “achievement” as it relates to GBL. An overarching theme throughout all the research is the need for training, such as teacher education and on the job professional development, around GBL. In a textbook-learning culture, teachers are considered content experts who deliver content knowledge. Through game-based learning, teachers can help facilitate 21st-century skills and learning by guiding students to develop higher-order thinking and social skills through practices and processes, such as inquiry with intentionally game designed contexts. References Bodnar, C. A., & Clark, R. M. (2014). Exploring the impact game-based learning has on classroom environment and student engagement within an engineering product design class. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Technological Ecosystems for Enhancing Multiculturality - TEEM ’14. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1145/2669711.2669899 Burguillo, J. C. (2010). Using game theory and competition- based learning to stimulate student motivation and performance. Computers & Education, 55(2), 566-575. Retrieved October 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44430486 Chen, N., & Hwang, G. (2014). Transforming the classrooms: Innovative digital game-based learning designs and applications. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(2), 125-128. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24546578 Chen, S., Zhang, S., Qi, G., & Yang, J. (2020). Games Literacy for Teacher Education: Towards the Implementation of Game-based Learning. Educational Technology & Society, 23(2), 77-92. doi:10.2307/26921135. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26921135 Chun-Hung Lin, Eric Zhi-Feng Liu, Yu-Liang Chen, Pey-Yan Liou, Maiga Chang, Cheng-Hong Wu, & Shyan-Ming Yuan. (2013). Game-Based Remedial Instruction in Mastery Learning for Upper-Primary School Students. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 16(2), 271-281. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.16.2.271 Gamification and Game-Based Learning. (2018, March). Centre for Teaching Excellence. Retrieved from https://uwaterloo.ca/centre-for-teaching-excellence/teaching-resources/teaching-tips/educational-technologies/all/gamification-and-game-based-learning Hsieh, Y.-H., Lin Y.-C., & Hou, H.-T. (2015). Exploring Elementary-School Students' Engagement Patterns in a Game-Based Learning Environment. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(2), 336-348. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/jeductechsoci.18.2.336 Hwa, S. (2018). Pedagogical Change in Mathematics Learning: Harnessing the Power of Digital Game-Based Learning. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(4), 259-276. Retrieved September 28, 2020, from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26511553 Jan, M., & Gaydos, M. (2016). What Is Game-Based Learning? Past, Present, and Future. Educational Technology, 56(3), 6-11. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44430486 Jan, M., & Tan, E. (2013). Learning in and for the 21st cen-tury (M. Kapur, Ed.). CJ Koh Professorial Lecture Series No. 4, 13-22. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44430486 Ke, F. (2016). Designing and integrating purposeful learning in game play: A systematic review. Educational Technology Research and Development, 64(2), 219-244. Retrieved October 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24761336 Kiang, D. (2014). Using Gaming Principles to Engage Students. Edutopia. Retrieved September 27, 2020 from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/using-gaming-principles-engage-students-douglas-kiang Pho, A., & Dinscore, A. (2015). Game Based Learning. Tips and Trends Instructional Technologies Committee. Retrieved September 27, 2020, from https://acrl.ala.org/IS/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/spring2015.pdf Schaaf, R. L. (2017). 3 Examples Of Game-Based Learning: Actual Stories From The Classroom. TeachThought. Retrieved from https://www.teachthought.com/learning/game-based-learning-actual-stories-classroom/ Takeuchi, L., &Vaala, S. (2014). Level up learning: A national survey on teaching with digital games. Retrieved from http://www.joanganzcooneycenter.org/press/digital- games-making-inroads-in-the-classroom-according-to- national-teacher-survey/ Trybus, J. 2015. Game-Based Learning: What it is, Why it Works, and Where it’s Going. New Media Institute. Retrieved October 3, 2020 from http://www.newmedia.org /game-based-learning--what-it-is-why-it -works-and-where-its-going.html. Vandercruysse, S., Vandewaetere, M., & Clarebout, G. (2012). Game-based learning: A review on the effectiveness of educational games. In M. M. Cruz-Cunha (Ed.), Handbook of research on serious games as educational, business, and research tools (pp. 628–647). Wang, A. I., Lieberoth, A. (2015). The effect of points and audio on concentration, engagement, enjoyment, learning, motivation, and classroom dynamics using Kahoot!. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/publication/309292067 Willis, J. (2011). A Neurologist Makes the Case for the Video Game Model as a Learning Tool. Edutopia. Retrieved September 28, 2020 from https://www.edutopia.org/blog/neurologist-makes-case-video-game-model-learning-tool Yang, K., Chu, H., & Chiang, L. (2018). Effects of a Progressive Prompting-based Educational Game on Second Graders' Mathematics Learning Performance and Behavioral Patterns. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(2), 322-334. Retrieved October 3, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26388410	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.681113	11/29/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75210/overview", "title": "Lit Review: Game-Based Learning", "author": "Alyson Stein" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74986/overview	Post Evaluation Pre- Test Adding Item to Customer Ledger Overview This task is a task that will be completed multiple times daily and in fact, ties in perfectly with the first objective. The learners will need to know how to log into the Runner program, how to access customer ledgers, and when the information will need to be inputted as prerequisites to the learning activity. 1-Learning Objective: Employees will add an item to customers ledger unassisted using Runner program. Introduction to CPD Program At the beginning of the session, the instructor will clarify that the training's goal is to increase the success the rating of the satisfaction surveys and is meant to make the participants more comfortable in assisting the CPD customers. This will set a clear goal for participants and provide clarity on how the training will benefit participants directly. To guarantee that there are multiple means for all participants to have equal opportunities for success, the learning session will also need to be recorded. This will allow individuals to complete the learning at their desk with any accommodations they may need. The step by step sheet given during the session will also have photos of each step being completed to ensure visual clarity on what participants will need to do. We will need to create a learning session that instructs the process with tactilely discernable keys on the keyboard. We will also need to review the Runner system to see if there are any accessibility features into the design to assist with any disabilities that the participants may have. The participants may need a sign language translator during the session one can be provided or attend sessions as required. The in-person sessions will have computers with Dragon Speak installed to allow for some accommodations for participants. Any additional accommodations will need to be requested to allow time to set up accommodations and effectively have accommodations in place for participants. These skills are necessary before learning activities for the success of learning. Once these prerequisites are met, the learner will need to learn how to add an item to a customer's ledger. This learning activity will work as scaffolding to assisting customers in the CPD program. Since the learner will be using a computer for the task, the learning activity would also need to be on a computer. This will support the alignment of the learning needs, goals, objectives, activities, and assessments (Smith, 2014). In addition, with keeping the learning on the same tool, the learner will be given a printed step by step list of the process of completing the objective. The learner will be able to use the walk-through as needed until the learner has memorized the process, and the walk-through instructions are not required. Smith, R. M. (2014). Conquering the content: A blueprint for online course design and development (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Steps 1. Log in to customer service system 2. Type customers name into the search bar 3. Use the mouse to click customers name 4. Use the mouse to click on ADD located just to the right of the customer's name 5. A window will pop up with two drop-downs 1. In the first drop-down, select CPD 2. In the second drop-down, select customer-specific CPD item 6. In the pop-up window, use the mouse to click ADD 7. In the pop-up window, use the mouse to click SAVE 8. Click refresh at the top right-hand side by customer's name to see the item added	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.705985	11/22/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74986/overview", "title": "Adding Item to Customer Ledger", "author": "Sophia Daugherty" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99141/overview	Cheyenne & Arapaho Tribes Activity Plan Overview This activity was produced in conjunction with The Library of Congress and the TPS at Metropolitan State University of Denver. This activity will allow learners to - investigate and explain how different groups of people were treated in the past, and the ways in which that treatment changed over time - identify injustice in multiple forms - identify ways in which groups become marginalized This lesson leads students through several major events in the history of the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes, and asks that they use primary source documents to describe the ways in which the treatment and perception of the tribes changed over time in southern Colorado. Crossroads of History Activity Plan Template Non-classroom setting \| Program Title \| Instructional Level \| Target Audience \| \|\|\| \| TPS Western Region Location \| Middle School \| 8th grade \| \| Resources Used(Details on what research you conducted, citations for sources used to create activities, etc.)Social Justice Standards Diversity 10 DI.6-8.10 I can explain how the way groups of people are treated today, and the way they have been treated in the past, shapes their group identity and culture. Justice 12 JU.6-8.12 I can recognize and describe unfairness and injustice in many forms including attitudes, speech, behaviors, practices and laws. \| \| \| Library of Congress Teacher Resources Additional sources:Byram, Timothy & Betty Lupinacci (ed.). “Litigating Memory: The Legal Case Behind the Moiwana and Sand Creek Massacres.” In Custodia Legis, Law Librarians of Congress, Library of Congress, 11 August 2015, https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2015/08/litigating-memory-the-legal-case-behind-the-moiwana-and-sand-creek-massacres/.Geological Survey, U.S, and United States Indian Claims Commission. Indian Land Areas Judicially Established. Reston, Va.: The Survey, 1978. Map. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/80695449/.Jenks, Daniel A., Artist. Bents Fort. Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/2004661632/.Kelman, Ari. A Misplaced Massacre: Struggling Over the Memory of Sand Creek. Harvard University Press, 2013.Lavender, David. Bent’s Fort. University of Nebraska Press, 1954. “Language and Culture.” Cheyenne & Arapaho Tribes, 2021. https://cheyenneandarapaho-nsn.gov.National Park Service. Bent’s Trading Post at Big Timbers. U.S. Department of the Interior, https://www.nps.gov/safe/learn/historyculture/upload/Bents-Trading-Post-at-Big-Timbers-508.pdf National Park Service. Why a Massacre? U.S. Department of the Interior, https://www.nps.gov/safe/learn/historyculture/upload/Why-a-Massacre-508.pdf. Royce, Charles C, and Cyrus Thomas. Indian land cessions in the United States. 1899. Pdf. Retrieved from the Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/item/13023487/. “Sand Creek Massacre.” National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, https://www.nps.gov/sand/index.htm. \| \| Introductory Text/ Program justification(Describe the marginalized people whose stories and history within your community you will be teaching about through these activities, and why their stories must be shared at this point in history.) \| The Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes faced, like many other tribes, numerous injustices at the hands of the United States government. Following friendly relationships with white settlers, government agents, and military members at Bent’s Fort, and during peace discussions with the US government, over 150 members–mostly women and children–of the tribe were killed at the Sand Creek Massacre in November 1864. Following the tragic events of the Sand Creek Massacre, the government mandated reparations. However, those reparations still remain undefined and unpaid. In 2007, the Sand Creek Massacre National Historic site was founded and can be visited today. The Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes live in Oklahoma.This lesson/activity will be an introduction to the history of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes and will focus on the government’s actions in removing the tribes from their ancestral land and connecting this story to the larger story of Indian Removal.Objective: We will analyze the ways in which treatment and perceptions of the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes changed over time by discussing maps and brief readings. \| \| Materials needed:(What supplies do you need to do this activity with your learners?) \| -Students will need access to printouts of primary sources, access on computers with links to the primary sources, or a visual display of the primary sources. \| \| Technology:(What technology will you need to complete this activity?) \| -Internet access or pre-printed materials-Computer(All of these are required in preparation for the activity, not for the activity itself) \| \| Consumables & Copies:(What materials do you need to provide for learners to use during this activity that can not be reused during another cohort?) \| -Printouts of primary source maps-Printouts of NPS pamphlets-Discussion question sheets -Discussion sentence starters \| \| LOC Primary Source links(Attach links here to documents, videos, any materials from your LOC research that you will be sharing with learners during this program.) \| https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?hlaw:3:./temp/~ammem_KgF9:: https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3701em.gct00002/?sp=9 https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3701e.ct008649/?r=-0.16,-0.112,1.382,0.842,0https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsc.04810/ \| \| Entry Activity/Task \| https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3701e.ct008649/?r=-0.16,-0.112,1.382,0.842,0https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsc.04810/ In groups of 2-3, students will review the two documents provided (linked above) and will be asked to locate Bent’s Fort from the illustration on the map. They will then be asked to determine which tribe has claimed the land, and then to develop 1-3 questions using both of the documents. In a traveling expert activity, each group will choose 1 member to visit 2 other groups and exchange 1 question. The traveling expert will then return to their own group and report on the questions generated by the other groups. Teacher will record questions in a central location during the traveling expert activity to reference later.1-2 minute lecture explaining the purpose of the map. This map was created in 1978 to show the areas where tribes have proven historic tribal occupancy. This was well after treaties and relocation have taken place, but do show areas that tribes claim were historical–before 1978–homelands.Take time to review the questions and see if any student-generated questions have been answered through the lecture. \| \| Focused Activity/Task \| Students will read (either independently or in groups), the pamphlet entitled “Bent’s Trading Post at Big Timbers,” and then participate in a guided discussion.Discussion questions: 1)Based on this pamphlet, how were the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes treated and/or perceived at Bent’s Fort?2)Make a prediction about what might happen to this perception or treatment as a)the US Army occupied the old fort, b)as the cholera epidemic affects the Cheyenne tribe, and c)as Bent’s New Fort closes. Why do you think so? (Teacher should circulate and listen to group discussions).Take time to highlight some positives from the discussion i.e. “I heard ____ use one of our sentence stems.” “I noticed that ____ referenced one of our documents.”Debrief the discussion by sharing some content information overheard, or address misconceptions, soliciting suggestions and thoughts from students.Introduce second map (https://www.loc.gov/resource/g3701em.gct00002/?sp=9&r=0.509,0.287,0.4,0.306,0) Students will compare and contrast the area of the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes on the two maps (area 477 on second map). As needed, use the following discussion questions: -Which area of land is larger? Which is smaller? What can we infer about the treatment and perception of the tribes at the hands of white settlers and the US Army based on these maps? \| \| Conclusion Activity/Task(Descriptions and details of what activities you will provide for your learners to present to them the primary source materials from the LOC.) \| Students will read (either independently or in groups), the pamphlet entitled “Why a Massacre?”Thumbs up/thumbs down check for understanding. Take time to answer any questions students might have.Exit ticket question/discussion: In what ways did the treatment and perception of the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes change over time? -Based on these documents, what are the implications for the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes between these documents and our current time? In other words, make a prediction for what might have happened to the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes after these events. \| \| Assessment of Student Learning (How will you determine if your learners have completed the activity? How will you determine if your learners have used the primary sources from LOC to understand the history of the marginalized people that are your activity focus?) \| The assessment of this activity will primarily take place based on the discussions that students have throughout the lesson/activity. Follow-up questions may be added or scaffolded to help students attain the desired understandings from this lesson. The conclusion activity/task of writing or narrating a brief overview of the broad history of the Cheyenne & Arapaho tribes from Bent’s Fort to the peace talks with the US government will provide the final assessment. Student responses should include loss of land, access to \| \| Student Learning Accommodations & Modifications (How will you adapt your activity plans for learners who are differently abled? Will you provide alternate paths to activity completion? Aid or peer support?) \| All elements of this lesson can involve a greater or lesser extent of teacher guidance or aid. A teacher may read the written materials aloud, allow for or translate as needed. Activity is mainly based on the sharing of ideas between peers in discussion, and teacher can scaffold questions and provide sentence stems to students as needed. \| \| Multicultural Considerations(What specific considerations should be made for any other community program leader who might teach this activity in the future? Are there specific facts that should be noted while researching? Specific books that should be included? Please note your recommendations here.) \| Discussion starters In the document, I noticed that ______________. This made me think that ______________. When I look at the document, I wonder ______________. Based on the document, _____________. The document suggests that __________ because _________. One implication of the document is _________________. I think this because ___________. Adapted from template by Creator: Morgen Larsen for NCCE.org Except where otherwise noted, this work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.732376	U.S. History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99141/overview", "title": "Cheyenne & Arapaho Tribes Activity Plan", "author": "Measurement and Data" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73300/overview	Counting Overview Kindergarten Math Overview This is a lesson/activity that contains several counting activities to help students learn their numbers. Counting Up To start off the lesson, students will get into a circle and number themselves starting from one all the way to the last person of the group. This will give the students practice with counting. Next, the students will sit in the front of the classroom. They will start off by sitting on the floor. Next, I will start counting to ten by starting with one. When students hear the word "one", they will begin to slowly rise up. The students will rise higher and higher until they are fully standing by the time I reach ten. After doing this a few more times, students will get with a partner. They will each have a white board. One student will write a random number on their board and show their partner. Then, their partner will have to write the number that is one more than the number they were shown. The students will take turns being the one to come up with the number.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.750278	10/08/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73300/overview", "title": "Kindergarten Math", "author": "MacKenzie Freeman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20143/overview	Education Standards Object at Rest - Lab worksheet Newton's First Law of Motion - Investigations Overview In this lab students will investigate Newton's first law of motion or the Law of Inertia. The first lab investigates an object at rest, and the effects of friction on motion. The second lab investigates an object in motion. Students will experiment with this law by varying their speed, while trying to drop a tennis ball in a given target zone. Although intended for seventh grade students this lab can be adjusted to fit the educational needs of each student. Definitions adapted from cK-12 Newton's First Law of Motion Object at Rest - Lab Begin with discussion of the word inertia. (See cK-12 resources). Explain how inertia is dependent upon mass. Then allow students to investigate an object at rest through this simple lab demonstration. They will also experiment with friction through different surfaces. Click HERE to open the lab worksheet - An Object at Rest Discuss - how the same principles of inertia apply to an object in motion. Allow students to experiment with this principle through the following lab investigation. Click HERE to open up lab worksheet - An Object in Motion	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.772230	01/17/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20143/overview", "title": "Newton's First Law of Motion - Investigations", "author": "Lora Gibbons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87394/overview	الحاسوب في حياتنا Overview تعريف الحاسوب مجالات استخدامه البرنامج الخوارزمية الحاسوب في حياتنا تعريف الحاسوب و مجالات استخدامه البرنامج و امثلة عليه الخوارزمية	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.789179	11/01/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87394/overview", "title": "الحاسوب في حياتنا", "author": "mohammad bassam alloush" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66707/overview	Kindis of Sentece & Clauses Overview If you want to learn all kinds of sentence and clause then this is for you. here you will be able to understand about kinds of sentences and clauses. what is clause? Kindis of Sentece & Clauses What is a Clause? A group of words that forms a part of a sentence and has a subject and a finite verb of its own is called a clause. The number of finite verbs in a sentence joined by conjunctions determines the number of clauses. Kinds of Sentences There are three kinds of sentences as mentioned below. - Simple sentence - Complex sentence - Compound sentence I. Simple Sentence: A sentence which has only one finite verb is a simple sentence. It may have non-finite verbs, if required. For example- (i) She is walking. (ii) He has written a letter to help his son. II. Complex Sentence : A complex sentence consists of a principal/main clause with one or more subordinate clauses. It means that a complex sentence has more than one finite verb. Sub-ordinate caluses are joined by sub-ordinating conjunctions. For example- - I know that he is a good man. - I know the man who was here last month. - When you do this work, I shall help you with money. - Compound Sentence : A compound sentence consists of two or more principal clauses. These clauses are joined by co-ordinating conjunctions such as- 'and, but, so, therefore, otherwise, or, else, nor, while, for, whereas, still, yet, nevertheless, however, as well as'. The clauses of a compound sentence are called co-ordinate clauses. For example- - My brother came and he handed over money to me. - She is rich but she is not vain. - Speak or you will die. - She is ill so she will not come. - She is intelligent while her sister is dull. - It was dark, however we went out. - He was convicted as well as fined. - I left for home for I was feeling tired. - He will speak the truth for he is a truthful person. - It is cold yet I will go out. Note-In sentences (viii), - the principal clause is an inference from the co- ordinate clause beginning with 'for'. More About a Complex Sentence As stated earlier a complex sentence consists of more than one clause. A Principal clause with one or more sub-ordinate clauses forms a complex sentence. There are three kinds of sub-ordinate clauses joined by their respective sub-ordinating conjunction. For example- (a) I know that he is a good boy. (b) I know the man who was here yesterday. (c) When you do this work, I shall give you money. These sentences represent three kinds. of sub-ordinate clauses- - Noun Clause- Noun in Hindi In the sentence (a) 'I know' is a principal clause. 'that he is a good boy' is a noun clause. Noun clause explains the verb, noun and pronoun of the main or some other clause. (Explanation) - Adjective Clause- In the sentence- (b) 'I khow the man' is a principal clause. 'who was here yesterday' is an adjective clause. Adjective clause qualifies noun or pronoun as the case may be. (Qualification) - Adverb Clause- In the sentence (c) 'I shall give you money' is a principalclause. 'When you do this work' is an adverb clause. Adverb clause is required to modify a verb, adverb or adjective in the main or some other clause. (Modification) More about Sub - ordinate Clauses ( 1 ) NOUN CLAUSE Take care of the rules given below while writing a noun clause ( a ) Use the conjunctions " that , if , whether , when , where , how , why , what ( whatever ) , who , whose , whom , which . ' ( b ) Tense of the nounclause should be in the past if the verb of the main clause is - in the past . The tense of universal truth does not change . ( c ) Noun clause should never be expressed in interrogative form . This pos is bring for you from Shubhresul.in	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.823798	05/13/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66707/overview", "title": "Kindis of Sentece & Clauses", "author": "DHANANJAY SRIVASTAVA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85939/overview	Tele-teaching (Grade 7 - Science Subjects) Overview This is a tele-teaching demonstration on the subject of Science - Newton's first law of motion. Tele-teaching Demonstration for Field Study Class Grade level: Grade 7 Subject: Science Topic: Law of Inertia	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:36.840622	09/18/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85939/overview", "title": "Tele-teaching (Grade 7 - Science Subjects)", "author": "chelsea may apostol" }

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