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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87615/overview	4.3 Strategies to Increase Crop Irrigation Efficiency 4.4 Strategies to Manage Nursery Runoff 4_Irrigation-Systems-for-Plant-Production 6d - Definint Greywater, Blackwater and Clearwater PUBLIC DOMAIN 6d - III. Strategies to Manage Nursery Runoff COPYRIGHTED 6d - II. Strategies to Increase Nursery Crop Irrigation Efficiency COPYRIGHTED 6d - Irrigation Scheduling COPYRIGHTED 6d - I. Water Use in Nursery Production COPYRIGHTED 6d - Nursery Irrigation COPYRIGHTED 6d - Strategies for Efficient Irrigation Use COPYRIGHTED Exercise 6a Irrigation Systems Exercise 6b Nursery Design Irrigation Systems for Plant Production Overview Title image used with permission from "Water Use in Nursery Production" by A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © UT Extension. Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction Lesson Objectives Evaluate the sustainable use of irrigation systems for a variety of plant production systems. Determine the role of water balance, surface evaporation, and crop coefficient in determining irrigation needs. Explain the use of drip emitters, drip line, spray, micro spray, and grey water in sustainable irrigation design. Key Terms crop coefficient - the calculation performed to estimate water use for a specific crop, sometimes at a particular growth or developmental stage; ratio of evapotranspiration of a specific crop relative to potential evapotranspiration deficit irrigation - applies less water than a crop needs for full development drip irrigation - supplies water at a low flow rate from a thin plastic tube so that only the soil above the root zone is moistened evaporation - the change of a liquid to a vapor; in irrigation, this process occurs when liquid water on the soil surface becomes vapor evapotranspiration - the combination of water loss due to evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from the plant microemitters - irrigation emitters that apply a small volume of water at low-flow rates to individual containers microspray - the most common type of microemitter in nursery production; sprinkler heads are mounted on a stake in the container sprinkler irrigation (or spray irrigation) - delivers water as a fine spray over the growing surface; this method is easy and relatively affordable to set up but is not efficient, because a lot of water lands between plants (also referred to as overhead irrigation) water balance calculations - used to estimate soil or substrate moisture status and are calculated as the difference between water applied to the plant (irrigation and precipitation) and water lost through evapotranspiration Water Use in Nursery Production Used with permission from "Water Use in Nursery Production" by A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. Water is essential to plant life and is a critical input to nursery crop production. For plants, water is used in temperature regulation, as a carrier for nutrients and plant hormones, and is the hydraulic force behind growth. Water is taken up by plant roots and is lost to the environment through the stomates and the leaf cuticle. A water deficit can negatively affect plant growth, plant health and the amount of time needed to grow a crop to a marketable size. Irrigation can shorten the production period for field nursery crops and increase quality, which has a positive impact on nursery profitability. Because the nursery industry has shifted from primarily field-produced crops to container-produced crops, the need for irrigation is increasing. Over 75 percent of nursery crop value (gross farm gate) in 17 of the major nursery producing states is currently grown in containers (USDA 2009). Container nursery production is not possible without the use of irrigation (Figure 6.4.2). The demand for fresh, high-quality water is increasing across the U.S. and the world. In eight of the 10 most populous states and in the top 10 nursery-producing states (based on farm gate value), competition between human, industrial and agricultural water use is becoming a major issue. Most wholesale nurseries require relatively large amounts of water for irrigation (Figure 6.4.3). A container nursery with 70 percent of the land in production under overhead irrigation could use between 14,000 to 19,000 gallons of water per acre per day during the peak growing season. Scientists and industry leaders anticipate that there will be less water available for agricultural production in the future. U.S. municipalities in California, Delaware, Florida, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, Oregon and Texas already have responded to competition for water and/or concerns regarding water quality and runoff by creating legislation to monitor or regulate irrigation practices (Fernandez et al. 2009). Growers and researchers are exploring novel ways to alleviate this concern. Nurseries have two main strategies for alleviating competition for water: improved irrigation efficiency and use of alternative, possibly lower-quality water from nontraditional sources. Many practices can improve efficiency, including irrigation scheduling, refining irrigation volume, irrigation system selection and delivery, substrate composition, plant spacing, and plant grouping within irrigation zones. The ability to use lower-quality alternative water sources depends on the type and quantity of contaminants in the source water and the sensitivity of specific species to those contaminants. Overhead irrigation is commonly used to produce small containers (5 gallon and smaller). Inefficient application can occur easily with overhead irrigation due to a lack of delivery uniformity, which can be caused by inappropriate system design or clogged or damaged emitters (Figure 6.4.4). This leads to over- or under-irrigation of part or all of the target crops. In addition to poor delivery uniformity contributing to inefficient irrigation application, container spacing plays a substantial role in application efficiency. Up to 80 percent of overhead irrigation misses the intended target depending on pot spacing (Gilliam et al. 1992). The potential consequences of inefficient irrigation include wasted water; increased nutrient and pesticide leaching (removing nutrients and pesticides from the foliage, root zone and production surfaces); increased water runoff and movement of contaminants in runoff; increased biotic and abiotic stresses; reduced plant growth; increased plant death; and increased production duration (Figure 6.4.5). The potential consequences of under-irrigation include the latter four. Water is necessary for industrial, municipal and agricultural purposes. Nursery crop production, especially container production, is dependent on water to grow healthy crops in a reasonable time period. Nursery crop production is often located in or near populated regions of the U.S., which can create competition for water. Growers can use several strategies covered here and in the [following sections] to increase irrigation efficiency and manage nursery runoff. Strategies to Increase Crop Irrigation Efficiency Used with permission from "Strategies to Increase Irrigation Efficiency" by A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. Nursery irrigation management is a major concern for many nursery producers, especially container producers... Because irrigation is so critical to container production and most of the water associated with nursery production is applied to container plants, strategies are discussed largely in the context of container production. Growers must make many irrigation management decisions on a daily basis, including when to irrigate, how much water to apply, which plants to irrigate and how to maximize efficiency. They also must plan for and manage water supplies in order to meet local and state water regulations (Figure 6.4.5). Increasingly, competition for water resources is affecting how these decisions are made. Creating more efficient water-use systems can ease competition for water. Many factors contribute to overall irrigation system efficiency. Irrigation application efficiency is the proportion of total water applied that is intercepted and retained by the container (or root zone in the field). Water loss to excessive leaching, evaporation, wind, container spacing, canopy shedding and poor irrigation system design can decrease irrigation application efficiency dramatically, whereas recovery and reuse of surface water runoff and subsurface flow can increase irrigation application efficiency. Enhancing irrigation efficiency often increases crop water use efficiency. Scheduling Irrigation Scheduling irrigation applications has been the focus of much agricultural research. Scheduling can be relatively static and arbitrary, substrate/soil moisture-based, or plant-based. Static The conventional container production practice is to irrigate once per day by automatic timers or manually. Historically, these irrigation events were scheduled to begin predawn to minimize losses due to wind and evaporation and so that most irrigation would occur before employees arrived. However, applications are made commonly during daylight hours due to the number of hours needed to deliver water to the entire nursery every 24 hours. The time that irrigation begins may be the same time every day using timer-based irrigation or may be completely arbitrary (i.e., when an employee remembers and has time to turn on the irrigation). With static irrigation, application is not linked directly to plant or substrate moisture status. Irrigation is not adjusted often for changes in evaporative demand due to weather changes, but rather is limited to gross changes when the seasons change. A simple way to save water when using timer-based irrigation scheduling is to install a rain gauge that will prevent irrigation from being applied if a set amount of rainfall occurs. Substrate Moisture-Based Substrate moisture measurements consist of either substrate water potential or substrate moisture content and generally rely on moisture probes (Figure 6.4.6) or gravimetric (weight) measurements. Tensiometers reflect actual water potential but are difficult to use in coarse nursery substrates and may require regular maintenance. Some companies are now developing tensiometers that are better suited for container substrates. Capacitance probes and gravimetric techniques measure substrate water content. They do not reflect water potential and, thus, the actual availability of water. Advantages of using substrate moisture-based irrigation include the fact that it can reflect root-to-shoot signaling in response to substrate moisture conditions and can be relatively easy to automate. Determining how to position a substrate moisture probe is challenging. Scientists are still investigating the ideal probe number per container, number of containers with probes per crop, probe orientation and probe placement within containers. However, studies at nurseries have shown that a very small number of probes involving modest financial investment can be effective in reducing water use without sacrificing plant quality or time to produce a crop. A universal substrate moisture level on which to base irrigation (irrigation set point) would facilitate adoption of this technology but may not be likely due to the variability in types of substrates used by the industry. Therefore, growers will need to do some in-house experimentation to develop irrigation set points. The set point may be affected by crop species, container size, temperature, root system size/time in current container, substrate and where the probe is placed in the container. Plant-Based Plant-based irrigation systems, such as leaf temperature-based, allow for environmental influence but do not account for root-to-shoot signaling and are challenging to automate. Plant- based systems can respond to the physiological changes that occur directly due to changes in plant water status, which make them very appealing to researchers and practitioners alike. However, this response can be a disadvantage for conservative irrigation schedules in certain environments, because low plant water status induced by extreme mid-day conditions could trigger irrigation when substrate moisture is not limiting. Leaf temperature, plant water potential and stem diameter fluctuations are some of the plant-based techniques that have been used to gauge water loss in horticultural crops (Figure 6.4.7). Plant- based systems are not automated easily or widely commercially available at this time. Irrigation Volume The approaches mentioned above address only when to irrigate. Other approaches are needed to determine how much water to apply. Growers commonly aim to apply 0.75 to 1 inch of irrigation water daily in the summer by irrigating for a set time period. However, determining irrigation volume by a time period can lead to errors in application. Research shows that due to variation in output (e.g., water pressure) and distribution, application volume based on a time period can result in excess or inadequate irrigation. For example, nurseries expecting to apply 1 inch of water in an hour may actually apply just 0.3 inch in 60 minutes, while other nurseries apply as much as 1.3 inches. Over the course of a season, the amount of water applied within one irrigation zone in a 60-minute period can vary as much as half an inch. Therefore, it is important to determine irrigation system application rates by measuring them periodically. Several methods can be employed to determine how much water to use to prevent applying an excessive or deficient volume of water. Irrigation volume can be based on the container leachate. Leaching fraction is the percentage of water applied that leaches or drains out of the container. A leaching fraction of 10 percent or less, allows for water and nutrient conservation. When irrigating at low leaching fractions (<10 percent), it is important to monitor substrates for soluble salts during production, especially during periods of low rainfall, as they can build up. Water balance calculations are used to estimate substrate moisture status and are calculated as the difference between water applied to the plant, both through irrigation and precipitation, and water lost through evapotranspiration. Evapotranspiration is affected by many factors, including solar radiation, humidity and mulch layer. Using an evapotranspiration model presents several challenges. For instance, evapotranspiration models are often complex, requiring that several variables be measured. A weather station and datalogger must be located on-site. Additionally, a crop coefficient must be derived empirically for every species, perhaps even at the cultivar level and possibly for different stages of development, container sizes, plant (crop) size and spacing. Daily water replacement is a practical way to approach water balance calculations. Daily water use measures how much water is lost during each 24-hour period and applies, or replaces, that volume of water minus rainfall. Daily water use measurements may be made by measuring weight or using probes to measure volumetric water content every 24 hours. Irrigation System: Delivery Overhead (sprinkler) irrigation is commonly used for plants in 5-gallon and smaller container sizes. The water is delivered by sprinklers mounted on risers on rectangular, square or triangular patterns throughout the container pad. While overhead sprinklers are easy and relatively affordable to set up, they are not efficient, because a lot of water lands between containers (Figure 6.4.8). As linear spacing between plants increases, irrigation efficiency decreases considerably, with as little as 35 percent efficiency even at close spacing (half a container diameter). Microemitters (used in drip irrigation) are emitters that apply a small volume of water at low flow rates, generally to individual plants. Microemitters are often used for 7-gallon and larger container sizes (Figures 6.4.9 and 6.4.10). Microemitters include microsprinklers, drippers and bubblers. Microsprinklers, commonly called “spray stakes” [or “microspray”] are the most common type of microemitter in nursery production. Sprinkler heads are mounted on a stake in the container. The sprinkler head/ stake assembly is connected to the lateral line by a small diameter (1/4”- 1/8”) flexible tube called spaghetti tubing. Drip emitters and bubblers are not used often in nursery production because they do not apply the water to the surface of the substrate evenly, a problem that compounds the larger the container size. Also, the single-point delivery of a drip emitter can lead to water channeling through the bark substrate due to its coarse nature. Microemitters are very efficient; when properly installed, they apply water to the root system with no overspray or wasted water. However, the particular spray patterns, placement in the container and juxtaposition to the trunk can affect the distribution of water. Two or more emitters can be used to apply water more evenly and/or to increase the amount of water applied in a given amount of time, especially for very large containers. Microirrigation systems have small orifices that can clog easily. Appropriate filtration as well as regular maintenance and cleaning are required. Ebb-and-flow is a subirrigation technique that is used most commonly in floriculture production. An ebb-and- flow irrigation system floods the production floor, or bench, periodically, slightly submerging the base of containers for a short period to allow the substrate to absorb water by capillary action. A significant investment in infrastructure is required to develop an ebb-and-flow irrigation system. Typically, the irrigation water is captured and sanitized for reuse, making it a highly efficient system. A controlled water table (CWT) also is a form of subirrigation and requires specialized infrastructure. A CWT delivers water to plants via a capillary mat that pulls water from a reservoir (trough) at the edge of the bench. Like ebb-and-flow, CWTs are used most often in floriculture. CWTs are very efficient but do require some maintenance. Microemitters, ebb-and-flow systems and controlled water tables can be used to fertigate as well as irrigate. Water-Conserving Strategies for Nurseries Strategies to reduce water consumption in nurseries include grouping plants by relative water needs and container size and using cyclic irrigation. Grouping plants by perceived irrigation needs (high, medium, low) into irrigation zones is a common strategy employed by growers. Grouping plants by water needs along with proper spacing can reduce water consumption tremendously. Another conservative irrigation strategy is cyclic irrigation, in which the total daily volume of irrigation water is applied in multiple irrigation events with a minimum of one hour between irrigation events. Using cyclic irrigation can reduce runoff by 30 percent, compared with conventional continuous irrigation. Using amendments, such as calcined clay, to increase the substrate water-holding capacity also can reduce water use. Growers have many options for increasing water-use efficiency in the nursery. These include refining irrigation scheduling, irrigation volume and irrigation delivery. The Extension publication, “W 280: Part III. Strategies to Manage Nursery Runoff,” discusses the significance of runoff from nursery production facilities, as well as strategies for minimizing and mitigating runoff. Strategies to Manage Nursery Runoff Used with permission from "Strategies to Manage Nursery Runoff" by A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. “Water Use in Nursery Production,” discussed the importance of and competition for water use in nursery production. “Strategies to Increase Efficiency” covered techniques that growers can use to refine scheduling (volume and timing) and delivery of irrigation water. This final [section] discusses the significance and causes of nursery irrigation runoff and offers strategies to manage runoff. As discussed in [the first section], irrigation can contribute to nursery runoff. While growers generally aim to apply 1 inch of water per day, field studies show that growers actually apply as little as 0.3 and as much as 1.3 inches per day. The greater the volume of water applied, the greater the potential for runoff. Runoff, or more precisely, surface runoff, is defined as water moving over the surface of saturated soil. Runoff can cause erosion and carry pathogens and pollutants, such as pesticides, petroleum products, soil, fecal contaminants and nutrients that may contaminate ground and surface water. Agricultural runoff and its link to eutrophication in surface waters led to legislative action affecting agriculture producers in recent years, including the Neuse River watershed in North Carolina and the Chesapeake Bay (Figure 6.4.11). Erosion Erosion is a serious threat to agriculture and contributes to reduced soil productivity. Moving water is often a culprit of erosion, because it concentrates as it moves, following the path of least resistance. Field and container producers may experience gully erosion (i.e., erosion by water moving so forcibly that it creates a furrow or gully) (Figure 6.4.12). Sheet erosion occurs when water moves over the ground as a sheet, dislodging soil particles without creating a gully. Erosion Prevention Measures Reducing the runoff from nurseries can minimize or eliminate the displacement of soil and the contamination of water. Refining irrigation applications so that excess water is not applied is one strategy to prevent runoff. However, even with sophisticated irrigation scheduling, heavy rain, even when infrequent, is sufficient to cause erosion. Erosion can be prevented or reduced by a number of techniques that slow the flow of stormwater, water that collects on land due to rain events. It includes runoff from impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, compacted soil and roofs. There are many best- management practices and techniques that may be used to minimize the effects of stormwater runoff and erosion, including contour plantings, filter strips and constructed wetlands. Contour plantings can be used to reduce erosion in hilly areas (Figure 6.4.13). This practice is accomplished by placing rows of plants perpendicular to the slope of the land, forming a barrier to surface runoff and slowing the movement of water. Filter strips are plantings that are placed strategically to intercept sheet flow runoff. Filter strips slow the water and can trap soil particles and contaminants before entering surface water. The benefits of filter strips are marginalized when sheet flow becomes concentrated and water flow is diverted from the full filter strip. In some cases, land may be too hilly to grow crops without risking erosion. Constructed wetlands are artificially created wetlands that can serve many purposes (Figure 6.4.14). They can reduce erosion by slowing surface drainage, as well as remove nutrients, pathogens and heavy metals from stormwater runoff. Wetland vegetation and saturated soils provide a substrate on which microorganisms can live. Microorganisms are a key component of wetlands. They serve a critical function in changing and breaking down contaminants. Wetland plants filter water, stop the movement of sediment particles and allow sediments to settle before the flow is discharged into streams. Stormwater Basins Growers may have a need for two types of stormwater basins: retention basins and detention basins. A retention basin (wet basin) is designed to retain water in a permanent pool. Retention basins can be used to capture, contain and treat nursery effluent from irrigation and excess rainfall so that it remains on-site, protecting fresh water supplies (Figure 6.4.15). Retention basins are often lined with a polyethylene liner to avert runoff from infiltrating the soil and, thus, prevent it from being available for irrigation. Annual maintenance of basins includes removal of excess vegetation and sediment. A detention basin (dry basin) is dry during many months of the year, refilling only during peak rainfall events. Detention basins are designed to hold stormwater temporarily and release it slowly over time, which decreases water velocity and, therefore, erosive energy on stream banks. Smaller nurseries and those with only one grade (i.e., nearly level) often need only one basin, although an additional sedimentation basin can improve water quality if the water will be recycled. Sedimentation basins should be designed to allow periodic cleaning to remove sediments that have accumulated. Larger nurseries and nurseries with multiple gradients need more basins. Impervious concrete runways or vegetated waterways can be used to direct water from the production area to the basin without contributing to erosion. Conclusion Nursery runoff can be caused by excessive irrigation, poor production area design and heavy rainfall. Runoff can lead to environmental concerns since it can carry biological and chemical contaminants; nursery effluent can contain pesticides, petroleum products, pathogens and nutrients and can cause erosion. Numerous strategies can be used to decrease nursery runoff and slow or prevent erosion. Retention basins can be used to capture runoff and provide a source of irrigation water while protecting nearby rivers, streams and groundwater. Dig Deeper "Greywater Systems" by R. Brain, J. Lynch, K. Kopp, J. Adams, O. Rogers, Utah State Extension is in the Public Domain "Irrigation Scheduling: The Water Balance Approach" by A.A. Andales, J.L. Chávez, T.A. Bauder, Colorado State University Extension. Copyright © Colorado State University Extension. Used with permission. “Nursery Irrigation: A Guide for Reducing Risk and Improving Production” by W. Yeary, A. Fulcher, B. Leib, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. Used with permission. "Strategies for Efficient Irrigation Water Use" by C.C. Shock, B.M. Shock, & T. Welch, Oregon State University Extension Service. Copyright © Oregon State University. Used with permission. Unit 6 Lab Exercises Exercise 6a: Irrigation Systems Students design and evaluate the efficiency of various irrigation methods. This exercise helps students understand different types of irrigation systems and their applications in agriculture. Exercise 6b: Nursery Design Students plan and design a nursery, including layout considerations and plant selection. It aims to teach students the principles of effective nursery management and design. Attribution and References Attribution Material used with permission from the "Sustainable Nursery Irrigation Management Series" A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. Title image by Amy Fulcher, used with permission from "Water Use in Nursery Production" by A. Fulcher & T. Fernandez, University of Tennessee Extension. Copyright © University of Tennessee Extension. References Beeson, R.C. (2006). Relationship of plant growth and actual evapotranspiration to irrigation frequency based on management allowed deficits for container nursery stock. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 131:140-148. Beeson Jr., R.C., M.A. Arnold, T.E. Bilderback, B. Bolusky, S. Chandler, H.M. Gramling, J.D. Lea-Cox, J.R. Harris, P.J. Klinger, H.M. Mathers, J.M. Ruter, & T.H. Yeager. (2004). Strategic vision of container nursery irrigation in the next ten years. Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 22:113-115. Beeson, R. & G. Knox. (1990). Analysis of efficiency of overhead irrigation in container production. HortScience. 26:848-850. Buxton, J., J. Pfieffer, & D. Slone. (2010). Controlled water table irrigation of container crops. University of Kentucky publication HO-84. Fare, D., C. Gilliam, & G. Keever. (1994). Monitoring irrigation at container nurseries. HortTechnology. 2:75-7. Fernandez, T., J.D. Lea-Cox, G. Zinati, C. Hong, R. Cabrera, D. Merhaut, J. Albano, M. van Iersel, T.H. Yeager, & D. Buhler. (2009). NCDC216: A multistate group for water management and quality for ornamental crop production and health. Proceedings of the Southern Nursery Association Research Conference, 54:35-38. Haman, D.Z., A.G. Smajstrla, & D.J. Pitts. (2002) Efficiencies of irrigation systems used in Florida nurseries. University of Florida Bulletin BUL312. Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/AE/AE08700.pdf Howell, T. (2003). Irrigation efficiency. Encyclopedia of water science. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, New York. Gilliam, C.H., D.C. Fare, & A. Beasley. (1992). Nontarget herbicide losses from application of granular ronstar to container nurseries. Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 10:175-176. Majsztrik, J., A.G. Ristvey, & J.D. Lea-Cox. (2011). Water and nutrient management in the production of container-grown ornamentals. Horticultural Reviews, 38:253-297. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. Owen Jr., J.S., S.L. Warren, T.E. Bilderback, & J.P. Albano. (2008). Phosphorus rate, leaching fraction, and substrate influence on influent quantity, effluent nutrient content, and response of a containerized woody ornamental crop. HortScience. 43(3):906-912. Ross, D.R. (1994). Reducing water use under nursery and landscape conditions. Recycling and resource conservation: A reference guide for nursery and landscape industries. Nurserymen’s Association, Inc., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Turral, H., J. Burke, & J.-M. Faurès. (2011). Climate change, water, and food security. Water Reports, No. 36. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Retrieved October 4, 2011 from http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i2096e/i2096e.pdf. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2008). 2007 Census of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Van Iersel, M., R.M. Seymour, M. Chappell, F. Watson, & S. Dove. (2009). Soil moisture sensor-based irrigation reduces water use and nutrient leaching in a commercial nursery. Proceedings of the Southern Nursery Association Research Conference 54:17-21. White, S.A., M.D. Taylor, R.F. Polomski, & J.P. Albano. (2011). Constructed wetlands: A how to guide for nurseries. Retrieved from http://www.clemson.edu/extension/horticulture/nursery/images/cws_howtoguide_small.pdf Wilson, P.C., & J.P. Albano. (2011). Impact of fertigation versus controlled-release fertilizer formulations on nitrate concentrations in nursery drainage water. HortTechnology. 21:176-180. Wilson, S. & S. von Broembsen. (2017). Capturing and recycling irrigation runoff as a pollution prevention measure. Oklahoma State University BAE-1518. Retrieved from http://osufacts.okstate.edu/docushare/dsweb/Get/Document-7408/BAE-1518web.pdf Yeager, T., T. Bilderback, D. Fare, C. Gilliam, J. Lea-Cox, A. Niemiera, J. Ruter, K. Tilt, S. Warren, T. Whitewell, & R. Wright. (n.d.). World Water Council. Retrieved from http://www.worldwatercouncil.org/index.php?id=25.. Yeager, T., T. Bilderback, D. Fare, C. Gilliam, J. Lea-Cox, A. Niemiera, J. Ruter, K. Tilt, S. Warren, T. Whitwell, & R. Wright. (2007). Best management practices: Guide for producing container-grown nursery crops. Southern Nursery Association, Atlanta, Georgia. Yeager, T., R. Wright, D. Fare, C. Gilliam, J. Johnson, T. Bilderback, & R. Zondag. (1993). Six state survey of container nursery nitrate nitrogen runoff. Journal of Environmental Horticulture, 11:206-208.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.561335	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87615/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Introduction to Plant Science, Nursery Production", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79259/overview	Readings Overview This chapter will explore the interests and career exploration. Introduction College can be as scary as it is liberating. One of the biggest things college students love about starting their college careers is the level of freedom they have. Many students have never known freedom to such a degree before moving on campus. They can eat whatever they want, spend time with whomever they choose, and stay up as late as they want. This feeling is at its absolute peak in the brief window between moving for college and before classes start. Amid the changes and excitement, there are also likely to be many questions—especially by family members. Examples might include questions about what classes you are taking and how many hours you will set aside per week for studying, but the most dominant questions of all can be the most stressful to answer. What will be your major? What career will you pursue? I have dealt with these questions daily in my previous role as a career counselor and in my current role as academic advisor. When I was a university career counselor, the majority of students with whom I met were a semester or less away from graduation. This is when most students begin to have these career conversations. Students can be quite unique in the way they handle stress and anxiety. Some students pick a plan—any plan—just to have something written down on paper. Others put off thinking about such problems because it is not their problem—it is their future selves’ problem. Students pick majors for all sorts of reasons. Some students pick a major because their parents have told them to choose the same occupation as they did, one that will provide financial success. Others may pick their major based on their favorite television show. I have even talked with students who picked their major because of past professors or teachers who taught them to be passionate about the subject. Students pick their major for all sorts of reasons, and most of these reasons are good. Career exploration always starts somewhere, and it can be the smallest of ideas that grows into something magnificent. In Texas, formal exploration starts in seventh or eighth grade and continues through high school, especially with Texas' new K-12 push for students to graduate with career-focused “endorsements.” But students who attempt to pick a career path at 13 may realize when they arrive to college that they are no longer interested in that field. What truly matters is what you do with an idea to help it grow and develop. Do you have an occupational goal in mind and pursue it without assessing the fullness of what it is? Do you put off thinking about career aspirations out of fear of picking the wrong path? Or, do you stumble upon something and dig deeper to reveal how it may align with your own story? This chapter is for you. Learning Objectives - The student will familiarize themselves with the general process of career exploration. - The student will learn about career interest and the impact of interests on choosing a career. - The student will learn about values and how values affect career choices. - The student will use online career research tools to help them build an understanding of career options. - The student will learn about the career decision-making process and how they can use it effectively in their own career decisions. - The student will learn hands-on ways to research careers and find “good fit” for possible options, including volunteering, internships, and information interviews. - The student will learn how to integrate these various components to assist in future career decision making to locate possible career options that lean into the core concepts of interest, values, and career options. Understanding the Self – Part of the Foundation Interests Interest can be a powerful force in shaping what we pursue and what we do not, and the same can be said for career interests. This is often a route that yields greater success with students. However, just because people may be aware of some of their interests does not necessarily mean they know how to apply this information and connect it to potential career paths. To assist with this process, the Holland Codes, developed by Dr. Holland in the 1970s, can be a valuable resource. Another prominent area of interest to this chapter is the importance of personality in career decision making and development. For the sake of brevity, this chapter is unable to cover the topic of personality and its relation to career choices. For more information on this, investigate the 16 Personalities link at the end of this chapter under the Instructor/Student Resources section. Many people can figure out that if they like music, they may very well be interested in it. Some students have clearly defined interests that make it easy to pick possible careers to consider, and others feel stuck in this area of conflicting or competing interests, which makes it very difficult and frustrating to define their interests. Instead of understanding interest through a dichotomous approach of either being interested in something or not, I recommend for those struggling with career exploration to look toward career exploration theories. One prominent theory, trait and factor theory, proposes certain measurable characteristics can be compared with possible career paths. The theory stemming from this parent theory is Holland’s theory on career development, which we cover in greater detail as the chapter progresses. Being grounded in Trait and Factor Theory, Holland’s approach asserts that our interests can be matched through personality characteristics and occupations and that people seek out work environments that align with their skills and abilities, while allowing them to express their values (Nauta, 2010). These categories are broken down into six areas: Attributions RIASEC Wheel Image, by Rogue Community College, http://www.roguecc.edu/counseling/hollandcodes/images/RIASEC-hexagon.png. Reused with permission. Holland Inventory Themes Let’s dig deeper to explore what the different categories of the Holland Inventory. Realistic, the Doers, are very practical people and might enjoy activities that are very “hands on.” They typically prefer working with things more than people. Others may see doers as genuine, sensible, and honest. They may have an interest in areas such as building or repairing things, tinkering with computers, enforcing the law, playing sports, or even spending time in nature. Investigative, the Thinkers, tend to be analytical and curious individuals. A vast majority of your professors might very well have investigative as one of their three dominant Holland codes. They prefer to work with ideas rather than people or things. Thinkers are often seen as intellectual, curious, and independent. They may have an interest in reading, writing, science, research, and math. An important point to note is someone can identify more heavily with an interest category without necessarily agreeing with each point made. Investigative is one of the interest categories with which I identify. I greatly enjoy reading books, both professionally and for pleasure. I enjoy writing, as indicated by this current book chapter. I even enjoy research, because it provides me with more information, which I can use to further help the students I serve. However, I am not a fan of math. I commonly make the joke that if a number was more than 10 (referring to counting on my fingers), or if my phone calculator was not working, I would be out. Even though I have a particular disposition toward math, I still align with the Investigative category, so it remains in my top three. Artistic, the Creators, tend to be creative and prefer to work with ideas more than things. They are commonly described as independent, emotional, and original. It is important to consider creativity in a more abstract lens than just the classics: painting, drawing, music, theater, etc. Although Picasso would most likely identify with the Artistic category, it is not reserved for Picassos alone. Artistic is one of my categories, despite the fact I do not particularly excel at any of these areas in a creative sense. I am not a great artist—grading my skills as a step above stick figures. I cannot dance nor can I sing. However, I try to use creativity in the ways I approach students with ideas and helping them to map out their possible narrative. Social, the Helpers, prefer to work with people. They typically enjoy work that incorporates helping, teaching, or caring for others. They are commonly drawn to various work environments, such as education, health care, and nonprofits, but they can also engage in helping roles in other industries that may be less associated with “helping.” At the end of the day, the helper is drawn toward helping. Alternatively, people may be in roles not usually associated with helping. For instance, marketing is not traditionally known as a social occupation, but if a person is in this occupation for an agency or department that is geared toward helping others, they may be tapping into this interest indirectly. Enterprising, the Persuaders, prefer to work with people. They typically enjoy influencing and leading others toward goals in the workplace, valuing entrepreneurship and competition. Persuaders may have good people skills along with their Social counterparts, but with a swing toward a more business-oriented approach. Someone with this interest may be drawn toward self-employment, politics or government, and industries of business that work at a fast pace. Leadership is a hallmark value for persuaders. Conventional, the Organizers, prefer working with information. They typically enjoy managing written and numerical data, scheduling, administrative work, and ordering information. Efficiency, stability, and structure are important values for people with this interest type. \| Consider: What Holland code sounds the most like you? Second most? Third? Also contemplate whether these decisions were easy to make or difficult. If difficult, why? \| Together these areas can take on different combinations, which make up both a person’s interests and occupations. Although some careers may be comprised of one interest group, most occupations take on varying combinations. For example, the Occupational Information Network from the U.S. Department of Labor (ONET), a resource we will explore shortly, categorizes Lawyer as having Enterprising, Investigative, and Artistic qualities. An alignment between an occupation’s three categories and an individual’s three categories does not suggest someone should pursue this role, only that this role could potentially be a good fit from an interest perspective. Values It is perfectly normal if you have been struggling with pinpointing your career path. My hope is, by this point, it is becoming clear that people are very complex and that there are competing elements inherent to our interests and values. Someone may have an interest in an area, but it is not as compatible with their personality. Alternatively, someone may be great at something but have no interest in doing it. This section covers Values, and it will showcase another quality you can investigate to dig deeper into career exploration. Values are linked to a professional purpose, which is more than what a person does but why they do what they do (Cooper & Cottrell, 2010). When people reflect on their “why,” they can build the “what” and “how” around it. For example, I always wanted to help people. Originally, I thought I wanted to be a police officer, but after going on a ride-along and speaking with people in that role, I decided that was not my form of helping. Then I found my way into mental health counseling, then career counseling, and eventually academic advising. Although these are all different careers, they shape around the “why” of my narrative—helping to empower others and build them up for success. People tend to be very values-driven, both in the sense of motivation and personal identity. It only makes sense that values would play a key part in our story. This listing is just a snapshot of possible values: Common Career Values \| \| Practicality \| Originality \| Beauty \| Service to Others \| Stability \| Independence \| Efficiency \| Tradition \| Generosity \| Influence \| Competition \| Risk Taking \| Status \| Imagination \| Learning \| Accuracy \| Curiosity \| Cooperation \| Common Sense \| Leadership \| References Cooper, H., & Cottrell, R. R. (2009). Charting your career path through clear professional values and purpose. Health Promotion Practice, 11(1), 13–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839909352840 Nauta, M. M. (2010). The development, evolution, and status of holland’s theory of vocational personalities: Reflections and future directions for counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018213 Occupational Outlook Handbook Understanding the self is a foundational to building a career narrative, but it proves insufficient if not paired with further tools for success. As stated previously, when it comes to picking a career and choice of major, students may pick careers earlier in middle school or high school, only to find out it may not be a great fit upon coming to college. This is related to the core truth that people are always evolving and developing, but that we also learn more along the way. We can only know what we know. This shows the immense importance in taking steps to research careers. Sometimes researching careers can pose its own problems because there is so much information on the internet, much of which is conflicting. The purpose of the first major section was to cover understanding of self. Once you have this information in a more concrete place, it is time to connect that information to occupations of interest. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is a great resource in which the data are taken directly from the Department of Labor and the Bureau of Labor Statistics to use when researching career options and opportunities. To reach this resource, visit https://www.bls.gov/ooh/ When using this resource, you can either search through the “Search Handbook” option in the top right or you can search in “Occupational Groups” located on the left side of the website. Use the search bar only when you know the specific occupation of interest. If the specific occupation of interest is not yet known, begin the search by occupational group, as this will give you a broader perspective. Follow Along: Go to https://www.bls.gov/ooh/ Then pick an example occupation you might be interested in. This will assist you in understanding the following discussion on this resource. \| "Using the Occupational Outlook Handbook Website" by Bureau of Labor Statistics, PBS Digital Studios, is licensed CC BY 4.0, and is located at https://youtu.be/9s9Hd2hc7pM Much of this website is quite intuitive, as are these sections. If you are familiar with specific jobs, you can use the tool to explore if the job fits with your interest and values. This website can assist you in gauging how much an occupation aligns with your interest in working with data and customers. If you are a people person and want a job where you interact with others constantly, this tool can help you explore that type of role. If you investigate how to become something, this tool can help you gauge best fit for a major. This tool can tell you what internships and other experience to seek out. If you investigate similar occupations, you can look at jobs related to similar areas. For example, I once had a student who wanted a job in health care but really struggled with finding “their thing.” When the student and I used this site and continually looked through similar occupations, we came across medical services managers. Although this was not an entry-level role, the student and I pinpointed that this person was more interested in the business side of health care, and then they could begin formulating a pathway to get there. The previous video and description of the Occupational Outlook Handbook is a surface-level explanation of this powerful resource. I encourage you to take the time to further investigate occupations on this website to see what steps you can take to make your goals happen. You are the author of your story, and no one can work harder than you to write it. ONet For individuals who like more technical information, ONET is the website for you. Visit this website at https://www.onetonline.org/. This website serves as a complement to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. It has a lot of information that can be useful to students in their career-building exercises, and the handbook also works well with the Holland Codes we discussed in a previous section over Interests. You can search this database’s occupations a variety of different ways, including by Holland Codes. Follow Along: Go to https://www.onetonline.org/ Then pick an example occupation you might be interested in. This will assist you in understanding the following discussion on this resource. \| "ONET TUTORIAL" by Jason Seward, and is located at https://youtu.be/9mcB_p3k4J8 ONET is a resource with much of the same information as the Occupational Outlook Handbook, but it contains additional tools and resources. For instance, this site provides viewers with alternate job titles for desired occupations. This website can be helpful when searching for potential jobs. Some jobs have multiple titles, depending on the company or organization. It can give you more keywords to search when looking for opportunities in each field. There is also a section in ONET that shows the percentages of education associated with an occupation. I have had many students tell me about their plan to go to graduate school because they need it for a job, but that assumption is not always true. There are some occupations that require advanced education (master’s level+), but ONET can be a great resource to help fact check whether that is hearsay or supported by facts and numbers by showing the percentage of individuals that hold that specific degree level in a given job. This discussion has scratched the surface and covered the highlights of ONET. It is important to investigate this resource by using it to research your own interest and career goals. Professional Associations It is important to be actively involved in your career journey. No one can better write your own story. Professional associations can be an excellent way to engage in career research. Some career fields may not require that you consult your designated professional association for guidance, but other professions will necessitate exposure. Previously working toward my career path as a mental health counselor and then as a career counselor, I became very intimate with the American Counseling Association and the National Career Development Association. I located accredited graduate programs through these websites to ensure a valuable and more valid education, pertinent research articles, steps for state licensure, and more. Both sites also possess job boards and offer student memberships, scholarships for professional development, and conferences for continuing education. I had the privilege of attending a conference for the National Career Development Association during Summer 2019, as professional associations will often have conferences for likeminded professionals to network and keep each other up to date on current trends and practices in the field. Connecting with professionals through a professional association is a great way to network and learn more about your profession of interest as well as network for potential job opportunities. When researching more about career options, I commonly found myself showing students these websites because of the rich information in them. In addition to joining relevant organizations and groups on campus, make sure to check out professional associations. If you check out a professional association and find yourself bored and not wanting to keep up with that type of information, reflect on why that might be. If these are not things you care about, why is that? It is important to reflect on occupational identities and career values. There are clues in many of the things we do—the things we like and do not like. The hard part is taking a moment to delve into awareness and ask why. Career Decision-Making In the career counseling room, I learned quickly that giving people resources and example job titles is rarely sufficient. Many students still do not know where to go, even when resources are shared. It is important to have conversations and help students unpack their own narratives through aspects of the self. However, there were other times even this was not the case, in which equipping the student with knowledge of relevant occupations was sufficient for them figure out their career goals. Even though a lot of progress can be made in the initial steps of throwing out job titles like darts on a dart board or just trying out a bunch of different ideas with nothing sticking. Sometimes the difficulty comes with struggling to make decisions on a grander scale. There is no one-size-fits-all for decision-making problems. As with many areas in life, understanding and awareness is a foundational piece that can help shed light on the decision-making process. There are three primary decision styles when it comes to decision difficulties: rational style, avoidant style, and dependent style. Although these styles each present with a degree of varying complexity, they also share common characteristics. Shin and Kelly (2015) stated: The rational style is an active and planful approach to decision making. The avoidant style is characterized by failure to attain and process career information and postponement of decisions. The dependent style involves ceding responsibility for decisions to external sources, such as signiﬁcant others. The rational style is viewed favorably because it is a systematic approach that yields information relevant to decisions. (p. 293) Although engaging in avoidant and dependent styles can decrease immediate career anxiety, by either delaying the perceived threat or seeking to put responsibility on others, these strategies raise the overall career anxiety in the long run. Only by adopting and engaging in a rational style can people appropriately pursue the steps discussed next. Career Decision-Making Process The first step in the process is Knowing I Need to Make a Choice. This becomes apparent when one is faced with a career issue or difficulty, which requires the individual to start the process toward making a career decision. Once someone realizes they need to make a career decision, the best place to start is Knowing About Myself. This can involve reflection on personality characteristics, work interests, leisure interests, skills, and values. Values often play an important role in decision making. For instance, I know justice and helping are important qualities to me. Although finances and income are very important, too, they are not as important to me as the distinct feeling of making a difference for the people I serve. It is also important to me to have a job that balances working with people and having time to work on ideas. This goes together with the next step, which is Knowing About My Options. One can use the tools previously discussed to gather more information during this step. Only after someone has evaluated the self and has undertaken career research to learn about opportunities can they begin to know how they relate to those opportunities. Create a list once you have ironed out aspects of the self and occupations that might complement them. Your career list takes shape in the phase of Expanding and Narrowing Options. This is where the heavy lifting occurs—by matching values and other aspects of the self with possible occupations. This process naturally causes some occupations to be cut from the list and others to be added for further consideration. Refining the list often takes the form of running a cost-benefit analysis or examining the pros and cons of each occupation. This is where you spend time reflecting on the costs and benefits for you, your family, peers, finances, etc. For this step, create a list that leans into the previously mentioned values. This list might be made up of careers, such as career counselor, mental health counselor, teacher, and social worker. The final phase of the decision-making process can be the most difficult for people because it implies action, referred to as Implementing My Choice. The action taken can vary for individuals, but individuals must commit to making that choice. The successful reaction to implementation leads to the final step in the decision, Knowing I Made a Good Choice. If implementation leads to no positive resolution, then this might suggest the career choice should be reviewed with the new information. Even if you successfully complete this decision-making process once in your life, there is no guarantee this will remain a constant. The ultimate goal is to build up the skill of making informed career decisions, because the workplace will change and new opportunities will come along (Krumboltz et al., 2013). Knowing and understanding how the process works can serve as a helpful guide to facilitating the change moving forward, as the need arises. References Krumboltz, J., Foley, P., & Cotter, E. (2013). Applying the happenstance learning theory to involuntary career transitions. The Career Development Quarterly, 61, 15–26. Sampson, J. P., Jr., Peterson, G. W., Lenz, J. G., & Reardon, R. C. (1992). A cognitive approach to career services: Translating concepts into practice. The Career Development Quarterly, 41, 67–74. Shin, Y., & Kelly, K. R. (2015). Resilience and decision-making strategies as predictors of career decision difficulties. The Career Development Quarterly, 63(4), 291–305. https://doi.org/10.1002/cdq.12029 Taking Action Implementation Implementation can take many forms when being actualized in our lives. As previously stated, no one will put forth as much agency in your career path as you, so it is important to not only think about it and do the research but also to act on that research. It is only through action that steps are taken to make those goals a reality and write your story. Many students become nervous when contemplating a change of major or major declaration because they feel they do not have enough information. Many students also worry about changing a major because they are afraid this will become a repeating pattern. They may also be reluctant because they will have to explain their “why” to their friends and family. It is important to build a strong understanding of your interests, values, and your “why.” Sometimes finding other ways to get involved and take a more action-oriented approach to gathering information can build a case for whether to change majors or not. This section will cover various action-oriented approaches you can take to gather more information on your options. Informational Interviews Informational interviews are excellent tools to gather more information about a career path. These are interviews where you can ask a professional in your field of interest various questions you want to know about their position. This can be an invaluable opportunity to seek answers that may not be found in other resources for career research. You can ask questions such as, “What do you love about your job? What is something you do not like about your job or would change about it? Why do you do what you do?” Questions such as these can transcend factual information online because professionals can speak to the meaning behind their careers and why they do it. As a student, if you are unsure how to engage in informational interviews, meet with the university’s career services office for tips and more information on how to seek these interviews out. It is also a great idea to reach out to family and friends who work in your field of interest. The key to seeking informational interviews (and networking) is to not limit yourself to your own bubble. Some people may consult with church groups, other community groups, and professors. Start with familiar people to build confidence in having these conversations. Groups & Organizations Being involved in groups and organizations is a significant way students can begin to engage in the social and professional world of their career interests. There is a myriad of groups on campus with many different topics and areas of interest. This can be a great way to exercise your networking muscles and explore areas of interest. For instance, if you think you might be interested in public relations, get involved in such a group. If you find you love the meetings and are passionate about the content area, then that can be a sign of a possible career option. It is important when trying out groups and organizations to reflect on why you like or did not like something. This can provide invaluable information moving forward as you discover your possible career path. Internships/Volunteering Internships and volunteering are truly worthwhile opportunities that can help you build marketable skills and experiences to add to your resume. Although internships are commonly reserved for juniors and seniors with a certain minimum GPA, it is never too early to investigate these opportunities because they can be another great way to try an area of interest to see how it fits with your own narrative. If it is not an area of interest, then that might suggest this is not the right career choice for you. It is important to emphasize that there is a difference between not liking the core of an occupation versus disliking a certain part of it. All careers have tasks that are more enjoyable than others. It is also important to note that some occupations will require entry-level candidates to “pay their dues.” You will rarely find your dream job right away and internships may not always reflect the work done after graduation either. This is why common orators and speakers talk about career “building.” Careers are not like picking something from a menu. Careers must be built and are a story that must be written, which takes time and effort. If I want to be a lawyer and am pursuing an internship during my undergraduate education, I should not expect to find a lawyer internship. An internship in such a setting would reflect the previously mentioned clerk internship. So, although it is important to evaluate the pros and cons for internships to gauge if a career is your best fit, it is important to maintain a level of perspective. Volunteering can be similar to what was discussed about internships. However, volunteering can also show community engagement and can be a strong introduction for those interested in various careers, such as work in the community, at nonprofits, and more. Volunteering can be an important part of the journey, given that some internships may even require experience to be competitive for the positions. Even if an internship does not require prior experience, it can still give you a competitive edge over others. Some roles may not allow you to volunteer in the same capacity as you wish to work one day. For example, people who wish to be mental health counselors cannot volunteer as practitioners, but they can seek out other volunteering opportunities that provide similar help or volunteering in a different way, which allows them to work in the same work environment or with the same population of interest as they would in their desired career. Chapter Summary This chapter shows the importance of taking your career planning into your own hands by doing research, both related to the job market and to yourself, and being open to new opportunities as they arise. Someone’s major does not always directly relate to their career choice. I started by pursuing mental health counseling, then shifted to career counseling, and now serve as an academic advisor with career elements streamlined into my work. I have enjoyed every role and will enjoy many other roles that proceed from this point forward. You can be the greatest champion of your narrative, and it is worth using these resources to invest in that story. Career exploration is founded on the pillars of being aware of yourself, knowing your options, and employing decision-making strategies. Once this information has been reflected upon and researched further, it is time to put it to action. Experience can be the greatest teacher, but it is important to look for ways to explore occupational compatibility, which may demand less commitment upfront, such as through volunteering, internships, joining groups or organizations, etc. Engaging in these strategies will strengthen your ability to navigate the difficult but meaningful nature of career exploration. Now that you have read this chapter, go back, and try the Career Options worksheet earlier in the chapter.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.623124	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79259/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Career Exploration", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79260/overview	Learning Activities Activity 10.1 Identifying Your Values Using the values below, pick at least four values that mean the most to you. List these four values along the left/numbered side of the table below. Then think about at least 1-3 occupations of interest and list them in the boxes underneath the Possible Career Options section. Next, spend time reflecting on how each value corresponds to each career option, assigning a number from 3 to -1 to indicate the level of congruence. This will be an excellent exercise to return to after going through the Understanding Career Options section, as it will provide you with tools to research tangible evidence of values in action. Common Career Values \| \| Practicality \| Originality \| Beauty \| Service to Others \| Stability \| Independence \| Efficiency \| Tradition \| Generosity \| Influence \| Competition \| Risk Taking \| Status \| Imagination \| Learning \| Accuracy \| Curiosity \| Cooperation \| Common Sense \| Leadership \| Career Options Worksheet Attributions Career Values Worksheet, by Richard Knowdell at KnowdellCardSorts.Com. Reused with permission. Activity 10.2 Reflect on Your Career Opportunities Attached to this section is a handout based on Central New Mexico Community College’s career development handout but with a few adaptations. Follow the instructions on the first page to guide you in completing this assignment. Ideally, you will use the Wish List/Deal Breakers page along with information from the O*NET profiler and your career research to refine this list. The goal of this assignment is to provide you with a guided way to think about how they relate to career opportunities. Attributions Adapted Career Handout of original by Central New Mexico Community College, located at https://www.cnm.edu/student-resources/connect-services/career-exploration. Modified by Sarah Hagler and Cory McGregory. Reused with permission.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.658078	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79260/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Career Exploration", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79261/overview	Digging Deeper Additional Theories Throughout this chapter, there have been strong endorsements for researching and taking initiative to formulate a career plan. However, I want to use this last segment to reiterate a few important points. To assist with this, I want to speak on two prominent and relevant career development theoretical approaches Super’s Developmental Theory Super (1954) had a differing theory during the time when Trait-and-Factor theory was a prominent theory in the world of career development. He believed this approach to be valuable but too static, given the changing nature of humanity. Because of this concern, Super developed a theory focused on the continuing development of an individual through the following phases: Growth (4-13 years old), Exploration (14-24 years old), Establishment (25-44 years old), Maintenance (45-65 years old), and Disengagement (over 65 years old). According to Super’s theory, during the developmental age group of 14-24, it is important for students to use classes, work experiences, and hobbies to identify their interests and capabilities. Then they should take this information and align it with various occupations to determine fit. Although Super identified ages 14-24, career development can have these previously mentioned elements associated with the group of 14-24 can crop back up later in life as well. However, it does showcase the importance of taking initiative and using the resources discussed throughout this chapter to develop your career now, in its infancy. College is an excellent time to explore these things in greater depth while pushing to be successful inside the classroom. However, Super et al. (1996) advocated that occupational choice should not be a one-time decision but rather an ongoing process. It is important to make decisions about major and career goals, but it is equally important to accept that people evolve and change, which is relevant to our next quick look at career development theory. Planned Happenstance Theory Mitchell et al. (1999) developed the planned happenstance theory, which is a derivative of chaos theory applied to career development. The quick version is there are too many variables to account for when making career decisions, making it impossible to formulate a guaranteed plan of what will happen and where one will go. Mitchell et al. (1999) stated this theory necessitates “creating and transforming of unplanned events into opportunities for This learning” (p. 117). statement highlights the importance of making tentative career plans but engaging in these other areas as well to seize opportunities as they present themselves. When building a career and moving forward with your narrative, it is important to foster (a) the curiosity to explore learning opportunities available to you, (b) an attitude of persistence toward dealing with roadblocks and obstacles; (c) flexibility to address events, problems, or successes that may happen; and (d) a focus on positive energy so optimism becomes the foundation of your choices. Using these important tools can be very impactful as you successfully navigate your story moving forward. References Mitchell, K. E., Levin, S. A., & Krumboltz, J. D. (1999). Planned happenstance: constructing unexpected career opportunities. Journal of Counseling & Development, 77(2), 115–124. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676.1999.tb02431.x Patton, W., & Lokan, J. (2001). Perspectives on Donald Super's construct of career maturity. International Journal of Educational and Vocational Guidance, 1, 31–48. Super, D. E. (1954). Career patterns as a basis for vocational counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1, 12–20. Super, D. E., Savickas, M. L. & Super, C. M. (1996). The life-span, life-space approach to careers. In D. Brown, L. Brooks, & Associates (Eds.), Career choice and development (3rd ed., pp. 121–178). Jossey-Bass Publishers.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.674265	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79261/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Career Exploration", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79254/overview	Readings Overview The learning objectives for this chapter are designed to help you develop a professional, productive relationship with your academic advisor and to put all of the components together in a way that helps ensure future success. Introduction You are so excited by your acceptance as a future BearKat at Sam Houston State University. You know you want to study ______ (fill in the blank: art, criminal justice, elementary education, finance, kinesiology, etc.), but you really do not know where to start. You went through orientation and were presented with the opportunity to meet with an academic advisor, begin the registration process, and embark on this next stage of your life. However, you are unsure of what happens next or how your classes will help you get there. You know you are coming with transfer hours or dual credit but are unsure where they fit. Who helps you answer these questions? Academic advisors can be found on most, if not all, college and university campuses. At Sam Houston State University (SHSU), they fill a combination of roles. They advise, mentor, and help with career decisions, but, mostly, they are individuals on campus who help students make the most of their educational experience. They assist you in making good decisions specifically related to your course of study. They are knowledgeable and want you to be successful. Academic advisors also want to help you take ownership over your educational path so you are not reliant on their help but know it is there if you need it. Not all students have a clear understanding of the role of an academic advisor or know the best way to build a productive relationship with an advisor (Sam Houston State University, n.d. a). In this chapter, you will gain information to help you communicate effectively with not only an advisor but also with professors, department chairs, and, if necessary, the dean of your college. You will also learn how to determine the requirements of your degree plan or another degree plan. A degree plan is a specific list of academic requirements leading to a degree. You will learn how to calculate figure grade point averages (GPAs), which will prepare you to understand the impact of an A or unfortunately an F. Additionally, this chapter will help you discover ways to be more proactive in your own educational journey (Aljets, 2018). Learning Objectives The learning objectives for this chapter are designed to help you develop a professional, productive relationship with your academic advisor and to put all of the components together in a way that helps ensure future success. You will find the activities specifically tied to the objectives. After completing this chapter and the learning activities, you will be able to: articulate your role in the advising process demonstrate an understanding of key terms used in higher education, specifically related to academic advising set up email in a way that prioritizes communication from advisors and professors construct emails that are professional in nature and clearly communicate the intended message understand and locate major requirements and course descriptions in the catalog understand and articulate the minimum criteria for completing the bachelor’s degree you desire demonstrate an understanding of Degree Works, or the degree plan program used at your university, and how to read your specific curriculum requirements demonstrate an understanding of GPAs and the role they play in your educational success locate and understand your unofficial transcript identify potential consequences of delayed or unclear communication with an advisor Let’s get started. References Aljets, A. (2018). Three reasons academic advisors should be a go-to resource for student success efforts. EdSurge. https://www.edsurge.com/news/2018-03-26-three-reasons-academic-advisors-should-be-a-go-to-resource-for-student-success-efforts Sam Houston State University. (n.d.-a). Sam Houston Advising and Mentoring Center \| About us. https://www.shsu.edu/centers/sam-center/about-us Communication Your role in the advising process is heavily dependent on communication. Knowing what you need and how to articulate that need contributes to a productive advising session. Your advisor will refer to things like degree plans, GPAs, required courses, elective courses, and transcripts. Knowing what these terms mean, and how they relate to what you are working toward, is important. These terms and how they relate to your course of study will be defined as you read through this chapter. You will also need to know how to communicate effectively via email with your advisor and others, as well as how to schedule appointments with your advisor. You and Your Email Your professors, advisors, staff from your major/minor departments, and other important departments will communicate with you through a variety of means, but most of them will communicate with you via email. Learning to set up email in a way that prioritizes communication from advisors, professors, and financial aid will go a long way toward ensuring your success in college. We know you can get overwhelmed by the number of emails you receive in your school email account, so learning how to prioritize what you see can make a big difference. Checking your email often ensures you will have the information you need for your courses and other events, activities, and expectations while enrolled at the university. You can set your email account up in a way that makes sure you notice emails that will impact you the most during any given semester. If you are unsure of the process for doing this, call or visit the information technology department. This process might take some time right now but will save you lots of time in the future. Knowing how to prioritize emails is really important, but it is also important to make sure the emails you send are appropriate and reflect your growing understanding of the importance of establishing professional relationships with your professors, advisors, and other departments or individuals on campus. Often, after you complete your degree, you will need letters of recommendation from professors for graduate school or employment. Professors respond more and are more positive if they have good experiences with a student. When you send an email to a university employee, it is always a good idea to send it from your school email account. This way, even if you forget to sign it, people will know who sent it, and that helps them frame a response. Many people send an email from another account set up under a nickname. When that happens, people do not know who wrote the email and may not respond. Emails to university faculty and staff are professional communication, and they should include a greeting, a closing, and a signature. They should include a reference to why the email is being sent and should be constructed in a professional manner (check spelling, grammar, word usage). They do not need to be long, but your email should address what response you need. When you get a response, read it carefully before replying. Many times, students ask follow-up questions that were already answered in the previous reply. An activity related to composing and sending a professional email is located at the end of the chapter, as well a link to a site with additional information and examples. You and Your Advisor In this section, information needed to articulate your role in the advising process is presented. Your advisor is available to you every semester to help plan your coursework for the next term and to help you understand your degree requirements—both the degree plan and specific requirements like GPA (mean number of grade points earned per semester hour) and minimum grade requirements. At SHSU, you will be required to meet with your advisor if you fall under the following categories: - this is your first semester, - your SHSU GPA (all coursework completed at SHSU) or cumulative GPA (all coursework regardless of where hours were completed) are below 2.5, and/or - you have completed more than 90 credit hours. It is highly encouraged that you meet with an advisor every semester, even if it is not required. If your GPA is not where you would like it to be, your advisor can help you determine the grades needed to improve it. To schedule your advising appointment, log into your MySam account (or your specific university student account if you are not at SHSU). Under the “Students” tab, click the link for Go to CAMPUS CONNECT. Once you are on the Campus Connect site, click the blue button that says, “Need to make an appointment? Start here!”. From there, select your college and appointment type. It is important to schedule the appointment with an advisor associated with your college. This ensures you will receive the best and most current information about your degree. More information is available in the activity at the end of the chapter. Advising Scenarios In a typical advising appointment, your advisor will ask you general questions about how your current classes are going, if you are enjoying your current major, or if you are considering any alterations to your degree. After you establish your major, your advisor will make recommendations for the upcoming term. As you get further into your degree and approach graduation, your advisor will have conversations with you about internships and post-graduation opportunities. If needed, your advisor may refer you to other offices on campus for assistance with things like tutoring (Academic Success Center), balances owed (Cashier’s Office), and loans (Financial Aid Office or Student Money Management). You can prepare for your advising appointment by pre-planning your courses for the next term and writing down any questions you may want your advisor to answer. The more prepared you are, the less time will need to be spent on course selection. This leaves more time to discuss your current classes and career goals. Let’s consider two scenarios from real life advising sessions. The first scenario occurred with a student in their first year at the university, and the other occurred with a student nearing graduation. As you read them, reflect on the outcomes caused by delayed or unclear communication with an advisor. Kerri. Kerri started the university in a major with a specific course sequence of study. The program she selected required her to take courses in a very specific order to stay on track for a 4-year graduation. Kerri was advised accordingly, with limited options for other courses to build her schedule. It was essential for Kerri to follow the information prescribed by her advisor to move forward in her program, so she enrolled as her advisor directed. Near the conclusion of her first semester, Kerri was advised again for her second semester courses. After she was advised, Kerri dropped a course from her first semester without first speaking to her advisor. A few days before the beginning of her second semester, Kerri noticed she was dropped from one of the second semester courses she had previously added. Kerri contacted her advisor to find out why she was dropped from the course. After reviewing Kerri’s final enrollment from her first term, the advisor confirmed that Kerri dropped an essential course from the first term for proper sequencing in her program. Kerri shared with the advisor that she had dropped the course because she felt she needed to work more hours. The advisor explained that had Kerri contacted her prior to dropping the course, they could have examined other options that would have allowed her to drop a course without putting her behind in her prerequisites. Jared. Jared scheduled an advising appointment for the summer and fall terms. He had already registered for courses but stated his intent to declare a minor and a desire to complete his degree at the end of the fall semester. The advisor reviewed the changes adding a minor would make to his degree plan. He determined it would be possible for Jared to achieve these goals, but informed Jared changes would be needed to his planned summer and fall schedules to complete prerequisites and remaining coursework on his desired timeline. The advisor also noted Jared was enrolled in the same course in both summer and fall and needed to drop the fall course. Upon Jared’s confirmation, the advisor added the minor to his degree plan and emailed Jared the changes he needed to make to his summer and fall schedules. Had Jared made these changes, all would have been well, but that is not what happened. A month after the exchange, Jared emailed the advisor simply stating he was receiving an error message when trying to register for a course. He did not provide any information on what course he was trying to register for, in what semester, or what error message he was receiving. The advisor did some checking and found Jared had failed to make any of the advised changes to his schedule to maintain his desired graduation timeline, including dropping the repeated course. His advisor responded asking what error message he was receiving. A month and half later, Jared responded to the question. He still had not made any of the needed schedule changes, and, by this time, it was too late to do so if he intended to graduate at the end of the fall semester with the new minor added. His advisor again asked for more information on what issues he was having with registration and informed Jared he would need to remove the minor and make schedule changes to complete his degree by the end of the fall semester. His advisor outlined the schedule changes needed and asked Jared how he wished to proceed. At this point, due to Jared’s inaction, he had not just delayed graduation by a single semester but two at a minimum because he was not enrolled in a prerequisite course needed to move forward in his minor. He also paid to repeat a course he successfully completed in the summer. Having a good relationship and maintaining a line of communication with your advisor can help prevent these situations from happening to you. So, now you know more about advising, but your degree plan is still confusing. How do degrees come to be anyway? Nuts and Bolts of Curriculum The university provides you with a very detailed roadmap of courses you need to take to successfully earn a degree. Locating major requirements and course descriptions in the catalog and on your degree plan, and understanding these requirements and descriptions, will help you take control of your own path and lead to more productive meetings with your advisor. College curricula are complex. A specific degree starts with the idea of curricula or courses of study. Degree programs are the result of combining courses together to form a curriculum that meets a variety of objectives. Most states mandate certain aspects be included in all degree programs, with other pieces being left to the institution to decide. In Texas, each degree requires a minimum of 120 semester hours of specific coursework. Some degrees, like education, music, and music education have more hours, but these additional hours require approval from the state agency. Every undergraduate degree in the State of Texas has core requirements; you may also hear them referred to as basics. Each student, per the State of Texas, must successfully complete 42 hours of core curriculum as part of their minimum of 120 hours. Those 42 hours of core coursework are separated into 9 different areas (Sam Houston State University, n.d.b). You have to take all of the courses listed in some component areas, but you get to choose a course or courses in other component areas. Be careful, though, because sometimes you need to choose a specific course or courses for your degree plan. In addition to the core, each degree will require specific hours within the major and/or minor area of study. Often there will be choices, but not always. Some degrees are very prescriptive and allow for no elective courses, and other degree plans give you many options you can choose from based on your interests. You should be aware that if you plan to complete courses at one institution and transfer them to another, those courses may not count in your degree plan at your new institution. This can also occur when you switch from one major to another; your courses from one major may not apply to another major. Regardless of the situation, whether switching majors or transferring courses from another institution, the courses you already completed do not go away—they will count toward your GPA. If those courses do not fulfill a requirement for your new major, they will not apply toward the 120 hours required for your new plan of study. Simply accumulating 120 hours does not mean you earn a degree. All curriculum requirements for your designated plan of study must also be completed, so it is possible you might accumulate hours beyond 120 by the time you graduate. Another word of caution when switching majors or transferring courses that do not apply to your degree plan is that students are limited to 150 “hours attempted” before the State of Texas mandates a change in tuition. Hours attempted includes any courses you have successfully passed, courses you have failed, or courses you have dropped. Once you accumulate 150 attempted hours, you will be charged out-of-state or nonresident tuition until you complete your degree. Out-of-state or nonresident tuition is twice as much as in-state or resident tuition. This tuition rate is also applied any time you repeat a course 3 or more times. This is why it is vital to connect with your academic advisor before you change your major or take courses at another institution. Your academic advisor will make sure your courses transfer and apply to your degree and will help ensure you do not exceed the 150-hour mark if you change your major. One additional point to consider is the 180 hour maximum rule for financial aid. Once a student accumulates 180 hours, they no longer receive financial aid. References Sam Houston State University. (n.d.-b) Undergraduate Catalog 2020-2021. Degrees, Degree Plans, and More In addition to the general requirements listed previously, there are also different types of degrees outside of the major. Degree types range from associate degrees up to doctoral degrees. As an undergraduate student, you often have the choice of what type of degree you wish to pursue based on your major. The most common degree types are Bachelor of Arts (BA) or Bachelor of Science (BS), and it is your choice which route you wish to pursue. For example, if you are majoring in political science, you have the option of pursuing a BA or a BS. Traditionally, BA degrees require some type of foreign language with the major curriculum, and BS degrees require additional science and/or math courses with the major curriculum. Many degrees do fall under the BA or BS umbrella, but there are some majors that have different degree types. As an example, business degrees are typically a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA), and art and music degrees can be a Bachelor of Fine Arts (BFA). There is even an option at many institutions to pursue your associate degree. An associate degree only requires 60 credit hours and can be completed before and/or while you are pursuing a bachelor’s degree. Based on the degree type and major you are pursuing, your curriculum or degree plan is then set. For many students, earning the bachelor’s degree is the goal, yet, at completion of their degree, they find themselves wanting more information or specific knowledge, so pursuing a master’s or doctoral degree is a logical next step. The Catalog The University undergraduate and graduate catalogs contain information important to any student considering a degree or enrolling in a degree program. The catalog is a comprehensive document with information about courses, degrees, policies, and procedures applicable to students enrolled at the university (Sam Houston State University, n.d. c). To access the Undergraduate Catalog, which houses information about majors, minors, and courses at SHSU, start with the university home page. Once there, select the Fast Links drop down tab in the top right corner of the page. Scroll down the list of options until you see Catalogs. Once selected, the next page will show multiple catalog years. A catalog year refers to the curriculum you are following for your major and minor (if applicable). Your catalog year is often the year in which you were admitted, but it can fluctuate depending on different circumstances. To ensure you are viewing the most accurate information for your degree in the catalog, confirm your catalog year in Degree Works (see this video for more information). SHSU DegreeWorks Tutorial, located at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bphhxBU2bZs Once you have confirmed your catalog year, return to the Undergraduate Catalog and select the appropriate year. On the left hand side of the screen, you will see a navigation tool bar (screen shot 7). From here, you can access a wide variety of information such as Degrees Offered and Course Descriptions. By selecting the Degrees Offered link, you will be able to view all available majors and minors for undergraduate students at SHSU. There is also functionality to filter your results to specific colleges, modes of delivery (i.e., online, face-to-face), or program type (i.e., degree, minor, certification). Selecting the Course Descriptions link will provide you a comprehensive list of all courses offered at SHSU by department. For instance, if you are hoping to find the course description for ENGL 3330, you can locate the section for E, select English (ENGL), and scroll to the course number 3330. The course description will show you what you can expect to learn in the course, in addition to any prerequisites needed to enroll in that specific course. You can view your specific degree requirements in the catalog and use the catalog to explore other majors or minors at SHSU. Degree Works will show the curriculum required for your major and minor and the What If function can be used to view other programs. The catalog will provide additional information outside of curriculum requirements and information specific to your degree program, such as specific grade requirements in courses (i.e., C or better required) or a specific GPA required to earn that major or minor. When the catalog is used alongside Degree Works, you will always have the most up-to-date information related to your curriculum. References National Student Clearing House, (n.d.) https://www.studentclearinghouse.org/ Sam Houston State University. (n.d.-c) Undergraduate Catalog 2020-2021. Degree Plans and Unofficial and Official Transcripts Universities devise degree plans to guide students toward completion of a program of instruction that leads to a degree. These plans are influenced by faculty within a particular discipline. English professors help craft the bachelor’s degree in English, criminal justice professors help craft the bachelor’s degree in criminal justice, victim studies, etc., and foreign language professors help craft the bachelor’s degree in French. Core requirements are decided by a committee of faculty from across disciplines with guidance from state agencies. These degree plans are formal agreements between a student and a university, and they are tied to specific catalog years. If the degree plan you committed to your freshman year was health science, the degree plan outlined in the catalog that year is the plan you will follow throughout your time at the institution. This remains true (mostly) throughout your time engaged in obtaining that degree, even if the requirements are updated and changed years later. This rarely happens, but one reason requirements might change is related to outside agencies. For example, if you are an education major and the state education agency over certification requires different information for certification, a course may be added, dropped, or changed mid degree. The catalog is a great place to look at degrees and what requirements are tied to each major and minor. The catalog is generally updated every 2 years, but some institutions update their catalog yearly. Locating and examining your degree plan is described in a learning activity at the end of this chapter. If the degree plan is the roadmap, what roles do the unofficial and official transcripts play? Both unofficial and official transcripts are documents that outline how many hours of credit you have received and your actual GPAs (transfer, SHSU, and combined). One caveat to this is the reality that any courses you enroll in and stay enrolled in past the 12th class day (or 4th day during the summer) appear on your transcripts whether you earned credit or not. You can access your unofficial transcript via your MySam Account or your university-based student account portal. You might need your unofficial transcript for a job interview, as a record you want to keep, or even something to show your parents that outlines your progress. Your unofficial transcript cannot be used to verify you have received a degree and cannot be used at another institution for acceptance or transfer. If you are looking to transfer to another institution or apply for an advanced degree, your official transcript must be used. Official transcripts are certified as “official” by the university and are issued upon request. Official transcripts are sealed in an envelope or sent electronically by the National Student Clearinghouse (National Student Clearing House, n.d.). If you elect to pick up an official transcript to deliver on your own, do not open the envelope! Official transcripts lose their verification of “official” if you open the document on your own and can no longer be used by other institutions as an official record of your coursework. To request an official transcript from Sam Houston State University, or to view your unofficial transcript, log in to your MySam account and select the My Account tab. Once on that tab, you will see a box labeled Office of the Registrar where two links will display under Transcripts: Official, Unofficial. Selecting the Unofficial link will take you to your unofficial transcript, where you will see all of your courses outlined by semester. Any transfer work, dual credit courses, Advanced Placement credit, or CLEP credit you have will be displayed first; SHSU work will be listed next. If you select the Official link, you will be guided through the steps of ordering an official copy of your transcript from SHSU. Changing Your Mind Say you step foot on campus with a declared major in finance. One of the first courses you take in political science really captures your imagination, and you begin to think about changing your major. Perhaps you have been pursuing a specific degree plan, but you find you are really struggling with the coursework, and you begin to think this major is not for you. Before you do anything drastic, take a look at the catalog to see what you have completed that might apply to a new degree and then meet with your advisor. For the most specific information about your degree path, and an overview of what you have taken, what requirements are fulfilled, and what you still need to take, look at an electronic degree plan. At SHSU, your degree plan is located in a program called Degree Works. Degree Works is one of many programs universities use to help students keep track of their progress toward completing a degree. It provides quite a bit of information, in an interactive online format, for your specific degree, and you can see what courses you have completed along with the grade. Unlike a transcript, you can see what courses are still required. f you click on any of the courses that still show as lacking, a box will open that displays the course title, course description, and any prerequisites for the course. Consistently accessing Degree Works and reviewing your lacking courses can help you understand how your coursework should progress as you continue completing courses; it will provide context to the information your advisor shares with you in your session. You can access Degree Works by logging into your MySam account. Under the “Students” tab, click the link for “Access to Degree Works.” Make note of the browser requirements, as using an unsupported browser could cause issues with loading your degree plan. The learning activity later in this chapter will help you access your degree plan. Degree Works is also useful if you want to explore other majors in the event you find yourself struggling with the major coursework or you find a new interest you wish to study. Degree Works will allow you to run a ‘What If’ on any degree plan at SHSU. It will show you the curriculum required for that degree plan and how your currently completed and enrolled credits apply to this new major. However, if you are seriously considering changing your major, you need to schedule an appointment with your academic advisor. Your academic advisor is not only able to change your major but they also will be able to discuss what the new degree plan entails and if this is the right move for you based on your career goals. Additionally, your advisor will be able to explain how this change might affect time to graduation, and they can connect you with appropriate support resources as you look at making this transition. Bottom line, if you want to switch your major for any reason, setting up a meeting with your academic advisor is the first step before you make any decisions. GPA and Why It Is Important When you log in to Degree Works, there is quite a bit of information displayed. Of the most importance are the courses you have completed, the courses still remaining, and your GPA. As discussed earlier, your GPA is a calculation based on your grades and the number of credit hours each course is worth (i.e., UNIV 1101 is worth 1 credit hour). Understanding where and how your GPA originates can be a little intimidating. However, there are multiple tools available to help you when it comes to determining how specific grades will impact your GPA. First, let’s take time to understand how GPA is calculated. Your GPA is found by dividing the quality points earned by the total credit hours attempted toward the degree. Quality points are determined by multiplying the number of credit hours assigned to the course by the number assigned to the grade for that course. Clear as mud, right? Table 1 shows grade points earned by credit hour. We will use this as we walk through a quick example of how to calculate quality points by course. Table 1. Quality Points Associated With Credit Hours Quality Points Per Semester Hour \| \| A \| 4 \| B \| 3 \| C \| 2 \| D \| 1 \| F \| 0 \| Now, you might be wondering how you tell how many credit hours a course is worth. Generally, when looking at course numbers, the first number tells you the level of the course, the second number tells you how many credit hours the course is worth, and the last two numbers are department specific to help differentiate between courses within a department. This might not be universally applied and could change. Now, let’s determine the number of quality points earned for a UNIV 1101 course. Sammy Bearkat completed UNIV 1101 for the fall semester. Sammy earned a B but is not sure how many quality points were earned toward his GPA. UNIV 1101 is worth 1 credit hour and Sammy made a B—that earns Sammy 3 quality points per semester hour. Three points per semester hour x 1 credit hour = 3, so Sammy has 3 quality points toward his GPA! We will explore a GPA and how to calculate quality points in another activity at the end of this chapter. This may seem daunting, but there are many tools available to help you calculate a GPA—some to assist with determining your GPA by semester and others for determining how grades will affect your overall GPA (Institution and Overall). You can locate GPA calculators by visiting the SAM Center website, selecting Advisor Tools, and selecting GPA Calculators. We will explore two of these calculators in more depth at the end of this chapter. Now why so much emphasis on a GPA? Why is this so important if you pass all of your courses? Your GPA is a key component of graduation and part of your degree requirements. In addition to everything discussed earlier about degree requirements, your Overall GPA and Institution GPA must be at a minimum 2.0 for graduation. There are some degrees that require a higher GPA—for example, at SHSU, sociology requires a 2.5 Overall GPA (Sociology, n.d.) and education degrees require a 2.75 Overall GPA for graduation (College of Education, n.d.). The catalog and your advisor can confirm if a GPA higher than 2.0 is required for your degree. Putting It All Together for Future Success At some point in your educational journey, life may happen, and you might find barriers or obstacles preventing the progress you had planned. It is easy to get discouraged under those circumstances, and many students struggle without addressing the problem, or they quit. Often students will leave campus without talking to anyone about the barriers they are facing, but that is exactly where your academic advisor can help! As discussed earlier, your academic advisor has a wealth of knowledge, not only about your degree plan, but also about campus resources. They can share campus resources that might help reduce or eliminate barriers standing in your way of success. Stay focused on your educational goals and meet with your academic advisor regularly to set yourself up for success. Chapter Summary As we worked through this chapter, we discussed ways to make advising work for you, how to understand and navigate your degree plan, how to calculate a GPA, and how to communicate professionally. So, what does this mean as you go forward? Beginning a college experience can be a daunting process. There are many moving parts that can help you to be a successful student, but there are also areas that can be challenging for a student if they are not careful. A college degree is an expensive investment in your future, so focusing on what matters and taking control of your educational journey is essential to your success. As you begin your educational journey, many will encourage you to begin with the end in mind. What does that even mean? When considering occupations, there might be many that appeal to you, and, as you dig a little deeper, you might realize many professions require experiences and education beyond your initial bachelor's degree. For instance, becoming a doctor requires multiple educational elements, beyond a bachelor’s degree, before one is eligible to earn their license to practice medicine. Other occupations might require internships or certification exams. A Certified Public Accountant (CPA) requires a specific exam before an individual can officially list themselves as an accountant on their resume. Public school teachers have internships (i.e., student teaching) and several exams to pass before applying for certification and entering a classroom to teach. Ways you can take control include working closely with your advisor and building a positive relationship with professors and other university individuals. As we close out this chapter, the activities presented next can help prime you for a bright future in education. You will find that this chapter complements the information you read in the chapters on Career Exploration. The following learning activities will help you extend the knowledge gained from this chapter. The relevant webpages associated with these activities are included. Completing some or all of these will help you understand your role in your educational journey and participate more effectively with your advisor.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.752394	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79254/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Advising", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79255/overview	Learning Activities Activity 9.1 Send an email (https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2015/04/16/advice-students-so-they-dont-sound-silly-emails-essay) Practice constructing emails that are professional in nature and clearly communicate their intended message. Send an email to one of your professors constructed with the points made above in mind. Let the professor know you are sending the email as part of a class and would appreciate a reply. You might want to send one to each of your professors to ensure a timely response. Remember: Greeting (Good Morning, Good Evening, Dear Dr….) The body of your email, complete with what you need to know, or what action you need taken. Closing (Regards, Thank you, Sincerely) And, your full name. Often there are people in a class with the same first name. Using the steps in the advisor section above, schedule your advising appointment for next semester. Advisors are always available to help you and can reaffirm you are on the right track. However, advising appointments are short in nature and sometimes hard to get, so the more you can figure out on your own, the better off you will be. Check https://www.shsu.edu/dept/registrar/calendars/advance-registration.html for the date advising opens and the Registration Schedule. Activity 9.2 Calculating Quality Points and GPA As we discussed earlier in the chapter, calculating a GPA can seem very intimidating. However, once you know which numbers to plug into the formulas, it is really very simple! In this activity, we will calculate a semester GPA by hand. Grab a piece of scratch paper and a calculator and let’s get started! Sammy Bearkat took the courses outlined below and posted the following grades for each course: ENGL 1301 \| B \| HIST 1302 \| A \| SOCI 2319 \| C \| BIOL 1408 \| B \| UNIV 1101 \| A \| First, let’s start by determining the number of quality points Sammy earned for each course. Let’s do the first one together. Sammy earned a B in ENGL 1301. A “B” is worth 3 points per credit hour (reference the table earlier in the chapter). Three points per credit hour for the B x 3 credit hours (ENGL 1301 is worth 3 hours because the second number is a “3”) = 9 quality points. Calculate the remaining quality points for all courses listed above. You have determined how many credit hours each course is worth and how many quality points Sammy earned for each course, so let’s do some simple addition. Add up all the credit hours for the courses. Next, add up all the quality points. You should have two numbers: total number of credit hours and total number of quality points earned. Now, let’s calculate Sammy’s semester GPA. Take the number of quality points and divide it by the total number of hours. You should see that Sammy’s semester GPA is a 3.07. Using the Semester GPA Prognosticator Now that we have an understanding of how to calculate a semester GPA by hand, let’s learn how to use the semester GPA tool for quick and easy use. From the SAM Center webpage, select the option for Advisor Tools. Scroll down the page until you see the section titled GPA Calculators. Select the link for Semester GPA Calculator. For each of the scenarios below, use the Semester GPA Calculator to determine the semester GPA. KINE 2115 \| A \| BIOL 1408 \| B \| MATH 1314 \| B \| \|\| UNIV 1101 \| B \| MATH 1332 \| C \| GEOG 1401 \| C \| \|\| ENGL 1301 \| A \| HIST 1301 \| A \| POLS 2306 \| B \| \|\| HIST 1301 \| B \| POLS 2305 \| F \| ENGL 1301 \| B \| \|\| KINE 1331 \| B \| ARTS 1301 \| D \| \|\|\|\| MUSI 1310 \| C \| Using the Overall GPA Calculator We have learned how to calculate a semester GPA by hand and by using the Semester GPA tool, so let’s take a look at the Overall GPA Calculator. This tool allows you to see how your cumulative or overall GPA is affected by your semester grades. The Overall GPA Calculator also allows you to account for a course you might be repeating. From the SAM Center webpage, select the option for Advisor Tools. Scroll down the page until you see the section titled GPA Calculators. Select the link for GPA Prognosticator. Don’t let the title intimidate you—this Excel sheet will allow you to see how your overall GPA will change with your new grades! Once you have the GPA Prognosticator open, access your unofficial transcript. After your unofficial transcript loads, scroll to the very bottom of the page. At the bottom, you will see three different lines for GPAs displayed: total institution, total transfer, and overall. If you did not complete coursework (i.e., dual credit courses) prior to arriving at the university, there will be no information displayed, and all three lines will show 0.0 for GPA. After you successfully complete your first semester of classes, you will see information listed in the Total Institution and Total Overall lines. If you did complete coursework prior to arriving at the university, the total GPA hours and quality points you earned from those courses will show in the Total Transfer and Total Overall lines. Credits received by examination (e.g., AP, IB, CLEP) do not earn a grade and thus will not affect your GPA. As you begin taking courses, your total transfer GPA will not change. However, those GPA hours and quality points are important as they still count toward your overall GPA. To get familiar with the GPA Prognosticator, let’s first see how your overall GPA would change if you made all As for this term. In the overall GPA calculator, you will see a portion in the top left that says, “ENTER Current Hours Attempted.” This is where you will enter your GPA hours from your unofficial transcript, using the information listed in the Overall line item. If you have not completed any coursework, your unofficial transcript will show 0, which is normal, so place that number in the appropriate box. Next, in the box that says, “ENTER Current Grade Points,” enter the quality points listed on your unofficial transcript from the information listed in the Overall line item; this will also show 0 if you have not yet completed any coursework. If you have dual credit courses, you should see a GPA displayed in the “Projected GPA is” box. If you did not have any GPA hours or quality points to enter, your projected GPA will be blank. In the New Courses section of the spreadsheet, enter in your course information, along with the total number of hours associated with each course. Enter As for each course and watch as your Projected GPA changes! If you have no previous coursework, your GPA should now show as a 4.0. If you did have previous coursework completed, you will now see what your projected Overall GPA would be if you made all As this term. Now that we are a little more familiar with the spreadsheet, let’s use the following case study to see how Sammy’s overall GPA would be affected: Case Study 1: Sammy is struggling to meet the 2.5 overall GPA requirement for his accounting major. Sammy is in his last semester of coursework needed to graduate but has to make the right grades to meet the 2.5 GPA requirement. Currently, his GPA is a 2.42. His unofficial transcript shows 105 GPA hours and 255 quality points in the Overall line item. Sammy is currently enrolled in 15 hours for the fall term but has never taken any of these courses before, so none of them are repeats. What grades does Sammy need to meet the 2.5 GPA requirement? Case Study 2: Sammy finished his last semester of coursework for his accounting major but unfortunately did not make the grades needed to raise his GPA to the 2.5 mark required for graduation. For the next term, Sammy must return to SHSU to repeat a course and raise his GPA to the 2.5 requirement. In his last semester, Sammy took ACCT 4316, ACCT 4317, BUAD 3355, MGMT 4390, and ACCT 3347. In addition to the 2.5 overall GPA requirement, Sammy must make a C or better in any course with the ACCT prefix. Unfortunately, in his last term, Sammy posted a D in ACCT 3347. Sammy is showing 120 GPA hours and 294 quality points in his Overall line item on the unofficial transcript. Sammy is already required to repeat ACCT 3347 for a better grade because a D does not suffice. Using the Repeated Courses section of the Overall GPA calculator, enter in Sammy’s ACCT 3347 course, the old grade of D, and use the “What If” column to project what grade Sammy would need to make in his repeat of ACCT 3347 to meet the 2.5 overall GPA requirement for graduation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.800159	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79255/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Advising", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79256/overview	Digging Deeper Additional Learning Activity Degree Works is the formal plan associated with your chosen field of study and the degree you seek. When the Registrar's Office looks to see if you are on track and ready to graduate, this is where they begin. You can access your degree plan from your MySam account by selecting the Student tab and then the link for Degree Works. Before we move through the activity below, let’s take a closer look at Degree Works by watching this video: Now that you have completed that video, complete the activity below: - Access your degree plan. - How many hours do you have remaining to reach the minimum of 120? - Download a copy and print. - Take note of the courses you have already completed. How many courses do you still have lacking? - Do you have any courses counting in the electives section? - Now, using the What If function, “change” your degree to a BA in criminal justice or a BS in biology. How does this change your curriculum? How many courses do you have remaining to complete this new degree?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.817547	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79256/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Advising", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87929/overview	New Imperialism of the late 19th-early 20th century Overview New Imperialism, New Colonization Imperialism is an ancient concept, and it can take on many different forms. Countries that are imperialist expand their power by physically expanding their territory, and by extending their political, social, and cultural practices and beliefs into the territory they acquire. Learning Objectives - Examine the similarities and differences between European imperialism in the 16th century, and in the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts imperialism: practice of claiming territory and then spreading the parent country’s beliefs and culture into the territory Fin de siècle: French term for “turn of the century” that often invokes a sense of stagnation metropole: the parent country in colonization New Imperialism: late 19th century form of European imperialism civilizing mission: crude term used by New Imperialists that claimed to colonize in order to bring “civilization” to poor, suffering, and backward populations. European Imperialism: Background In the 15th-16th centuries, the first wave of European imperialism exploded due to technological innovations and Renaissance ideals. Rivaling European nations sought ways to assert their authority over their neighbors, and their power on the world stage. For these reasons, voyages bound for the Far East began from across Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal. They sought increased trade in luxury goods, particularly spices, rugs, and gems from China and India. Christopher Columbus’ voyage to the Caribbean would set in motion a chain of events that would galvanize European imperialism. His “discovery” of the New World prompted Spain and Portugal, and later France and England, to journey to the Americas. The goal was not only to procure wealth from these unknown regions, but also to assert their power on the world stage through colonization. During the first wave of European imperialism, Spain colonized most of Central and South America, as well as Florida and much of the present-day American southwest. Portugal claimed Brazil, while New France was established in much of Canada and the American Midwest. England’s success, by comparison at the time, was much smaller in North America. However, it would not be long before England’s eyes turned to colonization in parts of the Pacific and Africa. To secure these colonies, Europeans relied not on trade, by military technology and combat. As historian Jared Diamond famously quipped, colonization (particularly of the New World) was achieved through “guns, germs, and steel.” New Imperialism in the 19th Century A peculiar mood set across Western Europe in the mid-late 1800s. This mood was of two natures: one that focused on industrialization and increased production, and one that worried that countries had progressed as far as they could. The Napoleonic Wars had ended at the start of the century, and Europe had seen relative peace and stability. Societies had progressed and developed. But by the l860s and 1870s, there was a feeling that societies had developed as much as they could. As a result, many nations felt a sense of stagnation during the latter half of the 1800s. Some Europeans, undoubtedly, wondered if their countries would regress, having reached what they perceived as the zenith of their success. These thoughts are characterized as part of the Fin de siècle of the 19th century. Across Western Europe, there was a sense that countries must develop and progress or lose their place in the sun. While some Europeans believed they had developed as far as possible, others focused on the very pragmatic needs of industrialization. Across Western Europe, industrialization soared. Industrial output surged and brought wealth to Europe. But because of mass industrialization, European natural resources rapidly diminished. Forests, mineral resources, and coal deposits were depleted. Realization of this fact further exacerbated the worry that, perhaps, European countries had reached the top of their development. In 1871, a newly-united country emerged in Europe: Germany. An industrial and intellectual powerhouse, Germany threatened to become the most prosperous country in Western Europe. England responded to this potential threat by tapping into their colonial resources. By the 1880s, each of the Western European nations had begun a mad campaign to expand their territorial possessions abroad. This “scramble” to acquire colonies took place for two reasons: to secure natural resources, and to demonstrate a country’s power on the world stage. As this wave of new imperialism began in the 1870s-1880s, rivalry between European nations surged, as too did nationalism. For the parent country, called a metropole, the purpose of colonies was to make money. Simultaneously, colonization had the secondary purpose of encouraging nationalism. European heads of state struggled with a central question: how could they sell colonization to their publics? Their solution was the concept of civilizing missions. European governments espoused the argument that Africa, and much of Asia and the Pacific were backward, uncivilized, tribal areas. Colonization of such regions, it was claimed, would bring industry, culture, and Christianity to these impoverished and suffering people. The idea of Europeans colonizing through civilizing missions became a core component of New Imperialism. In popular European rhetoric, the Europeans would act as the light of the world and end suffering for millions. Impact The tragic reality of new imperialism is that it produced innumerable, horrible consequences for the world. Nearly all of Africa was colonized. Large portions of Southeast Asia and the Pacific were similarly carved up among European nations, also. Resistance to European colonization was suppressed by far superior European military technology such as breech-loading rifles, heavy artillery, and machine guns. The idea of civilizing missions proved no more than a thin effort to raise support for colonization at home. New Imperialism would uproot and destroy communities around the world, and also establish one of the underlying, but root causes of World War I. Primary Source: Platform of the American Anti-Imperialist League 1899 The American Anti-Imperialist League was founded in 1899, after the United States occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands. The Filipinos revolted against American rule in February 1899, and were suppressed in 1902 after a bloody, ruthless guerrilla war. Most Americans supported overseas expansion, but many of the nation's most illustrious citizens were appa11ed by American imperialism. In 1899, they founded the American AntiImperialist League in order to campaign, unsuccessfully as it turned out, against the annexation of the Philippines. Platform of the American Antilmperialist League (1899) We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is "criminal aggression" and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government. We earnestly condemn the policy of the present National Administration in the Philippines. It seeks to extinguish the spirit of 1776 in those islands. We deplore the sacrifice of our soldiers and sailors, whose bravery deserves admiration even in an unjust war. We denounce the slaughter of the Filipinos as a needless horror. We protest against the extension of American sovereignty by Spanish methods. We demand the immediate cessation of the war against liberty, begun by Spain and continued by us. We urge that Congress be promptly convened to announce to the Filipinos our purpose to concede to them the independence for which they have so long fought and which of right is theirs. The United States have always protested against the doctrine of international law which permits the subjugation of the weak by the strong. A self-goveming state cannot accept sovereignty over an unwilling people. The United States cannot act upon the ancient heresy that might makes right. Imperialists assume that with the destruction of self-government in the Philippines by American hands, all opposition here will cease. This is a grievous error. Much as we abhor the war of "criminal aggression" in the Philippines, greatly as we regret that the blood of the Filipinos is on American hands, we more deeply resent the betrayal of American institutions at home. The real firing line is not in the suburbs of Manila. The foe is of our own household. The attempt of 1861 was to divide the country. That of 1899 is to destroy its fundamental principles and noblest ideals. Whether the ruthless slaughter of the Filipinos shall end next month or next year is but an incident in a contest that must go on until the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States are rescued from the hands of their betrayers. Those who dispute about standards of value while the foundation of the Republic is undermined will be listened to as little as those who would wrangle about the small economies of the household while the house is on fire. The training of a great people for a century, the aspiration for liberty of a vast immigration are forces that will hurl aside those who in the delirium of conquest seek to destroy the character of our institutions. We deny that the obligation of all citizens to support their Government in times of grave National peril applies to the present situation. If an Administration may with impunity ignore the issues upon which it was chosen, deliberately create a condition of war anywhere on the face of the globe, debauch the civil service for spoils to promote the adventure, organize a truthsuppressing censorship and demand of all citizens a suspension of judgment and their unanimous support while it chooses to continue the fighting, representative government itself is imperiled. We propose to contribute to the defeat of any person or party that stands for the forcible subjugation of any people . We shall oppose for reelection all who in the White House or in Congress betray American liberty in pursuit of un-American ends. We still hope that both of our great political parties will support and defend the Declaration of Independence in the closing campaign of the century. We hold, with Abraham Lincoln, that "no man is good enough to govern another man without that other's consent. When the white man governs himself, that is self-government, but when he governs himself and also governs another man, that is more than self-government-that is despotism." "Our reliance is in the love of liberty which God has planted in us. Our defense is in the spirit which prizes liberty as the heritage of all men in all lands. Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves, and under a just God cannot long retain it." We cordially invite the cooperation of all men and women who remain loyal to the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States. From Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University "Platform of the American Antilmperialist League," in Speeches, Correspondence, ard Political Papers of Carl Schurz, vol. 6, ed. Frederick Bancroft (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1913), p. 77, note 1. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.845069	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87929/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87928/overview	Scientific Mentality Growth Overview Scientific Mentality Growth The relationship of the Enlightenment is an important one to evaluate its role in the broader discussion on the social transformations of Europe and the colonial worlds. The Scientific Revolution played a significant part in how populations began to think about themselves and others. This had unfortunate consequences for individuals inside of Europe and their colonial worlds. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the evolution of the scientific perspective that created different mentalities. - Analyze the impact of colonialism on the development of the scientific perspectives. - Evaluate how Europeans used science as a way to justify the reason for their colonization. Key Terms / Key Concepts Malthus: 19th century philosopher who argued that the poor should not be cared for by the state. The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment as a Middle-Class Movement To understand the importance of the Scientific Revolution, it is important to recognize that many in Europe looked for a way to rationalize the world. How science came to revolutionize how Europeans thought of themselves and others is important to put this in a historical moment. It is important to note that the discussion on science here is not that all science is inherently good or bad, but instead that science is a tool that can be used to explain the world. There is a way to measure and quantify, to make hypothesis and to test their validity in the scientific model. In this discussion of science, that this is an approach that science is more of a tool to help people understand their world, rather than individual advancements here. By using science as a tool, this will help for a deeper discussion on the problems that the uses of science have occurred. Following the Renaissance, European intellectuals began looking at alternative answers to Catholic Church explanations of the world. The challenges that European intellectuals faced was that there was limitations of explanations. Many of these intellectuals were of the middle and upper classes, who saw the differences in explanation as ways to gain more power and money in the system. The middle class began to view advancements in knowledge as a way to gain more power and money. As the Renaissance began to turn into the Scientific Revolution, explanations of the world became clearer. Advancements in science and understandings of universal truths of gravity, physical sciences, and anatomy all proved beneficial to the middle class. As exploration began to turn in the late 17th and 18th centuries to imperialism, so too did the use of science as a way to extract as much as possible. It is important to not create a negative opinion of Europeans here as evil, instead realize that as a business, that growth is necessary. The question of how to achieve growth would be very important to Europeans of the time period. This growth was coupled with ideas of imperialism, to expand and grow, not just themselves but also the European country. This growth would lead to many opportunities overall. This can best be seen in the conflict of the Seven Years War, where the tensions between the European and colonial worlds were at a juncture of how both sides saw themselves in relationship to European imperial growth. As the Age of Revolutions began sweeping through Europe, so too did a change between Europeans and the use of science. The Enlightenment paved the way for rational thought, the growth of individuals who were looking for a universal truth and how to access that became an international fascination. Europeans in many ways, became blinded by the Enlightenment and the Scientific Revolution. The Industrial Revolution relied on economic and political theories developed during the Enlightenment. Adam Smith’s capitalism, for example, became the primary economic model for the use of the Scientific model of economics in Europe. While there are many positives to capitalism, it is important to point out, that as Europeans began to study and implement Smith’s capitalism, that many in the industrial centers suffered. The supply and demand of workers and wages meant that many low class individuals in Europe suffered because of limitations on wages and work. This use of a scientific approach demonstrates that there are limitations. The tensions of scientific approaches are important because in many ways, the use of science as an overarching understanding of the world became a problem in the 19th century. In search of more and more efficiency, engineers began to work on finding ways to make machines stronger and more powerful. The end result was jobs that required high alert for workers of moving machines that could cause deadly results if the worker was not paying attention. There was a callousness in Europe of low skill and low wage workers. There was a feeling that individuals who did this type of work were seen as lesser because they were impoverished. This attitude is a key problem, because many middle and upper class individuals began to incorporate the latest scientific models to explain the reasons why individuals were at the bottom. By combining biological theories of Evolution, with the social classes of Europe, many in Europe started thinking and seeing the lower classes as “weaker” and “lesser” because they were not as advanced or as high on the evolutionary latter. This is the formation of Social Darwinism, the combination that there is a biological reason for classes in society. In the 19th century, this model went further than simply pointing out that there was differences in classes, to include that individuals were lesser and not as important if they were not in the middle and upper classes. A famous philosopher Malthus began to write about how the poor were seen as “scum” and not to be pitied because they chose their life. This is a very hard stance to take, because many poor in Europe were not poor because of choice, many jobs in the early Industrial Revolution, paid very little and had little benefits to the individual. Long hours and hard work for little pay would not create a way for an individual to have much of anything, let alone a way to build themselves up from the bootstraps. Malthusian philosophy began to spread throughout Europe, this became a centerpiece of how science, as a tool, began to describe the prejudices of Europeans in the 19th century. Europeans went further, as the 19th century progressed and understanding about genetics increased, this too became a methodology of explaining and making changes to European society. Many early geneticis saw that diseases were traits passed down from family member to family member. This was an important part of the Eugenics Movement, that took the idea that there was a genetic component to society and that individuals should forcibly stop others from having access to reproduction. This model can be clearly seen in North Carolina in the 1910s, where the Eugenics movement had success in changing laws in the state, if an individual was accused of a crime, that they would be taken out of the eligibility of reproduction through chemical or physical means. The idea was that through actively selecting which genes were able to reproduce, that future society would inherently be better. The problem is that this is lives of individuals and caused real harm to people. The North American Eugenics Movement was the inspiration that Hitler looked to in the 1930s for many of his ideas about genetics and the Jewish population. The Scientific Approach to Colonization Many historians point that the differences before the Age of Revolution to after is a stark difference. European states saw that there was a significant problem with how they treated their Atlantic World colonies, and the ways that they colonized might have caused an issue that created revolution. Many government officials looked to the scientific process as a way to remove those problems in the post-Age of Revolutions period. For example, in India, Governor General Hastings used the Enlightenment as a way to understand the past in India. But because of his limited understandings and prejudices, meant that this became the foundation of many of the problems in the Indian Subcontinent. Again, science is a tool that the individual used, it does not justify or encourage any prejudices that the individual might have already. This is important to remember because in the 19th century, many of the European colonizers began to use science as a way to justify their own superiority. It can not be stated enough that the use of science as a tool to justify racism and prejudices is a misuse of science. Yet, theories and individuals used this tool to hurt and colonize many territories in Africa and Asia. The term Social Darwinism is a very broad term that is used to define the use of science as a basis of racism and discrimination. In the colonial world this could be very broad and hard to define. Some of the easiest and clearest examples of Social Darwinism in the colonial world, is the justification of European superiority in Africa and Asia. While the actual reason is the technological difference between Europeans with Gatlin guns and indigenous peoples with less advanced weapons is the real reason that Europeans were able to easily win in the battlefield, many saw that European superiority had a very different reason. There were different theories in the 19th century, ranging from skin color, to the thought that head sizes were the problem. The idea of cranial theories is that European brains are superior because the head size was thought to be bigger than other races. This is not only accurate, but also in many ways insulting to indigenous groups. Braincase size has nothing to do with intellect, take that idea further, that if this theory was true, that whales would be the smartest creatures on earth right now because they have the biggest brain size. This is blatantly using science as a way to justify racist thoughts of Europeans. While there were many theories as to European colonization and why the use of science as a significant reason for European power is debunked by sociologist, historians, and other academic groups. These justifications are part of the central reasons that second wave colonization is fundamentally different than first wave colonization. The use of racism as a justification for European colonization is a significant problem. Primary Source: The White Man's Burden The White Man's Burden Rudyard Kipling 1899 Take up the White Man's burden-- Send forth the best ye breed-- Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives' need; To wait in heavy harness, On fluttered folk and wild-- Your new-caught, sullen peoples, Half-devil and half-child. Take up the White Man's burden-- In patience to abide, To veil the threat of terror And check the show of pride; By open speech and simple, An hundred times made plain To seek another's profit, And work another's gain. Take up the White Man's burden-- The savage wars of peace-- Fill full the mouth of Famine And bid the sickness cease; And when your goal is nearest The end for others sought, Watch sloth and heathen Folly Bring all your hopes to nought. Take up the White Man's burden-- No tawdry rule of kings, But toil of serf and sweeper-- The tale of common things. The ports ye shall not enter, The roads ye shall not tread, Go mark them with your living, And mark them with your dead. Take up the White Man's burden-- And reap his old reward: The blame of those ye better, The hate of those ye guard-- The cry of hosts ye humour (Ah, slowly!) toward the light:-- "Why brought he us from bondage, Our loved Egyptian night?" Take up the White Man's burden-- Ye dare not stoop to less-- Nor call too loud on Freedom To cloke your weariness; By all ye cry or whisper, By all ye leave or do, The silent, sullen peoples Shall weigh your gods and you. Take up the White Man's burden-- Have done with childish days-- The lightly proferred laurel, The easy, ungrudged praise. Comes now, to search your manhood Through all the thankless years Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom, The judgment of your peers! From the Kipling Society https://www.kiplingsociety.co.uk/poem/poems_burden.htm Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Thomas Robert Malthus: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Thomas_Robert_Malthus_Wellcome_L0069037_-crop.jpg Boundless World History White Man's Burden: https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/kipling.asp	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:55.868970	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87928/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87933/overview	Social Consequences of Industrial Revolution in Europe Overview Overview of the Social Consequences of the Industrial Revolution The social consequences of the Industrial Revolution grew out of a myriad of technological and organizational changes. These social consequences involved various waves of migration and demographic dislocations, changes in class structures, new forms of interaction among members of different classes, and the emergence of a new set of consumer cultures fed by the mass production of the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution generated a number of new economic, political, and social developments and trends that dramatically changed the industrialized world beginning in the mid-nineteenth century. These new developments and trends manifested themselves in various social consequences, including new issues discussed and debated, urbanization, the working classes, poverty, and the cult of domesticity. And these consequences helped affect the world in which we live today. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. - Compare the new political and labor organizations with governmental responses to worker unrest. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. Key Terms / Key Concepts The Condition of the Working Class in England: 1844 sociological study of industrializing and urbanizing England from the perspectives of the industrial working class Friedrich Engels: sociologist and author of The Condition of the Working Class in England factory system: a method of manufacturing that employs machinery and division of labor, which was first adopted in Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (late 18th century) and later spread around the world, reducing the required skill level of workers and increasing output per worker One of the best-known accounts of factory workers’ living conditions during the Industrial Revolution is Friedrich Engels’s The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844. In it, Engels described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These shanty towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. The population density was extremely high. Eight to ten unrelated mill workers often shared a room with no furniture and slept on a pile of straw or sawdust. Disease spread through a contaminated water supply. By the late 1880s, Engels noted that the extreme poverty and lack of sanitation he wrote about in 1844 had largely disappeared. Since then, the historical debate on the question of the living conditions of factory workers has been very controversial. While some have pointed out that living conditions of the poor workers were tragic everywhere and industrialization, in fact, slowly improved the living standards of a steadily increasing number of workers, others have concluded that living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries and that in many ways workers’ living standards declined under early capitalism. Industrialization and Urbanization Industrialization and emergence of the factory system triggered rural-to-urban migration and thus led to a rapid growth of cities, where during the Industrial Revolution workers faced the challenge of dire conditions and developed new ways of living. Although initially inefficient, the arrival of steam power signified the beginning of the mechanization that would enhance the burgeoning textile industries in Manchester into the world’s first center of mass production. As textile manufacture switched from the home to factories, Manchester and towns in south and east Lancashire became the largest and most productive cotton spinning center in the world in 1871, with 32% of global cotton production. Industrialization led to the creation of the factory and the factory system contributed to the growth of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than in Manchester, the world’s first industrial city, nicknamed Cottonopolis because of its mills and associated industries that made it the global center of the textile industry. Manchester experienced a six-fold increase in its population between 1771 and 1831; it had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million. Bradford grew by 50% every ten years between 1811 and 1851, and by 1851 only 50% of the population of Bradford was actually born there. In England and Wales, the proportion of the population living in cities jumped from 17% in 1801 to 72% in 1891. Poverty and the Working Classes in the Aftermath of the Industrial Revolution Industrialization changed living and working standards dramatically, reducing many to poverty. People in the working classes had new opportunities for employment and faced new challenges. A new culture of consumption grew out of the mass production of a growing number of inexpensive consumer goods. Members of the working classes enjoyed only limited access to these goods, along with only crowded, substandard, even unhealthy, housing in the growing industrial cities of England, Europe, and the United States. Such conditions effectively consigned many in the industrial working classes to an effective state of poverty. These conditions and the responses of people in these working classes to these conditions changed the economic, political, and social landscapes of the industrializing world. Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts that regulated things like sewage, hygiene, and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. Working-Class Women Over time, more men than women would find industrial employment, and industrial wages provided a higher level of material security than agricultural employment. Consequently, women, who were traditionally involved in all agricultural labor, would be left behind in less-profitable agriculture. By the late 1860s, very low wages in agricultural work turned women to industrial employment. In industrialized areas, women could find employment on assembly lines, providing industrial laundry services, and in the textile mills that sprang up during the Industrial Revolution, in such cities as Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham. Spinning and winding wool, silk, and other types of piecework were a common way of earning income by working from home, but wages were very low and hours long. Often 14 hours per day were needed to earn enough to survive. Needlework was the single highest-paid occupation for women working from home, but the work paid little and women often had to rent sewing machines that they could not afford to buy. These home manufacturing industries became known as “sweated industries” (think of today’s sweat shops). The Select Committee of the British House of Commons defined sweated industries in 1890 as “work carried on for inadequate wages and for excessive hours in unsanitary conditions.” By 1906, such workers earned about a penny an hour. Women were never paid the same wage as a man for the same work, despite the fact that they were as likely as men to be married and supporting children. Organizational Changes and Developments generated by the Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution gave rise to a wide range of organizational changes and developments. These changes and developments were part of the larger rationalization of industrializing societies. Such changes and developments include new manufacturing structures, new ways of organizing workers, and new organizations representing the new groups which emerged with the Industrial Revolution. These organizational changes and developments were part of industrial societies becoming more systematic, more compartmentalized, and more professionalized. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. Key Terms / Key Concepts factory system: a method of manufacturing that employs machinery and division of labor, which was first adopted in Britain at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (late 18th century) and later spread around the world, reducing the required skill level of workers and increasing output per worker Luddites: organized, English textile workers who often protested labor conditions by destroying machinery The Factory System The factory system, fueled by technological progress, made production much faster, cheaper, and more uniform, but it also disconnected the workers from the means of production and placed them under the control of powerful industrialists. Consequently, their roles in manufacturing and their status in their countries changed. They went from being artisans to wage workers who mind machines, to members of a new industrial working class. Between 1820 and 1850, mechanized factories supplanted traditional artisan shops as the predominant form of manufacturing institution, because the larger-scale factories enjoyed a significant technological advantage over the small artisan shops. The earliest factories under this system developed in the cotton and wool textiles industry. Later generations of factories included mechanized shoe production and manufacturing of machinery, including machine tools. Factories that supplied the railroad industry included rolling mills, foundries, and locomotive works. Agricultural-equipment factories produced cast-steel plows and reapers. Bicycles were mass-produced beginning in the 1880s. The factory system was a new way of organizing labor made necessary by the development of machines, which were too large to house in a worker’s cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer: from dawn to dusk, six days per week. Factories also essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities. At the farm or in the cottage industry, each family member and worker was indispensable to a given operation and workers had to possess knowledge and often advanced skills that resulted from years of learning through practice. Conversely, under the factory system, workers were easily replaceable as skills required to operate machines could be acquired very quickly. Factory workers typically lived within walking distance to work until the introduction of bicycles and electric street railways in the 1890s. Thus, the factory system was largely responsible for the rise of urban living, as large numbers of workers migrated into the towns in search of employment in the factories. Many mills had to provide dormitories for workers, especially for girls and women. Opposition to the Industrialization of Manufacturing Much manufacturing in the 18th century had been carried out in homes under the domestic or putting-out system, especially the weaving of cloth and spinning of thread and yarn, which was often done with just a single loom or spinning wheel. As these devices were mechanized, machine-made goods were able to underprice the cottagers, leaving them unable to earn enough to make their efforts worthwhile. The transition to industrialization was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English textile workers known as Luddites protested against industrialization and sometimes sabotaged factories. They continued an already established tradition of workers opposing labor-saving machinery. Numerous inventors in the textile industry suffered harassment when developing their machines or devices. However, in many industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Machine-breaking was criminalized by the Parliament of the United Kingdom as early as 1721. Parliament subsequently made “machine breaking” (i.e. industrial sabotage) a capital crime with the Frame Breaking Act of 1812 and the Malicious Damage Act of 1861. Lord Byron—the famous British Romantic poet—opposed this legislation, becoming one of the few prominent defenders of the Luddites. Debate arose concerning the morality of the factory system, as workers complained about unfair working conditions. One of the problems concerned women’s labor; women were always paid less than men and, in many cases, as little as a quarter of what men made. Child labor was also a major part of the system; in the early 19th century, education was not compulsory and, in working families, children’s wages were seen as a necessary contribution to the family budget. Additionally, there were major concerns about the number of hours employees were forced to work, as well as the dangerous or unhealthy conditions of factories themselves. Some of the unfair working conditions seemed to be addressed with inherent changes in society and the development of technology. For instance, automation in the late 19th century is credited with ending child labor and according to many historians, it was more effective than gradually changing child labor laws. Additionally, years of schooling began to increase sharply from the end of the 19th century, when elementary state-provided education for all became a viable concept (with the Prussian and Austrian empires as pioneers of obligatory education laws), which led to the assumption that children should be in school (although not for as many years as is currently required). Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement. Early Reform Efforts A number of new problems grew out of industrialization, including exploitive and abusive child labor practices, unsafe working conditions, overcrowding, among other unsanitary living conditions, and the centralization of economic and political power in new elites. These problems quickly spawned reforms to correct them. These early reforms marked the beginning of a new age of industrial and urban reform. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. Key Terms / Key Concepts factory acts - reform legislation enacted by the British Parliament during the nineteenth century toward the end of improving working conditions in new industrial factors Charles Dickens - English author who chronicled the impact of industrialization on England during the first half of the nineteenth century During the nineteenth century various European legislatures, U.S. state legislatures, and the Japanese legislature enacted a number or reform laws to improve working conditions in the new manufacturing factories. The British Parliament passed a series of factory acts as part of these efforts. The first legislation in response to the abuses experienced by child laborers did not even attempt to ban child labor but merely to improve working conditions for some child workers. The Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802, sometimes known as the Factory Act 1802, was designed to improve conditions for apprentices working in cotton mills. The Act was introduced by Sir Robert Peel, who became concerned after a 1784 outbreak of a “malignant fever” at one of his cotton mills, which he later blamed on “gross mismanagement” by his subordinates. The Act required that cotton mills and factories be properly ventilated and basic requirements on cleanliness be met. Apprentices in these premises were to be given a basic education and attend a religious service at least once a month. They were to be provided with clothing and their working hours were limited to no more than twelve hours a day (excluding meal breaks). They were not to work at night. Despite its modest provisions, the 1802 Act was not effectively enforced and did not address the working conditions of free children, who were not apprentices and who rapidly came to heavily outnumber the apprentices in mills. Regulating the way masters treated their apprentices was a recognized responsibility of Parliament and hence the Act itself was non-contentious, but coming between employer and employee to specify on what terms a person might sell their labor (or that of their children) was highly contentious. Hence it was not until 1819 that an Act to limit the hours of work (and set a minimum age) for free children working in cotton mills was piloted through Parliament by Peel and his son Robert (the future Prime Minister). Strictly speaking, Peel’s Cotton Mills and Factories Act of 1819 paved the way for subsequent Factory Acts and set up effective means of industry regulation. These 1802 and 1819 Acts were largely ineffective. For instance, in 1824 Charles Dickens, British author of Oliver Twist, was a child-laborer, forced to work in a blacking factory at the age of twelve in order to help pay off his father’s growing debts; as many note, his bad experiences as a child-laborer colored his future compositions. After radical agitation by child labor opponents, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11 – 18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9 – 11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act, however, only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. In 1841, about 216,000 people were employed in the mines. Women and children worked underground for 11 or 12 hours a day for smaller wages than men. The public became aware of conditions in the country’s collieries in 1838 after an accident at Huskar Colliery in Silkstone, near Barnsley. A stream overflowed into the ventilation drift after violent thunderstorms causing the death of 26 children, 11 girls ages 8 to 16 and 15 boys between 9 and 12 years of age. The disaster came to the attention of Queen Victoria, who ordered an inquiry. Lord Ashley headed the royal commission of inquiry that investigated the conditions of workers, especially children, in the coal mines in 1840. Commissioners visited collieries and mining communities gathering information, sometimes against the mine owners’ wishes. The report, illustrated by engraved illustrations and the personal accounts of mine workers, was published in 1842. Victorian society was shocked to discover that children as young as five or six worked as trappers, opening and shutting ventilation doors down the mine before becoming hurriers, pushing and pulling coal tubs and corfs. As a result, the Mines and Collieries Act 1842, commonly known as the Mines Act of 1842, was passed. It prohibited all girls and boys under ten years old from working underground in coal mines. The Factories Act 1844 banned women and young adults from working more than 12-hour days and children from the ages 9 to 13 from working 9-hour days. The Factories Act 1847, also known as the Ten Hours Act, made it illegal for women and young people (13 – 18) to work more than 10 hours and a maximum 63 hours a week in textile mills. The last two major factory acts of the Industrial Revolution were introduced in 1850 and 1856. Factories could no longer dictate work hours for women and children, who were to work from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. in the summer and 7 a.m. to 7 p.m. in the winter. These acts deprived the manufacturers of a significant amount of power and authority, which was deemed a necessity so as to ensure more ethical working conditions. They also constituted the beginning of a new period of reform. Changes in Family Structure In the laboring class at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries, women traditionally married men of the same social status (e.g., a shoemaker’s daughter would marry a shoemaker’s son). Marriage outside this norm was not common. During the Industrial Revolution, marriage shifted from this tradition to a more sociable union between wife and husband in the laboring class. Women and men tended to marry someone from the same job, geographical location, or social group. Miners remained an exception to this trend and a coal miner’s daughter still tended to marry a coal miner’s son. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. The rural pre-industrial work sphere was usually shaped by the father, who controlled the pace of work for his family. However, factories and mills undermined the old patriarchal authority to a certain extent. Factories put husbands, wives, and children under the same conditions and authority of the manufacturer masters. In the latter half of the Industrial Revolution, women could find employment on assembly lines, providing industrial laundry services, and in the textile mills that sprang up during the Industrial Revolution in such cities as Manchester, Leeds, and Birmingham. Spinning and winding wool, silk, and other types of piecework were a common way of earning income by working from home, but wages were very low and hours long. Often 14 hours per day were needed to earn enough to survive. Needlework was the single highest-paid occupation for women working from home, but the work paid little and women often had to rent sewing machines that they could not afford to buy. These home manufacturing industries became known as “sweated industries” (think of today’s sweat shops). The Select Committee of the House of Commons defined sweated industries in 1890 as “work carried on for inadequate wages and for excessive hours in unsanitary conditions.” By 1906, such workers earned about a penny an hour. Women were never paid the same wage as a man for the same work, despite the fact that they were as likely as men to be married and supporting children. Industrialization and Labor Organization The concentration of workers in factories, mines, and mills inspired the development of labor unions during the Industrial Revolution. After the initial decades of political hostility towards organized labor, skilled male workers emerged as the early beneficiaries of the labor movement. The rapid expansion of industrial society during the Industrial Revolution drew women, children, rural workers, and immigrants into the industrial work force in large numbers and in new roles. This pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labor spontaneously organized in fits and starts throughout the early phases of industrialization and would later provide an important arena for the development of trade unions. Trade unions have sometimes been seen as successors to the guilds of medieval Europe, although the relationship between the two is disputed as the masters of the guilds employed workers (apprentices and journeymen) who were not allowed to organize. The concentration of labor in mills, factories, and mines facilitated the organization of workers to help advance the interests of working people. A union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labor and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. Trade unions and collective bargaining were outlawed from no later than the middle of the 14th century when the Ordinance of Laborers was enacted in the Kingdom of England. As collective bargaining and early worker unions grew with the onset of the Industrial Revolution, the government began to clamp down on what it saw as the danger of popular unrest at the time of the Napoleonic Wars. In 1799, the Combination Act was passed, which banned trade unions and collective bargaining by British workers. Although the unions were subject to often severe repression until 1824, they were already widespread in some cities. Workplace militancy manifested itself in many different ways. For example, Luddites were a group of English textile workers and self-employed weavers who in the 19th century destroyed weaving machinery as a form of protest. The group was protesting the use of machinery to get around standard labor practices, fearing that the years they had spent learning the craft would go to waste and unskilled machine operators would rob them of their livelihoods. One of the first mass work strikes emerged in 1820 in Scotland, an event known today as the Radical War. 60,000 workers went on a general strike. Their demands went far beyond labor regulations and included a general call for reforms. The strike was quickly crushed by soldiers and police. Early Trade Unions By the 1810s, the first labor organizations to bring together workers of divergent occupations were formed. Possibly the first such union was the General Union of Trades, also known as the Philanthropic Society, founded in 1818 in Manchester. The latter name was to hide the organization’s real purpose in a time when trade unions were still illegal. Under the pressure of both workers and the middle- and upper-class activists sympathetic of the workers’ repeal, the law banning unions was repealed in 1824. However, the Combinations of Workmen Act 1825 severely restricted their activity. It prohibited trade unions from attempting to collectively bargain for better terms and conditions at work and suppressed the right to strike. That did not stop the fledgling labor movements and unions began forming rapidly. The first attempts at setting up a national general union were made in the 1820s and 1830s. The National Association for the Protection of Labor was established in 1830 by John Doherty, after an apparently unsuccessful attempt to create a similar national presence with the National Union of Cotton Spinners. The Association quickly enrolled approximately 150 unions, consisting mostly of textile workers, but also including mechanics, blacksmiths, and various others. Membership rose to between 10,000 and 20,000 individuals spread across the five counties of Lancashire, Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottinghamshire, and Leicestershire within a year. To establish awareness and legitimacy, the union started the weekly Voice of the People publication, with the declared intention “to unite the productive classes of the community in one common bond of union.” In England, the members of the Friendly Society of Agricultural laborers became popular heroes, and 800,000 signatures were collected for their release. Their supporters organized a political march, one of the first successful marches in the UK, and all were pardoned on condition of good conduct in 1836. In 1834, Welsh socialist Robert Owen established the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union. The organization attracted a range of socialists from Owenites to revolutionaries and played a part in the protests after the Tolpuddle Martyrs’ case. In 1833, six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Laborers to protest against the gradual lowering of agricultural wages. The Tolpuddle laborers refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week; by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings and would be further reduced to six. In 1834, James Frampton, a local landowner and magistrate, wrote to Home Secretary Lord Melbourne to complain about the union. As a result of obscure law that prohibited the swearing of secret oaths, six men were arrested, tried, found guilty, and transported to Australia—which treated as a penal colony. Owen’s union collapsed shortly afterwards. Early Political Developments Industrialization also contributed to political democratization in the industrializing West. This political democratization had begun in the West with the Enlightenment, with roots going back to the Scientific Revolution and the Protestant Reformation. Britain led the way with a succession of reforms which incrementally increased the number of men during the nineteenth century and women in the early twentieth century. Other industrial Western nations closely followed the British examples. Notably and remarkably the dominant European American political and economic elites in the United States denied the vote, among other rights of citizenship to African Americans to the late nineteenth century. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. - Compare the new political and labor organizations with governmental responses to worker unrest. Key Terms / Key Concepts Chartism - organized movement led by English workers who advocated for improved labor conditions during the Industrial Revolution First, Second, and Third Reform Acts - a succession of British parliamentary electoral reforms during the nineteenth century that incrementally increased the number of men in England who were allowed to vote Cult of Domesticity - term for nineteenth-century system of gender subordination imposed on women, mostly in the middle and upper classes, in industrializing nations Chartism In the later 1830s and 1840s, trade unionism was overshadowed by political activity. Of particular importance was Chartism—a working-class movement for political reform in Britain that existed from 1838 to 1858. It took its name from the People’s Charter of 1838 and was a national protest movement, with particular strongholds of support in Northern England, the East Midlands, the Staffordshire Potteries, the Black Country, and the South Wales Valleys. Support for the movement was at its highest in 1839, 1842, and 1848, when petitions signed by millions of working people were presented to Parliament. The strategy used the scale of support demonstrated these petitions and the accompanying mass meetings to put pressure on politicians to concede manhood suffrage. Chartism thus relied on constitutional methods to secure its aims, although there were some who became involved in radical activities, notably in south Wales and Yorkshire. The government did not yield to any of the demands and suffrage had to wait another two decades. Chartism was popular among some trade unions, especially London’s tailors, shoemakers, carpenters, and masons. One reason was the fear of the influx of unskilled labor, especially in tailoring and shoe making. In Manchester and Glasgow, engineers were deeply involved in Chartist activities. Many trade unions were active in the general strike of 1842, which spread to 15 counties in England and Wales and eight in Scotland. Chartism taught techniques and political skills that inspired trade union leadership. Chartists saw themselves fighting against political corruption and for democracy in an industrial society, but they attracted support beyond the radical political groups for economic reasons, such as opposing wage cuts and unemployment. The First, Second, and Third Reform Acts The British Parliament led the way in industrial political democratization with three acts which progressively the number of men who could vote in British elections. The first act, passed in 1832, extended the vote to men in the middle classes and redistributed parliamentary seats on the basis of population changes that had occurred with industrial urbanization. The second act, passed in 1867, granted the vote to men in the urban working classes. These acts also gave rise to modern political parties in Britain which actively sought the support of voters by tayloring their policies and priorities to these voters. The third act, passed in 1884, extended the vote to men in the rural working classes. Other Western industrial nations similarly proceeded with political democratization. The United States, as a notable exception, denied the vote to African Americans in the U.S. until the late twentieth century, through statute and violence. The 1861-5 Confederate Rebellion in the southern states of the U.S. from Texas through Virginia sought to construct a new nation on the foundation of the chattel enslavement of African Americans. Connection to Women’s Rights Movements Women's rights advocates of the late 18th and early 19th centuries—such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, and Harriet Martineau in Britain—were widely accused of disrupting the natural order of things and condemned as unfeminine. “They are only semi-women, mental hermaphrodites,” wrote Henry F. Harrington in the Ladies' Companion. However, after the Jacksonian era (1812 to 1850) saw the expansion of voting rights to virtually all white males in the United States, many women believed it was their opportunity for increased civil liberties. Early feminist opposition to many of the values promoted by the Cult of Domesticity (especially concerning women's suffrage, political activism, and legal independence) culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. This convention was the first national effort in the U.S. and one of the early national efforts in the West to contest the discrimination that underlay the Cult of Domesticity. The slow progress that women have had to endure in their efforts to end gender discrimination and repudiate the Cult of Domesticity since the Industrial Revolution illustrate the resilience of both. Attributions The 1851 image of the Crystal Palace in London is a lithograph produced by J. McNeven. Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - 1851 Crystal Palace interior print Attribution: J. McNeven, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Crystal_Palace_-_interior.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Factory system. Provided by: Wikipedia. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview	Political Challenges Overview Political Changes Liberalism and Nationalism continued to impact European culture and society in the late 19th century. As a result of the French Revolution and the subsequent revolutions of the first half of the 19th century, most European states enjoyed a Liberal form of government (Liberalism - written constitution, elected representative government, equal rights for all citizens under the law, and personal, individual freedoms such as freedom of religion and speech). Across Western and Central Europe, the right to vote was extended to include all adult males (universal male suffrage). New political parties arose in these areas to woo these voters and win seats in the elected legislatures. Elected political leaders claimed to be advancing the national interests of the voters. Rising national rivalries set the stage for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Learning Objectives - Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. - Identify the political changes in Europe in the late 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Eugenics: a set of beliefs and practices that seeks to “improve the quality of the human race,” historically by excluding people and groups identified as inferior and promoting those designated to be superior Victorian Era: in British history, the era between 1820 and 1914, which corresponds to the period of Queen Victoria’s reign (1837 – 1901) Progressive Era: a period in United States History between approximately 1890 – 1918 when reformers aimed to address social, economic, and political problems impacting American society Trusts: the term “trusts” in a historical sense refer to monopolies or near-monopolies in the United States in the 19th century and early 20th century. A monopoly is a business with little or no competition in the sale of certain goods or services Anarchists: followers of a political philosophy that rejects authority and social classes; seeks the destruction of government, which it considers harmful Europe in the Late 19th Century Many Europeans in the late 19th century were brimming with hope and optimism regarding the supposed bright and wonderful future of the human race. However, from the perspective of the early 21st century, historians can see that Europe was heading for a catastrophic Great War (1914 – 1918) that would cast a long shadow and result in continual wars and conflicts around the world for the next century. The causes of this Great War are many, and no one nation started this war, even though many Europeans came to blame Germany. The outbreak of this war came at the end of a long process that began with rapid economic growth worldwide. This economic expansion, however, resulted in destructive social and ethnic tensions that threatened to tear European states apart. To counter these dividing forces, the peoples of Europe embraced nationalism as a means to maintain social order and unity. This same nationalism that promoted internal unity within each nation, also stirred up intense rivalries between different nations. To advance their national interests against rival nations, national leaders embraced militarism—the idea that nations could maintain national security and advance their national interests through their military and with quick, decisive wars. The Great European powers also sought to achieve national security through imperialism—the conquest and annexation of overseas territory, primarily in Africa and Asia. By the early 20th century, the European powers had formed competing military alliances against one another due to their national and imperialist rivalries. After Europe had become divided into rival military alliances— the Triple Entente (United Kingdom, France, Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austro-Hungary), a series of international crises in the beginning of the 20th century led to the outbreak of war in 1914. Social Tensions In this period leading to this conflict, the different social classes across Europe looked upon each other with increasing suspicion and distrust due to their different economic experiences. In Europe the elite aristocracy still enjoyed great wealth and high status due to their large, landed estates. In rural areas especially, the local peasants continued to show these aristocrats customary deference and respect. The aristocracy, however, was quite alarmed by the ever-increasing wealth and influence of the middle class, who were steadily improving their socio-economic status, because Liberalism and the Market Revolution had enabled the middle class to challenge the aristocracy for the leadership of European society. To maintain their social and political influence, aristocrats often pursued a military career due to the traditional association of the aristocracy with medieval knighthood. The officer corps of European countries, and Germany in particular, was dominated by aristocrats. Some aristocrats boosted their incomes by marrying wealthy heiresses from middle class families. For example, the mother of the aristocratic, British statesman, Winston Churchill (1874 – 1965), was Jennie Jerome, the daughter of a wealthy American, Leonard Jerome, who was the so-called "King of Wall Street." The middle class was especially confident, even arrogant, in this era, viewing both the aristocracy and the working class with disdain and contempt for their alleged laziness and immorality. The middle class included not only the owners of businesses, but also the rising number of professionals, such as accountants and engineers that were employed by large companies. Members of the middle class tended to attribute their financial success to their own hard work and abilities, as well as personal piety. Members of this class, whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, at least publicly, closely followed the moral teachings of Christianity. Young men and women, for example, were expected to remain chaste until marriage, and any divorce was scandalous. Middle class men also were proud that their wives didn't need to work outside the home, unlike working class women, and could devote their time to raising and educating their children. But everyone was expected to be productive with their time, which may be owing to the “The Protestant Work-ethic,” with which came the idea that “idle hands are the Devil’s workshop.” In this period, not all members of the middle class embraced the Christian faith, but instead some found inspiration in ideas that emerged from the Enlightenment. The French philosopher, Auguste Compte (1798 – 1857) had put forth the philosophical notion of Positivism. According to Compte, scientists could not only employ the scientific method to research the natural world but also to examine social problems, such as poverty and crime. Compte was confident that humanity could end all of societies' ills through the advancement of science and reason. Another influential thinker was the English philosopher, Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1832) with his philosophy of Utilitarianism. According to Bentham, society was morally obligated to promote material happiness to the most people in society. Bentham's ideas inspired prison reform in the United Kingdom in the 19th century. Bentham maintained that prisoners should not simply be punished in prison, but reformed, so that they could return to society and contribute their talents for the common good. Another influential thinker in this period was the English social scientist Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903). Spencer took inspiration from the scientific research of the English scientist, Charles Darwin (1809 – 1882). In his monumental work, The Origin of Species (1859), Darwin maintained that complex species of living beings evolve over time from more simple species through the process of natural selection. Spencer maintained that advanced human societies, likewise, evolve over time from primitive societies. According to Spencer's Social Darwinism, the most talented and "fit" members of society have pushed forward social evolution. Some followers of Spencer's ideas even embraced eugenics and maintained that the poor and criminal members of society were "unfit" and should be prevented from having children because they were holding back social evolution. Middle class women often played a critical role in these reform efforts. Educated middle class women couldn't enter politics or work outside the home as a professional, but these women could perform charitable work for churches and reform organizations. In Great Britain in the Victorian Era, women were supposedly more compassionate and nurturing than men due to their role as mothers, so they were best suited to help the poor and suffering in society. In England, for example, Florence Nightingale (1820 – 1910), inspired by her Christian faith, worked tirelessly to improve public hospitals for the poor and to train women to become nurses. In the United States, Florence Kelley (1859 –1932), inspired by her commitment to Socialism, organized the Consumers League, which lobbied the state and federal governments to end child labor and establish an 8-hour day and minimum wage. The Rise of the Working Class The size of the working class continued to swell during this period, as millions of people left rural areas to find work in cities and towns for wages in mines, factories, and other businesses. Working class families faced many challenges. Many of these workers came directly from rural villages, where they worked closely and informally as agricultural laborers with friends and family. In their new jobs in the cities, however, workers labored for long hours (often 10 to 12 hours a day) under the constant supervision of an overseer in a very regimented environment. Workers also lived in fear that they could see their wages reduced or their jobs eliminated because of an economic downturn or even getting ill for a short period. They often resented that their affluent, middle-class employers paid them too little for their labor and treated them inhumanely. In this period, workers sought to increase their wages and improve their working conditions by joining labor unions. Unions negotiated with employers on behalf of union members for higher wages and set hours. Unions pressured employers to agree to their demands by going on strike and organizing boycotts against employers, which sometimes led to violence. In 1894, for example, in the United States, the American Railway Union organized a massive strike of railroad workers in the Chicago area to protest wage cuts by the Pullman Company, which manufactured railway cars. When the railroad companies hired new workers ("scabs") to replace the striking workers, violence erupted between the strikers and the "scabs." The Politics of the Working Class The working class also hoped to improve their standard of living though political action. By the late nineteenth century, workers in western and central Europe could vote due to Liberal reform and universal male suffrage. Across Europe, labor unions organized new political parties to represent the interests of the working class. In Germany labor unions founded the Social Democratic Party in 1875, which quickly became the largest political party in Germany. In 1893 union workers in the United Kingdom established the Labour Party, which replaced the Liberal (Whig) Party as the main opposition to the Conservative (Tory) Party after World War I. In France (1880), Italy (1882), and Belgium (1885) the working-class political party was simply known as the Workers Party. In Russia, workers in 1898 organized the Social Democratic Labor Party, even though they could not vote, and Russia didn't even have a Liberal constitution. All these parties embraced Socialism as their ideology. According to this system of thought, the Capitalist Bourgeoisie (middle class) oppressed and exploited the working class to amass their private fortunes. Socialists envisioned a day when the "means of production" (i.e., land, tools, machinery) would be publicly owned rather than the private property of these capitalists. In the United States, the Populist Party arose in 1890 to challenge the political domination of the two main political parties—the Democratic and Republican Parties. The Populists claimed to represent the interests of the majority of Americans who were small, landowning farmers, tenant farmers, and labor union members. The Populists were not Socialists, but they wanted the government to rein in "Big Business" and the "Trusts" through government regulation of large corporations, such as railroads, and higher taxes on wealthy Americans. After 1896 when the Democratic Party merged with the Populist Party, a Socialist Party did arise in 1901 in the United States and even won elections at the state and local level in the first two decades of the 20th century. In the late 19th century Socialists were deeply divided regarding the best tactics to achieve their objectives. In England, the Fabian Socialists maintained that a Socialist society would eventually evolve peacefully in England over time through the democratic process. In Germany, the philosopher and statesman Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) maintained that the working class could improve its social and economic standing over time through government reform, even if that government was the government of the Prussian, Hohenzollern monarchy. The German Social Democratic Party, inspired by the ideas of Lasalle, worked with Chancellor Bismarck in the German Reichstag (Parliament) in 1884 to create accident insurance for German workers. This new law required German employers for the first time to be responsible for the healthcare costs of their employees who were injured on the job. Likewise, in 1897 in the United Kingdom, the Socialist Labour Party urged Parliament to create "workman's compensation" law, which required employers to pay for the medical treatment of injured employees. Not all Socialists, however, embraced the peaceful, democratic tactics of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Party. Karl Marx, the author of the Communist Manifesto in 1848, maintained that Socialism would only succeed through social revolution by the working class (the Proletariat). In the late 19th century, radical Anarchists asserted that only violent revolution would overthrow bourgeois capitalists. Anarchists targeted prominent statesmen and government officials for assassination. Anarchists hoped that such violent acts would lead to further repression by capitalist governments, which would ultimately lead to a widespread proletariat revolution. Anarchists in this era successfully assassinated Czar Alexander II of Russia in 1881, the Empress Elizabeth of Austria in 1898, the President Sadi Carnot of France in 1894, and President William McKinley of the United States in 1901. In 1886 a bomb killed policemen during a labor union rally in Haymarket Square in Chicago, Illinois; the following year leading anarchists in the area suspected of this crime were executed by hanging. Fear of anarchist violence and the threat of social revolution prompted leading "Progressives" in the US in the Progressive Era, such as President Theodore Roosevelt (1901 – 1908), to push for legislation to rein in "Big Business" as the "Trust Buster" and improve the lot of the working class, in order to siphon off popular support for such a revolution. Ethnic Tensions As class tensions surged in this period, European states were also in turmoil due to internal cultural and ethnic rivalries and conflict. In the United Kingdom, Ireland was predominantly Roman Catholic except for Northern Ireland, whereas the rest of the United Kingdom was Protestant; Ireland was also much more rural with less industry than other regions of the country. In Ireland the Fenians—Irish Nationalists—desired an independent Irish Republic. In France the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France spoke their own distinct language and were staunchly Roman Catholic; they were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of Paris, the French capital, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France also were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission later in 1906 exonerated Dreyfus, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation. In France one divisive issue involved public education. Conservative Roman Catholics supported Roman Catholic parochial schools, whereas more Liberal French citizens supported secular public schools. In Spain, ethnic conflict erupted into civil war. In Catalonia around the city of Barcelona especially, the region was more industrialized than the rest of Spain. In 1873, the king of Spain Amadeo I (r. 1870 – 1873) abdicated the throne in the face of popular unrest, and Spain briefly became a republic. This radical republic had strong support among the working class in Catalonia. However, the Basques in rural, northern Spain were staunch Roman Catholics, who spoke their own language. Along with some Catalans, they supported Don Carlos (1848 – 1909), a Conservative member of the former Bourbon Dynasty in Spain, as the true king of Spain in the Carlist War (1872 – 1876). In the face of this civil war, the Spanish army, dominated by Conservative, aristocratic officers from Castile in central Spain, overthrew the short-lived republic in 1874, restored order, and installed Alfonso XII as king, who was the son of the former Spanish queen Isabella II. In Germany the mutual antagonism between Protestants and Roman Catholics became known as the Kulturkampf ("Cultural Struggle"), which fortunately for Germany did not lead to armed conflict. Southern Germany was predominantly Roman Catholic and less industrialized, and consequently less wealthy, than Protestant northern Germany. In Germany, as in France, a very divisive issue was public education. Protestant leaders in northern Germany desired to shut down Roman Catholic parochial schools and force children in these schools to attend secular public schools. Instead of armed resistance, Roman Catholics in Germany in 1870 organized their own political party, the German Centre (Zentrum) Party, to represent their interests in the Reichstag, the German parliament. This party and the German Social Democratic Party were the two largest political parties in Germany in this period. Ethnic tensions were much more intense in eastern Europe. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, ethnic Germans and Hungarians with property could vote after 1867, but Slavic ethnic groups such as Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Poles, Slovenes, and Ruthenians were all denied the right to vote, along with ethnic Romanians, Italians, and Bosnians. The Russian Empire was also a multi-ethnic empire. However, the peoples of Russia, Belarus, and the Ukraine all spoke closely related Slavic languages and shared a common Orthodox faith. The Russian Empire also included large number of Poles, who were Slavs, like the Russians, but Roman Catholic. The Poles were very nationalistic and maintained a memory of their nation's independence prior to the partition of Poland in the late 18th century. The Poles revolted against Russian rule in 1830 and 1863 without success and after a great loss of life. In the late 19th century Poles organized illegal, secret organizations to seek Polish independence from Russia, such as the Polish Socialist Party in 1892 and the National Democratic Party in 1897. Russia also possessed a large Jewish population, whose ancestors had lived in the former Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom. Russia's Jews faced much persecution and repression. Jewish villages in Russia were subject to violent pogroms, which were massacres of Jews by angry mobs. In 1881 the pogroms in the Russian Empire targeting Jews were especially vicious when many orthodox Christians blamed the Jews for the assassination of Czar Alexander II. The persecution of Jews in Russia along with widespread antisemitism across Europe inspired a Jewish movement, Zionism, which sought to create an independent Jewish homeland in Palestine, where ancient Israel once existed. A Jew from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Theodore Herzl (1860 -1904) helped organize the First Zionist Congress in 1897 in Basel, Switzerland. This international Jewish movement would lead eventually to the creation of the modern nation of Israel in 1948. Competing Military Alliances In the face of internal ethnic turmoil and class tensions and strife, fervent nationalism provided European states with a way to find unity and strength. In the late 19th century, European powers each sought to advance their own national interests through building up their armed forces and forming military alliances with other nations against common enemies. In this period Otto Von Bismarck, the German Chancellor played a decisive role in the diplomatic efforts to build such alliances, so much so, that historians have referred to this era as the "Age of Bismarck". Following the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, Bismarck knew that France would seek national revenge against Germany for this humiliating defeat and seek to recover the region of Alsace-Lorraine. Bismarck therefore set out to form military alliances with other European powers to keep France in check and to maintain peace in Europe. Austria-Hungary with its many ethnic groups maintained a strong alliance with Germany aimed against Russia, who claimed to be the champion of all Slavic peoples, some of whom were subject peoples of Austria-Hungary. For all European nations, nationalism and the formation of military alliances was a force for internal unity as political, social, social, and cultural tensions threatened to tear these nations apart. Marxism Reaction to Capitalism In the late 18th century, Adam Smith wrote Captialism, an Enlightenment approach to markets and understanding how to provide the best economy for the future. This approach talked about supply and demand for products as the basis for prices. Smith also discussed the ideas of having the market as independent from control of governments. The goal that Smith had was a change for the better towards a more open economy. The idea of capitalism was revolutionary for the late 18th century, where many businesses started to gravitate towards these ideas and policies. The market transformation would have dramatic effects on the origins of the Industrial Revolution, where businesses incorporated many of the Enlightenment ideas into their systems. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the differences between Capitalism, Socialism, Communism, and Anarchy. - Analyze the impact of these philosophy on the world in the late 19th century. Capitalism in the 19th century The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to Europe in the 19th century. Many of these changes had direct impact on the quality of life for individuals. The rise of industrialization saw massive products manufactured quickly and had a direct impact on the price of goods. This would mean more products made, caused a drop in the price of those products. This would further the problems for individuals, because employers would pay smaller amounts to those workers, making their lives harder. Compounding the issue of working conditions was the movement of people to cities looking for work. The more supply of labor meant that the demand was steady to lessening. This would cause workers lives to be harder because they saw their wages dropping. It is important to remember that there was another perspective that has to be understood in this time, that of the factory owner. The factory owner was interested in making money at this time and not hurting individuals. Business owners were constrained by their money that they earned at the market for goods and their inability to generate high revenue. Workers wages were directly tied to the revenue of the materials that they sold. This meant that as the goods were not able to generate higher profits, the factory owner was not able to pay the worker higher wages. This was a constraint of the market. The system of early Industrial Revolution capitalism was very difficult because of the many constrains on the individuals and the businesses. It is important to note that this is neither right or wrong, but simply the outcomes of market interactions. Yet, these problems of the work place were compounded by other factors, such as individuals moving from the country to the city in search of jobs. This meant that the pool of labor was increasing in supply, but not in demand, meaning that wages for workers went down. People of the time saw these challenges and began to wrote and discussed how these problems affected individuals. Karl Marx In the 19th century there was a German philosopher/sociologist that began writing about the problems of capitalism on the worker. Marx was born in Germany and acquired an education as a lawyer. Marx was a writer and journalist in his early adulthood, working on many works that would explore ideas of justice in his eyes. Marx would explore Hegel’s ideas about relationships and utopian philosophy. In 1844, Marx met and began working with Friedrich Engles, another writer and philosopher/sociologist. Engles had written a work about the working class in England. These two leaders were a part of liberal movements of the time that were interested in challenging the system that was in place. These two philosophers began exploring the problems that the working class saw, specifically the problems of markets and labor relationships with businesses. The question they started to raise was how did capitalism work with the individual? Marx began to think about the relationship of work, business, the individual, and how society should work together. The problem of the worker and how workers had limited rights in the system bothered Marx. In 1867, Marx published the first volume of Das Kapital, or Capital as it is known in English, that explored the ideas that the owner of the means of production is able to control the system. In the work, Marx began to critique capitalism, noting that the lower classes had limited rights in this system. To change this, Marx advocated for unions of workers to band together to stand up to owners. Think about it in a different way, that the individual person can easily be replaced if they say something is wrong, but if everyone stands up that they can challenge this system. This idea was modeled after the guild system that had been in place in Europe since the Middle Ages. The idea was if workers would come together, they could tell factory owners that they were unhappy with this work and push against the repression. That workers together could get better wages. That there was a natural class tension between what Marx called the bourgeoisie (factory owners) and the proletariat (the worker).. These two classes were in constant battle for money and power. Eventually Marx would take these theories further, that the only way to have a true revolution was to remove capitalism by removing private property, that individuals could not own things, and instead a system of sharing as a community would emerge as the next phase of economics. Other writers would take Marx and Engel’s ideas further that would be known as Marxist thought. Marx and Engles worked with other groups that were interested in exploring these ideas and how they could cause a social revolution. While many at the time viewed Marx and Engels as against capitalism, they were noting how many problems there were with capitalism. These ideas would become the basis of new social and cultural movements such as socialism and communism. To understand the impact of Marxist thought in the 19th century, it is important to understand the different forms of Marxism: socialism, communism, and anarchy. These different forms are very important because social movements in the 19th century around the world would use these as a way to try to challenge the 19th century world. Capitalism To understand the differences between Marxist thought, it is important to start with capitalism and understand their relationships between relationship between the worker, businesses, and governments. In pure Adam Smith capitalism, government and businesses were not to work together. This idea is known as Lassie Faire, where government and businesses were to have a hands off approach. This meant things like minimum wage was not something that a government was to worry about. That businesses were free to pay workers what they thought was fair. If the worker did not like this, they could find work somewhere else. That the worker had all the freedom that they could in the system. That any system of workers coming together to advocate for changes, this would be seen as antagonistic to capitalism. Socialism This is the first step towards a Marxist revolutionary overthrow. In classical socialism, the government and businesses are to work together to get the best outcomes for society. For example, providing high quality education by the government would benefit both governments and businesses. The business would have higher skilled laborers, and the government could earn more taxes by providing this service. Or businesses could give to schools and fund road projects. This would mean that businesses offered a solution that both governments and the business would benefit from. The worker, on the other hand, was to be able to join together and collectively ask for changes to both the business and government. This was to ensure that worker’s rights were listened too and give guidance to the government or business policies. The work between businesses and governments was very important for socialism. Communism This was an ideology that took the ideas of socialism and expanded the role of the relationship between businesses, governments, and workers. The idea was that local government by local institutions was the most important to communism. The goal was that all businesses and government was controlled by local unions. The idea was that workers knowing their needs at a local level could come together and provide bigger guidance for governments and businesses. In communism, the power of this society was in the hands of local workers and unions. The control of businesses and governments with unions meant that these institutions bowed to the will of the people. Anarchy In recent years, anarchy has become a very important topic of political conversation in movies and televisions shows. Many view anarchy as the absence of government, which is not necessarily the case in the 19th century. The idea of anarchy in the 19th century was that any government bigger than a local government was too big and was not sustainable to the individual. That a big government took advantage of individuals. An example an anarchist would give of a government that was too big would be the state of Georgia, where in the southern part of the state there would be no need for salt in the winter time for roads because it rarely freezes. The individuals in southern Georgia are being robed by the state when they pay taxes to purchase salt. An anarchist would say that the state of Georgia is too big because it is not able to respond to the needs of the individual. In an anarchist state, that government would be incredibly local, because governments would be responsible at the local level. The goal of anarchy was that individuals had the most power through unions. Consequences of the Reactions to Capitalism The reactions to capitalism had direct consequences in the late 19th century. These ideas began to spread and many began to advocate for changes in the social and political organizations of the Industrial Revolution. There was a rise in unions in the late 19th century, many saw that this was a reaction to capitalism. The rise of unions advocated for many changes, such as having weekends off, breaks in the day, regulations on hours of work per day, and end of child labor. Unions played a large role in the relationships of labor in the late 19th century. In the 21st century, it is difficult to understand the importance of socialism, communism, and anarchy because of the rise of socialist and anarchist states in the 20th century. Yet, the most radical of these philosophies was not socialism or communism, but instead anarchy. Anarchist in the late 19th century were active in destruction of property and assassinations. Nationalism and Militarism In the decades prior to the outbreak of World War I in1914, nationalism reached a fevered pitch, as European nations all aspired to protect and advance their national interests. To achieve this goal, the “Great Powers” of Europe embraced militarism and vastly increased their military might. Learning Objectives - Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. - Examine the origins of nationalism and militarism in Europe. Key Terms / Key Concepts constitutive theory of statehood: a 19th century theory that defines a state as a person in international law if, and only if, it is recognized as sovereign by other states declarative theory of statehood: a theory that defines a state as a person in international law if it meets the following criteria: 1) a defined territory; 2) a permanent population; 3) a government; and 4) a capacity to enter into relations with other states; determines that an entity’s statehood is independent of its recognition by other states conscription: the compulsory enlistment of people in a national service, most often military service jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state”. Introduction to Nation-States The concept of a nation-state is notoriously difficult to define. Anthony Smith, one of the most influential scholars of nation-states and nationalism, argued that a state is a nation-state only if and when a single ethnic and cultural population inhabits the boundaries of a state, and the boundaries of that state are coextensive with the boundaries of that ethnic and cultural population. This is a very narrow definition that presumes the existence of the “one nation, one state” model. Consequently, less than 10% of states in the world meet its criteria. The most obvious deviation from this largely ideal model is the presence of minorities, especially ethnic minorities, which are excluded from the majority nation by ethnic and cultural nationalists. The most illustrative historical examples of groups that have been specifically singled out as outsiders by nationalists are the Roma and Jews in Europe. In legal terms, many nation-states today accept specific minorities as being part of the nation, which generally implies that members of minorities are citizens of a given nation-state and enjoy the same rights and liberties as members of the majority nation. However, nationalists and, consequently, symbolic narratives of the origins and history of nation-states often continue to exclude minorities from the nation-state and the nation. According to a wider working definition, a nation-state is a type of state that conjoins the political entity of a state to the cultural entity of a nation, from which it aims to derive its political legitimacy to rule and potentially its status as a sovereign state, if one accepts the declarative theory of statehood as opposed to the constitutive theory of statehood. A state is specifically a political and geopolitical entity, while a nation is a cultural and ethnic one. The term “nation-state” implies that the two coincide, in that a state has chosen to adopt and endorse a specific cultural group as associated with it. The concept of a nation-state can be compared and contrasted with that of the multinational state, city-state, empire, and confederation, as well as other state formations with which it may overlap. The key distinction is the identification of a people with a polity in the nation-state. Characteristics of Nation-States Nation-states have their own characteristics that today may be taken-for-granted factors shaping a modern state, but that all developed in contrast to pre-national states. Their territory is considered semi-sacred and nontransferable. Nation-states use the state as an instrument of national unity, in economic, social, and cultural life. Nation-states typically have a more centralized and uniform public administration than their imperial predecessors because they are smaller and less diverse. After the 19th-century triumph of the nation-state in Europe, regional identity was usually subordinate to national identity. In many cases, the regional administration was also subordinate to central (national) government. This process has been partially reversed from the 1970s onward, with the introduction of various forms of regional autonomy in formerly centralized states (e.g., France). The most obvious impact of the nation-state, as compared to its non-national predecessors, is the creation of a uniform national culture through state policy. The model of the nation-state implies that its population constitutes a nation, united by a common descent, a common language, and many forms of shared culture. When the implied unity was absent, the nation-state often tried to create it. The creation of national systems of compulsory primary education is usually linked with the popularization of nationalist narratives. Even today, primary and secondary schools around the world often teach a mythologized version of national history. Nationalism Romantic nationalism was an integral part of actual nationalist political movements, which emerged in earnest in the immediate aftermath of the Napoleonic wars. Those movements would ultimately succeed in seeing their goals realized almost without exception, although that process took over a century in some cases (like that of Poland and Ireland). Central to nationalist movements was the concept that the state should correspond to the identity of a “people,” although who or what defines the identity of “the people” proved a vexing issue on many occasions. The discussion of nationalism starts with the French Revolution, because more than any other event, it provided the model for all subsequent nationalisms. The French revolutionaries declared from the outset that they represented the whole "nation," not just a certain part of it. They erased the legal privileges of some (the nobles), made religion subservient to a secular government, and, when threatened by the conservative powers of Europe, called the whole "nation" to arms. The revolutionary armies sang a national anthem. the Marseillaise, whose lyrics are as warlike as the American equivalent. Central to French national identity in the revolutionary period was fighting for la patrie—the fatherland—in place of the old allegiance to king and church. The irony of the French revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, however, was that the countries invaded by the French eventually adopted their own nationalist beliefs. The invaded countries turned the democratic French principle of self-determination into a sacred right to defend their own national identities, shaped by their own particular histories, against the universalist pretensions of the French. This was reflected in the Spanish revolt that began in 1808, the revival of Austria and Prussia and their struggles of "liberation" against Napoleon, Russia's leadership of the anti-Napoleonic coalition that followed, and fierce British pride in their defiance to French military pretensions. As the Napoleonic wars drew to a close for the first time in 1814, the great powers of Europe convened a gathering of monarchs and diplomats known as the Congress of Vienna to deal with the aftermath. That meeting lasted months, thanks in part to Napoleon’s inconvenient return from Elba and last stand at Waterloo, but in 1815 it concluded, having rewarded the victorious kingdoms with territorial gains and restored conservative monarchs to the thrones of states like Spain and France. Nothing could have mattered less to the diplomatic representatives present at the Congress of Vienna than the “national identity” of the people who lived in the territories that were carved up and distributed like pieces of cake to the victors. The Congress of Vienna thus redrew the map of Europe without taking into consideration the ethnic identity of the different regions of Europe. For example, the inhabitants of northeastern Italy were now subjects of the Austrian king, the entirety of Poland was divided between Russia and Prussia, and Great Britain remained secure not only in its growing global empire, but in its possession of the entirety of Ireland. Thus, many of Europe's peoples found themselves without states of their own or in states squeezed between the dominant powers of the time. Among the notable examples are the Italians and the Poles. Italy had suffered from the domination of one great power or another since the Renaissance; after 1815 it was the Austrians who were in control of much of northern Italy. Poland had been partitioned among the Austrians, the Prussians, and the Russians in the eighteenth century, simply vanishing from the map in the process. Germany, of course, was not united; instead, it emerged from the Congress of Vienna as a confederation of dozens of independent states. Prussia and Austria vied with each other for dominance of this German confederation, but both were fundamentally conservative powers uninterested in “German” unification until later in the century. The language of nationalism and the idea of national identity had come into its own by the late Napoleonic period. For example, German nationalism was powerful and popular after the Napoleonic wars; in 1817, just two years after the end of the Congress of Vienna, German nationalists gathered in Wartburg—where Martin Luther had first translated the Bible into German—waving the black, red, and gold tricolor flag that would (over a century later) become the official flag of the German nation. Two years later, a nationalist poet murdered a conservative one, and the Austrian Empire passed laws that severely limited freedom of speech, specifically to contain and restrict the spread of nationalism. Despite this effort, and the Austrian secret police, German nationalism continued to spread, culminating in a large and self-consciously nationalistic movement seeking German unity. The 1830s were a pivotal decade in the spread of nationalism. The Italian nationalist leader Giuseppe Mazzini founded Young Italy in 1831, calling for a “springtime of peoples” in which the people of each “nation” of Europe would topple conservative monarchs and assert their sovereignty and independence. That movement would quickly spread beyond Italy, and "young" became the rallying word and idea of nationalism. In addition to Young Italy, there was a Young Germany and a Young Ireland, among others, accompanied by the idea that all people should and would eventually inhabit nations, and that this new "youthful" manner of politics would lead to peace and prosperity for everyone. The idea was that with the old, outdated borders abandoned, everyone would live where they were supposed to: in nations governed by their own people. Nationalists argued that war itself could be rendered obsolete. After all, if each “people” lived in “their” nation, what would be the purpose of territorial conflict? To the nationalists at the time, the emergence of nations was synonymous with a more perfect future for all. Central to the very concept of nationalism in this early, optimistic phase was the identity of “the people,” a term with powerful political resonance in just about every European language: das Volk, le peuple, il popolo, etc. In every case, "the people" was thought to be something more important than just "those people who happen to live here." Instead, the people were those tied to the soil, with roots reaching back centuries, and who deserve their own government. This was a profoundly romantic idea because it spoke to an essentially emotional sense of national identity: a sense of camaraderie and solidarity with individuals with whom a given person might not actually share much in common. When scrutinized, the “real” identity of a given “people” became more difficult to discern. The growing concept spurred many questions. For example, were the Germans people who speak German, or who lived in Central Europe, or who were Lutheran, or Catholic, or who think that their ancestors were from the same area in which they themselves were born? If united in a German nation, who would lead it - were the Prussians or the Austrians more authentically German? What of those “Germans” who lived in places like Bohemia (i.e. the Czech lands) and Poland, with their own growing senses of national identity? The nationalist movements of the first half of the nineteenth century did not need to concern themselves much with these conundrums because their goals of liberation and unification were not yet achievable. When national revolutions of various kinds did occur, however, these questions proved difficult to answer. Nationalism and the Background to World War I The nature of nationalism had changed significantly over the course of the nineteenth century as well. Not only had conservative elites appropriated nationalism to shore up their own power (as in Italy and Germany), but nationalistic patriotism came to be identified with rivalry and resentment among many citizens of various political persuasions. To be a good Englishman was to resent and fear the growth of Germany. Many Germans came to despise the Russians, in part thanks to the growth of anti-Slavic racism. The lesser powers of Europe, like Italy, resented their own status and wanted to somehow seize enough power to join the ranks of the great powers. Nationalism by 1914 was nothing like the optimistic, utopian movements of the nineteenth century; it was hostile, fearful, and aggressive. Likewise, public opinion mattered in a way it had never mattered earlier for the simple fact that every one of the great powers had at least a limited electorate and parliaments with at least some real power to make law. Even Russia, after a semi-successful revolution in 1905, saw the creation of an elected parliament, the Duma, and an open press. The fact that all of the powers had representative governments mattered, because public opinion helped fan the flames of conflict. Newspapers in this era tended to deliberately inflame jingoistic passions rather than encourage rational calculation. A very recognizably modern kind of connection was made in the press between patriotic loyalty and a willingness to fight, kill, and die for one’s country. Since all of the great powers were now significantly (or somewhat, in the case of Russia) democratic, the opinions of the average citizen mattered in a way they never had before. Journalism whipped up those opinions and passions by stoking hatred, fear, and resentment, which led to a more widespread willingness to go to war. Thanks to the nationalistic rivalry described above, the great powers sought to shore up their security and power through alliances. The single most significant background factor to the war was the rivalry that existed between Europe’s “great powers” by the beginning of the twentieth century. The term “great power” meant something specific in this period of history: the great powers were those able to command large armies, to maintain significant economies and industrial bases, and to conquer and hold global empires. Their respective leaders, and many of their regular citizens, were fundamentally suspicious of one another, and the biggest worry of their political leadership was that one country would come to dominate the others. Long gone was the notion of the balance of power as a guarantor of peace. Now, the balance of power was a fragile thing, with each of the great powers seeking to supplant its rivals in the name of security and prosperity. As a result, there was an ongoing, elaborate diplomatic dance as each power tried to shore up alliances, seize territory around the globe, and outpace the others. While no great power deliberately sought out war, all were willing to risk war in 1914. That was at least in part because no politician had an accurate idea of what a new war would actually be like. The only wars that had occurred in Europe between the great powers since the Napoleonic period were the Crimean War of the 1850s and the wars that resulted in the formation of Italy and Germany in the 1850s, 1860s, and early 1870s. While the Crimean War was quite bloody, it was limited to the Crimean region itself and it did not involve all of the great powers. Likewise, the wars of national unification were relatively short and did not involve a great deal of bloodshed (relative to other wars). Violence in the colonies was almost always directed at the native peoples in those colonies, and there the balance of power was squarely on the side of Europeans. Thus, even European soldiers overseas had no experience of facing foes armed with comparable weapons. In other words, it had been over forty years since the great powers had any experience of a war on European soil, and as they learned all too soon, much had changed with the nature of warfare in the meantime. In the summer of 1914, each of the great powers reached the conclusion that war was inevitable, and that trying to stay out of the immanent conflict would lead to national decline. Germany was surrounded by potential enemies in France and Russia. France had cultivated a desire for revenge against Germany ever since the Franco-Prussian War. Russia feared German power and resented Austria for threatening the interests of Slavs in the Balkans. Great Britain alone had no vested interest in war, but it was unable to stay out of the conflict once it began. In turn, the thing that inflamed jingoism and resentment among the great powers had been imperialism. The British were determined to maintain their enormous empire at any cost, and the Germans now posed a threat to the empire since Germany had lavished attention on a naval arms race since the 1880s. There was constant bickering on the world stage between the great powers over their colonies, especially since those colonies butted up against each other in Africa and Asia. Alliances were firmly in place by 1914, each of which obligated military action if any one power should be attacked. Each great power needed the support of its allies and was thus willing to intercede even if its own interests were not directly threatened. That willingness to go to war for the sake of alliance meant that even a relatively minor event might spark the outbreak of total war. And that is precisely what happened. In 1914, two major sets of alliances set the stage for the war. German politicians, fearing the possibility of a two-front war against France and Russia simultaneously, concluded an alliance with the Austrian Empire in 1879, only a little over a decade after the Prusso-Austrian War. In turn, France and Russia created a strong alliance in 1892 in large part to contain the ambitions of Germany, whose territory lay between them. Great Britain was generally more friendly to France than Germany but had not entered into a formal alliance with any other power. It was, however, the traditional ally and protector of Belgium, which British politicians considered a kind of toehold on the continent. Finally, Russia grew increasingly close to the new nation of Serbia, populated as it was by a Slavic people who were part of the Eastern Orthodox branch of Christianity. The relationships between Great Britain and Russia with Belgium and Serbia, respectively, would not have mattered but for the alliance obligations that tied the great powers together. Those alliances were now poised to mobilize armies of an unprecedented size. All of the great powers now fielded forces of a million men or more due to a reliance or development of militarism. Coordinating that many troops required detailed advanced planning and a permanent staff of high-ranking officers, normally referred to as the "general staff" of a given army. In the past, political leaders had often either led troops themselves or at least had significant influence in planning and tactics. By the early twentieth century, however, war plans and tactics were entirely in the hands of the general staffs, meaning political leaders would be obliged to choose from a limited set of "pre-packaged" options given to them by their generals. When WWI started, the leaders of the great powers were taken by surprise when they received ultimatums from their own generals—from the Kaiser in Germany to the Tsar in Russia. Militarism—the belief or the desire of a government or people for a country to maintain a strong military capability—had led to a power shift in battle plans. And according to the general staffs, it was all or nothing: either commit all forces to a swift and decisive victory or suffer certain defeat. There could be no small incremental build ups or tentative skirmishes; this was about a total commitment to a massive war. An old adage has it that “generals fight the last war,” which means they base their tactics on what worked in previous conflicts, and in the “last war,” which was the Franco-Prussian War, Prussia had won through swift, decisive action and immediate overwhelming force. Militarism and Jingoism The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised all the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles. During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, as a result of assuming a militaristic society. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers. Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves numbered 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. Recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—a matter of months. All the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war; however, no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate, like that actually happened in 1914 – 18. As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war. Despite the expansion of standing armies and military stockpiles in this period, the Great Powers still publicly called for the reduction of armed forces. One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. The Kaiser was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage instead of seeking actual disarmament. This increase in militarism coincided with the rise of jingoism, a term for nationalism in the form of aggressive foreign policy. Jingoism also refers to a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests, as opposed to peaceful relations. Colloquially, it refers to excessive bias in judging one’s own country as superior to others—an extreme type of nationalism. The term originated in reference to the United Kingdom’s pugnacious attitude toward Russia in the 1870s; and it appeared in the American press by 1893. Probably the first uses of the term jingoism appeared in the U.S. press in connection with the proposed annexation of Hawaii in 1893. A coup led by foreign residents, mostly Americans, and assisted by the United States minister in Hawaii, overthrew the Hawaiian constitutional monarchy and declared a Republic. Republican president Benjamin Harrison and Republicans in the Senate were frequently accused of jingoism in the Democratic press for supporting annexation of Hawaii. The term was also used in connection with the foreign policy of Theodore Roosevelt. In an October 1895 New York Times article, Roosevelt stated, “There is much talk about ‘jingoism’. If by ‘jingoism’ they mean a policy in pursuance of which Americans will with resolution and common sense insist upon our rights being respected by foreign powers, then we are ‘jingoes’.” Anglo-German Naval Race British concerns with the emergence of Germany as a rival naval power was a factor in the British decision to enter World War I. Historians have debated the role of the German naval build-up as the principal cause of deteriorating Anglo-German relations. In any case, Germany never came close to catching up with Britain. Supported by Wilhelm II’s enthusiasm for an expanded German navy, Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz championed four Fleet Acts from 1898 to 1912, and from 1902 to 1910, while the Royal Navy embarked on its own massive expansion to keep ahead of the Germans. This competition came to focus on the revolutionary new ships based on the Dreadnought, launched in 1906, which gave Britain a battleship that far outclassed any other in Europe. The overwhelming British response proved to Germany that its efforts were unlikely to equal those of the Royal Navy. In 1900, the British had a 3.7:1 tonnage advantage over Germany; in 1910 the ratio was 2.3:1 and in 1914, 2.1:1. The German Navy had thus narrowed the gap by nearly half. Meanwhile, in early to mid-1914, Germany adopted a policy of building submarines instead of new dreadnoughts and destroyers, effectively abandoning the race. They kept this new policy secret, however, to delay other powers following suit. The Germans thus abandoned the naval race before the war broke out. The extent to which the naval race was one of the chief factors in Britain’s decision to join the Triple Entente remains a key controversy. Historians such as Christopher Clark believe it was not significant, with Margaret Moran taking the opposite view. Attributions Title Image Jules Després, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Section 3 adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/nation-states-and-sovereignty/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-coming-of-war/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.002147	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87934/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview	Age of Bismarck and Competing Alliances Overview Nineteenth-Century European Diplomacy - An Overview The title image for this lesson, an 1884 drawing of the 1884 Berlin Conference that Otto von Bismarck hosted to devise a system for the European colonization of Africa illustrates, among other aspects of late nineteenth-century European diplomacy, the struggle to maintain international order, fears about radical economic, political, and social change, and the leading role of Otto von Bismarck in these efforts. His location at the center of this painting reflects his central position in these efforts. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.) Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.) From the early 1860s until 1890 Otto von Bismarck was one of the dominant figures in European diplomacy, and, by extension, international relations. During the 1860s he forged the creation of the German empire, then successfully maneuvered the new German nation through a slew of foreign and domestic challenges, influencing the course of European diplomacy during the 1870s and 1880s, roughly the first half of a period in European history known as the Belle Epoque. During this period, 1871 – 1890, Bismarck was the German Chancellor and the German Minister of Foreign Affairs. In these roles he prevented France, among other German rivals, from forming any alliances antithetical to German imperial interests as he, among others, defined them. One of the key traits in his efforts was his flexibility, which allowed him to accept and work with various diplomatic, political, and social changes then occurring in Europe. In 1890 he lost his position as German chancellor, partly as a result of his disagreements with Kaiser Wilhelm II, who had ascended to the throne two years earlier. Wilhelm II’s more aggressive and assertive military and foreign policies, unchecked by Bismarck, or another foreign minister with his views, exacerbated the fears of France and Britain toward Germany, contributing to the formation of the Entente Cordiale between them in 1904, which was one of the bases of the alliance against Germany in the First World War. European Diplomacy from the French Revolution to the Age of Bismarck The Congress of Vienna established many of the diplomatic norms of the 19th century and created an informal system of diplomatic conflict resolution aimed at maintaining a balance of power among nations, which contributed to the relative peace of the century. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.) Concert of Europe: a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power (It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856.) Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.) Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force Development of Modern Diplomacy In Europe, early modern diplomacy’s origins are often traced to the states of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, where the first embassies were established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role especially under Francesco Sforza, who established permanent embassies to the other city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onward. It was in the Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began, such as the presentation of an ambassador’s credentials to the head of state. From Italy, the practice spread across Europe. The elements of modern diplomacy arrived in Eastern Europe and Russia by the early 18th century. The entire edifice would be greatly disrupted by the French Revolution and the subsequent years of warfare. The revolution would see commoners take over the diplomacy of the French state and of those conquered by revolutionary armies. Ranks of precedence were abolished. Napoleon also refused to acknowledge diplomatic immunity, imprisoning several British diplomats accused of scheming against France. After the fall of Napoleon, the 1815 Congress of Vienna established an international system of diplomatic rank with ambassadors at the top, as they were considered personal representatives of their sovereign. Disputes on precedence among nations (and therefore the appropriate diplomatic ranks used) were first addressed at the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, but they persisted for over a century until after World War II, when the rank of ambassador became the norm. In between, figures such as the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck were renowned for international diplomacy. Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe The objective of the Congress of Vienna was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or the Vienna System after the Congress of Vienna, was a system of dispute resolution adopted by the major conservative powers of Europe to maintain their power, oppose revolutionary movements, weaken the forces of nationalism, and uphold the balance of power. It is suggested that it operated in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the early 1820s, while some see it as lasting until the outbreak of the Crimean War, 1853-1856. At first, the leading personalities of the system were British foreign secretary Lord Castlereagh, Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, and Tsar Alexander I of Russia. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord played a major role at the Congress of Vienna in 1814 – 1815, where he negotiated a favorable settlement for France while undoing Napoleon’s conquests. Talleyrand polarizes scholarly opinion. Some regard him as one of the most versatile, skilled, and influential diplomats in European history, and some believe that he was a traitor, betraying in turn the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Restoration. Talleyrand worked at the highest levels of successive French governments, most commonly as foreign minister or in some other diplomatic capacity. His career spanned the regimes of Louis XVI, the years of the French Revolution, Napoleon, Louis XVIII, and Louis-Philippe. Those he served often distrusted Talleyrand but, like Napoleon, found him extremely useful. The name “Talleyrand” has become a byword for crafty, cynical diplomacy. The Concert of Europe had no written rules or permanent institutions, but at times of crisis any of the member countries could propose a conference. Diplomatic meetings of the Great Powers during this period included: Aix-la-Chapelle (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Troppau (1820), Laibach (1821), Verona (1822), London (1832), and Berlin (1878). The Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) resolved the issues of Allied occupation of France and restored that country to equal status with Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia. The congress, which broke up at the end of November, is of historical importance, mainly as marking the highest point reached during the 19th century in the attempt to govern Europe by an international committee of the powers. The detailed study of its proceedings is highly instructive in revealing the almost insurmountable obstacles to any truly effective international diplomatic system prior to the creation of the League of Nations after the First World War. The Concert system fell apart as the common goals of the Great Powers diverged with the growing political and economic rivalries among them. The territorial boundaries laid down at the Congress of Vienna were maintained, and there was an acceptance of the theme of balance with no major aggression. Otherwise, the Congress system, says historian Roy Bridge, “failed” by 1823. In 1818, the British decided not to become involved in continental issues that did not directly affect them, and they rejected the plan of Alexander I to suppress future revolutions. There was no Congress called to restore the old system during the great revolutionary upheavals of 1848 with their demands for revision of the Congress of Vienna’s frontiers along national lines. The Congress of Vienna was frequently criticized by nineteenth-century and by more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses and imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part of what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the liberties and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized so that a fair balance of power, peace and stability might be achieved. Despite having failed to achieve its reactionary goals past the early 1820s, it served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Prior to the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. The European Continent After Vienna Post-Napoleonic Europe was characterized by a general lack of major conflict between the great powers, with Great Britain as the major hegemonic power bringing relative balance to European politics. The nineteenth century was marked by relative stability, with no wars involving all the major powers occurred between the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the beginning of the First World War. Otto von Bismarck contributed as much as any other single European leader to this stability through his role as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890. In this role he pursued policies and initiatives to protect the new German empire from alliances that could threaten it. His policies and initiatives also buttressed the diplomatic and military stability in Europe during the late nineteenth century. Bismarck’s efforts to keep other European powers from perceiving the German empire as an existential threat to them. When Kaiser Wilhelm II forced Bismarck to resign as Chancellor and began pursuing a much more assertive and aggressive posture for the German Empire, without regard to the insecurities of other European states, Europe entered a new period of instability culminating in the outbreak of World War I. This quiet period was shattered by World War I (1914 – 18), which was unexpected in its timing, duration, casualties, and long-term impact. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, the European powers came together at the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of Europe to preserve peace and balance of power; this meeting was termed the Concert of Europe. Of the four major powers represented at the Vienna Congress (the Austrian, British, Prussian, and Russian empires), all but the Austrian empire rose to become major world powers. The British and Russian empires, in particular, expanded significantly after the Napoleonic Wars and became the world’s leading powers. The Russian Empire expanded in central and far eastern Asia. The British Empire grew rapidly in the first half of the century, especially with the expansion of vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and heavily populated India, and in the last two decades of the century in Africa. By the end of the century, the British Empire controlled a fifth of the world’s land and one-quarter of the world’s population. During the post-Napoleonic era, it enforced what became known as the Pax Britannica, which had ushered in unprecedented globalization, industrialization, and economic integration on a massive scale. Along with the British and Russian empires, the French empire regained its position as a great power during the nineteenth century. Added to the list of great powers during the latter half of the nineteenth century were the newly unified Italian and German empires, the United States, and Japan. Pax Britannica Pax Britannica (Latin for “British Peace,” modeled after Pax Romana) was the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914) during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force. Between 1815 and 1914, a period referred to as Britain’s “imperial century,” around 10 million square miles of territory and roughly 400 million people were added to the British Empire. Victory over Napoleonic France left the British without any serious international rival, other than perhaps Russia in central Asia. When Russia tried expanding its influence in the Balkans, the British and French defeated it in the Crimean War (1854 – 56), thereby protecting the Ottoman Empire and their interests in the areas south of that region. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including. the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.) Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force The British Navy controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, Britain’s dominant position in world trade meant that it effectively controlled access to many regions, such as Asia and Latin America. British merchants, shippers, and bankers had such an overwhelming advantage over everyone else that, in addition to its official colonies, it essentially had an informal empire. The global superiority of British military and commerce was aided by a divided and relatively weak continental Europe and the presence of the Royal Navy on all of the world’s oceans and seas. Even outside its formal empire, Britain controlled trade with countries such as China, Siam, and Argentina. Following the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire’s economic strength continued to develop through naval dominance and diplomatic efforts to maintain a balance of power in continental Europe. In this era, the Royal Navy provided services around the world that benefited other nations, such as the suppression of piracy and blocking the slave trade. The Slave Trade Act 1807 banned the trade across the British Empire, after which the Royal Navy established the West Africa Squadron and the government negotiated international treaties under which they could enforce the ban. The Royal Navy fought the First Opium War (1839 – 1842) and Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) against Imperial China. The Royal Navy was superior to any other two navies in the world, combined. Between 1815 and the passage of the German naval laws of 1890 and 1898, only France was a potential naval threat. However, British sea power, imperial holdings, and economic base were insufficient to maintain unchallenged British hegemony during the second half of the nineteenth century. The industrialization and growth of the German, the Japanese, and the U.S. empires marked the relative decline of British supremacy by the early twentieth century. Sea power did not project on land. Land wars fought between the major powers include the Crimean War, the Franco-Austrian War, the Austro-Prussian War, and the Franco-Prussian War, as well as numerous conflicts between lesser powers. Pax Britannica was weakened by the breakdown of the continental order established by the Congress of Vienna. Relations between the Great Powers of Europe were strained to breaking by issues, such as the decline of the Ottoman Empire that led to the Crimean War, and later the emergence of new nation states of Italy and Germany after the Franco-Prussian War. Both wars involved Europe’s largest states and armies. Otto von Bismarck: Balance of Power Diplomacy Otto von Bismarck was a conservative Prussian statesman and diplomat who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. He skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace. For historian Eric Hobsbawm, it was Bismarck who “remained undisputed world champion at the game of multilateral diplomatic chess for almost twenty years after 1871, [and] devoted himself exclusively, and successfully, to maintaining peace between the powers.” Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Otto von Bismarck: a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890 (In the 1860s he engineered a series of wars that unified the German states, significantly and deliberately excluding Austria, into a powerful German Empire under Prussian leadership. With that accomplished by 1871, he skillfully used balance of power diplomacy to maintain Germany’s position in a Europe which, despite many disputes and war scares, remained at peace.) Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich In 1862, King Wilhelm I appointed Bismarck as Minister President of Prussia, a position he would hold until 1890 (except for a short break in 1873). He provoked three short, decisive wars against Denmark, Austria, and France, aligning the smaller German states behind Prussia in its defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War. In 1871, he formed the German Empire with himself as Chancellor while retaining control of Prussia. His diplomacy of pragmatic realpolitik and powerful rule at home gained him the nickname the “Iron Chancellor.” German unification and its rapid economic growth were the foundations of his foreign policy. Bismarck disliked colonialism but reluctantly built an overseas empire when demanded by both elite and mass opinion. Juggling a very complex interlocking series of conferences, negotiations, and alliances, he used his diplomatic skills to maintain Germany’s position and used the balance of power to keep Europe at peace in the 1870s and 1880s. Belle Époque Belle Époque (French for “Beautiful Era”) was a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I in around 1914. Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was a period characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity, and innovations in technology, science, and culture. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished. Many masterpieces of literature, music, theater, and visual art gained recognition. The Belle Époque was named, in retrospect, when it began to be considered a “Golden Age” in contrast to the horrors of World War I. Learning Objectives Explain the consolidation of national states in Europe during the 19th century. Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Franco-Prussian War - third and concluding war of German unification, between the French and Prussian empires, paving the way for German unification, in the form of the German empire, also known as the Second Reich Belle Époque: a period of Western European history conventionally dated from the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 to the outbreak of World War I around 1914 (Occurring during the era of the French Third Republic (beginning 1870), it was characterized by optimism, regional peace, economic prosperity and technological, scientific and cultural innovations. In the climate of the period, especially in Paris, the arts flourished.) The Belle Époque coincided with similar periods of optimism in other European and American nations. The Belle Époque overlapped in the United Kingdom with the late Victorian era and the Edwardian era. In Germany, the Belle Époque coincided with the Wilhelminism; in Russia with the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II. In the newly rich United States emerging from the Panic of 1873, the comparable epoch was dubbed the Gilded Age. In Brazil it started with the end of the Paraguayan War, and in Mexico the period was known as the Porfiriato. The years between the Franco-Prussian War and World War I were characterized by unusual political stability in western and central Europe. Although tensions between the French and German governments persisted as a result of the French loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871, diplomatic conferences mediated disputes that threatened the general European peace, including the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Berlin Congo Conference in 1884, and the Algeciras Conference in 1906. For many Europeans in the Belle Époque period, transnational, class-based affiliations were as important as national identities, particularly among aristocrats. An upper-class gentleman could travel through much of Western Europe without a passport and even reside abroad with minimal bureaucratic regulation. World War I, mass transportation, the spread of literacy, and various citizenship concerns changed this. European politics saw very few regime changes, the major exception being Portugal, which experienced a republican revolution in 1910. However, tensions between working-class socialist parties, bourgeois liberal parties, and landed or aristocratic conservative parties increased in many countries, and some historians claim that profound political instability belied the calm surface of European politics in the era. In fact, militarism and international tensions grew considerably between 1897 and 1914, and the immediate prewar years were marked by a general armaments competition in Europe. Additionally, this era was one of massive overseas colonialism known as the New Imperialism. The most famous portion of this imperial expansion was the Scramble for Africa. Factors in the Road to World War I The main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in central Europe in summer 1914, comprised the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. These causes included militarism, jingoism, imperialism, nationalism, and the emergence of opposing alliances. Such conflicts and hosMilitarism, alliances, imperialism, ethnic nationalis. From the 1870s and 1880s, the major powers of Europe had been preparing for a large-scale war by increasing the sizes of their armies and navies. This led to increased political tensions that exacerbated the worsening relations among the European powers. This complex of factors, developments, and events paved the way for the First World War, the first general war in Europe since the Napoleonic Wars. Learning Objectives Be able to identify and explain the diplomatic and military situation in Europe during the last third of the nineteenth century, including the major European powers and their goals the shifting rivalries and alliances among European powers Bismark’s foreign policy goals and initiatives Be able to explain and assess the impact of Bismark’s diplomatic and military policy initiatives. Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Kaiser Wilhelm II: the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, ruling the German Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia from June 1888 to November 1918 (He dismissed the Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1890 and launched Germany on a bellicose “New Course” in foreign affairs that culminated in his support for Austria-Hungary in the crisis of July 1914, which led in a matter of days to the First World War.) jingoism: a form of nationalism characterized by aggressive foreign policy; a country’s advocacy for the use of threats or actual force as opposed to peaceful relations to safeguard what it perceives as its national interests militarism: the belief or the desire of a government or people that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it aggressively to defend or promote national interests; the glorification of the military; the ideals of a professional military class; the “predominance of the armed forces in the administration or policy of the state” imperialism: practice of claiming territory and then spreading the parent country’s beliefs and culture into the territory nationalism: a belief, creed, or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one’s country of origin Pax Britannica: the period of relative peace in Europe (1815 – 1914), during which the British Empire became the global hegemonic power and adopted the role of a global police force Rise of Militarism Prior to World War I During the 1870s and 1880s, all major world powers were preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined,as part of Pax Britannica. Germany, France, Austria, Italy, Russia, and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men from higher social classes became officers. Each country devised a mobilization system so the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and expanded in terms of complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000 with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897 the regular army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. The various national war plans had been perfected by 1914, albeit with Russia and Austria trailing in effectiveness. However, recent wars (since 1865) had typically been short—lasting only a matter of months. So, all the war plans called for a decisive opening and assumed victory would come after a short war, and no one planned for or was ready for the food and munitions needs of a long stalemate as actually happened in 1914 – 18. As David Stevenson has put it, “A self-reinforcing cycle of heightened military preparedness… was an essential element in the conjuncture that led to disaster… The armaments race… was a necessary precondition for the outbreak of hostilities.” If Archduke Franz Ferdinand had been assassinated in 1904 or even in 1911, Herrmann speculates, there might have been no war. It was “… the armaments race… and the speculation about imminent or preventive wars” that made his death in 1914 the trigger for war. One of the aims of the First Hague Conference of 1899, held at the suggestion of Emperor Nicholas II, was to discuss disarmament. The Second Hague Conference was held in 1907. All signatories except for Germany supported disarmament. Germany also did not want to agree to binding arbitration and mediation. Kaiser Wilhelm II was concerned that the United States would propose disarmament measures, which he opposed. All parties tried to revise international law to their own advantage. Militarism and jingoism contributed to an atmosphere in Europe open to the possibility of a general European war among the major European powers. The development of rivalries, along with Kaiser Wilhelm II’s ambitions, provided the fuel for the fire that would be the First World War. Nationalism in the Balkans provided the catalyst. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - 1884 Berlin Conference meeting drawing Attribution: Adalbert von Rößler (†1922), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kongokonferenz.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "The Century of Peace" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-century-of-peace/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Belle u00c9poque. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_Epoque. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pax Britannica. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Europe. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - 19th century. Provided by: Wikipedia. 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License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Human zoo. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - World's fair. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - British_Empire_1897.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Talleyrand-perigord.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - International_Exhibition_Brussels_par_Privat-Livemont.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ota_Benga_at_Bronx_Zoo.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.051136	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87935/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87936/overview	The Austro-Hungarian Empire Overview Austro-Hungary In the late 19th century, the Conservative emperor, Francis Joseph struggled to hold together his ancient Hapsburg dominions in the face of demands by the many ethnic groups within the empire for more Liberal government and for autonomy. The threat of the break-up of this empire resulted in an enduring alliance with neighboring Germany and was a factor in the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Learing Objectives - Analyze politics and society in Austria-Hungary in the late 19th century. - Analyze and identify the role of the MAIN (Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism) causes of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Dual Monarchy: created by the union of Austria and Hungary in 1867 as equal states (Ausgleich); the Hapsburg emperor, Francis Joseph, was the emperor of Germany and king of Hungary League of the Three Emperors: an alliance between the three empires of Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Russia that was renewed every three years between 1873 and 1886 Treaty of San Stephano: peace treaty between Russia and the Ottoman Empires in 1877 that ended the Russo-Turkish War and won Bulgaria its independence from the Ottoman Empire Congress of Berlin: international conference called by the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in 1878 to address concerns about the stability of the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish War Bosnia-Herzegovina: a region in the Balkans in southeastern Europe inhabited by Orthodox Serbs, Roman Catholic Croats, and Muslim Bosnians; the former Ottoman province awarded to Austro-Hungary by The Congress of Berlin in 1878 Kulturkampf: a “cultural struggle” between German Protestants and Roman Catholics in the 1870s, primarily concerned with Roman Catholic Church’s control of public education in some German regions Balancing Austria and Hungary In 1866, the defeat of Austria at the hands of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War led to a crisis in the Hapsburg Austrian Empire; this was due to the Austrian government fearing another outbreak of rebellion in Hungary, as happened in 1848, due to Austria’s weakened state. To deter such a rebellion, the Emperor Francis Joseph in 1867 issued a new Liberal constitution that created what became known as the Dual Monarchy and the Ausgleich (Balancing). Under this constitution Francis Joseph was both emperor of Austria and king of Hungary. Germans and Hungarians with property could each elect representatives to a legislature of their own, which could draft laws and impose taxes for the areas controlled respectively by Austria and Hungary. However, Francis Joseph alone controlled the military and foreign affairs for this new Austro-Hungarian Empire. In this empire, millions of inhabitants who were neither German nor Hungarian were denied the vote and the right to participate in government. Ethnic Tensions In this new Austro-Hungarian Empire, ethnic Germans and Hungarians with property could vote and elect representatives to sit in the German and Austrian legislatures due to the Ausgleich in 1867, but Slavic ethnic groups were all denied the right to vote; this included Czechs, Slovaks, Serbs, Croats, Poles, Slovenes, and Ruthenians (Ukrainians), as well as ethnic Romanians, Italians, and Bosnians. Moreover, all government business and public education was conducted in either German or Hungarian. Croats and Poles alone were allowed to conduct their public affairs at the local level in their native languages. This empire was also divided religiously. The Austrian Germans and Hungarians were predominantly Roman Catholic, but the empire's inhabitants included Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Muslims, and Jews. The leaders of the Austro-Hungarian Empire were desperate to keep this fragile empire together and maintain the superior status of the Austrians and Hungarians. Additionally, in the closing decades of the 19th century, Austro-Hungary hoped to strengthen its position in Europe by forging a strong alliance with the newly formed German Empire to west, with whom Austro-Hungary shared a common ethnic heritage. Foreign Affairs In his efforts to isolate France diplomatically and to deter a future war, the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck sought to forge alliances with Austro-Hungary and Russia. Bismarck hoped that this league would restore the traditional alliance between the Austrian Hapsburg and Russian Romanov Dynasties that had been damaged by the Crimean War of 1853. In that conflict, Hapsburg Austria had failed to support its traditional ally during Russia’s war against the Ottoman Empire, France, and Great Britain out of fear that Russia’s encouragement of Slavic Orthodox Christians to rebel against Ottoman rule could inspire a rebellion of Slavic peoples under Hapsburg rule. In 1873, Bismarck successfully negotiated the League of the Three Emperors, which linked Germany, Austro-Hungary, and Russia in a military alliance. These three states all shared common values and concerns. All three emperors of these states were staunch Conservatives. Moreover, all three states had previously partitioned Poland in the late 18th century and were all concerned with suppressing Polish nationalism. However, this proved no easy task with the various tensions that had been brewing in the region. In 1815 the Sultan had granted the Ottoman province of Serbia self-government and autonomy after the Serbs had revolted against Ottoman rule. Under this 1815 agreement, the local Serb nobles or voivodes elected a prince (Knez) to govern the province as the vassal of the Sultan. In 1876, the prince of Serbia, Milan Obrenovich declared war on the Sultan for the following reason. The Ottoman Empire in 1876 had engaged its new and improved military in brutally crushing uprisings in Bulgaria and Bosnia by Orthodox Christian Bulgarians and Serbs, who were also inspired by nationalism to seek independence from Ottoman rule. It was in response to these revolts and the massacres by Ottoman troops that the Ottoman province of Serbia declared its independence from the Ottoman Empire and went to war against the Sultan. In this conflict, the superior Ottoman army quickly defeated Serb forces. The brutal suppression of these revolts in Bosnia, Bulgaria, and Serbia and the slaughter of Slavic, Orthodox Christians by Ottoman forces angered Russia, whose Tsar was also a Slav and the head of the Orthodox Church in the Russian Empire. In 1877 Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The emancipation of the serfs in 1861 had enabled the Russian state to draft and train millions of former serfs into an immense army. Russian forces quickly defeated the outmanned Ottoman armies, and the Ottoman capital, Istanbul, was in peril of falling. Unfortunately for Bismarck, the Russo-Turkish War in 1877 strained relations between Russia and Austro-Hungary, because Austro-Hungary once again feared that Russian support for Slavic nations in the Balkans against the Ottoman Empire might stir up revolts by Slavic peoples in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1878 the Ottoman Empire sued for peace, and the Russian government dictated the terms of the Treaty of San Stephano. Under the terms of this treaty, Romania and Serbia became independent nations instead of Ottoman vassal states, and Bulgaria became an autonomous principality within the Ottoman Empire, but under Russian occupation. The Russian victory over the Ottoman Empire resulted in an international crisis. Austro-Hungary feared that this Russian victory and independence for Slavic nations in the Balkans would inspire revolts by the Slavic populations within its own empire. Bismarck was worried that Germany would have to choose to support either Russia or Austro-Hungary in a conflict between these two empires, and the one not chosen consequently would ally with Germany's enemy, France. In 1878 Bismarck invited the European states to send delegates to Berlin, the capital of Germany, to resolve the problems that had arisen due to the Russo-Turkish War. In 1878 delegates from European nations convened at the Congress of Berlin, under the leadership of Bismarck, and negotiated an end to the current crisis. Under agreements reached at this congress, the Ottoman Empire ceded the island of Cyprus in the eastern Mediterranean to the United Kingdom, so that the United Kingdom could station a fleet on the island and, therefore, secure the routes that linked the United Kingdom to the Indian Ocean and India. To strengthen the Ottoman Empire after this devastating defeat and maintain regional stability, the congress shrank the size of the Bulgarian nation created by the Treaty of San Stephano. The congress returned to the Ottoman Empire, the southern section of Bulgaria, known as Eastern Rumelia. The Congress also installed a German prince, Alexander of Battenberg, as the new constitutional monarch of Bulgaria; he was related to both the British and Russian royal families. To balance the influence of Russia in the Balkans through their influence over Bulgaria, the congress permitted Austro-Hungary to occupy and administer the Ottoman province of Bosnia-Herzegovina in the Balkans, as a protectorate. The Congress of Berlin was effective in meeting the concerns of the European powers and Bismarck in particular. In 1879 the League of the Three Emperors was renewed for another three years, and France remained diplomatically isolated and without allies. In 1882, Bismarck convinced Italy to join Germany and Austro-Hungary in a Triple Alliance, which was directed against France. After the Russo-Turkish War, Bismarck decided to expand Germany's system of alliances to keep France in check, as he was now unsure about keeping both Austro-Hungary and Russia as German allies due to their hostility for one another. In 1879, Bismarck successfully negotiated an alliance between Germany and Austro-Hungary alone, known as the Dual Alliance. Since the German Austrians shared a common culture and Roman Catholic faith with Germans in southern Germany, the maintenance of this alliance was key to promoting unity within the German Empire, especially with the ongoing Kulturkampf within Germany. The German alliance with Austro-Hungary, therefore, took precedence over any alliance with Russia. As relations between Austro-Hungary and Russia further deteriorated in the 1880s, ultimately Germany had no choice but to side with Austro-Hungary over Russia, thereby opening a military alliance between France and Russia and an end to France's diplomatic isolation. By 1885, the Bulgarian government of Alexander of Battenberg had dismissed its Russian advisers and embarked on an independent course. In that year also, Bulgarian nationalists in Eastern Rumelia revolted against the Ottoman government, and in response, the Bulgarian government sent troops to the region and annexed it. This expansion of Bulgaria worried both Serbia and Greece, who feared that Bulgarian nationalists were seeking to recreate the Medieval Bulgarian Empire of the 9th century, which had dominated the Balkans. In 1885, the new king of Serbia, Milan Obrenovich, consequently, pushed Serbia into a war with Bulgaria to hold in check possible Bulgarian territorial expansion. Austro-Hungary, however, feared that a protracted war in the Balkans involving Serbia might inspire ethnic Serbs in Austro-Hungary to revolt in the hope of uniting with their fellow Serbs in Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian government, therefore, pressured both Serbia and Bulgaria to end the war through negotiations. Russia was incensed by the decrease of their influence in the Balkans and the increase in Austro-Hungary's standing. From the perspective of Russian nationalists, the Slavic Orthodox Christians in the Balkans were the natural allies of "Mother" Russia. In 1886, Russian agents kidnapped Alexander of Battenberg, transported him to Russia, and tortured him until he agreed to abdicate the throne. The Russian government hoped that this action would result in the creation of a new, pro-Russian government in Bulgaria. Almost all European governments, however, including Germany and Austro-Hungary, denounced the Russian state for taking this action. France, however, alone publicly supported Russia. France was by this point desperate to win an ally for a possible war against Germany. Within France, an influential national organization, the League of Patriots lobbied the French government to wage war of revenge on Germany and recover Alsace-Lorraine. In response to France's support for Russia in this crisis, Bismarck warned the German Reichstag—the German national legislature—that Germany might soon face war against both France and Russia. Historians, however, assert that Bismarck was exaggerating the threat of war at this point since he was trying to convince the German Reichstag to approve a massive ten-year spending plan for the German military. Once the German legislature approved Bismarck's military spending plan, Bismarck began downplaying the possibility of war. Bismarck always wanted to make sure that his fellow Prussian aristocrats—the Junkers—were placed in the German military as high-ranking officers, possessing power and influence. When the whole affair had blown over, the Russians were not even able to secure a pro-Russian government in Bulgaria. The Bulgarian legislature in 1887 offered the throne to another German prince, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, who was native to Austro-Hungary. In 1887, Bismarck negotiated the Re-insurance Treaty between Russia and Germany, which established a non-aggression pact between the two empires for three years; however, his reign over the matters would soon end. After the events of 1886, Bismarck knew that he could not renew the League of the Three Emperors due to the growing antagonism between Russia and Austria-Hungary. And he still wanted to avoid an alliance between France and Russia. In 1888 however, Bismarck's plan was derailed by the deaths of his friend, the German emperor William I, as well as that of William's son, Frederick III. This resulted in the accession of William II (r. 1888 – 1918) —William I’s grandson—as the new Kaiser (emperor). William II embraced popular racial theories in Germany at that time that maintained that Germans were a racially superior nation. William II didn't understand why Bismarck feared an alliance between racially inferior Frenchmen and Russians. When the Re-insurance treaty was up for renewal in 1890, William II dismissed Bismarck as Chancellor and refused to renew the non-aggression pact with Russia. When the Re-insurance treaty between Russia and Germany lapsed in 1890, France and Russia quickly reached an agreement to become allies in 1891. The stage was, thereby, set for the outbreak of World War I with the alliance between Germany and Austro-Hungary in central Europe—the “Central Powers” —and the opposing alliance between France and the Russian Empire, whose states flanked these Central Powers to the west and east. Russia’s ongoing support for their fellow Slavs in Serbia fueled fears in Austro-Hungary that Russia and Serbia together could stir up rebellion by Slavs within Austro-Hungary and destabilize this fragile empire. On June 28, 1914, Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austro-Hungary, and his wife, Sophie, were assassinated by a Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip, while visiting the Bosnian city of Sarajevo on a goodwill tour. This assassination would begin a chain of events that would result in the outbreak of World War I a month later. Gavrilo Princip was a member of a secret, nationalist organization, the Black Hand. that was committed to liberating the Serbs and other Slavic peoples from Austro-Hungarian rule. The government of Austro-Hungary correctly assumed that Serbia was secretly supporting the activities of the Black Hand. Consequently, the Austro-Hungarian government desired to wage war against Serbia to put a stop to its hopes for territorial expansion. Austro-Hungarian statesmen knew, however, that war against Serbia could also lead to war with Russia, a fellow Slavic and Orthodox Christian state. Austro-Hungary therefore received personal assurances from William II of Germany that Germany would stand with its ally, Austro-Hungary, if Russia declared war on Austro-Hungary. On July 23, The Austro-Hungarian government issued an ultimatum to Serbia, demanding that Serbia publicly condemn all efforts to instigate a rebellion among Bosnian Serbs and arrest and punish those involved in these efforts within Serbia. When Serbia refused to comply with this ultimatum, Austro-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. After this declaration of war, Russia immediately began mobilizing its massive army. Germany then quickly on August 2 declared war on France and Russia. The fragility of the Austro-Hungary and the anxieties of its governments thus helped spark a world war. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Congress_of_Berlin,_13_July_1878,_by_Anton_von_Werner.jpg Anton von Werner, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.088352	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87936/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview	Zionism and Theodore Herzl Overview Zionism and the Jewish Question The rise of nationalism in Europe in the 19th century inspired the scattered and often persecuted Jewish communities across Europe to hope for an independent Jewish state in their ancient homeland. Learning Objectives - Examine the history of the Jewish Diaspora. - Analyze the political, ethnic, and religious history of the Jews and Palestine during the 19th century that shaped the creation of Israel after the Second World War. Key Terms / Key Concepts Talmud: a collection of commentaries on the Torah that was compiled by rabbis (Jewish scholars/teachers) between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE Sephardic Jews: the Jewish diaspora population that developed in Andalusia in Spain and adopted Arabic customs and language pogrom: a violent riot aimed at the massacre or persecution of an ethnic or religious group, particularly one aimed at Jews; a term that originally entered the English language to describe 19th and 20th century attacks on Jews in the Russian Empire Ashkenazi Jews: a Jewish diaspora population who coalesced as a distinct community in the Holy Roman Empire around the end of the first millennium (The traditional diaspora language is Yiddish.) Theodor Herzl: an Austro-Hungarian journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer; one of the fathers of modern political Zionism; formed the World Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish migration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state (Israel). Exceptionalist Ideology: the perception or belief that a particular entity (i.e. a society, institution, movement, people) is "exceptional" (unusual or extraordinary); implies that this entity is superior in some way The Jewish Diaspora The diaspora or dispersal of Jews out of ancient Judea (Modern Israel and the Palestinian Territories) began as early as 586 BCE when the Babylonian king, Nebuchadnezzar sacked Jerusalem, the capital of the Judean kingdom, and forcibly removed thousands of the city’s inhabitants to Babylon—present-day southern Iraq. Eventually Jews migrated across much of Europe and western Asia. During the Hellenistic period (323 – 31 BCE), many Jews emigrated from Judea and settled in Greek cities in various Hellenistic kingdoms, such as Alexandria in Egypt. In the 3rd century BCE, the Jewish Holy Scriptures —also known as the Christian Old Testament—was made available in a Greek translation meant for Greek-speaking Jews; this translation of the scriptures became known as the Septuagint. Jewish historians such as Josephus (first century CE), and philosophers, such as Philo of Alexandria (first century CE), composed works in ancient Greek. When the entire basin of the Mediterranean Sea became incorporated into the expanding Roman Empire by 31 BCE, Jews were migrating throughout the extent of the Roman Empire. The revolt of Judea against Roman rule in 66 CE, as well as the subsequent destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE by Roman armies, accelerated the migration of Jews from Judea to other regions both within and outside the Roman Empire. A second rebellion against Rome—the Bar Kokhba Revolt (c. 132 – 136 CE) —further intensified the emigration of the Jewish population out of Judea after Roman armies brutally crushed this uprising. Despite these revolts, the Jewish population generally prospered under Roman rule. Archaeologists have uncovered the ruins of Jewish synagogues or places of worship in the cities of the Roman Empire. Their numbers grew with the conversion of some non-Jews to the Jewish faith. During the Middle Ages, most Jews lived areas ruled by both Christian and Muslim states that had formally been part of or near to the Roman Empire. In these centuries, Jewish community life centered around the synagogue, where Jews gathered to pray and hear their holy scriptures under the leadership of a rabbi (teacher/scholar). Rabbis were not only experts in the study of the Torah—which became the first five books of the Old Testament—but also in the Talmud, which is a collection of commentaries and teachings on the Torah, as compiled by rabbis in Judea and southern modern-day Iraq between the 3rd and 6th centuries CE. In some regions just outside the former Roman Empire, non-Jewish peoples converted to the Jewish faith in large numbers. Arabs in Yemen in the southern Arabian Peninsula converted to Judaism, which was the state religion of the Himyarite kingdom in the 5th and early sixth century CE until the neighboring Christian kingdom of Aksum—modern Ethiopia—dethroned the last Jewish king in that land. In the 8th century CE, the ruling elite of the Khazars, a Turkish people then inhabiting modern Ukraine, converted to Judaism. Jews living in Muslim lands in the Middle Ages were generally free to practice their faith if they paid the poll tax—Jizyah—to their Muslim rulers. After the conquest of Spain by the Muslim Arabs and Moors in the 8th century CE, the Jewish population in Muslim Spain (Andalusia) thrived and became known as Sephardic Jews, who adopted the Arabic language and some Arabic customs. In the 12th century, the eminent Jewish rabbi and physician, Maimonides—a native of Andalusia—composed multiple philosophical and scientific works in Arabic, which drew inspiration from the works of earlier Greek and Arabic scholars. Jews inhabiting Christian lands in the Middle Ages often didn’t enjoy the same level of toleration as experienced in Muslim controlled territories. Jews were segregated from the Christian population and often inhabited a special quarter of Medieval towns known as the ghetto. In 1215 at the influential Fourth Lateran Council in Rome, Pope Innocent III and a council of Church leaders decreed that Jews be required to wear special clothing to distinguish them from the Christian population. This same council also ruled that Jews were not to be allowed to hold any public office. The Jewish population in Christian lands were also frequently subject to massacres by angry mobs, which became known as pogroms. For example, in 1096, after Pope Urban II called for a Crusade to free Jerusalem from the Muslim Turks, Christian mobs massacred thousands of Jews living in Medieval cities along the Rhine River in modern Germany. Many Christians at that time understood the Pope’s call for the Crusade as a command to destroy the enemies of Christianity, including both Muslims and Jews. Across Medieval Europe beginning in the 13th century, the so-called “blood libel” stirred up such pogroms. The “blood libel” was a popular belief among Christians across Europe; part of this belief was the allegation that Jews kidnapped Christian children so that they could kill the children and drink their blood in secret religious rituals. Some Christian states even expelled Jews entirely from their lands. In 1290, Edward I of England evicted all Jews from his kingdom. Jews only returned to England nearly four hundred later in 1657, after the Commonwealth of Oliver Cromwell invited Jews to return. In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain expelled all Jews and Muslims from Spain who refused to convert to Christianity; this was done after their conquest of the Emirate of Granada—the last Muslim state in Spain. Many Sephardic Jews from Spain consequently emigrated to the Muslim Ottoman Empire in North Africa and western Asia, as well as to the Netherlands in northern Europe. The Netherlands and Poland were Christian regions where Jews in the Middle Ages and Early Modern era enjoyed a relative high degree of toleration. In 1264, Prince Boreslaw of Poland invited Jews from the neighboring Holy Roman Empire—modern Germany—to settle in Poland by granting Jews full freedom to worship, as well as by forbidding false accusations of the “blood libel” against Jews. The Mongols in 1240 had recently invaded and devasted Poland, and the migration of Jews helped to repopulate the region. The Jewish population flourished in the centuries that followed and stretched across the vast Polish-Lithuanian Kingdom, which by 1500 extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and included not only the area of modern Poland but also the Baltic counties of Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia, as well as Ukraine and Belarus. The Jews of this region who had migrated from Germany and France to the Polish kingdom became known as Ashkenazi Jews and spoke their own distinct language which incorporated both the German and Hebrew languages: Yiddish. The prosperity experienced by Ashkenazi Jews ended with the collapse of the Polish Lithuanian Kingdom in the 17th and 18th centuries. In 1648, the Cossacks, nomadic herdsmen from Ukraine, revolted against the Polish Kingdom and massacred the populations of many Jewish communities. The Cossacks were allied with the emerging Russian Empire due to their common Orthodox Christian faith; whereas, the Polish rulers were Roman Catholic. In the late 18th century, the dominant states of Eastern and Central Europe, Hapsburg Austria, Prussia, and Russia, partitioned the weakened Polish kingdom among themselves. Russia acquired the largest chunk of Polish territory. Consequently, much of the Jewish population of the region fell under Russian rule. As subjects of the Russian Empire, Jews faced persecution. The Russian state in 1791 mandated for the Jews a “Pale of Settlement,” which was a narrow stretch of territory extending from the Ukraine to the Baltic Sea. They forbid Jews from settling or living permanently outside of this area. Liberalism, Nationalism, and the Jews Jewish communities across Europe generally welcomed the rise of Liberal constitutions in some European countries that resulted from the revolutions that occurred across the continent in the first half of the 19th century. These constitutions guaranteed representative government, equal rights under the law and freedom of religion. Some Jews even entered politics in this era. For example, Ferdinand Lassalle (1825 – 1864) was the son of a Jewish silk merchant in the German kingdom of Prussia in what is today Poland. During the 1848 Revolution, he strongly supported the unsuccessful efforts to unite Germany under a Liberal constitution. In 1863 he helped organize the General German Workers Union in Prussia, which was committed to securing the right to vote for all adult males—also known as universal male suffrage. Lassalle even personally contacted the Prussian chancellor Otto Von Bismarck to urge him to support the expansion of the right to vote for all German workers. In 1867, the constitution of the North German Confederation advanced by Bismarck did in fact include universal male suffrage. This constitution later became the basis for the German constitution with the unification of Germany in 1871. After Lassalle’s death in 1864, the General German Workers Union, which he founded, became the German Social Democratic Party in 1875, the oldest political party in Germany today. By the late 19th century, large numbers of Jews were emigrating from the Russian Empire, whose autocratic Conservative government continued to treat Jews as second-class citizens. These Jews settled in areas of the globe where Liberal governments were in place, such as the United States, Canada, Australia, and in some South American republics, such as Argentina. In general Jews prospered in these regions. For example, in the United States, President Woodrow Wilson in 1916 nominated Louis Brandeis to become the first Jewish Supreme Court Justice. Across Europe, even in the most Liberal countries, the population often viewed Jews with suspicion due to their distinct religion and culture. For example, the people of France were often staunchly Roman Catholic, such as the Bretons of Brittany in rural northwest France. They were also highly suspicious of the inhabitants of the French capital Paris, who had a reputation for their cosmopolitan and secular attitudes. Conservative Roman Catholics in France were distrustful of the country's religious minorities, Protestants and Jews. France was rocked by the Dreyfus Affair in 1894. Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, who was a Jew, was put on trial and found guilty of treason for spying for Germany. Even though a military commission exonerated Dreyfus later in 1906, this affair stirred up much antisemitism across France among many Roman Catholics who maintained that France was in fact a Roman Catholic nation. Besides a rise in Liberalism, the 19th century also experienced a rise in nationalism. Many Jews due to this rising nationalism in the 19th century opted to assimilate and to adopt the culture and religion of the nation where they resided. For example, in 1816 the family of Benjamin Disraeli converted to Christianity from Judaism and joined the Anglican Church of England when Benjamin was just a boy. Benjamin Disraeli would later serve as one the most influential prime ministers of Great Britain in the 19th century. Zionism: A Jewish Homeland Zionism is the national movement of the Jewish people that supports the re-establishment of a Jewish homeland in the territory defined as the historic Land of Israel—roughly corresponding to Palestine, Canaan, or the Holy Land. After almost two millennia of the Jewish people residing in various countries without a national state, the Zionist movement was founded in the late 19th century by secular Jews, largely as a response by Ashkenazi Jews to rising antisemitism in Europe, which was exemplified by the Dreyfus affair in France and the anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire. The political movement was formally established by the Austro-Hungarian journalist, Theodore Herzyl, in 1897, following the publication of his book Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State). At that time, the movement sought to encourage Jewish migration to what was by then Ottoman Palestine. Herzl considered antisemitism an eternal feature of all societies in which Jews lived as minorities, and that only a separation could allow Jews to escape eternal persecution. “Let them give us sovereignty over a piece of the Earth’s surface, just sufficient for the needs of our people, then we will do the rest!” he proclaimed. Herzl proposed two possible destinations to colonize, Argentina and Palestine. He preferred Argentina for its vast and sparsely populated territory and temperate climate, but he conceded that Palestine would have greater attraction because of the historic ties of Jews with that area. He also agreed to evaluate Joseph Chamberlain’s proposal for possible Jewish settlement in Great Britain’s East African colonies. Although initially one of several Jewish political movements offering alternative responses to assimilation and antisemitism, Zionism expanded rapidly. In its early stages, supporters considered setting up a Jewish state in the historic territory of Palestine. After World War II and the destruction of Jewish life in Central and Eastern Europe, where these alternative movements were rooted, Zionism became the dominant view about a Jewish national state. Creating an alliance with Great Britain and securing support for Jewish emigration to Palestine, Zionists also recruited European Jews to immigrate there, especially those who lived in areas of the Russian Empire where antisemitism was prevalent. The alliance with Britain was strained as the latter realized the implications of the Jewish movement for Arabs in Palestine, but the Zionists persisted. During World War II antisemitism in Europe reached a horrible climax with the Holocaust, a mass genocide, when the German Nazi regime slaughtered an estimated six million Jews living in Europe. After these horrors during the war, the Zionist movement received worldwide support and was eventually successful in encouraging the victorious WWII Allies to establish Israel as the homeland for the Jewish people on May 14, 1948. The proportion of the world’s Jews living in Israel has steadily grown since the movement emerged. Until 1948, the primary goals of Zionism were the re-establishment of Jewish sovereignty in the Land of Israel, in-gathering of the exiles, and liberation of Jews from the antisemitic discrimination and persecution they experienced during their diaspora. Since the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, Zionism continues primarily to advocate on behalf of Israel and to address threats to its continued existence and security. Major aspects of the Zionist idea are represented in the Israeli Declaration of Independence: “The Land of Israel was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books. After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom. Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.” Advocates of Zionism view it as a national liberation movement for the repatriation of a persecuted people who were forced to live as minorities in a variety of nations that did not include their ancestral homeland. Critics of Zionism view it as a racist and exceptionalist ideology that led advocates to violence against Palestinians, followed by the exodus of Palestinians and the subsequent denial of their human rights. Attributions Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/israel-and-palestine/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Theodor_Herzl.jpg Carl Pietzner, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.128332	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87937/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87938/overview	Asian Colonization Overview The Decline of Imperial China The Chinese Empire was arguably the largest and wealthiest state in the world in the early 18th century. By the late 19th century, however, the Qing Dynasty was severely weakened, as foreign powers aggressively pressed the Chinese state to cede territory and economic control to them. Learning Objective - Analyze the weaknesses of the Qing Dynasty in the 19th century that opened China to foreign influence and aggression. Key Terms / Key Concepts Taiping Rebellion: a civil war in China (1850 – 1864) between the established Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the millenarian movement of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (It began in the southern province of Guangxi when local officials launched a campaign of persecution against a millenarian sect known as the God Worshipping Society led by Hong Xiuquan, who believed himself the younger brother of Jesus Christ. The war ranks as one of the bloodiest wars in human history, the bloodiest civil war, and the largest conflict of the 19th century.) Nian Rebellion: an armed uprising in northern China from 1851 to 1868, concurrent with the Taiping Rebellion (1851 – 1864) in South China (The rebellion failed to topple the Qing dynasty but caused the immense economic devastation and loss of life that became one of the major long-term factors in the collapse of the Qing regime in the early 20th century.) Panthay Rebellion: an 1856 – 1873 rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other non-Muslim ethnic minorities against the Manchu rulers in southwestern Yunnan Province, China; part of a wave of Hui-led multi-ethnic unrest; began after massacres of Hui perpetrated by the Manchu authorities Punti-Hakka Clan Wars: the conflict between the Hakka and Punti (Cantonese people) in Guangdong, China, between 1855 and 1867 (The wars were particularly fierce around the Pearl River Delta, especially in Taishan of the Sze Yup counties. They resulted in roughly a million dead with many more fleeing for their lives.) millenarianism: the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a major impending societal transformation; a concept or theme that exists in many cultures and religions Dungan Revolt: a mainly ethnic and religious war fought in 19th-century western China, mostly during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor of the Qing dynasty (r. 1861 – 75); a term that sometimes includes the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan, which occurred during the same period (The 1862 – 1877 revolt arose over a pricing dispute involving bamboo poles, when a Han merchant selling to a Hui did not receive the amount demanded for the goods.) Anti-Qing Sentiment In the mid-19th century, China’s Qing Dynasty suffered a series of natural disasters, economic problems, and defeats at the hands of the Western powers. In particular, the humiliating defeat in 1842 by the British Empire in the First Opium War exposed the increasing weakness of the Imperial government and military. The terms of the treaties that ended the First Opium War undermined the traditional mechanisms of foreign relations and methods of controlled trade practiced by China for centuries. Shortly after the treaties were signed, internal rebellions began to threaten the Chinese state and its foreign trade. The government, led by ethnic Manchus, was seen by many Han Chinese as ineffective and corrupt. Anti-Manchu sentiments were strongest in southern China among the Hakka community, a Han Chinese subgroup. The Qing dynasty was accused of destroying traditional Han culture by forcing Han to wear their hair in a queue, which was the Manchu style. It was blamed for suppressing Chinese science, causing China to be transformed from the world’s premiere power to a poor, backwards country. In the broadest sense, an anti-Qing activist was anyone who engaged in anti-Manchu direct action. This included people from many mainstream political movements and uprisings that developed throughout the second half of the 19th century. Taiping Rebellion While the Taiping Rebellion was not the first mass expression of the anti-Qing sentiment, it turned into a long-lasting civil war that cost millions of lives. In 1837, Hong Xiuquan, a Hakka from a poor mountain village, once again failed the imperial examination, which meant that he could not follow his dream of becoming a scholar-official in the civil service. He returned home, fell sick, and was bedridden for several days, during which he experienced mystical visions. In 1842, after more carefully reading a pamphlet, he had received years before from a Protestant Christian missionary, Hong declared that he now understood that his vision meant that he was the younger brother of Jesus and that he had been sent to rid China of the “devils,” including the corrupt Qing government and Confucian teachings. It was his duty to spread his message and overthrow the Qing dynasty. In 1843, Hong and his followers founded the God Worshiping Society, a movement that combined elements of Christianity, Taoism, Confucianism, and indigenous millenarianism. The movement at first grew by quelling groups of bandits and pirates in southern China in the late 1840s. When the Qing authorities began to suppress the movement, guerrilla warfare and, subsequently, a widespread civil war broke out. For a decade in the 1850s, the Taiping occupied and fought across much of the mid and lower Yangzi valley, some of the wealthiest and most productive lands in the Qing empire. Hostilities began on January 1, 1851, when the Qing Green Standard Army launched an attack against the God Worshiping Society at the town of Jintian, Guangxi. Hong declared himself the Heavenly King (T'ien Wang) of the Heavenly Kingdom of Peace (or Taiping Heavenly Kingdom), from which the term Taiping has often been applied to the supporters of Hong in the English language. The Taiping nearly managed to capture the Qing capital of Beijing in northwest China with a northern expedition launched in 1853, due to the fact that Qing imperial troops were ineffective in halting Taiping advances because they were focused on a perpetually stalemated siege of Nanjing. In Hunan Province, a local irregular army, called the Xiang Army or Hunan Army, under the personal leadership of Zeng Guofan, became the main armed force fighting for the Qing against the Taiping. Zeng’s Xiang Army gradually turned back the Taiping advance in the western theater of the war. In 1856, the Taiping were weakened after infighting, following an attempted coup against Hong led by the “East King”, Yang Xiuqing, who was one of five “kings” serving as Hong’s commanders. During this time, the Xiang Army managed to gradually retake much of the Hubei and Jiangxi province. In 1860, the Taiping defeated the imperial forces that had been besieging Nanjing since 1853, eliminating imperial forces from the region and opening the way for a successful invasion of southern Jiangsu and Zhejiang province, the wealthiest region of the Qing Empire. While Taiping forces were preoccupied in Jiangsu, Zeng’s forces moved down the Yangzi River capturing Anqing in 1861. In 1862, the Xiang Army began directly besieging Nanjing and managed to hold firm despite numerous attempts by the Taiping Army to dislodge them with superior numbers. Hong died in 1864 and Nanjing fell shortly after that. The remains of the Taiping resistance were eventually defeated in 1866. The Taiping Rebellion was the largest war in China since the Qing conquest in 1644 and ranks as one of the bloodiest wars in human history, as well as the bloodiest civil war and the largest conflict of the 19th century, with estimates of war dead ranging from 20 to 100 million, as well as millions more displaced. Significance of the Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion marked the birth of China as a country among others, rather than the only nation under Heaven. It is one of the early tremors of a Communist earthquake, and the ultimate rise of a dynasty of the people, rather than the conquerors. China had been slowly breaking away from tradition for several hundred years, and the Taipings only widened the rift between modern China and its ancestors. Secret societies, like the Taipings, had existed in China for as long as there were Emperors to oppose. However, the Taipings were perhaps the most successful of any that had gone before them. The scale of the Rebellion was such that it merited complete imperial attention for a time. Not only did the Chinese elite take notice of the Taiping Rebellion, but there were foreigners watching as well. England and Japan waited in the wings as they vied for the key to absolute control of China. The country had ceased to be the sleeping dragon tucked behind the Himalayas and inside their Great Wall. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Chinese culture began to move away from the traditional beliefs of the past. Western culture and beliefs moved slowly into the foreground in China, especially the Christian doctrine spread by missionaries that found itself at the center of the Taiping ideology. The Chinese were beginning to realize the present glory of the Western nations, which stirred a brief resurgence in traditional thinking. Even radical quasi-Christian movements like the Taiping Rebellion made use of Confucian, Taoist, and Buddhist ideas to develop its tenets. In the mid-nineteenth century, the unrest moved closer to the surface. Natural disasters in the form of floods, droughts, and famines swept across the entire country. Neglect on the part of the Manchu government not only facilitated the incidents but offered no relief or aid in their aftermath. The defeat of the Manchus by the English during the Opium War heightened the tensions between governed and government even more. The outburst of pro-Chinese thinking prompted an anti-Manchu feeling, especially in the south where Manchu rule had never been strong. While the Manchus had been given credit for China's success in conquest only a century before, they were charged with all of China's problems by the mid-nineteenth century. All of this contributed to the evolution of the T'aip'ing T'ien-Kuo and the end of China as an isolated kingdom. The Treaty of Nanking of 1842 aided in lowering the status of the Qing dynasty even further. Among the elite of China, an aversion to absolute rule was spreading. Scholars thought that the Manchus had outlived their use after a brief golden age, and that the time had come to place the rule of China in Chinese hands again. The foreign ideas and people who now streamed into China without hindrance were strongly resented. The Emperor Tao Kuang (1821 – 1850) had lost the respect of his people. The Emperor had lost the “Mandate of Heaven”, which was its authority to govern China with divine blessing, and the Chinese people looked for a new dynasty of emperors to rule with this mandate. The Manchu Dynasty The Manchu or Qing Dynasty came to power after the Ming. Called in to aid a rebellion that the now-weak Ming dynasty could not control, the Manchus took over Peking in 1644 and turned over the rule of South China to the Chinese generals who had aided in their conquest. There were several main factors which contributed to the longevity of the Manchu state. They maintained an impressive military force, and during the Qing dynasty, China's borders expanded greatly. Nurhachi (1569 – 1626)—the first Manchu Emperor and founder of the dynasty—made a conscious effort to avoid the mistakes made by the Mongols centuries before. He kept the tribal lands of Manchuria as a cultural base and altered the Ming bureaucratic system to admit only Manchu leaders. The highest government office and all important positions were held by Manchus. In this manner, they made use of Chinese ideas but were careful to remain in control of the bureaucracy. However, the administration at the capital city of Peking (Beijing) was a mix of Chinese and Manchu officials, so much so that the Qing came to be called a dyarchy or the “rule of two”. The problem the Manchus were faced with in China was their preservation as a ruling body despite their obvious minority, (only two percent of the entire population of China was Manchu). To do this they used a combined measure of Legalist and Confucian ideas. The ruling class amassed enormous material resources, which laid down the barrier of wealth. To keep the nobility from becoming corrupt, they instituted a class policy in which every son had to earn his father's rank. They also maintained a distance from the Chinese culture. Intermarriage and trade with the Chinese was illegal. Manchu traditions like the Banner System were preserved, and knowledge of the Manchu language was mandatory. To further the separation, all Chinese men were made to braid their hair in a queue as a token of their submission. The Opium War and its aftermath had a great influence on the Qing dynasty. The English, when told "Take away your opium, and your missionaries, and you will be welcome" chose to come with both and throw welcome to the wind. The fact that the English had the power in the first place to disregard the Emperor and his ambassadors was a blow to Chinese esteem. Suddenly these little European nations from far away were threatening the traditions and tenements kept by China for thousands of years. Losing the Opium War was the beginning of the end of the Manchu dynasty. Later, one of the Taiping leaders would state "Each year they [the Manchus] transform tens of millions of China's gold and silver into opium and extract several millions from the fat and marrow of the Chinese people and turn it into rouge and powder ... How could the rich not become poor? How could the poor abide by the law?" By 1850, years of leadership and comfort had taken their toll on the Qing dynasty—the nobility was indolent and corrupt and the military had become lax. The Emperor Hsien-Feng had not yet completely let go of the government, but he was not viewed as a strong ruler. There were rumors to the effect that the Emperor was ready to abandon China entirely. Hsien-Feng personified the waning of Qing glory: he was weak and ill. The Emperor stayed in Peking but gave all power of government to the Prince of Korchin—Seng-ko-lin-chin—and Yehonala—a favorite concubine with much power. The Taiping and Secret Societies Secret Societies, always a factor in Southern China, now rose to prominence. China, who had swept their ideas into back corners for fifty years, was now ready to listen to the radicals. The Taiping rebels secretly encouraged and allied with other groups, including a band called the Triad. On May 18, 1853, Triad members instigated the locals and took over the major shipping port of Amoy. They held onto the port despite imperial assault until November 11, executing all Manchu officials and foreigners during that time. Suddenly, the people of China realized that the Qing was no longer an absolute power. With that act, the Taipings awakened a nation to rebellion. The leader of the Taipings, Hong Hsiu-Ch'uan, shaped the entire rebellion and thus much of modern China. He was born on January 1, 1814 and lived in the farming community of Fu-yuan-shui in Kwangtan Province, South China. His father Hong Ching-yang was small independent farmer. Because Hong was an exceptionally bright child, his family hoped that he would pass the examinations in Canton and thus become one of the prestigious elite. They, therefore, sent him to school when he was seven, where he did well. In 1827, when Hong was fifteen, he was given his first examination, the preliminary. He passed this but failed the main examination for a sheng-yuan degree, which was the one that would have elevated his class. Hong tried to pass the exam several times until 1843. This incident may have fed his hostility towards the Qing and China's condition. He took an interest in politics and the government after he was converted to Christianity. His translation of the Christian doctrine formed the beliefs and ideology of the Taiping Rebellion. In 1837, Hong had a revelation which changed his life, career and outlook. At the time he was in Canton for his examinations, where he knew a Protestant missionary. Hong spent two months studying the bible doctrines under the missionary. Some years before, in 1835, Leang-afa—the first protestant Christian in China—had given Hong several papers about religion. Hong had not studied these until he was given a second pamphlet and began to look at them in more depth back at his home village. Hong was struck suddenly by sickness, leaving him unconscious for about four days. He claimed that, during the time he was in a coma, he had been taken up to Heaven to see Jesus, where he was informed that he was the younger brother of Jesus. For the next ten years, Hong joined Leang-afa as a street preacher. With several close friends, he founded the Society of God Worshippers and remained the head of that organization until the March of 1847, when he returned to Canton to study with Isaachar T. Roberts—who was an American Southern Baptist missionary who had adopted Hong as a special student, initially encouraging his ideas of rebellion. From these studies Hong created his own version of the Christian doctrine. He readily agreed that God was the maker of the universe, which may be because the Chinese could accept God as a father figure because ancestor worship had been a part of their culture for thousands of years. But he never accepted Jesus as a deity, and the entire idea of a Trinity seemed to him to be too similar to Confucian values. Despite the thorough assimilation of Western religious beliefs by the Taiping, their theology was more of a mosaic than a pure Christian sect. There was an innate sense of family in their doctrine, which hearkened back to Confucianism. Their idea, too, of bringing divinity into the reality of everyday life was more a corrupted version of Buddhism than Protestantism. Even their version of the Ten Commandments—called the Ten Heavenly Precepts—differed significantly from the bible. Their religion was a translation of a translation and completely their own creation. Not surprisingly, the missionary Roberts was to later change his mind about Hong, calling him and his fellow revolutionists "coolie kings" who were "crazy and unfit to rule." Although much of the "borrowing" from their traditional religions may have been subconscious, almost all of the Taiping propaganda and essay writing depended as much on Confucianism as on Christianity. Confucianism had a large influence on the Taiping religion. Hong recognized and incorporated several key Confucian tenets into his doctrine, such as converting the Five Human Relationships of Confucius to The Five Heavenly Relationships of the Taiping. The Classics, too, were a source of Taiping wisdom literature. Mencius, the early Confucian philosopher (4th century BCE) appealed especially to them because of his semi-Christian stress on the inherent goodness of humanity. In fact, the only point that the Taipings went directly against traditional religions was the role of women in society. The Taipings included women as commanders of forces, and several famous woman bandits played key roles in the rebellion as well. The Taipings thought that they were the chosen people of their god, with a mission to overthrow the wicked Manchu regime. Because they were a part of the Kingdom of Heaven, they believed the Manchus to be thieving usurpers and therefore incapable of a legitimate claim to the government. The goal of the Taipings from the start had been to take Nanking, and to spread their rule throughout the entirety of China. Though severely factionalized and having changed leaders several times, they managed to install a Taiping government in Nanking, stressing egalitarian values and claiming to be in the process of restoring China's glory. The Taipings formed a kingdom indeed, selecting kings on the basis of their purity and devotion. For instance, Yang Hsiu-ch'ing had previously been a charcoal seller, but he was chosen to be the Eastern King and later head of the entire rebellion. The Taipings as a fighting force were formidable but rather less than coherent. Their style was to collect an army as they went, inciting the populous to rebellion. Their first military success was the capture of Hupeh, after being held in the city of Yung-an by the Emperor's militia. They attempted in that same campaign to seize Kwangsi and Hunan but failed to hold either. This initial success was balanced by severe defeats at the hands of the imperial forces at sea, where the Emperor had far better material resources. Their battle record was inconsistent, with spurts of inspired fighting and long periods of relative inertia. By 1863 the Taiping Rebellion was falling apart. Holding the city of Nanking against imperial and foreign forces had become virtually impossible. Sometime in the June of 1862, the Hunan army was preparing to launch their final attack. Hung Jen-kan—the third and final leader of the Rebellion—had attempted during his rule to reevaluate the tenets and beliefs of the Taipings, as well as salvage the Taiping cause. This was not to be the case. Their dream of moving beyond Nanking seemed to be lost. Nanking fell to the army of Tseng Kuo-ch'uan on July 19th, 1864. The Taiping kings and leaders had planned an organized breakthrough, but the walls fell too suddenly for many to escape. Hong Hsiu-ch'uan had died in Nanking a month before, on June 1. His son was taken out of the city in the band of escapees and named the new Heavenly King or T’ien Wang. Every Taiping found by the Hunan army who did not renounce their faith and surrender was killed. The brother of the conquering general, Tseng Kuo-fan, wrote a report on the condition of Nanking after its siege. The report illustrates the intensity of Taipings even in the face of utter defeat: "Others searched the city for any rebels they could not find, and in three days killed over 100,000 men. The Ch'in-huai creek was filled with bodies ... Not one of the 100,000 rebels in Nanking surrendered themselves when the city was taken but in many cases gathered together and burned themselves and passed away without repentance." The initial response of the Manchus to the Taiping Rebellion was fairly straightforward. "Hong Hsiu-chuan's head, with that of the Ch'en-Huan, hung over a Peking gateway until it rotted, and so ended the lesson." However, there were far more aftershocks to come. The Manchu government, weak from a "debauched" emperor and the Opium War, could ultimately not withstand such a severe earthquake as the Taiping Rebellion. Long Term Effects of the Rebellion Although a technical failure, the Taiping Rebellion changed the way the Chinese government functioned. The devastation and loss of life in the Yangtze Valley left the once-fertile area a desert for the next hundred years. The Land Tax which the Qing leaned upon so heavily was simply no longer a source of any money at all. Soon, the Manchus were relying solely on the Maritime customs taken in by non-Chinese port operators, as well as on the sale of offices in the administration. The examination system fell into serious neglect and eventually passed away altogether. Now, the main way to advance in class was to buy into political rank. Province leaders and generals assumed a greater power than the central bureaucracy, because the Emperor had bestowed power upon warlords to raise a large enough army. Most of these armies remained under private command rather than returning to the Emperor, and the entire society became factionalized as a result. When the Qing dynasty fell in the early 1900s, it left a power vacuum. Foreign influence reached new heights, as the merchants and traders that had been so much a part of the late Manchu dynasty poured into China. Japan swiftly became the dominant power in the country. The Chinese economy in every respect increasingly became a subsidy of Japan, especially North and Northeast China. China was pushed into the modern world by force. Soon Japan began to take Chinese territory. In 1915 they began to assert a dominant role in ports and small cities in Manchuria and Shandong. This subversive method of war culminated in 1931 with the taking of Northeast China and the establishment of a puppet government called Manchukuo. China was taken from the inside out. The Taiping Rebellion changed the face of China. Every revolution that it inspired brought the country closer and closer to the rest of the world and to a communist ideal. Although the Taipings had heard neither of Karl Marx nor of Communism, they shared many of the same ideals. The Heavenly Kingdom of the Taipings is not so distant from the commune-oriented vision for the future. The Taiping leaders had attempted to establish a caste-free society based on egalitarian precepts. Land was evenly distributed. Slavery and the sale of women was outlawed, as were foot-binding, prostitution, arranged marriages, and polygamy. The Taipings were strongly against opium, alcohol, and tobacco. In short, the later Communist Revolution may have been but a realization of this secret society in China which operated in the mid-19th century. The Taiping Rebellion played a significant role in ending China's isolationist outlook. The Nian Rebellion, Boxer Rebellion, and the Communist Revolution all stem from the emotions and ideas which emerged from the Taiping vision. The influx of strange, new things had started in China an unsettling movement, away from the old ways of the ancestors and into the Western sphere of influence. The attempts of the Taipings to end this unrest and to reinstate a golden era are similar in many points to the Communist attempts in the same direction. After the Taiping Rebellion, China would never again be a realm unto herself. With the failure of the Taiping movement, the age of the emperors was finished. The Taiping movement itself was a product of the clash between the East and the West, which took place in the 19th century. The people of China, on the verge of joining the forming world community, took refuge briefly in their unique blend of traditional culture and modern idealism. For a time, they fended off the foreigners, the weak Emperors, the crowding countries, and strange cultures with this faith. When the Taiping Rebellion was crushed, the Chinese once again fled to an idealistic society, listening eagerly to the promises of Mao and Communism. In each of these cases, there was an inherent wish to return to the golden age of China, when the only threat to the unity of their lives was nature itself. The Taiping Rebellion was a reaction against progress, more importantly against change. That action continues to mold the current events in China, a sign that the people, not the central authority, can control the future of China. Continuous Crisis A string of civil disturbances followed the outbreak of Taiping Rebellion, many of which lasted for years and resulted in massive casualties. For instance, the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars pitted the Hakka against Punti (Cantonese people) in Guangdong between 1855 and 1867. The wars resulted in roughly a million dead with many more fleeing for their lives. The Nian Rebellion was an armed uprising that took place in northern China from 1851 to 1868, contemporaneously with the Taiping Rebellion in southern China. The rebellion caused immense economic devastation and loss of life that eventually became one of the major long-term factors in the collapse of the Qing regime in the early 20th century. The Dungan Revolt (1862 – 1877) was a mainly ethnic and religious war fought in western China. The revolt arose over a pricing dispute involving bamboo poles, when a Han merchant selling to a Hui did not receive the amount demanded for the goods. Up to 12 million Chinese Muslims were killed during the revolt as a result of anti-Hui massacres by Qing troops sent to suppress their revolt. Most civilian deaths were caused by war-induced famine. The Panthay Rebellion (1856-1873; discussed sometimes as part of the Dungan Revolt) was a rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other non-Muslim ethnic minorities against the Manchu rulers in southwestern Yunnan Province as part of a wave of Hui-led multi-ethnic unrest. It started after massacres of Hui perpetrated by the Manchu authorities. All rebellions were ultimately put down, but at enormous cost and with millions dead, seriously weakening the central imperial authority. The military banner system that the Manchus had relied upon for so long failed. Banner forces were unable to suppress the rebels and the government called upon local officials in the provinces, who raised “New Armies” that successfully crushed the challenges to Qing authority. As a result of that and with China failing to rebuild a strong central army, many local officials became warlords who used military power to effectively rule independently in their provinces. Zeng Guofan’s strategy to fight anti-Qing rebels was to rely on local gentry to raise a new type of military organization. This new force became known as the Xiang Army, a hybrid of local militia and a standing army. The army’s professional training was paid for out of regional coffers and funds its commanders—mostly members of the Chinese gentry—could muster. This model would eventually lead to the further weakening of the central authority over the military. Imperial China and the Western Powers As Western powers at the end of the 19th century attempted to extract economic and territorial concessions from China’s Qing dynasty, the Chinese people’s reaction to this crisis was mixed. Some Chinese embraced Western ideas and practices and hoped to reform Chinese society along Western lines. Other Chinese fiercely opposed all Western influences; this was reflected in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900. Learning Objectives - Analyze the reaction of the Chinese government to foreign aggression in the 19th century. - Assess the perceptions of Western ideas in China in the 19th and early 20th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Boxers: a martial society, known as the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to imperialist expansion and associated Christian missionary activity in China at the end of the 19th century; a reference to the members of Yihetuan who practiced martial arts and claimed supernatural invulnerability towards Western weaponry Boxer Rebellion: a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, toward the end of the Qing dynasty; was initiated by the Militia United in Righteousness (Yihetuan), known in English as the Boxers, and was motivated by proto-nationalist sentiments and opposition to imperialist expansion, as well as the associated Christian missionary activity Hundred Days’ Reform: a failed 103-day national cultural, political, and educational reform movement from June 11 to September 21, 1898 in late Qing dynasty China. It was undertaken by the young Guangxu Emperor and his reform-minded supporters. The movement was short-lived, ending in a coup d’état by powerful conservative opponents led by Empress Dowager Cixi Boxer Protocol: a treaty signed on September 7, 1901 that ended the Boxer Rebellion; participants included the Qing Empire of China and the Eight-Nation Alliance that provided military forces—Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, as well as Belgium, Spain, and the Netherlands; provided for the execution of government officials who supported the Boxers, foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and 450 million taels of silver to be paid as indemnity over the next 39 years to the eight nations involved Juye Incident: the killing of two German Catholic missionaries— Richard Henle and Franz-Xavier Nies of the Society of the Divine Word—in Juye County Shandong Province, China on November 1, 1897 Legation Quarter: the area in Beijing, China, where a number of foreign legations were located between 1861 and 1959; located in the Dongcheng District, immediately east of Tiananmen Square Gaselee Expedition: a successful relief by a multi-national military force to march to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks in 1900; part of the war of the Boxer Rebellion New Policies: a series of political, economical, military, cultural, and educational reforms implemented in the last decade of the Qing dynasty to keep it in power after the humiliating defeat in the Boxer Rebellion, starting in 1901 Seymour Expedition: an attempt by a multi-national military force to march to Beijing and protect the diplomatic legations and foreign nationals in the city from attacks by Boxers in 1900 (The Chinese army forced it to return to Tianjin, also known as Tientsin). Nine-Power Treaty: a 1922 treaty affirming the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China as per the Open Door Policy; signed on February 6, 1922, by all attendees to the Washington Naval Conference—the United States, Belgium, the British Empire, Republic of China, France, Italy, Imperial Japan, the Netherlands, and Portugal Lansing-Ishii Agreement: a diplomatic note signed between the United States and the Empire of Japan on November 2, 1917, over their disputes with regards to China (Both parties pledged to uphold the Open Door Policy in China with respect to its territorial and administrative integrity. However, the United States government also acknowledged that Japan had “special interests” in China due to its geographic proximity, which was in effect a contradiction to the Open Door Policy.) Open Door Policy: a term in foreign affairs initially used to refer to the United States policy established in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, as enunciated by Secretary of State John Hay; proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, preventing any one power from total control of the country The Self-Strengthening Movement In response to calamities within the Qing empire and threats from imperialism, the Self-Strengthening Movement emerged. This institutional reform in the second half of the 19th century aimed to westernize the empire, with prime emphasis on strengthening the military. However, the reform was undermined by corrupt officials, cynicism, and quarrels within the imperial family. The Guangxu Emperor and the reformists then launched a more comprehensive reform effort—the Hundred Days Reform (1898), but it was soon overturned by the conservatives under Empress Dowager Cixi in a military coup. The anti-Qing sentiment only strengthened as the internal chaos and foreign influences grew, finally leading to the Boxer Rebellion: a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that was a turning point in the history of Imperial China. The Boxer Rebellion The Boxer Rebellion—a violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that took place in China between 1899 and 1901—both exposed and deepened the weakening of the Qing dynasty’s power. The Righteous and Harmonious Fists (Yihetuan) arose in the inland sections of the northern coastal province of Shandong, an area long known for social unrest, religious sects, and martial societies. American Christian missionaries were probably the first to refer to the well-trained, athletic young men as Boxers because of the martial arts and calisthenics they practiced. Their primary practice was a type of spiritual possession that involved the whirling of swords, violent prostrations, and chanting incantations to deities. The excitement and moral force of these possession rituals were especially attractive to unemployed and powerless village men, many of whom were teenagers. The Boxers believed that through training, diet, martial arts, and prayer they could perform extraordinary feats. The tradition of possession and invulnerability went back several hundred years but took on special meaning against the powerful new weapons of the West, which included Christian missionaries. The Boxers, armed with rifles and swords, claimed supernatural invulnerability to blows of cannon, rifle shots, and knife attacks. Furthermore, the Boxer groups popularly claimed that millions of soldiers of Heaven would descend to assist them in purifying China of foreign oppression. Although women were not allowed to join the Boxer units, they formed their own groups called the Red Lanterns. Popular local lore reported that they were able to fly, walk on water, set Christians’ homes on fire, and stop foreign guns; all of these were powers that the male Boxers themselves did not claim. The only reliable account of their actual activities comes from the 1900 Battle of Tientsin, when they nursed wounded Boxers and did domestic work such as sewing and cleaning. Causes of Rebellion International tension and domestic unrest fueled the spread of the Boxer movement. Natural disasters and the rights granted to European missionaries were two of the foremost instigations. A drought followed by floods in Shandong province in 1897 – 1898 forced farmers to flee to cities and seek food. And treaties signed after the Second Opium War granted foreign missionaries the freedom to preach anywhere in China and buy land on which to build churches. The Juye Incident occurred in 1897, when a band of armed men who were likely members of the Big Swords Society—a traditional peasant self-defense group widespread in northern China—stormed the residence of a German missionary and killed two priests. When Kaiser Wilhelm II received news of these murders, he dispatched the German East Asia Squadron to occupy Jiaozhou Bay on the southern coast of the Shandong peninsula. Germany’s action triggered a scramble by Britain, France, Russia, and Japan to also secure their own spheres of influence in China. In 1898, a group of Boxers attacked the Christian community of Liyuantun village where a temple to the Jade Emperor had been converted into a Catholic church. This incident marked the first time the Boxers used the slogan “Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners” that would later characterize them. The Boxers called themselves the Militia United in Righteousness for the first time at the Battle of Senluo Temple (1899), a clash between Boxers and Qing government troops. By using the word militia rather than Boxers, they distanced themselves from forbidden martial arts sects and tried to give their movement the legitimacy of a group that defended orthodoxy. By 1900, the Qing dynasty was crumbling, and Chinese culture was under assault by powerful and unfamiliar religions and secular cultures. Despite the obvious internal weaknesses, the national crisis was widely seen as being caused by foreign aggression. Foreign powers had defeated China in several wars, asserted a right to promote Christianity, and imposed unequal treaties, under which foreigners and foreign companies in China were accorded special privileges, extraterritorial rights, and immunity from Chinese law; this caused resentment and xenophobic reactions among the Chinese. When France, Japan, Russia, and Germany carved out spheres of influence, it appeared to the Chinese that their nation would be dismembered, with foreign powers each ruling a part of the country. Spreading Rebellion The early growth of the Boxer movement coincided with the Hundred Days’ Reform (June 11 – September 21, 1898). Progressive Chinese officials, with support from Protestant missionaries, persuaded the Guangxu Emperor to institute sweeping reforms that alienated many conservative officials. Such opposition from conservative officials led Empress Dowager Cixi to intervene and reverse the reforms. The failure of the reform movement disillusioned many educated Chinese and thus further weakened the Qing government. After the reforms ended, the conservative Empress Dowager Cixi seized power and placed the reformist Guangxu Emperor under house arrest. In January 1900, with a majority of conservatives in the imperial court, Empress Dowager Cixi changed her long-standing policy of suppressing Boxers and issued edicts in their defense, causing protests from foreign powers. As a result, the Boxer movement spread rapidly. They burned Christian churches, killed Chinese Christians, and intimidated Chinese officials who stood in their way. After several months of growing violence against both the foreign and Christian presence in Shandong and the North China plain in June 1900, Boxer fighters, convinced they were invulnerable to foreign weapons, converged on Beijing. This resulted in foreigners and Chinese Christians seeking refuge in the Legation Quarter and the Eight-Nation Alliance sending the Seymour Expedition of Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, American, and Austrian troops to relieve the siege. The Expedition was stopped by the Boxers at the Battle of Langfang and forced to retreat. Due to the Alliance’s attack on the Dagu Forts, the Qing government in response sided with the Boxers and the initially hesitant Empress Dowager Cixi supported the Boxers. On June 21, 1900, she issued an Imperial Decree officially declaring war on the foreign powers. The Alliance formed the second, much larger Gaselee Expedition and finally reached Beijing, resulting in the Qing government’s evacuation to Xi’an. The Boxer Protocol signed on September 7, 1901 ended the war between the Qing Empire of China and the Eight-Nation Alliance. It provided for the execution of government officials who had supported the Boxers, for foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing, and for the payment of 450 million taels of silver—more than the government’s annual tax revenue—to be paid as indemnity over the course of the next 39 years to the eight nations involved. The Boxer Protocol led to official US government support of Chinese students studying in America. A large portion of the reparations paid to the United States was diverted to pay for the education of Chinese students in U.S. universities under the Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program. To prepare the students chosen for this program, an institute was established to teach the English language and serve as a preparatory school. When the first of these students returned to China, they taught subsequent students. From this institute was born Tsinghua University. Some of the reparation due to Britain was later earmarked for a similar program. And these programs led to increased Western influence in China. Carving Up China In the late-nineteenth century, the major imperial powers competed aggressively for domination of most of the world’s territory. Railroads supported increasing penetration of remote regions, and the telegraph rapidly communicated one nation’s victory to others around the world, empowering a sense of competition. Each imperial power felt that it had to defend its own territories and pre-empt the moves of others. The first durable trans-Atlantic telegraph cable, laid in 1866, connected the New and Old Worlds with a rapid communication link. The opening of the Suez canal in 1869 dramatically shortened the route to the Far East, just as the U.S. completed the transcontinental railroad. As regions of the Ottoman empire loosened their dependence on the central government of the Ottoman Sultan, the French, British, and Russians looked to expand their influence in that region. The “Scramble for Africa,” touched off in 1882 by the submission of the ruler of Tunis to a French resident, was followed by British intervention to secure its financial investments in Egypt. Over the next twenty years British, French, Belgian, and German troops, explorers, and investors carved up nearly all of the African continent. In the 1890s, the global scramble expanded to Asia, and new powers joined the race. Japan’s defeat of China in the Sino-Japanese war in 1895 put Taiwan and Korea under its control; this ensured Japan emerged as the next imperialist power in Asia. The United States joined the pack of genuine imperial powers with its victory in the Spanish-American War of 1898, which added Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the list of its colonial possessions. Russia, turning eastward, began building the trans-Siberian railroad in 1891 to connect its Asian regions closely to Moscow. The railroad reached the port of Vladivostok (meaning “Ruler in the East”) in 1916. Russia’s turn to the East inevitably brought it into conflict with the rival powers of northeast Asia: China, Korea, and Japan. As Britain and Russia competed in the “Great Game” for power over Central Asia, Britain allied with Japan in 1902 to balance Russian expansion. The multipower scramble for China, from 1895 to 1905, followed a similar pattern to that of Africa, but with very different results. Critique of the Break-up and Foreign Conquest of China Japan’s surprising defeat of the Qing empire instigated all the powers to secure spheres of influence connected to their economic interests, and fears of “slicing the Chinese cake” increased. Many writers predicted the imminent breakup of the empire into regions, each dominated by one imperial power. As it happened, the push to carve China into foreign spheres of interest coincided with a revolutionary transformation in the nature of international communication. Advances in telegraph transmission expedited the speed of journalistic reporting. At the same time—and more vivid and dramatic—the turn of the century saw a great leap forward in color printing. The lavish political cartoons in illustrated periodicals such as Punch in England and Puck in the United States are classic examples of this explosion in dramatic, colorful political commentary. They had counterparts, moreover, throughout Europe. The images below exhibit variants of the metaphor of the slicing of China, representing critiques from French, American, and British perspectives. One popular form of critiquing “the slicing of China” was through cartoons or comic images. In Puck, the American counterpart to the famous British humor magazine Punch, Louis Dalrymple sardonically juxtaposed U.S. expansion in and immediately after the Spanish-American War of 1898 against the contemporaneous scramble by other imperialist powers to carve up China. As in the French cartoon, “No Chance to Criticize” presents Russia, France, Germany, Japan, and England slicing the Chinese cake, but the not-so-subtle point of this cartoon was that while the United States self-righteously criticized the foreign scramble for spheres of influence in China and called for an “Open Door” policy there, it was in the process of establishing its own spheres of influence in the Caribbean and the Philippines. In Le Petit Journal Supplément Illustré, another French perspective on the matter appeared as “La France et La Russie. — Pas si vite! Nous sommes là.” In the foreground of the image England and Japan, who had just negotiated the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1902, find themselves surprised by Russia and France, who claim equal rights in slicing the Chinese cake. In the following cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, Britain—which held the dominant position in spheres of influence in China—confronts the rival claims of Russia and Germany, while the French cock squawks in the rear. In addition to cartoons or comic representations, visual rhetoric in the form of cartographic commentary was popular. Two maps published in Harper’s Weekly (1900) graphically depict the imperialist rivalries and tensions that accompanied the carving up of China. In “A Forecast of the Partition of China” spheres of influence are “forecasted,” revealing Russian, German, British, French, Japanese, and Italian claims in the beleaguered country. “Map of the Orient showing Manila, P.I. as the Geographical Centre of the Oriental Commercial Field” highlights the strategic significance of the U.S. conquest and colonization of the Philippines in 1899 – 1900, which placed America at “the geographical centre of the Oriental commercial field.” The anxiety over China’s partition shown in the previous two maps helps to explain why U.S. foreign policy called for an “open door” in China, in which all foreign powers had equal rights to exploit China’s territory, without reserved spheres of influence. Along with the technological transformation was the emergence of international postal regulations that facilitated the global dissemination of picture postcards. Images produced in one country were frequently reproduced for a global audience—sometimes so quickly that the original place of origin became obscured. Naturally, this heightened popular awareness of international affairs. Beyond this, it also stimulated international give-and-take in the form of graphic replication, imitation, adaptation, and even outright parody. A particularly colorful example of this new world of pictorial global sharing was a bilingual English and Chinese political map of foreign encroachment on China at the time of the Boxer uprising. Of uncertain origin, this was disseminated in several variations. The colloquial correctness of English notations on the map make some kind of British-Chinese collaboration plausible. One version—reproduced in the American magazine Leslie’s Weekly in 1900—assigns authorship to a Chinese artist in Hong Kong in July 1899. The most sophisticated and often reproduced rendering of this elaborate geopolitical commentary—replete with the Russian bear, British lion, American eagle, French frog, Japanese rising sun, and caricatures of the Chinese—bears a bold border of Chinese ideographs. Clearly, this was directed to Chinese (and possibly Japanese) audiences. In the following image the bold lettering in the borders reads “Picture of Current Times” (top), “Obvious in One Glance” (left), and “It Speaks for Itself” (right). The Russian bear approaches from Siberia. Japan, who would go to war with Russia in 1904, is identified as “The Rising Sun” and accompanied by a parenthetical declaration that “John Bull & I will watch the bear.” (A reference to the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902.) England—here depicted as a lion (rather than the bulldog on the 1899 map)—sinks its claws into south China, while a circular sausage with the legend “German Sausage Ambitions” surrounds Shandong. The American eagle, approaching from the Philippines, bears the quotation “Blood is thicker than water,” a famous comment made by a U.S. admiral in 1859 indicating that the U.S. would side with Britain in the Second Opium War. France, depicted as a frog, is ensconced in Southeast Asia and reaches toward China, with the words “Fashoda: Colonial Expansion” on its back, referring to the clash between British and French troops in East Africa in 1898. The Chinese figures (which do not appear on the 1899 version of the map) depict Manchu soldiers, coolie laborers, sleeping officials, and literati carousing with mistresses while the wild beasts prowl. Imperialist Rivalries Although the imperial powers joined together to raise an Eight Nation Army to relieve the siege by the Boxers, each of the major powers had its own special relationship with China and its own view of its geopolitical interests. In sum, each of the imperial powers had its particular motives for sending troops to China, and each of them distrusted the others. The deluge of global imagery from this period thus not only reveals a common racial prejudice against savage Orientals, but also shows the deep tensions between the powers that were only temporarily soothed by the joint expedition. Great Britain The British were still the predominant world imperial power, as they had been during the nineteenth century since the defeat of Napoleon. Their primary interests in China were commercial, and they focused most of their attention on the lower Yangzi valley, while they sent steamships up the Yangzi to obtain goods from the interior. They also held Hong Kong and developed substantial commerce in the Canton region. But British dominance, based on its control of the oceans and its large colony in India, was coming under challenge from several fronts. Germany began building a navy to contest British supremacy, while the French moved to take control of Indochina and extend their interests into south China. Russia presented a constant imagined threat to India as it moved into Central Asia. From 1899 to 1902, British troops in South Africa fought a war against two independent republics founded by Dutch Afrikaners, the Transvaal and the Oranje Vrijstaat. Early victories by the British were not decisive, as the Boers waged a drawn-out guerrilla war campaign, just as the Filipinos were doing against American forces at the same time. Both countries used brutal tactics of internment of civilian populations in concentration camps and ravaging of the countryside to force surrender by the farmer fighters. The popular press, however, showed a sanitized picture of the war, with traditional pictures and lithographs of military operations. But the Boers were depicted as savages, analogous to the Boxers in their closeness to the earth and rejection of the British civilizing mission. France The French, unlike the British, had never created a successful East India Company to participate in the Canton trading system, and they had not traded in opium. Initially, their primary interest in China was the promotion and protection of Christianity. They joined with the British in 1856 to make war on China, benefiting the most from the provisions of the treaty ending the Second Opium War (1856 – 1860), which allowed missionary access to the Chinese interior. Beginning in the late-nineteenth century, they moved to take control of Indochina. In 1884, they fought their first independent war with China, when the court in Vietnam appealed for aid from China against French incursions. The French victory in the Sino-French war gave the French unimpeded control of Indochina, and the opportunity to spread their influence in south and southwest China. They sent commercial missions to the region to explore mineral and plant resources and to plan for railroad development. Germany Germany, unified as a nation state in 1870, soon felt that it, too, needed an imperial mission to make itself into a recognized world power and to secure sources of raw materials for its rapid industrialization. Germany joined the struggle to carve up Africa, established a colony in Samoa, and looked for a chance to take a piece of Chinese territory. German missionaries also penetrated the Shandong province under government protection beginning in the 1890s. When Chinese murdered two German missionaries in 1897, the Germans found their pretext and occupied Jiaozhou on the coast of Shandong, forcing the Chinese government to lease the territory to them for 99 years. Jiaozhou became a popular tourist destination for Germans, who sent back postcards depicting both its exotic markets and the availability of familiar German products like beer and sausages. Additionally, the Germans founded the first major beer factory in Jiaozhou’s capital of Qingdao in 1903; Tsingtao beer is still the most popular Chinese beer sold abroad. And postcards produced by Germans celebrated the harmonious mingling of different races—white, Asian, and black—in the new German empire. The United States The United States was also a latecomer to the cause of imperialism in Asia. Although Commodore Matthew Perry’s ships had begun the opening of Japan in 1853, and Americans eagerly participated in both the Canton trade and the chances to trade in opium after the opening of Chinese ports, Americans still saw themselves as different from European powers who aimed to occupy territory in China. American missionaries and businessmen hoped to help Asian peoples become richer and stronger without imposing discriminatory treaties on them and they argued that free trade would benefit all countries equally. The American proposal for an “Open Door” that made Chinese markets available to all countries equally implied that no single power could occupy territory with exclusive rights. All the other imperial powers, who did occupy Chinese territory, paid lip service to the American proposal but ignored it in practice. For much of the nineteenth century the U.S., with its huge continental territory, was either insulated from economic dependence on the wider world across the Pacific, or it was too involved in the domestic repercussions of the Civil War to pay attention to geopolitical concerns. But as its industrial economy needed more overseas markets and materials from abroad, and its expansion continued beyond the west coast into the Pacific, the U.S. inexorably became an imperial power in its own right. Promoters of open imperialist annexations argued that the U.S. needed to compete for global commercial supremacy by securing raw materials and territories. American businessmen staged a coup in Hawaii in 1893, and the U.S. annexed the islands in 1898. The takeover of the Philippines from Spain in 1898 was followed by a brutal campaign to suppress the anti-imperialist Filipino force led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Popular journalists depicted the U.S. as a benevolent school teacher lifting the burden of Catholic medievalism from the ordinary Filipino peasant, as well as repelling the corrupt banditry of Aguinaldo and his rebels. Geopolitical analysts focused on the Philippines as the key gateway to Asia for American commerce. The U.S. experience in the Philippines certainly affected views of the role of U.S. troops in the relief of the Boxer siege of foreign legations in Beijing. Images of benevolence toward smaller dark-skinned people transferred easily from one Asian country to another, but the awareness that Asian peoples could resist white domination with harsh military action prepared the American public to accept that the Boxers represented yet another savage, inexplicable outburst by ungrateful Asians against their white benefactors. Chinese immigration to the U.S. also added a distinctive element to the American image of the Orient. Chinese had begun to leave Canton in significant numbers in the 1850s to flee the disturbances of the Taiping rebellion (1850 – 64) and to participate in the gold rush in America. During the 1860s many Chinese immigrants worked to build the first transcontinental railroad in America, which was completed in 1869. The Burlingame treaty of 1868, which normalized relations between China and the U.S. also provided for free immigration of Chinese but did not allow Chinese to become citizens. In this era, many Americans believed that non-Europeans were racially inferior and incapable of becoming citizens of their republic. Japan Of all the nations engaged in the Boxer expedition, Japan and Russia had the most well-defined material and territorial interests to protect, and the most reason to distrust each other. In the Sino-Japanese war of 1895, Japan had established preeminent influence over Korea, forcing Korea open to Japanese trade and driving out the pro-Chinese faction in the country. Japan saw its role in Korea in the same way as the other imperial powers viewed their own colonial actions; Japan claimed to bring “enlightenment” in the form of modern science and culture to backward peoples. Japan had no missionaries to protect in China, and it was not a target of Boxer attacks, but it identified itself with the Western powers’ goal of forcing China to accept trade and modern culture, and it saw advantages in joining the Western expedition as a way of raising its status among the Western powers. Not until the signing of the Anglo-Japanese alliance of 1902, directed against Russia, could Japan gain recognition of its role as one of the major world powers. Its participation in the Boxer expedition, for which it sent the largest number of troops and often took the lead in attacks, showed that Japanese could fight for the Western version of “civilization” even more effectively than the Westerners themselves. Most Japanese graphic renderings of the multinational intervention tended to be detailed and relatively straightforward nationalistic depictions that emphasized the discipline of Japan’s military forces and their equality to and close collaboration with the Western powers. The Japanese sense of perfect equivalence to the Western powers was rarely reciprocated, however. On the contrary, most European and American depictions of the foreign forces in China routinely depicted the Japanese as “little men”—not only vis-à-vis the Westerners, but vis-à-vis China and the Chinese as well. A full-page treatment in Harper’s Weekly in early 1900—five full years after Japan had crushed China in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 to 1895—reflected the resilience of this lingering anti-Japanese condescension. Russia Russia was the power with the longest historical engagement with China, having signed its first treaties with the Qing dynasty in 1689 and 1727. The early period of equitable interaction changed in the late-nineteenth century, when Russia took advantage of China’s defeat in the Second Opium War to gain its own favorable treaty, sending troops into the Ili valley during the Muslim uprisings of the 1870s, where they stayed until China forced them out diplomatically in 1881. By the 1890s, Russia had developed its commercial interests on the Pacific coast, founding the town of Vladivostok in 1880. But Russian interests in the Far East faced resistance both from the British, who feared a potential move against India, and from Japan, which aimed for uncontested influence in Korea. Russia, like Japan, had no missionary activities in China and was not a target of Boxer attacks, but it saw the foreign expedition as a golden opportunity to take advantage once again of China’s weakness and other powers’ interests to advance its own at low cost. The Russian Minister for War General Alexi Kuropatkin, as well as the Minister of Finance Count Sergei Witte, saw the Boxer expedition as a perfect excuse for seizing Manchuria and turning it into a Russian colony. Dangerous China: Another Kind of China Peril As a general rule, most foreign caricatures of China depicted the country as either a formidable menace to the world or a small backwater ripe for commercial penetration. A cartoon published in the American periodical Judge in 1898, as the Boxer depredations were about to rise to a crescendo, conveyed a somewhat different picture. Here the world was a “see-saw,” in which the Anglo-American powers were engaged in a uneven “balance of power” game vis-a-vis the other major nations of the world. In this power struggle, some countries already had fallen off the see-saw— and China was hanging on for dear life and perilously close to falling also. Awakening China As the Boxer uprising flared into the multinational intervention, some graphic renderings depicted an even more precarious picture of the see-saw of imperialist rivalries. In this situation, China itself became a potential source of global discord—a giant firecracker; a dark and dangerous terrain to navigate, full of traps that might lead to future wars; a “sword of Damocles” hanging by a thread over the heads of the interventionist powers. The danger was multifold. Intervention threatened to intensify already-existing rivalries among the imperialist powers (as indeed happened, when the intervention was followed four years later by war between Tsarist Russia and Japan). At the same time, the humiliation of China threatened to awaken the nation in truly perilous ways. This latter premonition became especially strong in 1901. The victorious foreign powers had weakened the Qing court by imposing a harsh indemnity on it, and by forcing it to execute officials who had stirred up the Boxers, but they shared an interest in keeping the dynasty alive. They feared the possibility of another uprising of the Chinese masses and the onset of conflict between the imperial powers themselves. This China, unlike the slain dragon, as firecracker or as sword of Damocles, threatened to blow up the imperial world order. Consequences of the Boxer Rebellion The European great powers finally ceased their ambitions to colonize China, having learned from the Boxer Rebellion that it was best to deal with China’s ruling dynasty, rather than directly with the Chinese people. Concurrently, this period marks the ceding of European great power interference in Chinese affairs, with the Japanese replacing the Europeans as the dominant power for their lopsided involvement in the war against the Boxers, as well as their victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894 – 95). With the toppling of the Qing that followed and the rise of the nationalist Kuomintang, European sway within China was reduced to symbolic status. In 1900, Russia occupied Manchuria, a move that threatened Anglo-American hopes of maintaining what remained of China’s territorial integrity and the country’s openness to commerce under the Open Door Policy. Japan’s clash with Russia over Liaodong and other provinces in eastern Manchuria, due to the Russian refusal to honor the terms of the Boxer protocol that called for their withdrawal, led to the Russo-Japanese War when two years of negotiations broke down in 1904. Russia was ultimately defeated by an increasingly confident Japan. After taking Manchuria in 1905, Japan came to dominate Asian affairs both militarily and culturally. Besides paying reparations to European powers and Japan due to its support of the Boxers, the government of the Empress Dowager Cixi reluctantly started some reforms despite her previous views. Under her reforms known as the New Policies started in 1901, the imperial examination system for government service was eliminated and as a result the system of education through Chinese classics was replaced with a European liberal system that led to university degrees. Along with the formation of new military and police organizations, the reforms also simplified central bureaucracy and revamped taxation policies. From the beginning, views differed as to whether the Boxers were better seen as anti-imperialist, patriotic, and proto-nationalist or as violent, irrational, and futile opponents of inevitable change. More recently, Chinese historians have undermined the dominant history textbook narrative in China, which presents the Boxer Uprising as an admirable expression of patriotism. The historians emphasize the damage and suffering that the rebellion caused and note that the majority of the Boxer rebels were both violent and xenophobic. This reinterpretation remains controversial in China. The Open Door Policy At the conclusion of Boxer Rebellion, the United States continued to advocate for and Open Door Policy concerning China. After winning the Spanish-American War of 1898 and acquiring the Philippine Islands, the United States also increased its Asian presence and was expecting to further its commercial and political interest in China. However, the United States felt threatened by other powers’ much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market should the country be partitioned. As a response, U.S. diplomat William Woodville Rockhill formulated the Open Door Policy to safeguard American business opportunities and interests in China. In 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia, asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China. The Open Door Policy stated that all nations, including the United States, could enjoy equal access to the Chinese market. In reply, each country tried to evade Hay’s request, taking the position that it could not commit itself until the other nations had complied. However, Hay announced that each of the powers had granted consent in principle. In 1900, Britain and Germany signed the Yangtze Agreement, which provided that they would oppose the partition of China into spheres of influence. The agreement was an endorsement of the Open Door Policy. Nonetheless, competition between the various powers for special concessions within Qing dynasty China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and privilege continued unabated. Open Door Policy in Practice In 1902, the United States government protested the Russian encroachment in Manchuria after the Boxer Rebellion as a violation of the Open Door Policy. When Japan replaced Russia in southern Manchuria after the Russo-Japanese War (1904 – 05), the Japanese and U.S. governments pledged to maintain a policy of equality in Manchuria. In 1917, a diplomatic note was signed between the United States and Japan to regulate disputes over China. Signed by U.S. Secretary of State Robert Lansing and Japanese special envoy Ishii Kikujirō—and known as the Lansing-Ishii Agreement, the note pledged to uphold the Open Door Policy in China with respect to its territorial and administrative integrity. However, the United States government also acknowledged that Japan had “special interests” in China due to its geographic proximity, especially in those areas of China adjacent to Japanese territory, which was in effect a contradiction to the Open Door Policy. In a secret protocol attached to the public note, both parties agreed not to take advantage of the special opportunities presented by World War I to seek special rights or privileges in China at the expense of other nations allied in the war effort against Germany. At the time, the Lansing-Ishii Agreement was touted as evidence that Japan and the United States had laid to rest their increasingly bitter rivalry over China, and the Agreement was hailed as a landmark in Japan-U.S. relations. However, critics soon realized that the vagueness of the Agreement meant that nothing had really been decided after two months of talks. The Lansing-Ishii Agreement was replaced in 1923 by the Nine-Power Treaty. During the Washington Naval Conference of 1921 – 1922, the United States government again raised the Open Door Policy as an international issue and had all of the attendees (United States, Republic of China, Imperial Japan, France, Great Britain, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, and Portugal) sign the Nine-Power Treaty, which intended to make the Open Door Policy international law. The Nine-Power Treaty affirmed the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China as per the Open Door Policy. It also effectively prompted Japan to return territorial control of Shandong province (a former German holding in China controlled by Japan as a result of World War I) to the Republic of China. The Nine-Power Treaty lacked any enforcement regulations, and when violated by Japan during its invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and creation of Manchukuo, the United States could do little more than issue protests and impose economic sanctions. In 1937, the signatories of the Nine-Power Treaty convened in Brussels for the Nine Power Treaty Conference after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, but to no avail. World War II effectively violated the Nine-Power Treaty. In conclusion, the Open Door Policy was a principle that was never formally adopted via treaty or international law. It was invoked or alluded to but never enforced as such. In practice, it was used to mediate competing interests of the colonial powers without much meaningful input from the Chinese, creating lingering resentment and causing it to later be seen as a symbol of national humiliation by Chinese historians. Primary Source: Fei Ch'i-hao: The Boxer Rebellion, 1900 Fei Ch'i-hao was a Chinese Christian. Here he recounts the activities of the millenialist "Boxers" in the Boxer Rebellion of 1900. The Gathering of the Storm The people of Shansi are naturally timid and gentle, not given to making disturbances, being the most peaceable people in China. So our Shansi Christians were hopeful for themselves, even when the reports from the coast grew more alarming. But there was one thing which caused us deep apprehension, and that was the fact that the wicked, cruel YU Hsien, the hater of foreigners, was the newly appointed Governor of Shansi. He had previously promoted the Boxer movement in Shantung, and had persuaded the Empress Dowager that the Boxers had supernatural powers and were true patriots. Early in June my college friend K'ung Hsiang Hsi came back from T'ungchou for his vacation, reporting that the state of affairs there and at Peking was growing worse, that the local officials were powerless against the Boxers, and that the Boxers, armed with swords, were constantly threatening Christians scattered in the country. From this time we had no communication with Tientsin or Peking. All travellers were searched, and if discovered bearing foreign letters they were killed. So though several times messengers were started out to carry our letters to the coast, they were turned back by the Boxers before they had gone far. It was not long before the Boxers, like a pestilence, had spread all over Shansi. School had not closed yet in Fen Chou Fu, but as the feeling of alarm deepened, fathers came to take their boys home, and school was dismissed before the end of June. Mr. and Mrs. Lundgren and Miss Eldred of the China Inland Mission had come to Mrs. Price's about the middle of June, and after the Boxer trouble began they were unable to leave. Mr. and Mrs. Lundgren soon heard that their mission at P'ing Yao had been burned. During the two long months that followed not a word reached us from beyond the mountains. The church in Shansi walked in darkness, not seeing the way before it. The wicked Governor, Yü Hsien, scattered proclamations broadcast. These stated that the foreign religions overthrew morality and inflamed men to do evil, so now gods and men were stirred up against them, and Heaven's legions had been sent to exterminate the foreign devils. Moreover there were the Boxers, faithful to their sovereign, loyal to their country, determined to unite in wiping out the foreign religion. He also offered a reward to all who killed foreigners, either titles or office or money. When the highest official in the province took such a stand in favor of the Boxers, what could inferior officials do? People and officials bowed to his will, and all who enlisted as Boxers were in high favor. It was a time of license and anarchy, when not only Christians were killed, but hundreds of others against whom individual Boxers had a grudge. Crowds of people kept passing our mission gate to see what might be happening, for the city was full of rumors. "The foreigners have all fled." "Many foreigners from other places have gathered here." "A great cannon has been mounted at the mission gate." "The foreigners have hired men to poison wells, and to smear gates with blood." I was staying in the compound with the Prices, inside the west gate of the city, and Mr. and Mrs. Atwater, with their children, Bertha and Celia, lived near the east gate. On the 28th of June all day long a mob of one or two hundred roughs, with crowds of boys, stood at the gate of the Atwater place, shouting: "Kill the foreigners, loot the houses." Mr. Atwater came out once and addressed the crowd: "Friends, don't make this disturbance; whoever would like to come in, I invite to come, and we will talk together." When the crowd saw Mr. Atwater come out, they all retreated, but when he shut the gate they thronged back again with mad shouts. This happened several times. By six or seven in the evening the crowd had increased and gathered courage. The gate was broken down and they surged in, some shouting, some laying hands on whatever they could find to steal, some throwing stones and brickbats at the windows. As they rushed in, Mr. Atwater and his family walked through their midst and took refuge in the Yamen of the District Magistrate, which was near by. The Magistrate, not even waiting for his official chair, ran at once to the mission and arrested two men with his own hands. His attendants followed close behind him, and the mob scattered. The Magistrate then sent soldiers to stand guard at the mission gate, and the Atwaters came to live with the Prices. We expected the mob to make an attack on us that same night, but we were left in peace... Late in july a proclamation of the Governor was posted in the city in which occurred the words, "Exterminate foreigners, kill devils." Native Christians must leave the church or pay the penalty with their lives. Li Yij and I talked long and earnestly over plans for saving the lives of our beloved missionaries. "You must not stay here waiting for death," we said. Yet we realized how difficult it would be to escape. Foreigners with light hair and fair faces are not easily disguised. Then where could they go? Eastward toward the coast all was in tumult. Perhaps the provinces to the south were just as bad. Our best way would be to find a place of concealment in the mountains. Li Y0 and I thought that the chances of escape would be better if the missionaries divided into two companies; they must carry food, clothing, and bedding, and the large company would surely attract attention. Moreover, if they were in two parties, and one was killed, the other might escape. So Li Yü and I went to talk the matter over with Mr. Han, the former helper, and a Deacon Wang. Both of these men had recanted, but they still loved their foreign friends. Deacon Wang, who lived in a village over ten miles from Fen Chou Fu, wished to conceal Mr. and Mrs. Price and little Florence in his home for a day or two, and then take them very secretly to a broken-down temple in the mountains. Li Yü said to me: "If you can escape with Mr. and Mrs. Price to the mountains, I will try to take the Atwaters, Mr. and Mrs. Lundgren, and Miss Eldred to another place in the mountains." But when I proposed this plan to Mr. and Mrs. Price, they said: "We missionaries do not wish to be separated. We must be in one place, and if we die we want to die together." When I spoke to them again about going, they said: "Thank you for your love, but we do not want to desert the other missionaries." "You will not be deserting them," I pleaded. "If you decide to flee with me, Mr. Li will do his best to escape with the others." Then I brought forward all my arguments to persuade them. Again all consulted together, and decided to go. I think this was the last day of July-the very day of the Tai Ku tragedy. Mr. and Mrs. Price made up two bundles of baggage and gave them to Mr. Han, to be carried secretly to Deacon Wang's home. Mr. Han paid a large price for a covered cart to wait for us secretly at ten o'clock in the evening at the gate of an old temple north of the mission. We were to walk to the cart, as it would attract attention if the cart stopped near the mission. We could not leave by the front gate, for the four Yamen men were guarding it; and patrolling the streets in front by day and night were twenty soldiers, ostensibly protecting us, but, as we surmised, stationed there to prevent the escape of foreigners. I went privately to the back of the compound and unlocked an unused gate, removing also a stone which helped to keep it shut. I had already made up a bundle to carry with me, and asked Mr. Jen, a Chirstian inquirer, to take care of it while I was helping Mr. and Mrs. Price to get ready. After I had opened the gate I asked Mr. Jen to wait there until I went into the south court to call the Prices. Man proposes, but God disposes. A Mr. Wang who had often come to the mission knew that we were planning to escape that night and saw me give my bundle to Mr. Jen. Thinking that it must contain some valuable things belonging to the Prices, an evil thought entered his heart. He watched when Mr. Jen laid the bundle in a small empty room close by the gate, and after he came out, Mr. Wang went into the room. Mr. Jen thought nothing of this, supposing that Mr. Wang was a friend. But in a minute he saw Mr. Wang rush out of the room, leap over the wall, and run away. Going at once into the room and not finding the bundle, he lost his head completely, and set up a loud wail. His one thought was that he had been faithless to his trust, and sitting down in the back gate which I had opened so secretly, he cried at the top of his voice, thus bringing to naught our carefully laid plans to escape. Up ran the four Yamen men and the soldiers from the street. Everyone in the compound appeared on the scene. When I heard his outcry I thought that he had received some serious injury. All gathered about him asking his trouble, but overcome with emotion he jumped up and down, slapping his legs and crying lustily. Finally he managed to say through his tears, "Mr. Fay [Fei], Mr. Wang has stolen the things which you gave me. "When I heard this I could neither laugh nor cry nor storm at him. The Yamen men and soldiers at once picked up their lanterns and began to search. When they saw that the back gate had been unlocked and the stone removed, not knowing that I had done it, they began to scold and mutter: "These things! How contemptible they are! When did they open this gate in order to steal the foreigners' things?" As they muttered they locked the gate and replaced the stone, then left two men to guard it. It was after midnight when this commotion was over, and every gate was guarded. Mr. Price and I saw that it would be impossible to get out that night. Even if we could leave the compound, we could not reach Deacon Wang's before daylight. If we attempted it, the Prices would not be saved, and Deacon Wang's whole family would be endangered. So I went alone outside the compound to tell Mr. Han to dismiss the cart. As soon as he saw me, he said quickly: "It is indeed well that the Prices have not come. I just came across several thieves, and was mistaken for one of their company. One of them said to me, 'If you get anything, you must divide with me.' If the Prices had come out, I fear they would have been killed." The next day we consulted again about flight. Li Yii said: "Let us flee all together to the mountains from thirty to sixty miles away." So we hired a large cart and loaded it with food and other necessities, and sent it ahead of us into the mountains. Two Christian inquirers went with the cart to guard it. When it had entered the mountains about seven miles from the city, suddenly a man ran up and said to the inquirers: "Run quick for your lives! Your mission in the city is burning, and the foreigners have all been killed." As soon as they had jumped down from the cart and run away, rascals came up and stole all that was on the cart. When we heard this we gave up all hope of escape, especially as we were told that bad men in the city had heard of our intention, and were hiding outside the city day and night ready to kill and rob the foreigners if they should appear. So we talked no more of fleeing, but committed our lives into the hands of our Heavenly Father, to do as seemed to Him best. We had little hope that we would be saved. Still we kept guard every night, Mr. Atwater and Mr. Lundgren being on duty the first half of the night, and Mr. Price and I the last half. At that time all of the servants had left us, and Mrs. Price did all the cooking, Mrs. Lundgren and Miss Eldred helping her. It was the hottest time in summer, and Mrs. Price stood over the stove with flushed face wet with perspiration. Li Y0 and I were so sorry for her, and wanted to help her, but alas! neither of us knew how to cook foreign food, so we could only wash the dishes and help to wash the clothes. Li Yü was so helpful those days. He alone went outside the compound to see the Magistrate, to transact business, to purchase food, and every day to get the news. August had come, and we were still alive. Could it be that God wishing to show His mighty power, would out of that whole province of Shansi save the missionaries at Fen Chou Fu and Tai Ku?The second day of August, a little after noon, a man came into our compound with the saddest story that our ears had heard during those sad summer days. He was Mrs. Clapp's cook, and two days before, in the afternoon, he had fled from the Tai Ku compound when flame and sword and rifle were doing their murderous work. As he fled he saw Mr. Clapp, Mr. Williams, and Mr. Davis making a last vain effort to keep back the mob of hundreds of soldiers and Boxers, and saw Mrs. Clapp, Miss Partridge, Miss Bird, and Ruth taking refuge in a little court in the back of the compound. Miss Bird had said to him as he ran: "Be quick! be quick! " Over the compound wall, then the city wall, he had taken shelter in a field of grain, where he still heard the howling of the mob and saw the heavens gray with smoke from the burning buildings. He hid in the grain until morning broke, then started on his journey to Fen Chou Fu. So to our little company waiting so long in the valley of the shadow of death, came the tidings that our Tai Ku missionaries had crossed the river. Several native Christians who counted not their lives dear unto themselves, had gone with the martyr band. Eagerly I asked about my sister, her husband and child. The messenger did not know whether they were living or dead---only that they had been staying in the mission buildings outside the city. Two days later full accounts of the massacre reached us, and I knew that they were among the slain. Bitter were the tears which we shed together that afternoon. It seemed as if my heart was breaking as I thought of the cruel death of those whom I loved so much, and whom I should never again see on earth. What words can tell my grief? I could not sleep that night, nor for many nights following. I thought how lovingly Mr. and Mrs. Clapp had nursed me through my long illness. I wept for Miss Bird, who had sympathized with me and helped me. "My dear ones, my dear ones, who loved and helped me as if I were your very flesh and blood, who brought so much joy and peace to the lonely one far from his home, who worked so earnestly for God, who pitied and helped the suffering and poor, would that I could have died for you! Could my death have saved one of You, gladly would I have laid down my life. "The Tai Ku missionaries were gone, the Christians were killed or scattered, the buildings were all burned. We of Fen Chou Fu alone were left. We all thought that our day was at hand, but God still kept us for nearly two weeks. And now I want to tell you the story of those remaining days. Last Days at Fen Chou Fu The next day after we heard of the Tai Ku tragedy a man ran in to tell us that several hundred Boxers were coming from the east. They were those who had killed the missionaries at Tai Ku, and now they were resting in a village outside the east gate, prepared to attack our mission that afternoon. We all believed this report, for we were hourly expecting death. There was nothing the foreigners could do but to wait for the end. Mr. Price urged me to leave them at once and flee. Mr. Price, Mrs. Atwater, Mrs. Lundgren, and Miss Eldred all gave me letters to home friends. All of my foreign friends shook hands with me at parting, and Mrs. Atwater said, with tears in her eyes:"May the Lord preserve your life, and enable you to tell our story to others."Miss Eldred had prepared for herself a belt into which was stitched forty taels of silver. She thought that she was standing at the gate of death and would have no use for money, so she gave it to me for my travelling expenses. Mrs. Price gave me her gold watch and an envelope on which an address was written, and asked me to take the watch to Tientsin and find someone who would sent it to her father. Before I went out of the I gate I saw Mrs. Price holding her little daughter to her heart, kissing her through her tears, and heard her say: "If the Boxers come today, I want my little Florence to go before I do." My heart was pierced with grief as I saw the sad plight of my friends, but I could do nothing for them. Had I died with them it could not have helped them. So we parted with many tears. While I was away the Magistrate had sent for Li Yü and demanded that all the firearms of the foreigners be given up to him. Li Yü replied, "I know the missionaries will use their weapons only in self-defense. "The Magistrate was very angry, and ordered that Li Yü be beaten three hundred blows, with eighty additional blows on his lips because he had used the word 'I' in speaking to the Magistrate, instead of the humble "little one" which was customary. Li Yü was then locked in the jail, and the Magistrate sent men to the mission to demand the firearms. The missionaries could not refuse to comply, so their two shotguns and two revolvers were given up. In this time of need two Christians named Chang and Tien came to help the missionaries. They worked for Mrs. Price to the last. The sufferings of the missionaries were indeed sore. Their patience and perfect trust in God greatly moved my heart. In the summer heat Mrs. Price three times a day hung over the stove preparing food for her family of ten, yet I never heard a word of complaint. Her face was always peaceful, and often she sang as she went about her work. One evening when we were all standing in the yard together Mrs. Price said to me: "These days my thoughts are much on 'the things above.' Sometimes when I think of the sufferings through which my loved friends passed it seems as if a voice from heaven said to me, 'Dear sister, see how happy we are now; all of earth's sufferings are over, and if our sorrows on earth are compared with our bliss in heaven, they are nothing, nothing."' Miss Eldred was very young, and had come from England only a year or two before, so she could speak little Chinese. The expression of her gentle face moved one to pity. When she was not helping Mrs. Price, she played outdoors with the three children, and gave Mrs. Price's little daughter music lessons. We still patrolled the place at night, I continuing to take my turn with Mr. Price in the last half of the night. So I had an opportunity for forming a most intimate friendship with Mr. Price. He told me many things during those long hours, sometimes relating his own experiences when a soldier during the American Civil War. Every day at sunset I played with Florence Price and Celia and Bertha Atwater. Ever since I had come to Fen Chou Fu I had played an hour with Florence. This had been good for both of us, for me because I learned English by talking with her, and for Florence because she had no children for companions and was very lonely. If there was a day when something prevented my going to her as usual, she would come or send for me. When Mr. Atwater moved to the same place his two little girls were very fond of romping with me too. I often carried the children on my shoulder, and they loved me very much. At seven o'clock, when their mothers called them to go to bed, all three would kiss me, saying: "Good-night, Mr. Fay, good-night. Pleasant dreams, pleasant dreams." So it was until the day when they left the earth. At this time it seemed as if the Boxer trouble might be over. There were few rumors on the streets, and there had never been organized Boxer bands in Fen Chou Fu. So our hearts were more peaceful. Perhaps it was God's will after all to save our little band. Still no word reached us from the outside world. We walked on in the darkness. It was because of the friendliness of the Fen Chou Fu Magistrate that the little Christian community there was preserved so long after the floods of destruction had swept over every other mission in the province. His superior officer, the Prefect, a weak old man, died July 27. Upon the character of his successor might depend the life or death of the missionaries. On August 12 the new Prefect appointed by the Governor arrived from Tai Yuan Fu. He was a man of great leaming but little practical ability, the tool of the Governor, who had sent him expressly to murder the foreigners. So he made their extermination his first business on reaching Fen Chou Fu. It was the 13th when he took the seals of office, and that same day he went to the Magistrate and upbraided him for his remissness in the work of massacre.... Outside the City Wall It was a clear, beautiful day, with a gentle wind blowing, a bright sun shining, and not a cloud within sight. As we drove out of the gate we saw the streets packed with a dense crowd of spectators. From the mission to the North Gate of the city they seemed a solid mass, while house roofs and walls swanned with men and women eager for a sight of us. There were tens of thousands, and when we left the city gate behind, many flocked after us and stood watching until we were out of sight. So we left Fen Chou Fu on that fateful morning, August 15. We had been imprisoned within walls for two or three months, and our hearts had all the time been burdened and anxious. Now suddenly we were outside the city in the pure, bracing air, in the midst of flowers and trees, luxuriant in summer beauty, riding through fields ripe for the harvest. It was all so beautiful and peaceful and strength-giving. So as soon as we were out in the country air our spirits rose and fresh life and joy came to us. In the front of our cart sat Mr. Atwater with the carter, behind him were Mrs. Atwater and Mrs. Lundgren, and I sat in the back of the cart with the two little girls. On both sides, before and behind, walked the twenty soldiers, while in front of all, mounted on my white horse, with chin held high and a very self-satisfied manner, rode the leader. After ten o'clock the sun's rays grew warmer, and Mrs. Lundgren handed her umbrella to a soldier, asking him to offer it to the leader to shield him from the heat. We talked as we rode along. Mrs. Lundgren remarked: "What a beautiful day it is!" Mrs. Atwater said, "Who would have thought that when we left Fen Chou Fu we would have such an escort?" "See the soldiers' uniforms, gay with red and green trimmings," said Mrs. Lundgren. So the light conversation went on. Mrs. Atwater said to me, "I'm afraid they'll not give your horse back to you at P'ing Yao." "I'm afraid not," I replied. Then the two ladies tumed and talked in English with Mr. Atwater, and I talked and laughed with the two children close beside me. We played a finger game, and they prattled ceaselessly. "Mr. Fay, please tell us where we are going," they said. After a while little Bertha grew sleepy, and nestled to rest in her mother's arms. When we left Fen Chou Fu we thought that we might meet Boxers or robbers by the way, but we said, "If any danger comes, these soldiers will protect us with all their might." Little did we dream that these very soldiers were to murder us. We passed through several villages, and every man, woman, and child was out to stare at us. Then we came to a large village. It was nearly noon and very hot, so we stopped to rest a while, and the carters watered their mules. A man happened to be there peddling little sweet melons. We were all thirsty, so we bought some, and as Mr. Atwater had no change handy I paid for them with the cash in my bag. We passed some back to those in the other cart, and Mrs. Lundgren took out a package of nice foreign candy and passed some to us. After a few minutes we were on our way again. As we travelled the young soldier who had taken my horse away walked close behind my cart, never taking his eyes off me. I thought that he was angry because I had objected to giving him the horse, so I gave little attention to it. Then I noticed something strange in his way of looking at me, as if there was something he wished to say to me. After we had gone on a little farther with the soldier walking behind the cart, still keeping his eyes on me, he heaved a great sigh, and said: "Alas for you-so very young!" The soldier walking at the side looked sternly at the speaker and said something to him which I could not hear, but I heard the reply: "This is our own countryman, and not a foreigner." When I saw the expression on their faces and heard these words, suddenly it flashed across me that they had some deep meaning, and I asked the young soldier what was up. "I don't know," he replied. "If anything is going to happen," I said, "please tell me." He hung his head and said nothing, but followed still close to the cart, and after a while said to me plainly: "You ought to escape at once, for only a short distance ahead we are to kill the foreigners." I jumped down from the cart, but another soldier came up: saying, "Don't go away."Then I began to think it was true that the foreigners were to be killed, and wanted to get farther away from the cart, but the soldier who had first talked with me, said: "You can't go yet; you must first leave your money with us." I said, "I have only a little, barely enough for my joumey." But I knew that they would not let me off without money, so I gave my watch to the soldier who had taken my horse. Another soldier demanded money, saying: "If you have no money you may give me your boots." So I took off my newly purchased boots and gave them to him putting on the well-worn shoes which he gave me in exchange. Another soldier took away my straw hat and the whip which I carried in my hand. It happened that at just this point a little pad branched off from the main road through a field of sorghum higher than my head. I started off on the path. While I had been talking with the soldiers Mr. Atwater had conversed with the two ladies and had not noticed our words. As I left my friends I took alas look at them, saying in my heart: "I fear that I shall never again on earth see your faces." I had no chance to speak to them, for the village where they were to be killed was only a quarter of a mile away, the carts had not stopped, and many people were following close behind. A crowd was also coming out from the village which they were approaching. I had walked only a short distance on the little path when I heard footsteps following, and looking back saw that it was the two soldiers hastening after me. My heart stood still, for I thought that they were coming to prevent my escape and kill me. I did not dare to run, for they had rifles in their hands. Soon they overtook me, one seizing my queue and another my arm, and saying: "You must have some money; we'll only let you escape with your life; your money must be given to us." Before I had time to answer, the soldier snatched from my purse all the silver which Mr. Price had given me. I made an effort to get it back, but the soldier said: "If we kill you, nothing will be yours. If we let you escape with your life, should not your silver be given to us?" There was some reason in their talk, so I only entreated them to leave me a little money, for I had many hundred miles to travel before I would reach my home. The soldiers had a little conscience, for dividing the silver between them they took out a small piece amounting to about a tael, and gave it to me. The young soldier who had first talked with me said: "Don't go far away yet. Wait until you see whether we kill the foreigners or not. If we don't do it, hunt me up and I'll give you your watch and all of your silver. If we kill them consider that we did not take your money without cause." They then hurried back to the road. When I had gone on a little farther I heard a loud rifle report. By that time I was almost convinced that they were indeed going to kill the foreigners. So I ran with all my might. It was about one o'clock and the sun beat down fiercely. After I had gone several miles I felt very weary, and though I was not afraid, my heart still fluttered and my flesh crept. The sun was sinking westward, and I looked up to the sky with a sigh. The atmosphere was clear, wind and light were fair, and I asked myself: "Can the great Lord who rules heaven and earth permit evil men under this bright heaven, in this clear light of day, to murder these innocent men and women, these little children? It cannot be. Perhaps I can still reach P'ing Yao, and look in the faces of those whom I love." Then I thought that if the soldiers had really killed them in that village, as they said they would, they were no longer on the earth, but were happy with God. When this thought came I lifted my face toward heaven, saying: "My beloved Mr. and Mrs. Price and other dear friends, if you are truly in heaven now, do you see my trouble and distress?" So I walked on, my heart now in heaven, now on earth, a thousand thoughts entangling themselves in my bewildered mind. I was weary and would walk a mile or two, then rest. I came to the bank of the Fen River, five miles from P'ing Yao, and waited some time at the ferry to hear what men were saying; for if the foreigners had not been killed they must certainly cross by this ferry, and everyone would be talking about it. But though I stood there a long time I heard no one mention the subject, and the dread that my friends had been killed took full possession of my heart. Then I crossed on the ferry with others, and strange to say the ferryman did not ask me for money. Once across the river I reached a small inn outside the wall of P'ing Yao. I had walked twenty miles that day-the longest walk I had ever taken, and I threw myself down to sleep without eating anything. Often I awoke with a start and turned my aching body, asking myself, "Where am I? How came I here? Are my Western friends indeed killed? I must be dreaming." But I was so tired that sleep would soon overcome me again. The sun had risen when I opened my eyes in the morning. I forced myself to rise, washed my face, and asked for a little food, but could not get it down. Sitting down I heard loud talking and laughter among the guests. The topic of conversation was the massacre of foreigners the day before! One said: "There were ten ocean men killed, three men, four women, and three little devils." Another added, "Lij Cheng San yesterday morning came ahead with twenty soldiers and waited in the village. When the foreigners with their soldier escort arrived a gun was fired for a signal, and all the soldiers set to work at once." Then one after another added gruesome details, how the cruel swords had slashed, how the baggage had been stolen, how the very clothing had been stripped from the poor bodies, and how they had then been flung into a wayside pit. "Are there still foreigners in Fen Chou FuT' I asked. "No, they were all killed yesterday." "Where were they killed?" "In that village ahead-less than two miles from here," he said, pointing as he spoke. "Yesterday about this time they were all killed." "How many were there?" I asked. He stretched out the fingers of his two hands for an answer. "Were there none of our people?" "No, they were all foreigners." My heart was leaden as I rode on the cart, with my face turned toward Fen Chou Fu. It was eight when the carter drove up to an inn in the east suburb of Fen Chou Fu, and I walked on into the city. Fortunately it was growing dark, and no one saw my face plainly, as, avoiding the main street, I made my way through alleys to the home of a Mr. Shih, a Christian who lived near the mission. When I knocked and entered Mr. Shih and his brother started up in terror and amazement, saying: "How could you get here?" We three went in quickly, barring the gate, and when we were seated in the house I told my sad story. Sighing, Mr. Shih said: "We knew when the foreigners left yesterday that death awaited them on the road. Not long after you had gone the Prefect and the Magistrate rode in their chairs to the gate of the mission, took a look inside without entering, and then sealed up the gate." Mr. Shih told me also how the Prefect, as soon as he had returned to his Yamen, had ordered Li Yü brought before him, and inflicted more cruel blows on his bruised body. Then he told details of the massacre. There was one young soldier named Li who had studied several years in the mission school, and whose sword took no part in the carnage. When the leader knew this he beat him from head to foot with his great horsewhip. The poor remains of the missionaries would have been left on the village street had not the village leaders begged that they be taken away. So the soldiers dragged them to a pit outside the city, where they found a common grave. Source: Luella Miner, Two Heroes of Cathay, (N.Y.: Fleming H. Revell,1907), pp. 63-128, quoted in Eva Jane Price, China Journal, 1889-1900 (N.Y.: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989), pp. 245-247, 254-261, 268-274. This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history. Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook. © Paul Halsall, October 1998 Attributions Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-last-chinese-dynasty/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://www.ibiblio.org/chinesehistory/contents/03pol/c03s02.html https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/ http://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/boxer_uprising/bx_essay02.html http://visualizingcultures.mit.edu/boxer_uprising/bx_essay03.html https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/us/ Title Image Yu Xunling, Court Photographer, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.297407	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87938/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87940/overview	Colonization of India Overview Introduction The British colonization provided a model of European colonization. The lessons that the British learned from the American colonization would prove to be important during the colonization of the Indian Subcontinent. The English were interested in gaining goods from the Indian colonial world. The English were interested in gaining a foothold in China. As the 19th century grew, the British became more and more interested in India as a site of resource and goods. Learning Objectives - Analyze the causes of the problems of the Mughal Empire before the British arrival. - Evaluate the differences in the English colonization of South Asia and North America. The Mughal Dynasty The Mughal Dynasty is an important part to understanding how the British came to gain power in South Asia. Since the Middle Ages, Asia was one of the most important economic and political regions in the world. For many Europeans, the big goal of exploration was always to gain more of an economic footprint in China because of the trade goods. The reason the British were interested in India was the fact that it was a gateway to China and had been since the Middle Ages and Early Modern World, when Europeans attempted to integrate many Chinese resources into their own systems. Due to this trade China proclaimed itself the “Center of the World”; however, India was a periphery that was rich with resources as well. South Asia was also attractive to many Europeans because of the goods that could be procured there, and cotton was the chief among them. This led Britain to desiring control of the area, in one form or another. During the Middle Ages, the Delhi Sultanate was the regional power in the subcontinent. The Delhi Sultanate began in 1206 CE when the Muslim kingdoms in the Pashtun region of modern Afghanistan invaded the Indian Subcontinent; this made the Sultanate an important trade partner for the region because the biggest export of the Delhi Sultanate was cotton—a material that is light weight and proved to be excellent as a material for textiles. This was the economic engine of the Delhi Sultanate that would reign for close to 300 years. The problems that the Delhi Sultanate faced, at first, were mostly cultural. The major religion of the Indian Subcontinent in the Middle Ages was Hindu—the polytheistic religion that emerged in ancient India. The Delhi Sultanate was mostly Muslim. While it might be easy to point out the antagonisms that would be present in the modern world when a new religion is introduced through rulers, the introduction of Islam to the Indian Subcontinent was important but did not provide major difficulties for the Delhi Sultanate’s reign. The Delhi Sultanate, instead mostly suffered from the problem of integrating their wants to expand throughout the southern Deccan region of India and the abilities to pay for it. The Delhi Sultanate was a conglomeration of princes and princely states that allied together with the sultan at the top of the political hierarchy. These princely states allied because of an economic promise made to them: every year, for the princes’ support, the sultan would increase the prince’s land holdings. At first, this arrangement was very suitable for both sides, because the Delhi Sultanate was to stay in the northern regions, where there was many great farmlands. The problem was, over 300 years, the northern region of India was conquered and brought into the Delhi Sultanate, which meant that there were no more lands easy to conquer in the Indian Subcontinent. The Himalayan Mountains that were to the north were a significant barrier and the region to the west was a desert; the eastern border was very difficult to move large armies through and would have been in direct conflict with China. This left moving south into the Deccan as the only real option for the Delhi Sultanate. The problem that the Delhi Sultanate faced was the need to expand, but the location for expansion was incredibly costly and dangerous. The Deccan proved not ideal for military action; it was very hot, with limited resources for conquering armies, and indigenous populations were resistant to integration. Princely states, who found conquering the Deccan too costly, began to rebel, which significantly weakened the power of the Delhi Sultanate by the beginning of the 16th century. As the Delhi Sultanate began to fracture, there was another group that was posed to take over. In the western regions of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, there was a new kingdom that was beginning to emerge as a power center—a kingdom led by Babur. Babur (1483 – 1530 CE)—a direct descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan—was known as the first of the Mughal Emperors that would eventual come to rule all of India. He was a devout Muslim and approached colonization in a pragmatic fashion. Babur saw his opening as the Delhi Sultanate was weakening and decided that this was the proper time to launch an attack. He was successful in conquering the northern region of the Indian Subcontinent, as he was able to get aid from the Safavid and Ottoman Empires to successfully defeat the Delhi Sultanate. Babur combined Persian culture and forces to create a successful empire that he reigned over for only a few years before he died at the age of 47 in 1530 CE. Babur reigned for a very short time and established the idea of treating Islamic and Hindu cultures the same. Babur was succeeded by his eldest son Humayun, who lost parts of Babur’s conquest in India. Humayun proved to have significant political problems and his death in 1556 CE elevated his son Akbar to be the next emperor. Akbar (reigned 1556 – 1605 CE) is generally considered to be one of the best Mughal Emperors because of his ability to finally conquer the Deccan region, to stabilize the internal conflicts that plagued Humayun, and integrated the Hindu and Islamic populations together. One of the keys to Akbar’s success was his abilities to treat both the Muslim and Hindu populations as equals. If a Muslim population asked for money to build a mosque, Akbar gave the same amount of money to Hindu groups to build temples. This integration and treatment of both the Islamic and Hindi populations as equals meant that the Mughal Empire was built with integration in mind instead of division. This would be a foundational difference between the Mughal and the British colonizations. Akbar’s almost 50-year reign proved to be one of the most stable periods of the Mughal Empire. Following Akbar’s death in the early 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw significant problems with the leadership that caused direct consequences for the stability of the territory. The next Mughal Emperor after Akbar was Jahangir (1605 – 1627 CE), who was a very powerful leader and military conqueror. Jahangir’s name meant “the world-conqueror” or “world-Seizer” in Persian. Jahangir was an important leader for the Indian subcontinent because he was powerful and united significant territory inside of the subcontinent, and he expanded the Mughal Empire in the southern reaches of the Deccan. The British became very interested in exploring and expanding their territorial empire in the Indian subcontinent in the early 17th century, and Jahangir kept a separation between the British and the Mughal Empire. He maintained a favorable relationship with the British while keeping the British at an arm’s length. Jahangir’s son Shah Jahan also achieved territorial expansion and power in the Indian Subcontinent. Shah Jahan is known as the creator of the Taj Mahal, which was a mausoleum for his wife. The building of the Taj Mahal required many resources and demonstrated the wealth and power of the Mughal Empire of the time period. Shah Jahan was able to rule as an effective leader throughout the 17th century and saw the Mughal Empire grow in economic trading patterns with Europeans. The end of Shah Jahan’s reign is very important to how the English grew their own empire in the Indian Subcontinent. Shah Jahan became intensely focused on honoring and developing the Taj Mahal and this took so much of his resources and time that in the last few years of his reign he did not focus on other rising issues. At the same time, the English were very interested in growing their political and economic interests on the Indian Subcontinent and other European powers were trying to take over the subcontinent as well. With Shah Jahan’s focus on the development and integration of the Deccan region in Southeastern Asia and on the Taj Mahal, European powers, such as Portugal and Holland (the Dutch), were able to gain access and attempt to develop positions of power on the subcontinent. The Portuguese and Dutch were two of the key traders on the Indian Subcontinent at the time. As Shah Jahan was slowly loosing power in his last years, his two sons, Aurangzeb and Dara were vying for power. Dara was Shah Jahan’s favorite son, a courtly individual who had limited success on the battlefield. Aurangzeb was a highly decorated military leader with significant experience in battles and leadership. Aurangzeb and Dara began fighting between one another; this eventually led to Aurangzeb ordering his men to have brought Dara’s head to him as proof that Dara was dead. Shah Jahan witnessed Dara’s head being delivered to Aurangzeb and passed out. Aurangzeb is often thought of as the last significantly important political leader of the Mughal Empire. The power of Aurangzeb was very important to the Indian subcontinent. The economic and political growth of the Mughal empire was very important during this period, as new markets provided a positive expansion of Mughal products. But there were three decisions that Aurangzeb made that had a deep impact on the Mughal Empire, and subsequently the British colonization of India. The first was that Aurangzeb was instrumental in expanding southward to the Deccan region; this was an important test of the alliance system that the Mughal empire had integrated from the Delhi Sultanate and meant that Aurangzeb was constantly at battle and needed significant funds for these expeditions. The second consequential decision that Aurangzeb made was the push for more Muslims in the Indian Subcontinent by conversion; this would mean that the Muslim population of 31% would grow significantly, as well as a push back from the Hindu population that felt threatened by this new goal of Aurangzeb. The Mughal Empire long rested their political and social integration of Islamic and Hindi populations together, and this was a direct challenge that would prove to be a major change in those relationships that the British would further exploit in their conquests. The third consequential decision of Aurangzeb was allowing the British to maintain and integrate positions of power on the Indian Subcontinent. Aurangzeb was so centered on his own conquests that the British requests for establishing bases and regions of power were granted as almost an afterthought. By allowing the British to establish forts and trading posts in cities, he allowed the British to leverage those political and economic power situations for their own purposes. This would give them a home base in which to trade further. In response to Aurangzeb’s permissions, the British quickly established the cities of Calcutta and Bangladesh. These two centers of trade would have economic consequences because the British were not only establishing trading posts, but these became militarized area, complete with fortresses. The militarization was a very important part of how the British would become a regional territorial power as the Mughal Empire disintegrated more and more following Aurangzeb’s rule. The leaders following Aurangzeb had many problems, mostly they lacked the political and military experience to fight back against other regional powers and address the growing British foothold. Following Aurangzeb’s death there was a political struggle between Aurangzeb’s sons and Shah Jahan’s sons; the consequence was a politically divided and fractured Mughal Empire. The resulting chaos meant that there were two noblemen brothers—Husain and Hasan Ali—who were interested in getting more political power. This struggle for power went as far as hiring assassins to kill the Mughal Emperors. As the Mughal Empire slowly started to devolve with internal political turmoil, outsiders saw their opening to attack and gain political power for themselves. Farrukhsiyar was a Persian prince who wanted to gain a part of the Mughal Empire’s political power. Farrukhsiyar invaded the subcontinent and was welcomed by the Ali brothers. Farruksiyar was successful and would be a long serving emperor in the Indian subcontinent, although he was controversial at the time because he promoted the Sunni faith on the subcontinent. The British East India company also gained more political power in the region when Farruksiyar gave them a formal right to reside and trade in the Mughal Empire and gave them a yearly payment. Following Farrukhsiyar, political and economic turmoil increased in the Mughal Empire, resulting in a more direct challenge by the British East India Company. Like the American colonization by the British, at the center of their initial reasons for being in the region were purely economic. Many of the early British merchants were at the outskirts of Indian society, and they were looking to gain goods and resources to bring back to the English countryside. These goods included cotton and spices. Cotton was the backbone of the transformation of the English textile industry and the earliest seeds of industrialization. These British merchants originally suffered what they perceived as unfair and unequal laws because the taxes by the Mughal Empire were significant and the Mughal Empire did not allow for many British merchant trade rights. When Aurangzeb allowed the British to trade on the subcontinent and build fortresses in Calcutta and Bangledesh, this allowed the British began to expand their trade and push the Portuguese out of their trading posts in the subcontinent. The British merchants also attempted to stop their French rivals from having trade access but did not accomplish this during the Mughal Empire. While the British East India Company was formed in 1600 CE, Indian Subcontinent merchants quickly became the central force of power. As the political turmoil at the top of the Mughal Empire started to become clear to the British, the merchants began to band together and reform the British East India Company. The British East India Company maintained a formal monopoly on the goods leaving India by British ships, this was almost 15% of all British imports from India came through this company. English Parliament gave these rights because many of the members held stock from the company and directly benefitted from the trade monopoly that was quickly forming. Additionally, the British merchants quickly became interested in expanding their footprint beyond simply trade goods and started making deals with the local governors for tax collection, which enriched their ability to further their impeding colonization. Throughout the 18th century, the British East India Company gained more and more power on the Indian Subcontinent. The British forces began harassing and pushing against the French traders that were in the region. A conflict that would be resolved with the Seven Years War in the middle of the 18th century. The British East India Company was increasingly fearful of the political unrest and began to formulate a plan of action, in case of collapse of the Mughal Empire. The key event that crystalized the transition of power was when forces of the Mughal Empire arrested and held over 140 British individuals in a Calcutta jail cell known as the “Black Hole,” where almost 120 of these individuals died. This was the last straw for the British East India Company, and they began to buy arms and soldiers. The British East India Company developed a standing army and pushed back the Mughal Empire. It is important to note that this is a company that developed a military force to fight the Mughal Empire, not a formal government. This occurrence is very strange and demonstrates how important the British East India Company was to the presence of the British in the subcontinent. The British East India Company became highly successful in establishing a basis of political power that rested on having the military to support the company. Enlightenment Approaches-Hasting vs Cornwallis The British had two different approaches to the formation of the colonization of India. The first was Lord Hasting's approach, focusing on the Enlightenment and how to engage populations from a historical background. The second approach was Cornwallis, who had a different manner of colonization that had a problem of economics. These two leaders had a profound impact on the future of the Indian Subcontient. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the differences between Hastings and Cornwallis approach to colonization. - Evaluate the impact of Cornwallis’s engagement with the Indian Subcontinent and how this created social and political differences in the subcontinent. - Evaluate the Indian Civil Service and its importance to the Indian Subcontinent. - Analyze the impact of the Enlightenment on the British Indian colonization. The British East India Company Raj Today India and Pakistan are two important countries in South Asia, yet, in many ways they are enemies of one another. While there is a deep history that is complex, in many ways the origin point of the antagonism between these two states started in the 19th century with the rise of Warren Hastings and Charles Cornwallis as the British officers in charge of the subcontinent. These two leaders fundamentally reshaped the relationship between the Hindu and Islamic populations in South Asia, and that would have a direct result on the conflict that arose between India and Pakistan. To better understand these two men, an examination of the British East India Company is important, especially as it was rising to power in the late 18th century. Early Operation Between 1601 and 1608, four voyages instigated the British establishment of trade with the East Indies. Initially, the British East India Company struggled in the spice trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The East India Company (EIC or the Company) opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage. Imports of pepper from Java were an important part of the Company’s trade for 20 years. In the next two years, it established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam in Bengal. The high profits reported by the Company after landing in India initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licenses to other trading companies in England. But in 1609, he renewed the charter given to the EIC for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years. English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean. The Company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland India with official sanction from both Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the Crown launch a diplomatic mission. In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and establish factories in Surat and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful. Expansion The Company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations, eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay. Portugal later ceded this land to England as part of the dowry of Catherine de Braganza—Charles II’s wife. The EIC also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure their ports in China. By 1647, the company had 23 factories and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle. With reduced Portuguese and Spanish influence in the region, the EIC and Dutch East India Company entered a period of intense competition, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th and 18th centuries. In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC, King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of five acts around 1670) the rights to autonomously acquire territory, mint money, command fortresses and troops and form alliances, make war and peace, and exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired areas. These decisions would eventually turn the EIC from a trading company into a de facto administrative agent with wide powers granted by the British government. Monopoly The prosperity that the officers of the Company enjoyed allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling estates and businesses and obtain political power; this allowed the Company to develop a lobby in the English parliament. Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former associates of the Company, who wanted to establish private trading firms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694. This allowed any English firm to trade with India unless specifically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby annulling the charter that had been in force for almost 100 years. By an act passed in 1698, a new “parallel” East India Company (officially titled the English Company Trading to the East Indies) was floated under a state-backed indemnity of £2 million. The two companies wrestled with each other for a dominant share of the trade over a period of some time, both in England and in India. But it quickly became evident that in practice, the original company faced scarcely any measurable competition. And the companies merged in 1708 by a tripartite indenture involving both companies and the state. Under this arrangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a sum of £3,200,000 in return for exclusive privileges for the next three years, after which the situation was to be reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East Indies. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain surged ahead of its European rivals. Britain’s growing prosperity, demand, and production had a profound influence on overseas trade. The EIC became the single largest player on the British global market. Following the Seven Years’ War (1756 – 63) and the defeat of France, French ambitions on Indian territories were effectively laid to rest, thus eliminating a major source of economic competition for the EIC. The Company, with the backing of its own private well-disciplined and experienced army, was able to assert its interests in new regions in India without facing obstacles from other colonial powers, although it continued to experience resistance from local rulers. Changing Political Role The EIC began to function more as an administrator and less as a trading concern over the hundred years from the Battle of Plassey in 1757—in which the EIC defeated the ruler of Bengal Nawab and his French allies, which allowed them to consolidate the Company’s presence in Bengal—to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The proliferation of the Company’s power chiefly took two forms. The first was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions, which collectively comprised British India. The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the Company’s hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India. When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the Company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects. In return, the company pledged to defend its allies. One of the key individuals in the transformation of the British East India Company was Sir Robert Clive (1725 – 1774 CE). Robert Clive was a British writer for the East India Company and became a military leader. Clive rose quickly in rank and at the Battle of Plassey was the winner. As a result, the British East India Company gave Clive the title of the first British Governor of the Bengal Presidency. One of the key ways that Clive won was supporting the overthrow of local nawabs over others and this helped to destabilize the region. Clive was notorious for offering weapons and money to local leaders for their support. If those local leaders did not return the wants of Clive, he would turn to their second in command in the area and offer the same deal to help destabilize the region. This is what led to the death of the nawab Mir Jafar. Furthermore, Clive took the funds earned from securing the trade in the region and pushed them through the Dutch East India Company to avoid taxes and penalties in England, worth several million dollars in British pounds in today’s money. Clive would become one of the most controversial figures in the British East India Company, earning more money through illegal means while also helping to kill people in the Indian Subcontinent. These events together demonstrate the main issues with the British East India Company: the British were not clear about their goals or involvement in the subcontinent nor did they attempt to built clear rules to help the indigenous populations. The next problem the British faced was how to govern such a region with their newly acquired political power. While the British East India Company was a military power, after the conquest, it also became a government. Governments are traditionally elected and have localized power, and they often rest/revolve around the needs of the people that they are serving. The British East India Company was a stock investment company that was responsible to the needs and wants of the stockholders in England, not the people of the Indian subcontinent. From 1757 – 1856 CE, the British East India Company was in charge as the only political power in the region, and they were responsible for changing many parts of the Indian Subcontinent; this time period is known as the British East India Raj. The British East India Raj did not build much infrastructure, nor did it help the indigenous people of India; instead it made many laws about the way that Indian populations were allow to plant crops, restricting the cultivation of many food crops while demanding more cotton be planted. The British East India Company was interested in extracting as many resources as they could from the subcontinent. And one of the most significant trade crops grown in South Asia was cotton. The Indian subcontinent was home to many of the world’s richest cotton fields and most important ones at that. Indian cotton had become famous with Dutch traders in the 16th century. Many of the reasons that cotton was so fashionable during this time period is the same reason that many of our clothes today are made of cotton, because of ease of use and dying for colorful and intricate designs. By the 18th century, many Europeans wanted this important fabric. Because cotton needs warmth and water to be successful, a climate trait that England does not fully possess, the product had to be obtained from India or other regions of the world. Cotton production soared in the late 18th century and would become one of the central imports for the British East India Company. This relationship created a key to understanding the policies that the British would impose on future colonies and the imperialist period. Hastings as Governor General Warren Hastings had an outsized impact on the future of the British East India Raj. Hastings was born in England in 1732 to a poor gentleman. After getting an education, he joined the British East India Company in 1750 as a clerk and sailed to India, eventually going to Calcutta. His early experiences and education were deeply engrained in the Enlightenment, which provided a key model of the historical and political for Hastings. One of the most important concepts of the Enlightenment that Hastings would come to incorporate was the idea of rationality and the role of history to establish rule. This would prove very important to Hastings’s future as a governor. Hastings was fascinated by Indian Subcontinent history and enjoyed learning about the past. Then, Hastings won promotion in 1752 and was sent to a major trading post in Bengal. It was here that Hastings was a part of the members that were locked up in the infamous “Black Hole of Calcutta,” where a garrison and civilians were jailed by the Mughal government and many died during one night in jail. Following this traumatizing event, Hastings would continue to expand and understand more of Calcutta. In 1757 after British forces were pushed back from Calcutta, Hastings served under Robert Clive and helped to recapture the city. Hastings understood the importance of relationships between the British and Indian forces and made friends with local Nawabs. All the while, Hastings would relay information about the indigenous forces and their movements to his superiors with the intent of enabling the British to gain political and economic power in India. Hastings pushed for the British as tax collectors on behalf of the Mughal Empire. This would prove the most beneficial because the British were able to collect official money for the Mughals, and they could easily hide their gains from the system. As Hastings’ work became more central to the British East Indies Company, it was clear that he would start to lead the organization on the Subcontinent. In 1773 Hastings became the governor general of India for the British East Indies Company, the leader in charge of the British forces. This would prove to be a very important position because Hastings was a clear leader and saw the importance of history as a governor. As leader, Hastings attempted to integrate many of the Enlightenment ideas into India as he could. By the time of his leadership, Hastings had become fluent in Persian and Urdu, making him suitable to read and write in the ancient texts of the subcontinent. Hastings read about the advancements of the Indian civilizations in the Mohenjo-daro region and was fascinated by the two “golden eras” of India in the ancient world. Hastings felt there had to be a logical reason that India was wealthy and powerful throughout the ancient world during that golden period, and he felt that India had fallen into a “dark period” under the rule of the Mughal Empire. Using the ideas of rationality from the Enlightenment, Hastings began to incorrectly theorize that the problem that caused India to fall from a propseperous time was the arrival of Islam on the subcontinent. While this was an incorrect assumption, it proved damaging to the subcontinent. Hastings began to create policies that started favored Hindu populations, at the expense of Muslims. He pushed for the continuation of the caste system and for the return to the religious laws of the ancient world. These policies would result in slightly better jobs for the Hindi populations than their Islamic counterparts. Hastings also established the Indian Administration Service, the government of British India that would guide the administration of the British East India Raj. This would prove fateful because the policies that Hastings established would continue to grow throughout the British East India Raj. In 1785, after ten years of service to the British East India Company, Hastings resigned and returned to India. Upon his arrival in England, he was arrested and impeached by the House of Commons for alleged crimes and misdemeanors, such as embezzlement, extortion, coercion, and the alleged killing of a local leader; these totaled to twenty criminal counts against Hastings. Many of the actions on which these charges were based were common to the British East India Company, and they would not have been out of bounds in the empire. But the British Parliament wanted to make an example out of Hastings, who was a member of the opposition of members such as Edmund Burke. Hastings was eventually acquitted in 1795 and he would retire to Scotland to live his remaining life. Yet, the importance of Hastings’s policies would influence the next leader of the British East Indies Company: Charles Cornwallis. Cornwallis as Governor General The next leader of the British East Indies Company was Charles Cornwallis, who was born in 1738 in London to a upper class family. Charles was educated at Cambridge and would eventually join the military and travel Europe with military officials, while learning about tactics. In 1760 he became a member of the House of Commons and voted against the Stamp Act. Cornwallis was a very unique man in history, because many American historians know him as the last of the British generals in the American Revolution. However, despite his defeat in the American Revolution, Cornwallis continued to gain the confidence of Parliament. In 1782 he returned to England and was paraded as a hero. By 1785, it was clear that Hastings was going to leave his post as the Governor General of India and the British Parliament wanted a clear leader, which is what they saw in Cornwallis. Cornwallis is known for making significant reforms to the Civil Service of India and establishing several key institutions that would create issues between the different cultural groups on the Indian Subcontinent. The Indian Civil Service was significantly understaffed and had many problems with management. And one of the key issues that arose was due to the fact that the British East Indies Company wanted written correspondence in English. Not many people on the Indian subcontinent could write effectively in English. Cornwallis decided one of the key ways to get English speakers was to offer positions to those in London and England. But these jobs were often considered low level administration jobs and paid very little. Therefore, the positions were left unfilled or had to be filled by people who did not understand English as well as they would need to. Consequently, when Cornwallis opened these positions to those of the Indian subcontinent a key change happened. Cornwallis started to hire local individuals with skills and talent to run the Indian Civil Service. This is important because his hiring decisions were colored by Hastings’s promotion of Hindu populations over that of Islamic populations. And this situation is the key to understanding how these misaligned policies would cause direct consequences for the population of the Indian Subcontinent. Because well paying and high political positions were going to largely Hindi speaking cultural groups, a very distinct rift between the Hindi and Islamic populations on the Indian Subcontinent was created. Because British policies discriminated against the Muslim populations of the Indian Subcontinent, many Muslims reacted in a significant ways against these policies. The Islamic populations began questioning Cornwallis’s approach and leadership. Cornwallis reacted to this questioning by encouraging Muslims to seek government jobs in the Indian Army. Unfortunately, the positions offered were mostly low-ranking and low-paying, such as soldiers. Many of the Muslims simply became “canon fodder,” and it was very clear the implications of Cornwallis’ goals. Cornwallis would divide the Indian Subcontinent even further when he instituted laws and administration barriers that benefitted the Hindu populations over Muslims. Cornwallis demanded that the Hindi laws be translated to English for administrative selection on which laws to use. These collectively became known as the Cornwallis Code, which would institutionalize the discriminatory policies against Muslims. Cornwallis also changed the way that taxes were collected in the subcontinent, creating a problem for landowners and tenants. Many of the landowners were originally Muslims, this would prove to be a significant problem because it caused many of these landowners to go bankrupt and forced them to sell lands, stripping away political and economic power of Muslims in the Indian Subcontinent. This would create a social and political imbalance in the Indian Subcontinent that would continue to divide and grow deeper between the Islamic and Hindi populations. While it was not the original goal of either Hastings or Cornwallis, the social divisions that emerged between the Hindu and Muslim populations proved to be Colonization 2.0. European colonists would find ways to further divide those populations who already were experiencing cultural differences, and they did this as a means of gaining more power. This type of colonization was very different than the first version of colonization in the 15th to early 19th centuries, where Europeans went to regions around the world and would establish direct bases of political and economic power. The second wave colonization focused more on exploiting and removing goods from regions. This model of colonization can be seen in other regions, such as China, many of the African states in the 19th century, and Southeast Asia. By creating this social and political imbalance, it created opportunities for the British to expand their own political and economic power in the colony. The Steel Frame of India The reforms that Cornwallis enacted were incredibly important. Through his reforms he permanently altered the system of political power in India. By encouraging certain populations on the subcontinent to do certain jobs, Cornwallis deepend the social rift that was emerging. The use of the Indian Civil Service was one of the most important in the time to create a bureaucracy of the British government in India. The reforms were to create a government of 250 districts in British India that were to be the government of India. This was every government service from local administration to the colonial world total. This meant that all political power was in the English hands. The Indian Civil Service government activities were conducted in English. Business conducted in English was a significant problem for the colonial world, because English speakers were limited. This meant, because of reform policies that were encountered in the earlier Cornwallis and Hasting’s administration, would heavily favor those of the Hindu population over that of Muslims. Lawyers and administrators that worked in the administration began to trend towards Hindu populations in the middle to late 19th century. These were high paying jobs and would constitute an economic imbalance in the subcontinent favoring Hindu populations. The Army was another component of the Indian Civil Service, which was mostly comprised of Muslim workers. These job differences were stark. While the Hindu favored positions were mostly office based, the problem with the Army was that this was dangerous and often deadly work. This would be compounded by the terrible pay that soldiers were given. The quality of life for many in the British Army was not good. This highlights the difference in the Hindu and Islamic world treatment by the British government. The British went further than just economic and political reforms, they began to make policies as an empire that also hurt many of the constituents inside the Subcontinent. One of the biggest issues that the British faced was their use of what were deemed as the Home Charges. The Home Charges were the British telling India that the British were not in control of the territory, but simply advisors to the Indian Civil Service. As such, the Indian Subcontinent had to pay the British government for their administrative advising. It is important that the British held all the political, economic, and social power in the Indian Subcontinent following the British East India Company taking over in the early 17th century. The Home Charges were nothing more than a way to exploit and get as much money and wealth from the Indian Subcontinent as they could. This is compounded by the administrations use of laws towards growing and regulations on the economics of the colony as well. Bengal: The Safety Zone for England The English became deeply invested in Bengal because of their fears that other European empires, especially the French, would encroach on their territory and space in the region of India. Learning Objectives - Analyze the British empire’s views of Southeast Asia. - Evaluate the role of Southeast Asia in the British colonial administration. Indochina Indochina, originally Indo-China, is a geographical term originating in the early 19th century for the continental portion of the region now known as Southeast Asia. The origins of the name Indo-China are usually attributed jointly to the Danish-French geographer Conrad Malte-Brun, who referred to the area as indo-chinois in 1804, and the Scottish linguist John Leyden, who used the term Indo-Chinese to describe the area’s inhabitants and their languages in 1808. The name refers to the lands historically within the cultural influence of India and China and physically bound by India in the west and China in the north. It corresponds to the present-day areas of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and (sometimes) peninsular Malaysia. The term was later adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina (today’s Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos), and the entire area of Indochina is now usually referred to as the Indochinese Peninsula or Mainland Southeast Asia. Greater India In the pre-modern era, significant parts of the region that would later become French Indochina belonged to what is known as Greater India. Although the term is not precise, Greater India is most commonly used to encompass the historical and geographic extent of all political entities on the Indian subcontinent, as well as, to varying degrees, the area that had been transformed by the acceptance and induction of cultural and institutional elements of pre-Islamic India. Since around 500 B.C. Asia’s expanding land and maritime trade resulted in prolonged socioeconomic and cultural stimulation and diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into a regional cosmology, particularly in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. The kingdoms that belonged to Greater India and eventually overlapped with what would become French Indochina were Funan and its successors Chenla, Champa, and the Khmer Empire. Champa controlled what is now south and central Vietnam, starting about 192 CE. The dominant religion there was Hinduism, and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the late 15th century, the Vietnamese—descendants of the Sinic civilization sphere—conquered the last remaining territories of the once powerful maritime kingdom of Champa. Between the 3rd and the 5th centuries, Funan and its successor, Chenla, coalesced in present-day Cambodia and southwestern Vietnam. For more than 2,000 years, what was to become Cambodia absorbed influences from India, passing them on to other Southeast Asian civilizations that are now Thailand and Laos. The Khmer Empire, with the capital city in Angkor, grew out of the remnants of Chenla, firmly established in 802 when Jayavarman II declared independence from Java. He and his followers instituted the cult of the God-king and began a series of conquests that formed an empire, which flourished in the area from the 9th to the 15th centuries. Additionally, around the 13th century, monks from Sri Lanka introduced Theravada Buddhism to Southeast Asia. The religion spread and eventually displaced Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism as the popular religion of Angkor. After a long series of wars with neighboring kingdoms, Angkor was sacked by the Ayutthaya Kingdom and abandoned in 1432 because of ecological failure and infrastructure breakdown. This led to a period of economic, social, and cultural stagnation when the kingdom’s internal affairs came increasingly under the control of its neighbors. The period that followed is today known as the Dark Ages of Cambodia—the historical era from the early 15th century to 1863, which is the year that marks the beginning of the French Protectorate of Cambodia. As reliable sources from this period are very rare, a fully defensible and conclusive explanation for the decline of the Khmer Empire, recognized unanimously by the scientific community, has so far not been produced. In the 19th century a renewed struggle between Siam and Vietnam for control of Cambodia resulted in a period when Vietnamese officials attempted to force the Khmers to adopt Vietnamese customs. This led to several rebellions against the Vietnamese and appeals to Thailand for assistance. The Siamese-Vietnamese War (1841 – 1845) ended with an agreement to place Cambodia under joint suzerainty; this later led to the signing of a treaty for French Protection of Cambodia by King Norodom Prohmborirak. British In Southeast Asia Many of the problems with the British approach to Southeast Asia revolve around their conception of empire. The British were heavily invested in the growth of India. This can be seen in the descriptions of India as the “Crown Jewel” of the British Empire. The British understood that their economic and political success rested in the role of India as their main colony. Yet, the British were not alone in their perspectives of growing an empire in the region and this would cause direct problems with others in the area. In the late 17th century, the British successfully pushed to control the majority of the Indian Subcontinent with the intent to control trade in the region, with the goal of replacing or subduing the Dutch settlers and traders that arrived before them. Throughout the 18th century, the British East India Company remained on guard against other European powers that were interested in India. The fear was that France or Spain would get a powerful hold on the very profitable subcontinent, which would end with another power struggle between the European nations. This is the reason that the English demanded the French be expelled from the Indian Subcontinent at the end of the Seven Years War, and the Treaty of Paris (1763) ensured that happened. Regardless of law, the French still wanted to have a presence in and still attempted to move into the subcontinent. The French would establish colonies in the far Southeast Asia, in places like Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam in order to get a toehold in the region; this worried the British, who felt the proximity of the French colonies to the English colonial world was a very big problem. Bengal Bengal is part of current day Bangladesh, which means it borders India on the east side. But in 1805 Bengal was the term used for a large swath of territory to the east of the Maratha Territory (or the bulk of what is now India). This means that geographically it would make sense as a point of entrance into the region for any invaders approaching from the east, where the bulk of French colonies in the region were. The British solution of the French colonial proximity was to establish a new colony of Bengal. The British were not interested in establishing a long term colonial hold on Bengal, but instead focused on this as a buffer colony. If the French did decide to invade the region, that it would be Bengal that would be invaded. The British decided that this was a sacrifice that they were willing to make, a sacrifice of the Bengal people. Obviously, this was a terrible solution. The Bengali people were obviously not desirous of serving as a war front for England; furthermore, the recent major draught had deeply affected Bengal. Moreover, the British presence in Bengal also increased tensions in the colony between the Muslims and the Buddhists that were in the colony and fell subject to the British colonial policies that favored Hindus. Primary Source: Sir Robert Clive The Battle of Plassey Sir Robert Clive's Account of the Battle of Plassey I gave you an account of the taking of Chandernagore in my last letter; the subject of this address is an event of much higher importance, no less than the entire overthrow of Nabob Suraj-ud-Daulah, and the placing of Meer Jaffier on the throne. I intimated in my last how dilatory Suraj-ud-Daulah appeared in fulfilling the articles of the treaty. This disposition not only continued but increased, and we discovered that he was designing our ruin by a conjunction with the French. About this time some of his principal officers made overtures to us for dethroning him. At the head of these was Meer Jaffier, then Bukhshee to the army, a man as generally esteemed as the other was detested. As we had reason to believe this disaffection pretty general, we soon entered into engagements with Meer Jaffier to put the crown on his head. All necessary preparations being completed with the utmost secrecy, the army, consisting of about one thousand Europeans and two thousand sepoys, with eight pieces of cannon, marched from Chandernagore on the 13th and arrived on the 18th at Cutwa Fort. The 22nd, in the evening, we crossed the river, and landing on the island, marched straight for Plassey Grove, where we arrived by one in the morning. At daybreak we discovered the Nabob's army moving towards us, consisting, as we since found, of about fifteen thousand horse and thirty-five thousand foot, with upwards of forty pieces of cannon. They approached apace, and by six began to attack with a number of heavy cannon, supported by the whole army, and continued to play on us very briskly for several hours, during which our situation was of the utmost service to us, being lodged in a large grove with good mud banks. To succeed in an attempt on their cannon was next to impossible, as they were planted in a manner round us, and at considerable distances from each other. We therefore remained quiet in our post. . . About noon the enemy drew off their artillery, and retired to their camp. We immediately sent a detachment, accompanied by two field-pieces, to take possession of a tank with high banks, which was advanced about three hundred yards above our grove, and from which the enemy had considerably annoyed us with some cannon managed by Frenchmen. This motion brought them out a second time; but on finding them make no great effort to dislodge us, we proceeded to take possession of one or two more eminences lying very near an angle of their camp. They made several attempts to bring out their cannon, but our advance field-pieces played so warmly and so well upon them that they were always driven back. Their horse exposing themselves a good deal on this occasion, many of them were killed, and among the rest four or five officers of the first distinction, by which the whole army being visibly dispirited and thrown into some confusion, we were encouraged to storm both the eminence and the angle of their camp, which were carried at the same instant, with little or no loss. On this a general rout ensued; and we pursued the enemy six miles, passing upwards of forty pieces of cannon they had abandoned, with an infinite number of carriages filled with baggage of all kinds. It is computed there are killed of the enemy about five hundred. Our loss amounted to only twenty-two killed and fifty wounded, and those chiefly sepoys. Source: From: Oliver J. Thatcher, ed., The Library of Original Sources, (Milwaukee: University Research Extension Co., 1907), Vol. VII: The Age of Revolution, pp. 59-64. Scanned by: J. S. Arkenberg, Dept. of History, Cal. State Fullerton. Prof. Arkenberg has modernized the text. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: New Indian Military: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Indian_Army_troops_in_winter_clothing%2C_Iran%2C_1944_%28c%29.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/british-india/ Source information also reviewed from: Metcalf and Metcalf Concise History of Modern India	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.352309	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87940/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87941/overview	Colonization of Vietnam Overview Colonization of Vietnam European involvement in Southeast Asia was an important challenge and change for the peninsula. Vietnam was an important site of colonial differences between the French and the British systems of colonization. Other territories in the region also had significant political and cultural divisions that would further manifest in the late 19th century. Learning Objectives - Analyze the importance of Southeast Asia in the 19th century. - Evaluate the differences between the French and British colonial systems in the 19th century. Key Terms / Key Concepts Cochincina Campaign: an 1858 – 1862 military campaign fought between the French and Spanish on one side and the Vietnamese on the other (It began as a limited punitive campaign and ended as a French war of conquest. The war concluded with the establishment of the French colony of Cochinchina, a development that inaugurated nearly a century of French colonial dominance in Vietnam.) colony of economic exploitation: a colony conquered to exploit its natural resources and native population (The practice contrasts with the colonies of settlement conquered to establish a branch of the metropolis (Motherland) and for the exploitation of its natural resources and native population.) French Indochina: a grouping of French colonial territories in Southeast Asia consisting of three Vietnamese regions of Tonkin (north), Annam (center), and Cochinchina (south), Cambodia, and Laos, with the leased Chinese territory of Guangzhouwan added in 1898. The capital was moved from Saigon (in Cochinchina) to Hanoi (Tonkin) in 1902 and again to Da Lat (Annam) in 1939 (In 1945 it was moved back to Hanoi.) War of the Insane: a Hmong revolt against taxation in the French colonial administration in Indochina lasting from 1918 to 1921 (Pa Chay Vue, the leader of the revolt, regularly climbed trees to receive military orders from heaven. The French granted the Hmong a special status in 1920, effectively ending the conflict.) Yen Bai mutiny: an uprising of Vietnamese soldiers in the French colonial army in 1930 in collaboration with civilian supporters who were members of the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang (Vietnamese Nationalist Party) Indochina Indochina, originally Indo-China, is a geographical term originating in the early 19th century for the continental portion of the region now known as Southeast Asia. The name refers to the lands historically within the cultural influence of India and China and physically bound by India in the west and China in the north. It corresponds to the present-day areas of Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam, and (variably) peninsular Malaysia. The term was later adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina (today’s Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos), and the entire area of Indochina is now usually referred to as the Indochinese Peninsula or Mainland Southeast Asia. Lan Xang Laos traces its history to the kingdom of Lan Xang (Million Elephants), founded in the 14th century by Lao prince Fa Ngum, who with 10,000 Khmer troops took over Vientiane. Ngum made Theravada Buddhism the state religion. Within 20 years of its formation, the kingdom expanded eastward to Champa and along the Annamite mountains in Vietnam. Following the exile of Ngum, his eldest son, Oun Heuan, came to the throne under the name Samsenthai and reigned for 43 years. During his reign, Lan Xang became an important trade center. After his death in 1421, Lan Xang collapsed into warring factions for the next 100 years. In the 17th century, Lan Xang would further expand its frontiers and in today’s history of Laos, this period is often regarded as the country’s golden age. In the 18th century, Burmese armies overran northern Laos and annexed Luang Phrabang, while Champasak eventually came under Siamese suzerainty. Chao Anouvong was installed as a vassal king of Vientiane by the Siamese. He encouraged a renaissance of Lao fine arts and literature. Under Vietnamese pressure, he rebelled against the Siamese in 1826. The rebellion failed and Vientiane was ransacked. Anouvong was taken to Bangkok as a prisoner, where he died. Lan Xang had ethnic diversity from trade and overland ethnic migrations. The multiple hill tribe peoples were grouped into the broad cultural categories of Lao Theung (which included most indigenous groups and the Mon-Khmer) and Lao Sung. The Lao Loum were ethnically dominant, and there were several closely related Tai groups. Perhaps because of the complicated ethnic diversity of Lan Xang, the structure of society was fairly straightforward, especially in comparison to the Khmer with their complex caste system and concepts of a divine kingship or devaraja. Dynastic Vietnam In 938, the Vietnamese lord Ngo Quyen defeated the forces of the Chinese Southern Han state and achieved full independence for Vietnam after a millennium of Chinese domination. Renamed as Dai Viet (Great Viet), the state enjoyed a golden era between the 11th and the beginning of the 15th centuries. Buddhism flourished and became the state religion. In the 15th century, Vietnamese independence was briefly interrupted by the Chinese Ming dynasty, but was restored by Le Loi—the founder of the Le dynasty. The Vietnamese dynasties reached their zenith in the Le dynasty of the 15th century. Between the 11th and 18th centuries, Vietnam expanded southward, eventually conquering the kingdom of Champa and part of the Khmer Empire. From the 16th century, civil strife and frequent political infighting engulfed much of Vietnam. Although the state remained nominally under the Le dynasty, actual power was divided between the northern Trinh lords and the southern Nguyen lords, who engaged in a civil war for more than four decades before a truce was called in the 1670s. During this time, the Nguyen expanded southern Vietnam into the Mekong Delta, annexing the Central Highlands and the Khmer lands there. The division of the country ended a century later when the Tay Son brothers established a new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long, and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyen lords aided by the French, who soon took over the region. The French Protectorate in Indochina To ensure their presence in Southeast Asia, the French used the pretext of anti-Catholic persecution in Vietnam to take advantage of the internal weaknesses of Cambodia and Laos, establishing a colony with the predominant goal of economic exploitation. Background: French Imperial Ambitions in Indochina The French had few pretexts to justify their imperial ambitions in Indochina. In the early years of the 19th century, some in France believed that the Vietnamese emperor Gia Long owed the French a favor for the help French troops had given him in 1802 against his Tay Son enemies. However, it soon became clear that Gia Long felt no more bound to France than he did to China, which had also provided help. Gia Long believed he was not obliged to return any favors because the French government did not honor its agreement to assist him in the civil war—as the Frenchmen who helped were volunteers and adventurers, not government units. Vietnamese leaders were interested in reproducing the French strategies of fortification and in buying French cannon and rifles, but neither Gia Long nor his successor Minh Mang had any intention of coming under French influence. Meanwhile, the French were determined to establish their presence in the region and it was religious persecution that they eventually used as pretext for intervention. French missionaries had been active in Vietnam since the 17th century and by the middle of the 19th century, there were around 300,000 Roman Catholic converts in Annam and Tonkin. Most of the bishops and priests were either French or Spanish. Many in Vietnam were suspicious of this sizable Christian community and its foreign leaders, and the French began to claim responsibility for their safety. The tension built up gradually. During the 1840s, persecution or harassment of Catholic missionaries in Vietnam by the Vietnamese emperors Minh Mang and Thieu Tri evoked only sporadic and unofficial French reprisals. In 1857, the Vietnamese emperor Tu Duc executed two Spanish Catholic missionaries. It was neither the first nor the last such incident, and on previous occasions the French government had overlooked them. But this time, the incident coincided with the Second Opium War. France and Britain had just dispatched a joint military expedition to the Far East, so the French had troops on hand and could easily intervene in Annam. Seizing Control In 1858, a joint French and Spanish expedition landed at Tourane (Da Nang) and captured the town. What began as a limited punitive campaign, known as Cochincina Campaign ended as a French war of conquest. Sailing south, French troops captured the poorly defended city of Saigon in 1859. In 1862, the Vietnamese government was forced to cede three additional provinces and Emperor Tu Duc was forced to cede three treaty ports in Annam and Tonkin. Additionally, all of Cochinchina was ceded and later formally declared a French territory in 1864. In 1867, three other provinces were added to French-controlled territories. By 1884, the entire country had come under French rule, with the central and northern parts of Vietnam separated in the two protectorates of Annam and Tonkin. The three Vietnamese entities were formally integrated into the union of French Indochina in 1887. During the 19th century, the kingdom of Cambodia had been reduced to a vassal state of the kingdom of Siam (present-day Thailand), which had annexed its western provinces. In the meantime, growing influence from the Vietnamese Nguyen Dynasty threatened the eastern portion of the country. In 1863, King Norodom of Cambodia, installed as a leader by Siam, requested a French protectorate over his kingdom. At the time, Pierre-Paul de La Grandière, colonial governor of Cochinchina, was carrying out plans to expand French rule over the whole of Vietnam and viewed Cambodia as a buffer between French possessions in Vietnam and Siam. The country gradually fell under the French control. In 1867, Siam renounced suzerainty over Cambodia and officially recognized the 1863 French protectorate on Cambodia in exchange for the control of Battambang and Siem Reap provinces, which officially became part of Thailand. These provinces were ceded back to Cambodia by a border treaty between France and Siam in the first decade of the 20th century. Under the treaty with the French, the Cambodian monarchy was allowed to remain, but power was largely vested in a resident general to be housed in Phnom Penh. France was also to be in charge of Cambodia’s foreign and trade relations and provide military protection. After the acquisition of Cambodia in 1863, French explorers went on several expeditions along the Mekong River to find possible trade relations for the territories of French Cambodia and Cochinchina to the south. In 1885, a French consulate was established in Luang Prabang, which along with the province of Vientiane was a vassal kingdom to Siam. Siam soon feared that France was planning to annex Luang Prabang and signed a treaty with them in 1886 that recognized Siam’s suzerainty over the Lao kingdoms. By the end of 1886, however, Auguste Pavie was named vice-consul to Luang Prabang and was in charge of expeditions occurring in Laotian territory, with the possibility of turning Laos into a French territory. Following French intervention in a conflict between Chinese forces and Siam, King Oun Kham of Luang Prabang who had received support from the French, requested a French protectorate over his kingdom. Luang Prabang became a protectorate of France in 1889. In 1893, France went to war with Siam. The kingdom was quickly forced to recognize French control over the eastern side of the Mekong River. Pavie continued to support French expeditions in Laotian territory and gave the territory its modern-day name of Laos. Following Siam’s acceptance of the ultimatum to cede the lands east of the Mekong including its islands, the Protectorate of Laos was officially established and the administrative capital moved from Luang Prabang to Vientiane. However, Luang Prabang remained the seat of the royal family, whose power was reduced to figureheads, while the actual power was transferred over to French officials. Outcome On paper, Cochinchina was the only region of French Indochina with direct rule imposed, as the province had been legally annexed by France. The rest of the provinces—Tonkin, Annam, Cambodia, and Laos—had the official status of French protectorate. However, the differences between direct and indirect rule were purely theoretical and political interference was equally intrusive across the entire area. French Indochina was formed on October 17, 1887, from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina (which together form modern Vietnam), as well as the Kingdom of Cambodia. Laos was added after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893 The French adopted a policy of assimilation rather than association. This allowed the colonialists to rule through native rulers, while upholding their traditional cultures and hierarchy, which was similar to British rule in Malaya. However, the French chose to adopt the policy of assimilation. French was the language of administration. The Napoleonic Code was introduced in 1879 in the five provinces, sweeping away the Confucianism that has existed for centuries in Indochina. Unlike Algeria, French settlement in Indochina did not occur on a grand scale. By 1940, only about 34,000 French civilians lived in French Indochina, along with a smaller number of French military personnel and government workers. The principal reason why French settlement did not grow in a manner similar to that of French North Africa (which had a population of over 1 million French civilians) was that French Indochina was seen as a colonie d’exploitation économique (economic colony) rather than a colonie de peuplement (settlement colony). Economic and Social Impacts of Imperialism in Indochina As French Indochina was the colony of financial exploitation, economic and social development in the region aimed to benefit the French and a small group of local wealthy elites, with limited investments to produce immediate returns rather than long-term benefits for the local populations. French Indochine Society The Vietnamese, Lao, and Khmer ethnic groups formed the majority of their respective colony’s populations. Minority groups such as the Muong, Tay, Chams, and Jarai were collectively known as Montagnards and resided principally in the mountain regions of Indochina. Ethnic Han Chinese were largely concentrated in major cities, especially in Southern Vietnam and Cambodia where they became heavily involved in trade and commerce. According to a 1913 estimate, 95% of French Indochina’s population was rural and urbanization grew slowly over the course of French rule. Since French Indochina was seen as a colonie d’exploitation économique (economic colony) rather than a colonie de peuplement (settlement colony), by 1940 only about 34,000 French civilians lived in the region, along with a smaller number of French military personnel and government workers. During French colonial rule, French was the principal language of education, government, trade, and media. It became widespread among urban and semi-urban populations and among the elite and educated. This was most notable in the colonies of Tonkin and Cochinchina, where French influence was particularly prominent. Annam, Laos, and Cambodia were less influenced by French education. Despite the dominance of French among the educated, local populations still largely spoke their native languages. The French did not plan to expand the Laotian economy and geographic isolation also led to Laos being less influenced by France, compared to other French colonies. In a 1937 estimate, only 574 French civilians along with a smaller number of government workers lived in Laos, a figure significantly smaller than in Vietnam and Cambodia. Economy French Indochina was designated as a colonie d’exploitation (Colony of economic exploitation) by the French government, but both exploitation and economic development differed significantly across the main regions of the colony. The economic and social policies introduced under Governor-General Paul Doumer, who arrived in 1897, determined the development of French Indochina. The railroads, highways, harbors, bridges, canals, and other public works built by the French were almost all started under Doumer, whose aim was a rapid and systematic exploitation of Indochina’s potential wealth for the benefit of France. Vietnam became a source of raw materials and a market for tariff-protected goods produced by French industries. Funding for the colonial government came from taxes on local populations, and the French government established a near monopoly on the trade of opium, salt, and rice alcohol. The trade of those three products formed about 44% of the colonial government’s budget in 1920 but declined to 20% by 1930 as the colony began to economically diversify. Indochina was the second most invested-in French colony by 1940 after Algeria, with investments totaling up to 6.7 million francs. The exploitation of natural resources for direct export was the chief purpose of all French investments, with rice, coal, rare minerals, and later also rubber as the main products. Doumer and his successors up to the eve of World War II were not interested in promoting industry, which was limited to the production of goods for immediate local consumption. Among these enterprises—located chiefly in Saigon, Hanoi, and Haiphong (the outport for Hanoi)—were breweries, distilleries, small sugar refineries, rice and paper mills, and glass and cement factories. The greatest industrial establishment was a textile factory at Nam Dinh, which employed more than 5,000 workers. The total number of workers employed by all industries and mines in Vietnam was some 100,000 in 1930. At the turn of the 20th century, the growing automobile industry in France resulted in the growth of the rubber industry in French Indochina and plantations were built throughout the colony, especially in Annam and Cochinchina. France soon became a leading producer of rubber and Indochinese rubber became prized in the industrialized world. The success of rubber plantations in French Indochina resulted in an increase in investment in the colony by various firms. With the growing number of investments in the colony’s mines as well as rubber, tea, and coffee plantations, French Indochina began to industrialize as factories opened in the colony. These new factories produced textiles, cigarettes, beer, and cement, which were then exported throughout the French Empire. Because the aim of all investments was not the systematic economic development of the colony, but the attainment of immediate high returns for investors, only a small fraction of the profits was reinvested. Saigon became a principal port in Southeast Asia and rivaled the British port of Singapore as the region’s busiest commercial center. By 1937, Saigon was the sixth busiest port in the entire French Empire. French settlers further added their influence on the colony by constructing buildings in the form of Beaux-Arts and added French-influenced landmarks such as the Hanoi Opera House and Saigon Notre-Dame Basilica. Economically, the French did not develop Laos to the scale that it did Vietnam, and many Vietnamese were recruited to work in the government in Laos instead of the Laotian people, causing conflicts between local populations and the government. Economic development occurred very slowly in Laos and was initially fueled primarily by rice cultivation and distilleries producing rice alcohol. Although tin mining and coffee cultivation began in the 1920s, the country’s isolation and difficult terrain meant that Laos largely remained economically unviable to the French. More than 90% of the Lao remained subsistence farmers, growing just enough surplus produce to sell for cash to pay their taxes. Originally serving as a buffer territory for France between its more important Vietnamese colonies and Siam, Cambodia was not initially seen as an economically important area. The colonial government’s budget originally relied largely on tax collections in Cambodia as its main source of revenue and Cambodians paid the highest taxes per capita in French Indochina. Poor and sometimes unstable administration in the early years of French rule in Cambodia meant infrastructure and urbanization grew at a much slower rate than in Vietnam, and traditional social structures in villages remained in place. However, as French rule strengthened after the Franco-Siamese War, development slowly began in Cambodia, where rice and pepper crops allowed the economy to grow. As the French automobile industry grew, rubber plantations like the ones in Cochinchina and Annam were built and run by French investors. Economic diversification continued throughout the 1920s, when corn and cotton crops were also grown. Despite economic expansion and investment, Cambodians still continued to pay high taxes and in 1916, protests broke out demanding for tax cuts. Infrastructure and public works were developed to some extent under French rule, leading to road and railroad construction in Cambodian territory. Most notably, a railway connected Phnom Penh with Battambang on the Thai border. Industry was later developed but was primarily designed to process raw materials for local use or for export. As in nearby British Burma and British Malaya, foreigners dominated the work force of the economy due to French discrimination that kept Cambodians from holding important economic positions. Many Vietnamese were recruited to work on rubber plantations and later immigrants played key roles in the colonial economy as fisherman and businessmen. Chinese Cambodians continued to be largely involved in commerce but higher positions were given to the French. Effects of Colonial Rule Whatever economic progress was made under the French, it benefited the French and the small class of the local wealthy created by the colonial regime. The masses were deprived of economic and social benefits. Through the construction of irrigation works, chiefly in the Mekong delta, the area of land devoted to rice cultivation quadrupled between 1880 and 1930. During the same period, however, the individual peasant ’s rice consumption decreased without the substitution of other foods. The new lands were not distributed among the landless and the peasants but were sold to the highest bidder or given away at nominal prices to Vietnamese collaborators and French speculators. These policies created a new class of Vietnamese landlords and a class of landless tenants who worked the fields of the landlords for rents of up to 60 percent of the crop, which was sold by the landlords at the Saigon export market. The mounting export figures for rice resulted not only from the increase in cultivable land but also from the growing exploitation of the peasantry. The peasants who owned their land were rarely better off than the landless tenants. Peasants continually lost their land to the large owners because they were unable to repay loans given them by the landlords and other money lenders at exorbitant interest rates. As a result, the large landowners of Cochinchina (less than 3 percent of the total number of landowners) owned 45 percent of the land, while the small peasants (who accounted for about 70 percent of the owners) owned only about 15 percent of the land. The number of landless families in Vietnam before World War II was estimated at half of the population. The French had imposed high taxes to finance their ambitious program of public works and recruited forced labor with no protection against exploitation in the mines and rubber plantations. Although the scandalous working conditions, the low salaries, and the lack of medical care were frequently attacked in the French Chamber of Deputies in Paris, the mild social legislation decreed in the late 1920s was never adequately enforced. Apologists for the colonial regime claimed that French rule led to vast improvements in medical care, education, transport, and communications. The statistics kept by the French, however, appear to cast doubt on such assertions. In 1939, for example, no more than 15 percent of all school-age children received any kind of schooling and about 80 percent of the population was illiterate, in contrast to precolonial times when the majority of the people possessed some degree of literacy. With more than 20 million inhabitants in 1939, Vietnam had one university with fewer than 700 students. Medical care was well organized for the French in the cities, but in 1939 there were only two physicians for every 100,000 Vietnamese. Resistance to French Rule The first wave of resistance to French rule emerged in Indochina shortly after France colonized the region, with particularly active nationalist movements in Vietnam, more limited and mostly elite-based opposition in Cambodia, and fragmented, often ethnically-divided rebellions in Laos. Nationalist Movements in Vietnam Nationalist sentiments emerged in French Indochina shortly after the colonial rule was established. By the mid-1880s, French troops established a firm grip over the northern region of Vietnam. By 1885, Phan Dinh Phung, a prominent imperial court official, led a rebellion against the colonizing power. The Can Vuong movement, which sought to expel the French and install the boy Emperor Ham Nghi at the head of an independent Vietnam, initiated the revolt in 1885 when Ton That Thuyet, another court official, launched a surprise attack against the colonial forces after a diplomatic confrontation with the French. Thuyet took Ham Nghi northwards to the Tan So mountain base near the border with Laos after the attack failed. The Can Vuong movement lacked a coherent national structure and consisted mainly of regional leaders who attacked French troops in their own provinces. It initially prospered but failed after the French recovered from the surprise of the insurgency and poured troops into Annam from bases in Tonkin and Cochinchina. The insurrection in Annam spread and flourished in 1886, reached its climax the following year, and gradually faded out by 1889. The Can Vuong movement was the first resistance movement that saw all of Vietnamese society, royalty, scholar-gentry, and peasantry, working together against the French. However, although there were some 50 resistance groups, they lacked collaboration and unifying military authority. Actions taken by the resistance were never national, but the narratives of their struggle against foreign domination were passed down to the next generations. At the beginning of the 20th century, two parallel movements emerged. The Dong Du (“Go East”) Movement started in 1905 by Phan Boi Chau. Chau’s plan was to send Vietnamese students to Japan to learn modern skills so that in the future they could lead a successful armed revolt against the French. With Prince Cuong De, he started two organizations in Japan: Duy Tan Hoi and Viet Nam Cong Hien Hoi. Due to French diplomatic pressure, Japan later deported Chau. A second movement, Duy Tan (“Modernization”), led by Phan Chau Trinh, favored a peaceful, non-violent struggle for independence. It stressed education for the masses, modernizing the country, fostering understanding and tolerance between the French and the Vietnamese, and peaceful transitions of power. The French suppressed both movements and Vietnamese revolutionaries began to turn to more radical paths, particularly after witnessing revolutionaries in action in China and Russia. Phan Boi Chau created the Viet Nam Quang Phuc Hoi in Guangzhou, planning armed resistance against the French. In 1925, French agents captured him in Shanghai and spirited him to Vietnam. Due to his popularity, Chau was spared execution and instead was placed under house arrest until his death in 1940. In 1927, the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang (Vietnamese Nationalist Party), modeled after the Kuomintang in China, was founded. The party launched the armed Yen Bai mutiny in 1930 in Tonkin, which resulted in its chairman Nguyen Thai Hoc and many other leaders captured and executed by the guillotine. Resistance in Cambodia The first decades of French rule in Cambodia included numerous reforms into Cambodian politics, including the reduction of the monarch’s power. In 1884, the governor of Cochinchina, Charles Anthoine François Thomson, attempted to overthrow the monarch and establish full French control over Cambodia by sending a small force to the royal palace in Phnom Penh. The movement was largely unsuccessful as the governor-general of French Indochina prevented full colonization due to possible conflicts with Cambodians and the monarch became a mere figurehead. In 1885, Si Votha, half brother of king Norodom and contender for the throne, led a rebellion to dispose of the French-backed Norodom after coming back from exile in Siam. Gathering support from opponents of Norodom and the French, Si Votha led a rebellion that was primarily concentrated in the jungles of Cambodia and the city of Kampot. French forces later aided Norodom in defeating Si Votha, with agreements that the Cambodian population be disarmed and acknowledge the resident-general as the highest power in the protectorate. In 1904, King Norodom died and the French passed the succession to Norodom’s brother Sisowath, whose branch of the royal family was more submissive and less nationalistic. Norodom was viewed as responsible for the constant Cambodian revolts against French rule. Norodom’s favorite son Prince Yukanthor, his natural successor, had on one of his trips to Europe stirred up public opinion about French colonial brutalities in occupied Cambodia. Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet during much of French rule. The population had limited access to education, which kept literacy rates low and prevented nationalist movements like those in Vietnam from widely circulating their message. However, among the French-educated Cambodian elite, the Western ideas of democracy and self-rule and French restoration of monuments such as Angkor Wat created a sense of pride and awareness of Cambodia’s powerful status in the past. Cambodian students resented the favored status of the minority Vietnamese. In 1936, Son Ngoc Than and Pach Choeun began publishing Nagaravatta (Notre cité), a French language anti-colonial and, at times, anti-Vietnamese newspaper. Minor independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak, began to develop in 1940 among Cambodians in Thailand who feared their actions would have led to punishment if they operated in their homeland. Resistance in Laos In 1901, a revolt broke out in the south of Laos in the Bolaven Plateau among groups of Lao Theung led by Ong Kaeo—a self-proclaimed “holy man” who led a messianic cult. The revolt challenged French control over Laos and was not fully suppressed until 1910 when Ong Kaeo was killed. His successor Ong Kommadam became an early leader in the Lao nationalist movement. Between 1899 and 1910, political unrest in the northern Phongsali Province occurred as local hill tribe chiefs challenged French rule and assimilation policies being carried out in the highlands. At the height of the revolt, the unrest spread to the highlands of Tonkin (northern Vietnam) and was largely concentrated among the minority groups of the Khmu and Hmong. Although the revolt initially started as a resistance against French influence and tightening of administration, it later focused on stopping the French suppression of the opium trade. Instability continued in the north of Laos in 1919 when Hmong groups, the chief opium producers in Indochina, revolted against French taxation and special status given to the Lao Loum, minorities in the highlands; this conflict became known as the War of the Insane. Hmong rebels claimed that both Lao and French officials treated them as subordinate and uncivilized groups. They were defeated in 1921. After the revolt, the French government granted Hmongs partial autonomy in the Xiangkhouang Province. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Vua Duy Tan https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Vua_Duy_Tan_nho.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/indochina-2/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.397333	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87941/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87942/overview	Colonization of Islamic World Overview The Islamic World in the Age of the Industrial Revolution to the First World War The title image is a "caricature from Punch, dated November 28, 1896. It shows Sultan Abdul Hamid II in front of a poster which announces the reorganisation of the Ottoman Empire. The empire's value is estimated at 5 million pounds (708.75 million pounds in 2022). Russia, France and Britain are listed as the directors of the reorganisation. The caricature satirised the extremely poor state of the Ottoman economy at the time."(Wikipedia description of this cartoon) During the nineteenth century industrializing nations pulled ahead of those not yet industrialized economically, technologically, and militarily. The Islamic world was included in those peoples, societies, and empires left behind in this defacto competition. One such Islamic empire was the Ottoman empire, which had reached the apex of its power and territorial expansion in the mid-seventeenth century. From that point the Ottoman empire fell behind until its dissolution in the aftermath of the First World War. Learning Objectives Identify the challenges that Western modernity and industrialization posed to the Ottoman Empire during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries and the efforts the Ottoman Empire made to adapt some aspects of Westernization in an attempt to strengthen the state. Describe the significance of the Tanzimat reforms, the constitutional movement, and the revolution of 1908-1909 to late Ottoman history and the reactions to these historical developments, in the global context of reform as led by the industrialized West and its movement toward representative and responsible government. Key Terms / Key Concepts Crimean War: 1853-6 war in which an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, Britain, France, and Sardinia stopped Russian expansion into the Ottoman Empire Eastern Question: in diplomatic history, a term that refers to the strategic competition and political considerations of the European Great Powers in light of the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire, from the late 18th to early 20th centuries Tanzimat: literally meaning “reorganization,” a period of reformation in the Ottoman Empire that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876; an era characterized by various attempts to modernize the Ottoman Empire and secure its territorial integrity against nationalist movements from within and aggressive powers from outside of the state Young Turks: a political reform movement in the early 20th century that consisted of Ottoman exiles, students, civil servants, and army officers; a group that favored the replacement of the Ottoman Empire’s absolute monarchy with a constitutional government (Later, their leaders led a rebellion against the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. With this revolution, they helped to establish the Second Constitutional Era in 1908, ushering in an era of multi-party democracy for the first time in the country’s history.) Second Constitutional Era - period from1908 to 1920 of restored parliamentary rule in the Ottoman government; another manifestation of the reform impulse in Ottoman society Balkan Wars - a pair of wars in 1912-13 between the Ottoman Empire and various Balkan states over territory in the Balks, which illustrated the growing power of the Balken states relative to the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the coming of World War I Overview: The Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, also known as the Turkish Empire, was founded at the end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia by the Oghuz Turkish tribal leader Osman. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe, and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman Beylik was transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the 1453 conquest of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. During the 16th and 17th centuries, at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire was a multinational, multilingual empire controlling much of Southeast Europe, Western Asia, the Caucasus, North Africa, and the Horn of Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some were later absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries. With Constantinople as its capital and with control of lands around the Mediterranean basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the center of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. The Ottomans suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, which prompted them to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernization known as the Tanzimat. The empire allied with Germany in the early 20th century and joined World War I with the imperial ambition of recovering its lost territories. After a long decline since the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in World War I when it was dismantled by the Allies after the war ended in 1918. The Empire’s defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The successful Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allies led to the emergence of the Republic of Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy and caliphate. Ottoman Decline Up to World War I Beginning from the late 18th century, the Ottoman Empire faced challenges defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. In response to foreign threats, the empire initiated a period of tremendous internal reform that came to be known as the Tanzimat, which succeeded in significantly strengthening the Ottoman central state despite the empire’s precarious international position. Over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman state became increasingly powerful and rationalized, exercising a greater degree of influence over its population than in any previous era. The process of reform and modernization in the empire began with the declaration of the Nizam-ı Cedid (New Order) during the reign of Sultan Selim III (r. 1789 – 1807) and was punctuated by several reform decrees, such as the Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane in 1839 and the Hatt-ı Hümayun in 1856. By the end of this period in 1908, the Ottoman military was somewhat modernized and professionalized according to the model of Western European Armies. The Eastern Question The idea of the “sick man of Europe” led to the "Eastern Question". Regardless of modernization, the Ottoman empire was called the “sick man of Europe,” because the relative weakening of the empire’s military strength in the second half of the 18th century threatened to undermine the fragile balance of power system largely shaped by the Concert of Europe. Russian Tsar Nicholas I may have originated the term “sick man of Europe”. A book by Harold Temperley quotes Nicholas I of Russia as saying in 1853, “Turkey seems to be falling to pieces, the fall will be a great misfortune. It is very important that England and Russia should come to a perfectly good understanding… and that neither should take any decisive step of which the other is not apprized…We have a sick man on our hands, a man gravely ill, it will be a great misfortune if one of these days he slips through our hands, especially before the necessary arrangements are made.” In diplomatic history, the “Eastern Question” refers to the strategic competition and political considerations of the European Great Powers in light of the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries. The Eastern Question encompassed myriad interrelated elements: Ottoman military defeats, Ottoman institutional insolvency, the ongoing Ottoman political and economic modernization programs, the rise of ethno-religious nationalism in its provinces, and Great Power rivalries. The Eastern Question is normally dated to 1774, when the Russo-Turkish War (1768 – 74) ended in defeat for the Ottomans. As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire was believed to be imminent, the European powers engaged in a power struggle to safeguard their military, strategic, and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. Imperial Russia stood to benefit from the decline of the Ottoman Empire; on the other hand, Austria-Hungary and Great Britain deemed the preservation of the Empire to be in their best interests. The Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse of the Ottoman empire and division of the Ottoman holdings. In the 1870s the “Eastern Question” focused on the mistreatment of Christians in the Balkans by the Ottoman Empire and what the European great powers ought to do about it. In 1876 Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey and were badly defeated, notably at the battle of Alexinatz (Sept. 1, 1876). Afterward, Gladstone published an angry pamphlet on “The Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of the East,” which aroused enormous agitation in Britain against Turkish misrule and complicated the Disraeli government’s policy of supporting Turkey against Russia. Russia, which supported Serbia, threatened war against Turkey. In August 1877, Russia declared war on Turkey and steadily defeated its armies. In early January 1878 Turkey asked for an armistice, but the British fleet arrived at Constantinople too late. Russia and Turkey on March 3 signed the Treaty of San Stefano, which was highly advantageous to Russia, Serbia, and Montenegro, as well as Romania and Bulgaria. Britain, France, and Austria opposed the Treaty of San Stefano because it gave Russia too much influence in the Balkans, where insurrections were frequent. And war threatened. After numerous attempts, a grand diplomatic settlement was reached at the Congress of Berlin (June – July 1878). The new Treaty of Berlin revised the earlier treaty. Germany’s Otto von Bismarck presided over the congress and brokered the compromises. One result was that Austria took control of the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, intending to eventually merge them into the Austro-Hungarian Empire. When they finally tried to do that in 1914, local Serbs assassinated Austria’s Archduke and the result was the First World War. Russian Influence on the Ottomans The Eastern Question became a major European issue when the Greeks declared independence from the Ottomans in 1821. It was at about this time that the phrase “Eastern Question” was coined. Ever since the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, there were rumors that the Emperor of Russia sought to invade the Ottoman Empire, and the Greek Revolt seemed to make an invasion even more likely. The British foreign minister, Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh, as well as the Austrian foreign minister, Metternich, counselled the Tsar Alexander I of Russia to not to enter the war. Instead, they pleaded that he maintain the Concert of Europe (the spirit of broad collaboration in Europe which had persisted since Napoleon’s defeat). As the war continued into 1829, Russia gained a firm advantage over the Ottoman Empire. By prolonging hostilities further, however, Russia would have invited Austria to enter the war, causing considerable suspicion in Britain. Therefore, for the Russians to continue with the war in hopes of destroying the Ottoman Empire would have been inexpedient. At this stage, the King of France, Charles X, proposed the partition of the Ottoman Empire among Austria, Russia, and others, but his scheme was presented too late to produce a result. Russia was able to secure neither a decisive defeat nor a partition of the Ottoman Empire and chose instead to degrade it to a mere dependency. In 1829, the Emperor of Russia concluded the Treaty of Adrianople with the Sultan; his empire was granted additional territory along the Black Sea, Russian commercial vessels were granted access to the Dardanelles, and the commercial rights of Russians in the Ottoman Empire were enhanced. The Greek War of Independence was terminated shortly thereafter, as Greece was granted independence by the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832. The Crimean War The Crimean War (1853 – 1856) was part of the long-running contest between the major European powers, who were vying for influence over the territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. The immediate cause was a religious dispute over the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, which was part of the Ottoman Empire. Under treaties negotiated during the 18th century, France was the guardian of Roman Catholics in the Ottoman Empire while Russia was the protector of Orthodox Christians. For several years, however, Catholic and Orthodox monks had disputed possession of the Church of the Nativity and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Palestine. During the early 1850s, the two sides made demands which the Sultan could not possibly satisfy simultaneously. In 1853, the Sultan adjudicated in favor of the French, despite the vehement protestations of the local Orthodox monks. The longer-term causes were the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. It ended when the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. Germany and the Ottoman Empire Germany drew away from Russia and became more closely aligned with Austria-Hungary in 1879, when the Dual Alliance was concluded. Germany also closely allied with the Ottoman Empire and reorganized the Ottoman military and financial system; in return, it received several commercial concessions, including permission to build the Baghdad Railway, which secured German access to several important economic markets and had the potential for German entry into the Persian Gulf area controlled by Britain. Germany was driven not only by commercial interests, but also by an imperialistic and militaristic rivalry with Britain. Meanwhile, Britain agreed to the Entente Cordiale with France in 1904, thereby resolving differences between the two countries over international affairs. Britain also reconciled with Russia in 1907 with the Anglo-Russian Entente. As the Ottoman state attempted to modernize its infrastructure and army in response to threats from the outside, it also opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. Indeed, as the historian Eugene Rogan has written, “the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East” in the 19th century “was not the armies of Europe but its banks.” The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875. By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by an institution known as the Ottoman Public Debt Administration, which was a council of European men with leadership alternating between France and Britain. This body controlled large parts of the Ottoman economy and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests. During the Tanzimat period, the government’s series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalization of homosexuality, and the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories. Defeat and Dissolution The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908 – 1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era—a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Ottoman constitution of 1876 and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire’s citizens to modernize the state’s institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. The Second Constitutional Erabegan after the Young Turk Revolution (July 3, 1908) with the sultan’s announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered in 1911 with the founding of the opposition Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Union or Entente), which poached many of the more liberal Deputies from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the Balkan Wars, dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals that ultimately led to the CUP seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the 1913 Ottoman coup d’état and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I. Balkan Wars The continuing collapse of the Ottoman Empire led to two wars in the Balkans, in 1912 and 1913. These wars, known as the Balkan Wars, were a prelude to WWI. By 1900, nation states had formed in Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia, but many of their ethnic compatriots lived under the control of the Ottoman Empire. In 1912, these countries formed the Balkan League. There were three main causes of the First Balkan War. The Ottoman Empire was unable to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising ethnic nationalism of its diverse peoples. Second, the Great Powers quarreled among themselves and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms. This led the Balkan states to impose their own solution. Most important, the members of the Balkan League were confident that it could defeat the Turks. Their prediction was accurate, as Constantinople called for terms after six weeks of fighting. The First Balkan War broke out when the League attacked the Ottoman Empire on October 8, 1912 and was ended seven months later by the Treaty of London. After five centuries, the Ottoman Empire lost virtually all of its possessions in the Balkans. This was the situation that the Ottoman Empire faced at the beginning of the First World War, which led to the dissolution of the empire. Other Islamic Peoples By the mid-nineteenth century other Islamic peoples who lived in Islamic-oriented communities and/or civilizations, were either part of the Ottoman Empire or other European colonial empires, or under their control. A number of these peoples aspired to establish their own nations. Egyptians unsuccessfully tried to break away from the Ottoman and then the British Empire. Arabs sought to establish their independence from the Ottoman Empire. Other groups of Muslims across Africa and Asia faced the same situation of colonial dominance. Many of these peoples would realize these aspirations in the waves of decolonization that occurred after the First and Second World Wars. Primary Source: The Young Turks "Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire The Young Turks (1908), “Proclamation for the Ottoman Empire” [Abridged] 1. The basis for the Constitution will be respect for the predominance of the national will. One of the consequences of this principle will be to require without delay the responsibility of the minister before the Chamber, and, consequently, to consider the minister as having resigned, when he does not have a majority of the votes of the Chamber. 2. Provided that the number of senators does not exceed one-third the number of deputies, the Senate will be named as follows: one-third by the Sultan and two-thirds by the nation, and the term of senators will be of limited duration. 3. It will be demanded that all Ottoman subjects having completed their twentieth year, regardless of whether they possess property or fortune, shall have the right to vote. Those who have lost their civil rights will naturally be deprived of this right. 4. It will be demanded that the right freely to constitute political groups be inserted in a precise fashion in the constitutional charter, in order that article 1 of the Constitution of 1293 A.H. [Anno Hegira=] be respected. 7. The Turkish tongue will remain the official state language. Official correspondence and discussion will take place in Turkish. 9. Every citizen will enjoy complete liberty and equality, regardless of nationality or religion, and be submitted to the same obligations. All Ottomans, being equal before the law as regards rights and duties relative to the State, are eligible for government posts, according to their individual capacity and their education. Non-Muslims will be equally liable to the military law. 10. The free exercise of the religious privileges which have been accorded to different nationalities will remain intact. 11. The reorganization and distribution of the State forces, on land as well as on sea, will be undertaken in accordance with the political and geographical situation of the country, taking into account the integrity of the other European powers. 14. Provided that the property rights of landholders are not infringed upon (for such rights must be respected and must remain intact, according to law), it will be proposed that peasants be permitted to acquire land, and they will be accorded means to borrow money at a moderate rate. 16. Education will be free. Every Ottoman citizen, within the limits of the prescriptions of the Constitution, may operate a private school in accordance with the special laws. 17. All schools will operate under the surveillance of the state. In order to obtain for Ottoman citizens an education of a homogenous and uniform character, the officials schools will be open, their instruction will be free, and all nationalities will be admitted. Instruction in Turkish will be obligatory in public schools. In official schools, public instruction will be free. Secondary and higher education will be given in the public and official schools indicated above; it will use the Turkish tongue. Schools of commerce, agriculture, and industry will be opened with the goal of developing the resources of the country. 18. Steps shall also be taken for the formation of roads and railways and canals to increase the facilities of communication and increase the sources of the wealth of the country. Everything that can impede commerce or agriculture shall be abolished. From Modern History Sourcebook, Fordham University From: "The Young Turks," trans. A. Sarrou, in Civilization since Waterloo, Rondo Cameron, ed. (Paris, 1912), pp. 40-42 Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. Arkenberg. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - 1896 Punch magazine cartoon about the declining Ottoman Empire. Attribution: Punch Magazine, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punch_magazine_-_Turkey_Ltd_-_1896.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "The Ottoman Empire" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-ottoman empire/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - History of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sultanvahideddin.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Eastern Question. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Sultanvahideddin.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Satirical_map_of_Europe,_1877.jpg. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87943/overview	Colonization of Africa Overview The "Scramble" for Africa The Industrial Revolution resulted in Western Europe’s shift from agrarian societies into urban, industrialized countries. Increasingly, England, France, Germany, and a host of other Western European nations needed natural resources to continue fueling their industrialization. Coal, mineral, and wood resources within their own boundaries were becoming scarcer. Across the Mediterranean Sea, though, rested a continent that had seemingly inexhaustible natural resources: Africa. In the late 1800s, Western European nations launched “civilizing missions” to Africa to explore its resources. Rivalry exploded between European nations, as each hurried to colonize large swaths of Africa. Exploration of the continent soon turned to exploitation and violence. Tragically, these events occurred at the moment when African nations were starting to industrialize. European colonization employed such tremendous violence that African infrastructure was crushed and hopes of modernization dashed. Learning Objectives Examine the impact of colonization on Africans. Analyze European motivations for colonization. Compare and contrast the different ways in which different European nations carried out colonization. Key Terms / Key Concepts Belgian Congo: name of the colony after Congo’s administration was taken over by the Belgian parliament Berlin Conference: 1884 conference between major European powers that divided Africa into colonies Boer: Farmers with Dutch ancestry who lived in South Africa Congo Free State: colony created in the late 1800s by King Leopold II of Belgium to harvest rubber and gum trees First Boer War: conflict between the British and Boers that ended in a Boer victory Force Publique: a military and police force organized and operated in the Congo, at the behest of King Leopold II, and later the Belgian government French Algeria: France’s most important African colony German Southwest Africa: the German colony where the genocide of the Herero and Nama peoples occurred Gold Coast: British colony in present-day Ghana Herero and Nama: two indigenous groups in German Southwest Africa who were nearly exterminated by German polices in the early 1900s Kaiser Wilhelm II: Emperor of Germany who wanted to expand Germany’s influence on the global stage King Leopold II: Belgian king known for his atrocious exploitation of the Congolese people under the Congo Free State Mahgreb: northwest Africa Maxim-gun: first reliable machine gun Nigeria: the Federal Republic of Nigeria is a West African country that was once a British colony famous for its palm oil production; independence from Britain was declared in 1960 Palm oil: an essential commodity in Europe to produce soaps and machinery lubricants Scramble for Africa: European countries rush to colonize Africa in the late 1800s Second Boer War: conflict between the British and Boers that end in a British victory Social Darwinism: the pseudo-science theory that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals, which equates to “only the strong survive” Sphere of influence: an area in which one country has power to affect the development of other areas Suez Canal: waterway in Egypt that connects the Mediterranean and Red Seas Transvaal: province of South Africa inhabited by the Boers between 1910 – 1994 Weltpolitik: policy developed by Kaiser Wilhelm II that argued Germany should be involved in world politics Africa on the Eve of Modernization: 1860s – 1870s One of the greatest tragedies of the “Scramble for Africa” that occurred in the 1880s to early 1900s, is that just prior to the European mad-grab, African nations across the continent were on the eve of modernization. Large-scale wars had mostly ceased. The Atlantic Slave Trade had ended, and by extension, slavery itself was virtually extinguished. Life expectancy was extended, a result of improved diet and reduction in disease. Simultaneously, many countries experienced significant population growth. In the 1860s and 1870s, many African nations seemed to be on the verge of transforming their societies into industrialized, developed countries. Economically, Africa nations prospered from the development of strong trade routes across the continent. With relative peace at hand, traders from Angola, Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique began exploring and trading across East Africa. Still, other voyagers braved traveling and trading across the Saharan Trade Route. And many African traders made extensive use of one of the continents greatest resources: its rivers. The Nile, White Nile, and Congo Rivers all became superhighways for trade and exploration. Relatively friendly relations between most African nations emerged from the advancements in trade and exploration. Goods such as ivory, grains, wines, and precious stones were exchanged. And from this exchange arose new social structures—ones that included an African middle class comprising of traders and merchants. Like all exchanges, the development of trade and exchange across Africa also helped the dissemination of languages, cultural customs, and beliefs. During this period, African kingdoms started to dissolve, too. In their place emerged nations that were increasingly centralized. Among these were Ethiopia, Egypt, and Madagascar. In these new, centralized states, there was also a dramatic increase in the emphasis on democratic ideas, as well as the push for improved and equal education. Ghana, Nigeria, and Liberia all enacted legislature that called for the election of government officials. In Ghana, a constitution was written that included the right of education for all children, as well as the development of resources to promote unity among its people. Increasingly, schools were built so that even poorer children could receive some education. In much of the rest of Africa, an intellectual revolution occurred. It introduced the “educated African elite.” Tragically, what most Africans lacked was the benefit of an industrial revolution. Technologically, Africa lagged far behind their European counterparts, which means that commercially they did not have the machines that could produce in a competitive manner. Largely, they remained unaware of the actual scope of technological development in Europe, including advancements in weaponry and medicines that could fight diseases. When the Europeans set their minds to colonization, in most cases the Africans could not long resist them because of this lag in technology, industrialization, and medicine. Involvement in Africa before 1884 Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously uninhabited islands—such as the Cape Verde Islands and São Tomé Island—or establishing coastal forts. These forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips. But they did not venture into the mainland and the vast interior of Africa was little-known to Europeans until the late 19th century. Technological advancements—such as railways, telegraphs, and steam navigation—facilitated European expansion overseas. Medical advances also were important, especially medicines for tropical diseases. The development of quinine, an effective treatment for malaria, enabled vast expanses of the tropics to be accessed by Europeans, because they no longer faced certain severe illness or death from insect-inflicted illnesses. African Colonization in the 19th Century By the mid-19th century, Europeans considered Africa to be a disputed territory ripe for colonization. On a practical level, Europeans needed to colonize Africa for its wealth of natural resources—essential in keeping industries thriving. Psychologically, middle-class Western Europeans also believed in Social Darwinism—the belief that Darwin’s theory of natural selection could be applied to people, which equated to an acceptance that “only the strong survive.” It was a trendy, horribly inaccurate and unscientific way of explaining why some humans prospered and others did not (that some fallaciously adhere to even today). Western Europeans increasingly used this theory, started by Herbert Spencer, to argue that they were wealthier than people in Africa and Asia because they were inherently smarter and more industrious, as well as because they were white. By the end of the 1800s, this pseudo-social science, despite its inherent racism, increased in popularity among European heads of state, and they used it as justification for their imperialist practices. In 1876, King Leopold II of Belgium invited British-American explorer, Henry Morton Stanley to join him in researching and “civilizing” Africa. At the time of the invitation, Stanley was already internationally renowned for his explorations in Zanzibar, and for his “discovery” of the English explorer, David Livingstone, who had searched for the source of the Nile River, then allegedly vanished. In 1871, Stanley encountered the “missing” explorer near Lake Tanganyika. Famously, he greeted Livingstone by asking, “Dr. Livingstone, I presume?” Overnight, Stanley’s fame exploded internationally, and he became an international hero. In 1876, Stanley accepted King Leopold’s invitation. Two years later, he embarked on an extended voyage to the Congo (1878-1885). In 1885, Stanley returned to the Congo, not as a reporter but as an envoy from Leopold with the secret mission to create what would become known as the Congo Free State. French intelligence discovered Leopold’s plans, and France quickly engaged in its own colonial exploration. Portugal also claimed the area. Italy, Britain, Spain, and Germany all soon became involved in the carving up of Africa. Berlin Conference This rapid increase in the exploration and colonization of Africa eventually led to the 1884 Berlin Conference. Established empires—notably Britain, Portugal, and France—had already claimed vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging imperial powers like Italy and Germany had done likewise on a smaller scale. With the dismissal of the aging Chancellor Bismarck by Kaiser Wilhelm II, the relatively orderly colonization became a frantic scramble, known as the Scramble for Africa. The Berlin Conference, initiated to establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory, formalized this “New Imperialism.” The Berlin Conference sought to end competition and conflict between European powers during the “Scramble for Africa” by establishing international protocols for colonization. Tragically, the Africans had no voice in the proceedings. Europeans neither sought their opinions nor invited them to the Conference. The conference was convened on Saturday, November 15, 1884. The main dominating powers of the conference were France, Germany, Great Britain, and Portugal. They remapped Africa without considering the cultural and linguistic borders that were already established. At the end of the conference, Africa was divided into 50 colonies. And the attendants established who was in control of each of these new divisions. Between the Franco-Prussian War (1871) and the World War I (1914), Western Europe added almost 9 million square miles—one-fifth of the land area of the globe—to its overseas colonial possessions by claiming land in Africa. Consequences of the Conference The Scramble for Africa sped up after the Conference since even within areas designated as their spheres of influence, the European powers had to take possession. In central Africa in particular, expeditions were dispatched to coerce traditional rulers into signing treaties, using force if necessary. Bedouin- and Berber-ruled states in the Sahara and Sub-Sahara were overrun by the French in several wars by the beginning of World War I. The British conquered territories from Egypt to South Africa. After defeating the Zulu Kingdom in South Africa in 1879, they moved on to subdue and dismantle the independent Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange Free State. By 1902, 90% of all African land was under European control. The large part of the Sahara was French, while Sudan remained firmly under joint British-Egyptian rulership. Egypt, itself, was under British occupation before becoming a British protectorate in 1914. Heart of Darkness: The Congo Free State King Leopold II’s reign in the Congo became an international scandal due to large-scale mistreatment of the indigenous peoples, including frequent mutilation and murder of men, women, and children to enforce rubber production quotas. Colonization of the Congo Belgian exploration and administration took place from the 1870s until the 1920s. It was first led by Sir Henry Morton Stanley, who explored under the sponsorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. As Europe industrialized, its need for rubber dramatically increased. A seemingly endless grove of rubber trees existed throughout Congo, and Leopold wanted it. Leopold saw the Congo as a source of unlimited wealth, particularly in the form of rubber. He procured the region by convincing the European community that he was involved in humanitarian and philanthropic work. Leopold formally acquired rights to the Congo territory at the Conference of Berlin in 1885 and made the land his private property. On May 29, 1885, the king named his new colony the Congo Free State; it could not have been more of a misnomer for the Congolese. Under Leopold, they would be anything but free. Leopold extracted ivory, rubber, and minerals in the upper Congo basin for sale on the world market, without much actual concern for the human inhabitants of the land, even though his alleged purpose in the region was to uplift the local people and develop the area. Administration of the Congo Free State Beginning in the mid-1880s, Leopold first decreed that the state asserted rights of proprietorship over all vacant lands throughout the Congo territory. Leopold used the title “Sovereign King” as ruler of the Congo Free State. He appointed the heads of the three departments of state: interior, foreign affairs, and finances. These positions were, naturally, filled by Belgians who understood little about the Congolese people. As the self-installed ruler, Leopold pledged to suppress the east African slave trade; promote humanitarian policies; guarantee free trade within the colony; impose no import duties for twenty years; and encourage philanthropic and scientific enterprises. In three successive decrees, Leopold promised the rights of the Congolese in their land to native villages and farms, essentially making nearly all the Congo Free State state-owned land. And, the colonial administration initially liberated thousands of slaves. Shortly after the anti-slavery conference he held in Brussels in 1889, Leopold issued a new decree which said that Africans could only sell their harvested products (mostly ivory and rubber) to the government parts of the Free State. Suddenly, the only market Congolese people had for their products was in Belgium, which could set purchase prices and, therefore, control the amount of income the Congolese could receive for their work. Human Rights Abuses The Force Publique, Leopold’s private army, was used to enforce the rubber quotas. The Force Publique’s officer corps included only white Europeans. On arriving in the Congo, the officers recruited soldiers from Zanzibar and west Africa, and eventually from the Congo itself. Many of the black soldiers were from far-off peoples of the Upper Congo, while others had been kidnapped in raids on villages in their childhood and brought to Roman Catholic missions, where they received a military training in conditions close to slavery. Armed with modern weapons and the chicotte—a whip made of hippopotamus hide—the Force Publique routinely took and tortured hostages, slaughtered families of rebels, and flogged and raped Congolese people. They also burned non-submissive villages, and above all, cut off the hands of Congolese natives, including children. In addition, Leopold encouraged the slave trade among Arabs in the Upper Congo in return for slaves to fill the ranks of the Force Publique. During the 1890s, the agency’s primary role was to exploit the natives as laborers to promote the rubber trade, essentially continuing the practice of slavery. Failure to meet the rubber collection quotas was punishable by death. Meanwhile, the Force Publique was required to provide the hands of their victims as proof that they had used their bullets, which were imported from Europe at considerable cost. Sometimes the hands were collected by the soldiers, and sometimes by the villagers themselves. One junior European officer described a raid to punish a village that had protested. The European officer in command “ordered us to cut off the heads of the men and hang them on the village palisades… and to hang the women and the children on the palisade in the form of a cross.” After seeing a Congolese person killed for the first time, a Danish missionary wrote, “The soldier said ‘Don’t take this to heart so much. They kill us if we don’t bring the rubber. The Commissioner has promised us if we have plenty of hands he will shorten our service.’” Leopold’s reign in the Congo became infamous because of the severe persecution and abuse of the Congolese. From 1885 – 1908, millions of Congolese died because of exploitation and disease. In some areas, the population declined dramatically due to diseases such as sleeping sickness and smallpox. A government commission later concluded that the population of the Congo was “reduced by half” during this period, but no accurate records exist. When news of Leopold’s policies and practices in the Congo Free State reached news outlets, the world stood outraged. Calls were issued to have Leopold stripped of his colonial possession. Instead, Belgium’s parliament annexed the Congo Free State and took over its administration on November 15, 1908. It became the Belgian Congo. Enter the French: Colonial Overlords of North and West Africa The French began their colonization efforts before the Scramble for Africa. During the mid-1800s, they launched exploration through Africa and Asia. With increasing rivalry with their Western European nations (particularly England and later, Germany) France began colonizing territory in earnest during the late 1800s. As a result, vast regions in both Asia and Africa came under French control. French West Africa As the French pursued their part in the Scramble for Africa in the 1880s and 1890s, they conquered large territory in the north and west of Africa. These conquered areas were usually governed by French Army officers and dubbed “Military Territories.” In 1895, the French created the colony of French West Africa. The colony consisted of Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), French Guinea (now Guinea), Côte d’Ivoire, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso), Dahomey (now Benin), and Niger. The Maghreb The French also focused their attention on colonizing much of Northern Africa, known as the Mahgreb. The region (present-day Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia) bordered the Sahara Desert, but also the Mediterranean Sea. As such, the region seemed defendable and gave the French access to the most important sea trade route in Europe—the Mediterranean. Ideally, this meant that the French could exploit resources from their African colonies, as well as quickly and efficiently transport the goods by water to Europe. French Algeria Of all the French colonies in Africa, Algeria proved the most significant. France and Algeria had a long history of trade, and the capital city, Algiers, was a wealthy city situated conveniently on the Mediterranean Sea. It had been governed by a ruler appointed from the Turkish army for centuries, but the indigenous Berber people had remained independent. Since the late 1700s, olive oil, grain, and other foods had poured into France from Algiers. Moreover, the city prospered from extensive trade of beautiful carpets, among other luxury goods, throughout the Mediterranean. From the French perspective, the city was the ultimate prize. In 1830, France launched a campaign to claim Algiers. However, they severely underestimated the resistance they would encounter in Algeria. Arab and Berber clans united against the French invasion. Rallying under a popular commander, the Berber and Arab troops fought fiercely, with thousands of casualties on both sides. But by the 1870s, the French had conquered Algeria. Settlers poured into the colony, and seized Algerian vineyards, farms, and crops. Initially, France prospered from possessing Algeria. However, underground resistance remained strong throughout the French rule. Violence exploded between the French colonizers and the Berbers and Arabs. Within a century, French Algeria would collapse, and a fiercely independent Algeria would rise out of the Sahara. French Colonial Practices Assimilation was one of the ideological hallmarks of French colonial policy in the 19th and 20th centuries. In contrast with British imperial policy, it maintained that natives of French colonies were considered French citizens with full citizenship rights, as long as they adopted French culture and customs. Colonial Assimilation A hallmark of the French colonial project in the late 19th century and early 20th century was the civilizing mission, the principle that it was Europe’s duty to bring civilization to “backward” people. Rather than merely govern colonial populations, the Europeans would attempt to Westernize them in accordance with a colonial ideology known as “assimilation,” which was meant to make the colonized act and think like the colonizers. France pursued a policy of assimilation throughout much of its colonial empire. In contrast with British imperial policy, the French taught their subjects that by adopting French language and culture, they could eventually become French. Natives of these colonies were considered French citizens as long as French culture and customs were adopted. And adoption of French customs was supposed to ensure the rights and duties of French citizens. French conservatives denounced the assimilationist policies as products of a dangerous liberal fantasy. Unlike in Algeria, Tunisia, and French West Africa, in the Protectorate of Morocco the French administration attempted to use segregationist urban planning and colonial education to prevent cultural mixing and uphold the traditional society upon which the French depended for collaboration, with mixed results. After World War II, the segregationist approach modeled in Morocco had been discredited and assimilationism enjoyed a brief revival. A Young Country's Quick Colonial Rise: The German Colonies German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck strongly opposed the notion of overseas colonies. He predicted rivalry, unnecessary violence, and competition. However, following his retirement from office, German politics assumed a different course. A “keep up or be left behind mentality” consumed the German public. Pressure to establish colonies for international prestige exploded. By the late 1800s, Germany had joined the Scramble for Africa, citing the need for resources to fuel its factories that emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution. Background: Kaiser Wilhelm II and Weltpolitik In 1891, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany made a decisive break with former Realpolitik of Bismarck and established Weltpolitik. The aim of Weltpolitik was to transform Germany into a global power through aggressive diplomacy, the acquisition of overseas colonies, and the development of a large navy. The origins of the policy can be traced to a Reichstag debate in December 1897 during which German Foreign Secretary Bernhard von Bülow stated, “in one word: We wish to throw no one into the shade, but we demand our own place in the sun.” Acquisition of Colonies The rise of German imperialism and colonialism coincided with the latter stages of the Scramble for Africa. Initially, German individuals, rather than government entities, competed with other already established colonies and colonialist entrepreneurs. With the Germans joining the race for the last uncharted territories in Africa and in the Pacific, competition for colonies involved major European nations and several lesser powers. The German effort included the first commercial enterprises in the 1850s and 1860s in West Africa, East Africa, the Samoan Islands, and the unexplored north-east quarter of New Guinea with adjacent islands. German traders and merchants began to establish themselves in the African Cameroon delta and the mainland coast across from Zanzibar. Large African inland acquisitions followed, mostly to the detriment of native inhabitants. All in all, German colonies comprised territory that makes up 22 countries today, mostly in Africa, including Nigeria, Ghana, and Uganda. However, their most significant African colony in the early twentieth century was Tanzania, in east Africa. The Herero and Nama Genocide The Herero and Nama genocide was a campaign of racial extermination that the German Empire undertook in their colony of German South-West Africa (modern-day Namibia) against the Herero and Nama peoples. It is considered one of the first genocides of the 20th century. During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Herero migrated to what is today Namibia established themselves as herdsmen. In the beginning of the 19th century, the Nama from South Africa, who already possessed some firearms, entered the land and were followed by white merchants and German missionaries. During the late 19th century, the first Europeans arrived to permanently settle the land. Primarily in Damaraland, German settlers acquired land from the Herero to establish farms. In 1883, merchant Franz Adolf Eduard Lüderitz entered into a contract with the native elders. The exchange later became the basis of German colonial rule. The territory became a German colony under the name of German Southwest Africa. Soon after, conflicts between the German colonists and the Herero herdsmen began; these were frequently disputes about access to land and water but were also fueled by the legal discrimination that white immigrants inflicted on the native population. Additionally, the numerous mixed offspring—children of partial German heritage—upset the German colonial administration, which was concerned with maintaining “racial purity.” Between 1893 and 1903, the Herero and Nama people’s land and cattle were progressively making their way into the hands of the German colonists. In 1903, the Herero people learned that they were to be placed in reservations, leaving more room for colonists to own land and prosper. In 1904, the Herero and Nama began a large rebellion that lasted until 1907, ending with the near destruction of the Herero people. What followed in 1907 is argued by some historians as the first genocide of the 20th century. The Germans sought to eliminate the Herero and Nama people by driving them to the Namib desert at the point of a rifle or maxim gun. Once defeated, thousands of Herero and Nama were imprisoned in concentration camps, where the majority died of disease, abuse, and exhaustion. During the “war” against the Herero and Nama peoples, Eugen Fischer, a German scientist, came to the concentration camps to conduct medical experiments on race, using children of Herero people and mulatto children of Herero women and German men as test subjects. Together with Theodor Mollison he also experimented upon Herero prisoners. Those experiments included sterilization and injection of smallpox, typhus, and tuberculosis. Roughly 80,000 Herero lived in German Southwest Africa at the beginning of Germany’s colonial rule over the area, while after their revolt was defeated, they numbered approximately 15,000. In a period of four years, 1904 – 1907, approximately 65,000 Herero and 10,000 Nama people perished. England's Grasp on Africa England, just like other Western European nations, jumped feet first into the Scramble for Africa. Like its counterparts, the tiny island nation was eager to assert its dominance on the world stage. Tragically for the African people, particularly in South Africa, the British engaged in colonization exactly as described by the poet Hilaire Belloc: “Whatever happens we have got, the maxim-gun, and they have not.” Drastically superior military technology, such as the maxim-gun and the breech-loading rifle, would determine who reigned victorious in the conquest of Africa. The British did not establish as large of colonies in Africa as the French. They did, however, procure extremely prosperous colonies in West Africa. Notably, the British colonized Nigeria, and the Gold Coast (present-day Ghana). Both colonies were wealthy in resources coveted by the British. Nigeria was a sprawling, subtropical country rich in plant diversity. Notably, it was home to extensive groves of palm trees. Under British rule, the palm oil industry increased a thousand-fold. Palm oil was transformed into a commodity in European life because of its uses in soaps, and as a lubricant for heavy machinery. The Royal Niger Company was established and owned by the British, giving them a virtual monopoly on palm oil. Moreover, the Nigerian coast opened to the Atlantic Ocean, giving the British easy access in global trade and shipping. Although the British officially colonized the capital city of Nigeria—Lagos —in the 1880s, it was not until the late 1890s and early 1900s that they were able to secure the rest of present-day Nigeria. Like the French and Germans, the British relied on force to subdue the Nigerian populations who resisted them. Fierce fighting erupted between the Nigerian resistance and the British, who also used Nigerian soldiers in their ranks. To overcome the Nigerian forces, the British used heavy artillery and columns of machine-gunners. One by own, towns throughout Nigeria fell to the British because of heavy bombardment. While the British hammered and suppressed the population in Nigeria, they also had to contend with resistance in their other wealthy, West African colony: the Gold Coast. Located in present-day Ghana, it was, perhaps, the most aptly named of all colonies. Significant gold deposits could be found throughout the colony. In the 1870s, Dutch and Danish companies had sold out to the British, allowing Britain to declare the Gold Coast a colony. Like Nigeria, its coast opened to the Atlantic giving the British a significant advantage in the trading and shipping of gold. Similarly, the British also faced threats of Ghanian resistance. They countered those threats with the use of excessive force, including artillery and machine guns. British Rule in Egypt Throughout the 19th century, the ruling dynasty of Egypt spent exorbitant amounts of money on infrastructural development. Consequently, despite vast sums of European and other foreign capital, actual economic production and revenue were insufficient to repay the loans. Egypt was bankrupt. As a result, European and foreign financial agencies were able to take control of the treasury of Egypt; they forgave debt in return for taking control of the Suez Canal, as well as reoriented economic development. By 1882, Islamic and Arabic Nationalist opposition to the colonizers began growing in Egypt, which was the most powerful, populous, and influential of Arab countries. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the resignation of the Egyptian Prime Minister. Many of the Europeans retreated to specially designed quarters suited for defense or heavily European settled cities, such as Alexandria. By June 1882 a fight for control of Egypt erupted between the Europeans and the Arab Nationalists. Anti-European violence broke out in Alexandria, prompting a British naval bombardment of the city. Later, a coalition force of British, French, and Indian troops easily defeated the nationalist Egyptian Army in September and took control of the country. With European aid, the Egyptian royal family remained in control of the country. But the control was reliant on the military and political aid of Western Europe, especially Britain. It is unlikely that the British expected a long-term occupation from the outset; however, Lord Cromer, Britain’s Chief Representative in Egypt at the time, viewed Egypt’s financial reforms as part of a long-term objective. Cromer took the view that political stability needed financial stability, and he embarked on a program of long-term investment in Egypt’s agricultural revenue sources, the largest of which was cotton. To accomplish this, Cromer worked to improve the Nile’s irrigation system through multiple large projects: the construction of the Aswan Dam, the creation of the Nile Barrage, and an increase of canals available to agricultural-focused lands. During British occupation and control, Egypt developed into a regional commercial and trading destination. Immigrants from less-stable parts of the region—including Greeks, Jews and Armenians—began to flow into Egypt. The number of foreigners in the country rose from 10,000 in the 1840s to around 90,000 in the 1880s and more than 1.5 million by the 1930s. South Africa and the Boer Wars Large-scale war was perhaps, inevitable, in South Africa, following the discovery of both gold and diamonds in the region, given the mindset of Europeans. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ethnic, political, and social tensions among European colonial powers and indigenous Africans, as well as English and Dutch settlers, led to open conflict in a series of wars and revolts between 1879 and 1915, most notably the First and Second Boer Wars. First Boer War The First Boer War was fought from December 1880 until March 1881 and was the first clash between the British and the South African Republic Boers—the Dutch and Huguenot peoples who had settled southern Africa in the late 17th century. The British, having won a war against the Zulus, attempted to impose an unpopular system of confederation in South Africa. This resulted in outrage and strong protests from Boers. In December 1880, 5,000 Boers assembled at a farm to discuss a course of action. Tired of the British treating them as second-class citizens, as well as their demands on Boer agricultural production and taxation, the Boers decided to create an independent republic within South Africa. On December 13 they proclaimed their independence and intent to establish a republican government. This resulted in war erupting between the two sides. Surprisingly, the British suffered several significant, military defeats during the First Boer War. As a result, the British government signed a truce on March 6. And in the final peace treaty on March 23, 1881 Britain gave the Boers self-government in a small part of South Africa known as the South African Republic (Transvaal), under a theoretical British oversight. Second Boer War The exact causes of the Second Boer War in 1899 have been disputed ever since the events took place. The Boers felt that the British intention was to again annex the Transvaal. Some feel that the British were coerced into war by the wealthy owners of the mining industries; others that the British government underhandedly created conditions that allowed the war to ignite. The British worried about popular support for the war and wanted to push the Boers to make the first move toward actual hostilities; this occurred when the Transvaal issued an ultimatum on October 9 for the British to withdraw all troops from their borders, or they would “regard the action as a formal declaration of war.” The Second Boer War took place from October 11, 1899 until May 31, 1902. The war was fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the South African Republic (referred to as the Transvaal by the British). After a protracted, hard-fought war, the two independent republics lost and were absorbed into the British Empire. The Boers fought bitterly against the British, refusing to surrender for years despite defeat. They reverted to guerrilla warfare. As guerrillas without uniforms, the Boer fighters easily blended into the farmlands, which provided hiding places, supplies, and horses. The British solution was to set up complex nets of block houses, strong points, and barbed wire fences, partitioning off the entire conquered territory. The civilian farmers were relocated into concentration camps, where very large proportions died of disease, especially the children, mostly due to weak immunities. In all, the war cost around 75,000 lives: 22,000 British soldiers (7,792 battle casualties, the rest through disease); 6,000 – 7,000 Boer Commandos; 20,000 – 28,000 Boer civilians (mostly women and children due to disease in concentration camps); and an estimated 20,000 black Africans, both Boer and British allies alike. The last of the Boers surrendered in May 1902. The war resulted in the creation of the Transvaal Colony, which in 1910 was incorporated into the Union of South Africa. And the treaty ended the existence of the South African Republic and the Orange Free State as Boer republics, placing them within the British Empire. Significance The Scramble for Africa was, indeed, a scramble. A mad-house, free-for-all in which European countries hurried to colonize territory in Africa for two purposes: natural resources and human labor. Additionally, this event may have occured as a show of strength amidst increasingly rivalrous, nationalist European nations. Indeed, this mad period of colonization would emerge as one of the underlying causes of World War I. Britain, France, and Germany (all major combatant nations in World War I) proved the most successful in colonizing Africa. However, Italy, Spain, and Portugal also colonized, or attempted to colonize, parts of Africa. By 1914 when World War I began, only two independent countries remained in all of Africa: Ethiopia—which the Italians had tried to colonize, and Liberia—a country established for freed slaves by the United States. Across Africa, it was the many different African people who lost in the Scramble for Africa. Across the board, Europeans regularly used excessive military force to subdue resistant civilians. African cultures, languages, land, and livelihoods were all suppressed or destroyed during the Scramble for Africa. Moreover, Africans lost their chance to modernize, just as many African nations had begun the process of modernizing politically, economically, and industrially. In terms of sheer numbers, the colony which endured the worst human rights abuses was the Congo Free State under King Leopold II of Belgium. Treatment of the Congolese people by the Force Publique and other agencies was so brutal and heinous that it sparked uproar from the international community. Estimates suggest that nearly 10 million Congolese died during the period of the Congo Free State. That figure is nearly as high as the total deaths of the Holocaust (estimated 12 million), a fact largely ignored or forgotten by much of the world. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless World History “The Berlin Conference” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-berlin-conference/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ “The Belgian Congo” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-belgian-congo/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ “France in Africa” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/france-in-africa/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ “German Imperialism” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/german-imperalism/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ “Africa and the United Kingdom” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/africa-and-the-united-kingdom/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Boahen, A. Abu. African Perspectives on Colonialism. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987. 1-26. Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. 3rd Ed. Palgrave MacMillan, 2012. 281-282; 287 288; 319-321.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.515206	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87943/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87944/overview	Latin America in the 19th Century Overview Latin America in the 19th Century Following independence, many states in Latin America struggled with resources and relationships with other nations. The political and cultural divisions in Latin America were a direct result of the independence. Many states in Latin America struggled economically, creating a economic and power vacuum that European and North American countries came to fill. Key Terms / Key Concepts Dependency Theory: economic theory that states that there is an economic center in Europe where colonial states are dependent on the economic center. For Latin America, this was the theory to explain why Latin America was not able to gain independence in the 19th century because they were dependent on European economies for finished goods and products. Latin America Following Independence Many states in Latin America struggled following independence. The early 19th century left a political and economic void that was very difficult for many states to fill. The lack of political cohesion in many states. Early independent states struggled with political ideologies such as 19th century liberalism and conservativism. These two political factions fought more with one another than attempting to bridge together and create unity. In the early 19th century, there were two political ideologies that were at direct conflict with one another: liberalism and conservativism. The discussions that started in the Enlightenment about good government would have real world policies and agendas. Many of the followers of the Enlightenment believed in a democratic republic that citizens had the power in a government. Many Enlightened philosophers also advocated for an open market approach and allowing the government and businesses to be independent from one another. These views in the early 19th century were considered to be liberal. The distinction between liberal and conservative is quiet stark, because 19th century conservatives believed in governments that were either monarchy or dictatorships, controlled economies, and less political power for individuals. These political divisions were very divisive in early 19th century Latin America. Many governments struggled between these two factions pulling in two very different directions for leadership and policies of Latin American states. Following independence in the early 19th century, many Latin American states struggled with economics. Many of these states had large debts to foreign countries for their support in the independence movements. This would compound the issue of political disunity. The fact that many states had limited economic power and the political power was divided so distinctly meant that many Latin American states had deep issues of finding cohesion politically. The problem of very different political ideologies and economically weak states created a situation that European nations began to want to exploit. With Spain out of the way in Latin America, many European and North American countries such as England, France, and the United States were interested in filling the void that Spain created. In many cases, these foreign powers would offer to build infrastructure in Latin American states and control those to gain resources. For example, the British financed and built the railroads of Argentina in the 19th century so that they could get cattle, wheat, and money from transportation from the country. Many European states saw Latin American countries as sites of getting raw products. This cycle is known as Dependency Theory, where there is a newly formed state that is given large sums of money, and is then dependent to repay and supply the debt with usually raw products. One example would be Brazil and coffee. That Brazil was the site of raw products of coffee and sugar to Europeans, this in turn paid down debts that Brazil had incurred during the early 19th century. Dependency Theory often times created a cycle, where many Latin American countries could not repay the debts that they had gotten and would were in a similar situation to colonies of European states. Often times, historians ask if this is not similar to mercantilism from the first wave colonization, where raw products are sent to European states and finished goods are then distributed for the payment of debts. Many of the reasons that Dependency Theory was such an important economic model is that Latin American states were the sites of great natural resources. Many countries of Latin America were abundant in raw products that Europeans wanted. Brazil, was the home of coffee, sugar, and gold in the 19th century. Argentina was where many cow products such as leather, and eventually beef, wheat, and grains originated. Peru had fertilizers. These resources were key to Europeans because of the rapid industrialization that was taking shape and how these countries were using resources. Another critical problem that faced early Latin American states was the role of social and cultural cohesion inside the countryside. There were many issues of nationalism and identity in the early formation of states in the 19th century. It was difficult to ascertain a similar cultural or social pattern in many states due to the regional identities and subgroups that made up these regions. Another part of the problem that early Latin American countries faced was the issue of low literacy rates. Historian Benedict Anderson wrote that it was reading that was the reason that nationalism emerged. Latin American states had very low literacy rates in their early days. Having different groups and no clear unity factor also played into the broader political disunity between the liberal and conservative divisions in the 19th century. Only further fueling the internal divisions. Peru and Argentina in the 19th Century Many Latin American states had issues with their internal political divisions in the 19th century. During this time, both Argentina and Peru were rich with resources, but they differed in how they either integrated Europeans and European culture into their own society or rejected them. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the differences between Argentina and Peru in how they engaged with European states and economies. - Analyze the importance of guano in the Peruvian economy. - Evaluate the impact of liberalism and conservativism on Latin America. Integration into World Economics and Politics Following independence, many Latin American states struggled with how much they should open their cultures and societies to European influence and integrate into world economies. The problem was that both isolationism and open policies brought two very different sets of problems. These differences become obvious through an examination of Argentina and Peru, which serve as polar opposites on the spectrum of the relationships developed by the various Latin American countries. Argentina and Peru serve as the two extremes in this response to European influence, while other Latin American nations allowed for European influence to different extents. Peru Peru’s independence started with the rise of the Army of the Andes fighting in Peru. San Martín took the Army of the Andes to fight in Peru. To begin the liberation of Peru, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty on February 5, 1819, to prepare for the invasion. General José de San Martín believed that the liberation of Argentina wouldn’t be secure until the royalist stronghold in Peru was defeated. Peru had armed forces nearly four times the strength of those of San Martín. With this disparity, San Martín tried to avoid battles. He tried instead to divide the enemy forces in several locations, as during the Crossing of the Andes, and trap the royalists with a pincer movement with either reinforcements of the Army of the North from the South or the army of Simón Bolívar from the North. He also tried to promote rebellions and insurrection within the royalist ranks, and he promised the emancipation of any slaves that deserted their Peruvian masters and joined the army of San Martín. When he reached Lima, San Martín invited all of the populace of Lima to swear oath to the Independence cause. The signing of the Act of Independence of Peru was held on July 15, 1821. San Martín became the leader of the government, even though he did not want to lead. He was appointed Protector of Peru. After several years of fighting, San Martín abandoned Peru in September 1822 and left the whole command of the Independence movement to Simon Bolivar. The Peruvian War culminated in 1824 with the defeat of the Spanish Empire in the battles of Junin and Ayacucho. Guayaquil Conference The Guayaquil Conference was a meeting that took place between José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar on July 26, 1822 in Guayaquil, Ecuador; the purpose of the meeting was to discuss the future of Perú (and South America in general). San Martín arrived in Guayaquil on July 25, where he was enthusiastically greeted by Bolívar. However, both men had very different ideas about how to organize the governments of the countries that they had liberated, and the two men could not come to an agreement, despite their common goals and mutual respect, not even when San Martín offered to serve under Bolívar. Bolívar was in favor of forming a series of republics in the newly independent nations, whereas San Martín preferred the European system of rule and wanted to put monarchies in place. San Martín was also in favor of placing a European prince in power as King of Peru when it was liberated. The conference, consequently, was a failure, at least for San Martín. San Martín, after meeting with Bolívar for several hours on July 26, stayed for a banquet and ball given in his honor. Bolívar proposed a toast to “the two greatest men in South America: the general San Martín and myself,” whereas San Martín drank to “the prompt conclusion of the war, the organization of the different Republics of the continent and the health of the Liberator of Colombia.” After the conference, San Martín abdicated his powers in Peru and returned to Argentina. Soon afterward, he left South America entirely and retired in France. Following independence, Peru was a politically and economically weak state. Peruvian independence in 1821 saw the similar divisions between 19th century liberalism and conservativism. There was a weak vision of what Peru was outside of colonization. There were many social and cultural groups—such as the indigenous, Spanish, and Afro-Peruvian groups—that had limited integrations with one another under the Spanish. Additionally, there was a very significant fear of outsiders and how those groups would integrate into or reject Peruvian cultures and customs. The problem was that Peruvian economics started to struggle in the middle of the 19th century. During colonization, Peru was the site of production of raw materials; it was not developed into an industrial site. This meant that the antion had limited abilities to produce products immediately following independence, and that the immediate growth of Peru was dependent on the development of raw products and resources. In the late 19th century, there was some development of rubber production in Peru, but this was limited in scope due to the lack of export abilities, which came with transportation issues and the increase in price that would result. While all might have seemed lost for Peru to develop economically, there was an answer on the coastline of the country. Guano—or bird excrement—became an answer. There were hundreds of small islands off the coast of Peru and birds routinely flew to these islands. Most of these islands were less than a mile off the coastline and were not big enough for large plants or other animals to thrive. As the birds would take flight, they would go to the bathroom and fly back to the coastline. After thousands of years, large deposits of guano had accumulated on the islands. In many cases, these were mountains of guano that had developed. This was very beneficial to Peru because these guano mines were very profitable. Examine the image below, these are humans standing in the guano mountains. This is an image of a guano island off the coast of Peru. The darker spot on the image is a person. Before World War I, the world did not know how to make synthetic nitrates. This meant that the only fertilizers that could be created were made with guano. These islands were the perfect solution for Peru. They were rich in resources and when Europeans became highly interested in exploiting these islands, they were away from Peruvian culture and society. This meant the isolationism that was starting to grow within Peru also grew, due to the islands being far enough away from the coastline outsiders could stay here and not interfere with Peruvian politics. The Peruvian government could grow with taxes collected from the exporting of these islands. Europeans gained significantly from the resources as well. In many cases, the European companies that began mining Peruvian guano mines found little interest in Peruvians who wanted to work on these islands. It is important to note that these islands are very close to the equator and very low to the ocean, meaning that they would have been very hot and humid, a very uncomfortable situation for workers on these islands before work began. Europeans then had to find a solution to their labor needs. It is here that the intersection of local conflicts had impacts globally. The destabilization of China in the 19th century had many people looking to leave the country. The Opium Wars, the Boxer Rebellion, and the lack of stability meant there were many in China who were attempting to escape this very unfortunate set of circumstances. Because of their limited monetary resources to leave, many felt that they were trapped in China. European companies began to advertise to these groups, proclaiming that there was riches to be hand in an almost mythical sounding land of “California,” where there was gold in the streams. Hearing tales of riches and lands interested many who were economically struggling. These companies would sweeten the deal by offering to take Chinese to “California” in exchange for work for several years with a signed contract. This is the return of indentured servitude, which had problems before in the North American colonial period. In the 19th century, Europeans began to tell stories of taking Chinese to “California,” when in reality the majority of the labor needs was in Latin America on the Peruvian guano mines. While there were many Chinese that were taken to North America to work on railroads, most were taken to work on either the guano mines of Peru or the railroad building in Mexico. Labor in the guano mines was very hard and difficult. The islands were hot and humid and the working conditions were harsh before work began. Many would work without wearing shirts because of the heat. The materials that they were working with did not help in the conditions either, because this was petrified guano, meaning that it was hard and the worker needed to have a metal pick to break apart the rock. The problem is, when the metal would hit the rock, a small spark would ignite the nitrate, similar to that of gunpowder, and the materials would begin to fly back at the person who was hitting the rock. Their sweat would act like adhesive to the newly flying guano as it would land on them, sticking with their bodies. This was miserable work. The Peruvian guano mines were a crossroads of global events. The Chinese diaspora was one aspect of the importance of the guano mines. The other was the consequence that the mines had on Europe in the 19th century. It is important to remember that potatoes originated in Peru, where there are over 180 varieties of wild potatoes in the Andes. With this much biodiversity, that if there was a virus or bacteria that affected one variety, that it could quickly jump to another. There were birds that were eating potato plants, that carried those bacteria and viruses with them in their stomachs, and then released that as waste. Europeans were capturing that waste and bagging it to send back to the Old World as fertilizers. This meant that Europeans carried those viruses directly to potato fields by Europeans. The Irish Potato Famine was caused by monoculture planting in Ireland of the same type of potato and Europeans carrying diseases via fertilizers that quickly doomed the Irish potato crop. It might be hard to believe in the 21st century that these islands were profitable, but this was a very important economic center of Latin America in the 19th century. Other countries in Latin America wanted to have access to these guano mines and the money that came with them. The War of the Pacific (1879-1883) was a war that was fought specifically because Chile wanted to gain some of the islands off the coast of Peru for themselves. The problem was that between Chile and Peru was Bolivia that had a significant Pacific Ocean coastline. Chile invaded Bolivia and Peru and gained significant resources from both countries. This was a very bloody war, the second most bloody war on the continent. While this was had it’s roots in the 19th century, it has a direct affect on the 21st century world. Today, lithium mining is an important economic activity in Bolivia. By having no ocean access, Bolivia has to pay taxes and increase the price of lithium to sell on the global market. The lack of ocean access has created a larger issue for Bolivia in the early 21st century, causing Chile, Peru, and Bolivia to raise the spectrum of war between the three countries. By using guano mines, Peru was able to gain money without having to open their borders to Europeans and the world economics. This would prove as one of the ends of the spectrums for Latin America as a way to either integrate or reject Europeans in the 19th century. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, Peru would be a resource hub for raw products such as rubber and guano and struggled to industrialize as the turn of the 20th century approached. Argentina Argentina was in a similar situation to Peru following independence, because they started their nation with very big social, economic, and political separations, especially between the city of Buenos Aires and the countryside. The Spanish called the region the Río de la Plata, and it was home to what would become Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay, parts of Chile, and Argentina. Following independence in the 1820s, the different regions of the Río de la Plata separated to form these new countries. In the 19th century, each of these countries had difficulties forming and creating consensus in their populations. The newly formed country stretched up and down the Andes mountains from Patagonia to the South, the Missiones region in the northeastern section, and the Pampas in the center. The Pampas is the flat region of Argentina that is very similar to that of the Midwest of the United States, where there is large plains that are perfect for growing wheat and raising cattle. The land was formed as runoff from rain from the Andes mountains, and the topsoil is close to two feet deep. Most topsoil depth naturally is between one half inch to two inches, so the land in Argentina is especially fertile. Not surprisingly, these fields are home to many farmers, cowboys, and ranchers. Cowboys in Argentina are known as the gauchos—rough and tumble men who live in the Pampas. These men of the Pampas are known for their toughness and engagement with the cattle and sheep. Many of these individuals have indigenous and African heritage. This group were considered low skill workers and were paid minimally by large ranch estates. In many ways, these cowboys were a very unique group politically because they were very engaged with politics. Yet, in many ways, the city of Buenos Aires looked down on this group of people. Many from the cosmopolitan hub thought of the gauchos as uneducated, low-class individuals who were destroying the fabric of Argentina because of their political engagement. While this is not true, it reveals that urban peoples maintained an ideological separation from rural populations. In Buenos Aires—the cosmopolitan hub—things were different. After escaping destruction from the Portuguese fleet in the early 16th century, the city had become a hub of artisans and merchants. The city flourished on trade, specifically the trade with the British merchants who were stealing silver from Spanish lands across the estuary. There was also a significant slave trade component in the city center because of the proximity to Montevideo and the European claims for labor needs. During the Bourbon Reform period, the city became the capital of the region, bringing higher level jobs and government officials. The problem is that during this period, the formation of a distinctly different culture in Buenos Aires versus the countryside started forming. For instance, the British merchants brought Enlightenment writings to Buenos Aires, such as the American Constitution, the first translation in Spanish of which was created for readers in the city. Overall, through arbitrary distinctions revolving around jobs and classes, the city started presenting itself as more important than the interior. This tension between the countryside and the city is one of the most important issues Argentina faced when trying to create their nation-state. Historians have identified this antagonism as the center versus periphery, where the urban population has different political and cultural components than the countryside. The problem with this division is that both the city and the countryside needed one another, yet they treated one another as enemies. This tension made it very difficult to create consensus and political cohesion in Argentina in the 19th century, as the liberal and conservative divisions formed along the city and countryside divisions. These would continue to grow in the early governments. This meant that both the liberal and conservatives did not trust the government and would push against the leadership. And many in the country felt that the government was not able to address the needs of the populations. In 1829, the political turmoil in Argentina would change with the rise of Manuel de Rosas. Rosas was a leader in the province of Buenos Aires, where he rose to power as a leader of the ranching class. He understood the political power of the gauchos and that it could be used to harness political will inside of Argentina as a type of force. Rosas began to integrate the gaucho into his political slogans and identities, making them a central feature of his government and politics. These individuals became like a paramilitary force inside the country. If there was political opposition to Rosas or his policies, these individuals were known as the Mazorca. Many of the Mazorca were armed gauchos who listened to the ideas of Rosas. They would be the ones that would find and, in many cases, kill the individual that was in the opposition. In many ways, Manuel de Rosas was a tyrant dictator inside of Argentina. In Latin America, the leadership of strongmen, who are often military dictators, are known as Caudillos. Rosas was never elected the president of the country, but he had much political sway. Rosas stopped the freedom of the presses and was against many of the Enlightenment policies. And he was able to operate somewhat freely, as many of the political opposition of Rosas fled the country though out the 1830s – 1850s. In the early 1850s, Argentina began to fight with Brazil for territory and was loosing the war; this reflected badly on Rosas, who was forced to flee Argentina in 1852. His move to England ended the caudillo leadership in Argentina. After Rosas leadership, one of the most important opposition leaders rose to power. Domingo Sarmiento was extremely opposed to Rosas government. Between 1843 to 1850, he was in exile and wrote about the political situation in Argentina. His most famous writing was Facundo, Civilization versus Barbarism, in which he argued that Argentina was in a crossroads between the policies of Rosas and the Enlightenment. In the work, Sarmiento argued that the keyway to advance Argentina was to make radical changes, including a move towards industrialization, like the United States and Europe. Yet, Sarmiento’s way to industrialize was very different than simply building industry. Sarmiento argued that the way for Argentina to industrialize was to go to European industrial states and bring knowledgeable Europeans to Argentina, so that they could instruct locals on how to advance production. In this line of thinking, Europeans would build up Argentina’s economy. Sarmiento would advocate for these policies in exile, until he became president in 1868. While Sarmiento started this conversation in the 1860s, these policies would not become part of Argentina’s approach until the 1870s; they lasted until the end of the 19th century. Sarmiento’s approach in Argentina was very different than that taken in Peru, in regards to relationships to Europeans and world economics. Sarmiento argued for a complete integration of Europeans into Argentina, with Argentine business leaders actively recruiting immigrants with skill in building and operating machinery. As a result, there was a massive migration of people into Argentina and the country grew by 10 million people in the last decade of the 19th century, almost exclusively from European immigration. Unfortunately, the immigrants did not bring the skill that this policy was meant to obtain, as the individuals who immigrated to Argentina were low skill low wage workers that did not always know how to build the machinery of the factories. Another policy that started during the Rosas government that would have a significant impact on Argentina was the removal of indigenous peoples. Modeling his reservation system on the one that the United States established, Rosas began the process of pushing indigenous populations, such as the Mapuche, into reservation systems in the early 19th century. Rosas began a war against the indigenous groups known as the War of the Desert, that would continue throughout the 19th century, when the Mapuche were put into reservation systems near the border of Chile. The combination of the increase immigration of Europeans and the reservation system of the indigenous populations in Argentina had a dramatic affect on the countryside. The demographic distribution of the country following independence was roughly similar to that of the United States. By the end of the 19th century, the ethnically European heritage population was over 90% of the total demographic totals. The city of Buenos Aires would be the economic hub of Argentina. The city was the industrialized center of the country. Many of these industries were not as strong as their European or North American counterparts, yet the city was home to a flourishing industrialized center. The tensions between the city and the countryside started to lessen in the later 19th century, when Argentina’s meat industry became prevalent, which meant the cowboys and ranchers started driving the economy. After the English financed railroads and refrigeration became prevalent, meat products were easily transferred from the countryside to the city and then became a main export. The cattle industry in the early 19th century was centered on hides for leather. With refrigeration, cattle products changed from hides to meat. This meant that cows were able to be quickly brought to the market. Argentina became the biggest beef supplier in the world, with one of the biggest meat sales from Argentina being canned meat. The transformation in Argentina was significant in the 19th century towards industrialization and integration of the country into the global supply chain. This is in opposition to Peru with how Peruvians attempt to integrate themselves into the global system. The problem with both approaches, is that Latin America in the 19th century was going to be a site of production of raw materials. Even though Peru did not want to integrate and engage with the global economy, they were still pulled into this system. Brazil in the 19th Century Brazil had a very unique decolonization experience, in comparison to other Latin American states. Brazil did not struggle with independence warfare, but instead gained liberation through Napoleonic wars. The Brazilian Empire had a dramatic growth in the 19th century that saw the continuation of slave labor until the last quarter of the 19th century. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the role of the Napoleonic Wars on Brazil's independence. - Analyze the impact of the Brazilian Empire - Evaluate the differences of Brazil and other Latin American states following independence. Early Years The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories of modern Brazil and Uruguay. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II. A colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese colonial Empire in 1808 when the Portuguese prince regent, later King Dom João VI, fled from Napoleon’s invasion of Portugal and established himself and his government in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule the Kingdom of Brazil as regent. On September 7, 1822, Pedro declared the independence of Brazil and after waging a successful war against his father’s kingdom, was acclaimed on October 12 as Pedro I, the first Emperor of Brazil. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically diverse. Unlike most of the neighboring Hispanic American republics, Brazil had political stability, vibrant economic growth, constitutionally guaranteed freedom of speech, and respect for civil rights of its subjects, albeit with legal restrictions on women and slaves, the latter regarded as property and not citizens. The empire’s bicameral parliament was elected under comparatively democratic methods for the era, as were the provincial and local legislatures. This led to a long ideological conflict between Pedro I and a sizable parliamentary faction over the role of the monarch in the government. He also faced other obstacles. The unsuccessful Cisplatine War against the neighboring United Provinces of the Río de la Plata in 1828 led to the secession of the province of Cisplatina (later Uruguay). In 1826, despite his role in Brazilian independence, Pedro I became the king of Portugal; he immediately abdicated the Portuguese throne in favor of his eldest daughter. Two years later, she was usurped by Pedro I’s younger brother Miguel. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and Portuguese affairs, Pedro I abdicated his Brazilian throne on April 7, 1831, and immediately departed for Europe to restore his daughter to the Portuguese throne. Pedro II Pedro I’s successor in Brazil was his five-year-old son, Pedro II. As the latter was still a minor, a weak regency was created. The power vacuum resulting from the absence of a ruling monarch led to regional civil wars between local factions. Having inherited an empire on the verge of disintegration, Pedro II, once he was declared of age, managed to bring peace and stability to the country, which eventually became an emerging international power. Brazil was victorious in three international conflicts (the Platine War, the Uruguayan War, and the Paraguayan War) under Pedro II’s rule, and the Empire prevailed in several other international disputes and outbreaks of domestic strife. With prosperity and economic development came an influx of European immigration, including Protestants and Jews, although Brazil remained mostly Catholic. Slavery, which was initially widespread, was restricted by successive legislation until its final abolition in 1888. Brazilian visual arts, literature, and theater developed during this time of progress. Although heavily influenced by European styles that ranged from Neoclassicism to Romanticism, each concept was adapted to create a culture that was uniquely Brazilian. End of the Empire Even though the last four decades of Pedro II’s reign were marked by continuous internal peace and economic prosperity, he had no desire to see the monarchy survive beyond his lifetime and made no effort to maintain support for the institution. The next in line to the throne was his daughter Isabel, but neither Pedro II nor the ruling classes considered a female monarch acceptable. Lacking any viable heir, the Empire’s political leaders saw no reason to defend the monarchy. Although there was no desire for a change in the form of government among most Brazilians, after a 58-year reign, on November 15, 1889, the emperor was overthrown in a sudden coup d’état led by a clique of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic headed by a dictator, forming the First Brazilian Republic. Pedro II had become weary of emperorship and despaired over the monarchy’s future prospects, despite its overwhelming popular support. He allowed no prevention of his ouster and did not support any attempt to restore the monarchy. He spent the last two years of his life in exile in Europe, living alone on very little money. The reign of Pedro II thus came to an unusual end—he was overthrown while highly regarded by the people and at the pinnacle of his popularity, and some of his accomplishments were soon brought to naught as Brazil slipped into a long period of weak governments, dictatorships, and constitutional and economic crises. The men who had exiled him soon began to see in him a model for the Brazilian republic. A photo of the Brazilian parliament, a large amphitheater type room filled with legislators. They are voting on the abolition of slavery. 19th Century Mexico Newly independent Mexico saw the rise of many polticial and cultural problems. The limited political integrations meant that there was a rise of dictators and limited democracy. And increasing the difficulty was the interests and invasions of foreign countries . Key Terms / Key Concepts Agustín de Iturbide: a Mexican army general and politician, who built a successful political and military coalition that took control in Mexico City on September 27, 1821 during the Mexican War of Independence and decisively gained independence for Mexico; President of the Regency in 1821, after the secession of Mexico was secured; Constitutional Emperor of Mexico from May 19, 1822 to March 19, 1823; original designer of the first Mexican flag Benito Juárez: a Mexican lawyer and politician of Zapotec origin from Oaxaca who served as the president of Mexico for five terms: 1858 – 1861 as interim, then 1861 – 1865, 1865 – 1867, 1867 – 1871, and 1871 – 1872 as constitutional president; resisted the French occupation of Mexico, overthrew the Second Mexican Empire, restored the Republic, and used liberal measures to modernize the country Manifest Destiny: a widely held belief in the United States that its settlers were destined to expand across North America; includes three basic themes: the special virtues of the American people and their institutions; the mission of the United States to redeem and remake the west in the image of agrarian America; and an irresistible destiny to accomplish this essential duty Maximilian I: the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire and a younger brother of the Austrian emperor Francis Joseph I (After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he accepted an offer by Napoleon III of France to rule Mexico.) Napoleon III: the only President (1848 – 52) of the French Second Republic and the Emperor (1852 – 70) of the Second French Empire, who was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I and the first president of France to be elected by a direct popular vote (He was blocked by the Constitution and Parliament from running for a second term, so he organized a coup d’état in 1851 and then took the throne as Emperor on December 2, 1852, the 48th anniversary of Napoleon I’s coronation. He remains the longest-serving French head of state since the French Revolution.) Plan of Iguala: a revolutionary proclamation on February 24, 1821, in the final stage of the Mexican War of Independence from Spain that stated Mexico was to become a constitutional monarchy whose sole official religion would be Roman Catholicism and the Peninsulares and Creoles of Mexico would enjoy equal political and social rights Securing Independence After the suppression of Hidalgo’s revolt, from 1815 to 1821 most fighting for independence from Spain was by small and isolated guerrilla bands. From these, two leaders arose: Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca and Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla (born José Miguel Fernández y Félix) , both of whom gained allegiance and respect from their followers. Believing the situation under control, the Spanish viceroy issued a general pardon to every rebel who would lay down his arms. After ten years of civil war and the death of two of its founders, by early 1820 the independence movement was stalemated and close to collapse. The rebels faced stiff Spanish military resistance and the apathy of many of the most influential criollos. In what was supposed to be the final government campaign against the insurgents, in December 1820 Viceroy Juan Ruiz de Apodaca sent a force led by a royalist criollo Colonel Agustin de Iturbide to defeat Guerrero’s army in Oaxaca. Iturbide, a native of Valladolid (now Morelia), gained renown for his zeal against Hidalgo’s and Morelos’s rebels during the early independence struggle. A favorite of the Mexican church hierarchy, Iturbide symbolized conservative criollo values; he was devoutly religious and committed to the defense of property rights and social privileges. He also resented his lack of promotion and failure to gain wealth. Iturbide’s assignment to the Oaxaca expedition coincided with a successful military coup in Spain against the monarchy of Ferdinand VII. The coup leaders, part of an expeditionary force assembled to suppress the independence movements in the Americas, had turned against the monarchy. They compelled the reluctant Ferdinand to reinstate the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812 that had created a constitutional monarchy. When news of the liberal charter reached Mexico, Iturbide perceived it both as a threat to the status quo and a catalyst to rouse the criollos to gain control of Mexico. The tides turned when conservative Royalist forces in the colonies chose to rise up against the liberal regime in Spain; it was a total turnaround compared to their previous opposition to the peasant insurgency. After an initial clash with Guerrero’s forces, Iturbide assumed command of the royal army. At Iguala, he allied his formerly royalist force with Guerrero’s radical insurgents to discuss the renewed struggle for independence. While stationed in the town of Iguala, Iturbide proclaimed three principles, or “guarantees,” for Mexican independence from Spain. Mexico would be an independent monarchy governed by King Ferdinand, another Bourbon prince, or some other conservative European prince; criollos would be given equal rights and privileges to peninsulares (those born in Spain); and the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico would retain its privileges and position as the established religion of the land. After convincing his troops to accept the principles, which were declared on February 24, 1821 as the Plan of Iguala, Iturbide persuaded Guerrero to join his forces in support of this conservative independence movement. A new army, the Army of the Three Guarantees, was placed under Iturbide’s command to enforce the Plan of Iguala. The plan was so broadly based that it pleased both patriots and loyalists. The goal of independence and the protection of Roman Catholicism brought together all factions. Iturbide’s army was joined by rebel forces from all over Mexico. When the rebels’ victory became certain, the Viceroy resigned. On August 24, 1821, representatives of the Spanish crown and Iturbide signed the Treaty of Córdoba, which recognized Mexican independence under the Plan of Iguala. On September 27, 1821, the Army of the Three Guarantees entered Mexico City, and the following day Iturbide proclaimed the independence of the Mexican Empire, as New Spain would henceforth be called. On the night of May 18, 1822, a mass demonstration led by the Regiment of Celaya, which Iturbide had commanded during the war, marched through the streets and demanded that their commander-in-chief accept the throne. The following day, the congress declared Iturbide emperor of Mexico. On October 31, 1822, Iturbide dissolved Congress and replaced it with a sympathetic junta. After Independence: The Mexican Empire The Spanish attempts to reconquer Mexico comprised episodes of war between Spain and the new nation. The designation mainly covers two periods: from 1821 to 1825 in Mexico’s waters, and a second period of two stages that included a Mexican plan to take the Spanish-held island of Cuba between 1826 and 1828 and the 1829 landing of Spanish General Isidro Barradas in Mexico to reconquer the territory. Although Spain never regained control of the country, it damaged the fledgling economy. The newly independent nation was in dire straits after 11 years of the War of Independence. No plans or guidelines were established by the revolutionaries, so internal struggles for control of the government ensued. Mexico suffered a complete lack of funds to administer a country of over 4.5 million km² and faced the threats of emerging internal rebellions and of invasion by Spanish forces from their base in nearby Cuba. After independence, Mexican politics were chaotic. The presidency changed hands 75 times in the next 55 years (1821 – 76). Mexico now had its own government, but Iturbide quickly became a dictator. He even had himself proclaimed emperor of Mexico, copying the ceremony used by Napoleon when he proclaimed himself emperor of France. No one was allowed to speak against Iturbide. He filled his government with corrupt officials who became rich by taking bribes and making dishonest business deals. In 1822, Mexico annexed the Federal Republic of Central America, which includes present-day Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and part of Chiapas. U.S. Westward Expansion and Manifest Destiny The United States expanded from coast to coast through wars and treaties; establishment of law and order; building farms, ranches, and towns; marking trails and digging mines; and pulling in great migrations of foreigners. It was fulfilling the dreams of Manifest Destiny. Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was preordained to expand from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast. The concept was expressed during Colonial times, but the term was coined in the 1840s by a popular magazine which had proclaimed “the fulfillment of our manifest destiny…to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions.” As the nation grew, Manifest Destiny became a rallying cry for expansionists in the Democratic Party. In the 1840s the Tyler and Polk administrations (1841 – 49) successfully promoted this nationalistic doctrine. However, the Whig Party, which represented business and financial interests, was opposed to it. Whig leaders, such as Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln, called for broadening society through modernization and urbanization instead of simple horizontal expansion. John Quincy Adams, an anti-slavery Whig, felt the Texas annexation in 1845 to be “the heaviest calamity that ever befell myself and my country.” However, starting with the annexation of Texas, the expansionists had the upper hand. Manifest Destiny was enacted by the settlers who ventured west. From the early 1830s to 1869, the Oregon Trail and its many offshoots were used by over 300,000 settlers. ’49ers (in the California Gold Rush), ranchers, farmers, and entrepreneurs and their families headed to California, Oregon, and other points in the far west. Wagon trains took five or six months on foot; after 1869, the trip took six days by rail. The latter half of the 19th century was marked by the rapid development and settlement of the far West, first by wagon trains and riverboats and then aided by the completion of the transcontinental railroad. Large numbers of European immigrants (especially from Germany and Scandinavia) took up low-cost or free farms in the Prairie States. Mining for silver and copper opened up the Mountain West. The United States Army fought frequent small-scale wars with Native Americans as settlers encroached on their traditional lands. Gradually the U.S. purchased the Native American tribal lands and extinguished their claims, forcing most tribes onto subsidized reservations. Mexico’s Place in Manifest Destiny Mexico became independent of Spain in 1821 and took over Spain’s northern possessions from Texas to California. The Spanish and Mexican governments attracted American settlers to Texas with generous terms. 30,000 Anglos with 3,000 slaves were settled in Texas by 1835. Tensions rose, however, after an abortive attempt to establish the independent nation of Fredonia in 1826. William Travis, leading the “war party,” advocated for independence from Mexico, while the “peace party” led by Stephen F. Austin—later referred to as “The Father of Texas”—attempted to get more autonomy within the current relationship. In 1836, the Texas Revolution erupted. Following losses at the Alamo and Goliad, the Texans won the decisive Battle of San Jacinto to secure independence. The U.S. Congress declined to annex Texas, stalemated by contentious arguments over slavery and regional power. Thus, it became “the Republic of Texas” and remained an independent power for nearly a decade before it was annexed as the 28th state in 1845. The government of Mexico, however, viewed Texas as a runaway province and asserted its ownership. War ensued. Mexican-American War The Mexican-American War of 1848 proved to be a consequential war for Mexico. The United States forces divided the country in half, roughly near the Rio Grande River to California, while the other forces marched to Mexico City. The Mexican Army, led by Santa Ana was not as prepared and equipped as the American forces and struggled to defeat the United States military. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican-American War and had a deep impact on Mexico. The United States took lands north of the Rio Grande to California. These would become the majority of the American southwest. However, in the treaty and the subsequent newspapers, the United States would claim that they never conquered the region. In Mexico, this was a very different situation. The loss of over half of the country’s territory and wealth had a significant psychological and political toll on the country. This would mean the liberal and conservative divisions that had plagued the country before were magnified intensely. The divided leadership would continue to plague the countryside alongside economic instability. The Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine, articulated by American founding father and then President James Monroe, was a U.S. policy that opposed European colonialism in the Americas beginning in 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to take control of any independent state in North or South America would be viewed as “the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.” At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would recognize and not interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued in 1823 at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved or were at the point of gaining independence from the Portuguese and Spanish Empires. The intent and impact of the Monroe Doctrine persisted with only minor variations for more than a century. Its stated objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and avoid situations that could make the New World a battleground for the Old World powers, so that the United States could exert its own influence undisturbed. The doctrine asserted that the New World and the Old World were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence, for they were composed of entirely separate and independent nations. After 1898, Latin American lawyers and intellectuals reinterpreted the Monroe doctrine in terms of multilateralism and non-intervention. In 1933, under President Franklin Roosevelt, the United States went along with the new reinterpretation, especially in terms of the Organization of American States. French Intervention in Mexico The War of the French Intervention was an invasion of Mexico in late 1861 by the Second French Empire, supported in the beginning by the United Kingdom and Spain. It followed Mexican President Benito Juárez‘s suspension of interest payments to foreign countries on July 17, 1861, which angered these foreign creditors. Emperor Napoleon III of France was the instigator of military intervention , justifying his actions by claiming a broad foreign policy of commitment to free trade. For him, a friendly government in Mexico would ensure European access to Latin American markets. Napoleon also wanted the silver that could be mined in Mexico to finance his empire. Napoleon built a coalition with Spain and Britain to address this matter while the U.S. was distracted with its civil war. To unite in their efforts to receive payments from Mexico, the three European powers signed the Treaty of London on October 31, 1861. On December 8, the Spanish fleet and troops arrived at Mexico’s main port: Veracruz. However, when the British and Spanish discovered that France planned to seize all of Mexico, they quickly withdrew from the coalition. France invaded Mexico in the winter of 1861, as part of the War of the French Intervention. The subsequent French invasion resulted in the Second Mexican Empire. In Mexico, the French-imposed empire was supported by the Roman Catholic clergy, many conservative elements of the upper class, and some indigenous communities. Conservatives and many in the Mexican nobility tried to revive the monarchy by bringing to Mexico an archduke from the Royal House of Austria, Maximilian Ferdinand, or Maximilian I. France had various interests in this Mexican affair, such as seeking reconciliation with Austria, n defeated during the Franco-Austrian War of 1859; counterbalancing the growing American Protestant power by developing a powerful Catholic neighboring empire; and exploiting the rich mines in the northwest of the country. Seeking to legitimize French rule in the Americas, Napoleon III invited Maximilian to establish a new Mexican monarchy for him. Maximilian I of Mexico Maximilian I was the only monarch of the Second Mexican Empire; he a younger brother of the Austrian emperor Francis Joseph I. After a distinguished career in the Austrian Navy, he accepted an offer by Napoleon III of France to rule Mexico. With the support of the French army and a group of conservative Mexican monarchists hostile to the liberal administration of new Mexican President Benito Juárez, Maximilian traveled to Mexico. Once there, he declared himself Emperor of Mexico on April 10, 1864. Maximilian’s consort was Empress Carlota of Mexico, and they chose Chapultepec Castle as their home. The Imperial couple noticed the mistreatment of Mexicans, especially Indians, and wanted to ensure their human rights. One of Maximilian’s first acts as Emperor was to restrict working hours and abolish child labor. He cancelled all debts over 10 pesos for peasants, restored communal property, and forbade all forms of corporal punishment. He also broke the monopoly of the Hacienda stores and decreed that henceforth peons could no longer be bought and sold for the price of their debt. Maximilian was a liberal, a fact that Mexican conservatives seemingly did not know when he was chosen to head the government. He favored the establishment of a limited monarchy that would share power with a democratically elected congress. Maximilian upheld several liberal policies proposed by the Juárez administration, such as land reforms, religious freedom, and extending the right to vote beyond the landholding class. All these policies were too liberal for conservatives, while liberals refused to accept any monarch and favored the republican government of Benito Juárez. This left Maximilian with few enthusiastic allies within Mexico. At first, Maximilian offered Juárez an amnesty if he would swear allegiance to the crown, even offering the post of Prime Minister, which Juárez refused. Meanwhile, Juárez remained head of the republican government. He continued to be recognized by the United States as such, but the U.S. was engaged in its Civil War (1861 – 65) and at that juncture was in no position to aid Juárez directly against the French intervention until 1865. France never made a profit in Mexico and its Mexican expedition grew increasingly unpopular. Finally in the spring of 1865, after the US Civil War was over, the U.S. demanded the withdrawal of French troops from Mexico. Napoleon III quietly complied. In mid-1867, despite repeated Imperial losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever-decreasing support from Napoleon III, Maximilian chose to remain in Mexico rather than return to Europe. He was captured and executed along with two Mexican supporters on June 19, 1867, immortalized in a famous painting by Eduard Manet. Maximilian has been praised by some historians for his liberal reforms, his genuine desire to help the people of Mexico, his refusal to desert his loyal followers, and his personal bravery during the siege of Querétaro. However, other researchers consider him short-sighted in political and military affairs and unwilling to restore democracy in Mexico, even during the imminent collapse of the Second Mexican Empire. Mexico By the End of the 19th Century In many ways, Mexico by the end of the 19th century was a product of colonization and European engagements in early independence. The encomienda system that emerged in the Spanish colonial system was never fully replaced. The indigenous population were still held at the bottom of society, and this was the majority of the population. Political leadership in the late 19th century never addressed this inequality and mistreatment of indigenous community. This problem would continue throughout the 19th century. The presidency of Benito Juárez was a significant turning point for Mexico. Juarez, who had indigenous roots, struggled for political leadership in a state fractured between liberal and conservative divisions. The election of 1876 of Porfirio Díaz took the country in a very different direction. Porfirio Díaz was democratically elected and would serve in power until 1910. Díaz became a dictator of Mexico, strongarming the political system, stopping freedom of the press, and assassinating his enemies. United States businesses, such as the railroads and oil magnates, would bribe Díaz to allow them exclusive rights to Mexican economy. This would only further hurt the indigenous populations of the country. These policies did very little to build a strong middle class in Mexico. Often, these created a counter system of poverty and dependency with the United States. Corruption, political graft, social inequalities, political instability, and lack of freedoms would be the root causes of the Mexican Revolution in 1910. Primary Source: Porfirio Diaz The Rule of Porfirio Diaz Channing Arnold & Frederick J. Tabor Frost, 1909 UNTIL I876, when upon his distracted country Porftrio Diaz, innkeeper's son and born ruler, descended as Deus ex machina, the State of Mexico may be summed up in the words, "rapine, murder, and sudden death." But though Mexico has had---and the bulk of her population has had reason during the past thirty years to thank her lucky stars for him---an "iron master," the quietude of the country is only skin-deep. Law and order is represented by a blend of a rough-and-ready justice, a sort of legalized lynch-law, with an official law administration venal to a high degree. With every second mestizo a born robber, Mexico is no place for tedious processes with remands and committals to assizes. A man caught red-handed is usually dealt with on the spot. Such a case occurred while we were visiting the capital. Two days after we had traveled on the marvelous mountain railway, the guards of the day train (which, by the way, always takes the bullion to the coast and has a carriage-load of soldiers attached as military convoy) saw, as they approached the steepest descent, two fellows loitering on the line, presumably wreckers. The train was stopped, and the guards and the officer commanding the convoy gave chase, and, coming up with the men, shot them with their revolvers and kicked the bodies down the precipice. The sun and the vultures do the rest, and on the re-arrival of the train in the capital the matter may or may not be formally notified to the Government. Even to the casual observer the difficulty of governing Mexico must seem inexpressibly great. President Diaz has succeeded not so much because he does not know what mercy means or because a rifle bullet is his only answer for those who question his authority, but because he is endowed with superhuman tact. The iron heel, like that of Achilles, has its vulnerable spot if pressed too hard upon a people's throat, and so he has little dodges by which he appears to his subjects to exercise a judicious clemency. If some redoubtable criminal is captured, some monarch of murderers, Diaz knows well that among his thousands of crime-loving fellow countrymen the brute will have a large following. His execution will mean the declaration of a vendetta against the police. So he is put on his trial, condemned to death, and within twenty-four hours the president commutes his sentence to one of twenty years' incarceration in the penitentiary. After about a week there, he is taken out one evening, as usual, into the prison yard for exercise under a small guard of soldiers. One of these sidles up to him and suggests that as the night is dark he might make a bolt for it. The convict believes it a genuine offer, sprints off, and is dropped at thirty yards like a rabbit by the five or six soldiers who have been waiting under the shadow of the farther wall. The next morning the official newspaper states, "Last night the notorious criminal So-and-So, to whom His Excellency the President recently extended clemency, made an attempt to escape while being exercised in the prison yard, and was shot dead by the sentries." Thus everybody is pleased, except possibly the convict, and the president, without the least odium to himself, has rid the country of another blackguard. Another stroke of real genius was the way in which he has succeeded in setting thieves to catch thieves. When he became president, the country was infested with bandits who stopped at nothing; but Diaz erected huge gallows at the crossways all over Mexico, and the robbers found they had to stop at these, and stop quite a long while till the zopilotes and vultures had picked their bones to the blameless white to which good Porfirio Diaz desired the lives of all his subjects to attain. Aftersome weeks of brisk hanging-business, Diaz played his trump card. He proclaimed that all other bandits, known or unknown, who cared to surrender would be enrolled as rurales, country police, and, garbed in state uniform and armed with Winchesters, would spend the remainder of their lives agreeably engaged in killing their recalcitrant comrades. This temptation to spend their declining days in bloodshed, to which no penalties were attached, was too much for many. Thus fifty per cent of Mexico's robbers turn police and murder the other fifty, and acute Diaz has a body of men who and whose sons have proved, and sons' sons will prove, the eternal wisdom of this hybrid sphinx of a ruler. But there is a comic side to Mexican justice. There is a Gilbertian humor in the go-as-you-please style in which prisoners are treated. In one crowded court, when the jury had retired to consider their verdict, the prisoner was engaged in walking up and down, hands in pockets, cigarette in mouth, while the police, entirely oblivious to their charge, smoked and chatted in another part of the court. We asked one officer whether they were not afraid of the prisoner attempting an escape. "Oh, no," he said, "he'll wait for the verdict." Road-making is practically always done by gangs of convicts, and, when they think they have had enough work, they throw down their spades and picks, and warders and everybody sit down on the roadside and enjoy a cigarette and a chat. The British Minister told us that he had recently been shown over the penitentiary, in which at the moment there was a bloodthirsty rascal whose record of crime would have shamed a Jack the Ripper. The governor of the jail entered into a long and friendly conversation with him as to his wife and family, and, as the British Minister humorously put it, "We were all but presented to him. . . ." UNTIL I876, when upon his distracted country Porftrio Diaz, innkeeper's son Nominally Mexico is a republic: really she is nothing of the sort. There is a Senate, a Chamber of Deputies, periodic elections of state representatives, a governor and council in each State of the Federation; but for upwards of a quarter of a century these have all been but pawns on a chessboard--the player a man of such astounding nature that those who laughed at Mrs. Alec Tweedie's description of him as "the greatest man of the nineteenth century" laughed from the fullness of their ignorance. Porfirio Diaz is an autocrat. He is an autocrat fiercer, more relentless, more absolute than the Czar of Russia, than any recent czar has been, almost than Peter the Great himself. He is more: he is a born ruler. He has played for the regeneration of his country. He has played, but it is too much to say he has won. Nobody could win; but he has chained the bloody dogs of anarchy and murder, chained them successfully for so many years that there are some who forget that he has not killed them outright. Diaz is literally living over a volcano: he is a personified extinguisher of the fierce furnace of his country's turbulence. But when death removes him, what then? The deluge, surely; and after that one more apotheosis of the Monroe Doctrine, and the very wholesome, if somewhat aggressive, Stars and Stripes. You must go to Mexico and live among its people to know all this. It is singular how little the English people know of the country. Only the other day a veteran Anglo-Indian officer gravely asked us, "What is the exact position of Mexico in the United States of America?" We simply gasped: words failed in such an emergency. Before Diaz came, Mexico's history was one of uninterrupted rapine, murder, and sudden death. Out of a morass of blood he has made a garden; out of robbers he has made citizens; out of bankruptcy he has made a revenue; out of the bitterest civil strivings he has almost made a nation. He is nearly eighty: he is upright as a dart: he has the face of a sphinx with a jaw which makes you shudder. He rarely talks, he still more rarely smiles. And yet the whole man expresses no false pride --no "wind in the head." His icy superhumanly self-controlled nature is too great to be moved by such petty things as pride and a vulgar joy in power. In manner and in life he is simplicity itself. He rides unattended in the Paseo; he comes down to the Jockey Club in the afternoon, and the members just rise and bow, and the president picks up his paper and sits quietly at the window reading. He dislikes all ostentation; his food is simple; his clothes are almost always a plain blue serge suit and dark tie; and in his winter home in the city he lives as a simple citizen. But his power is literally limitless. The Mexicans do not love him: nobody could love such a man. The lower classes fear him unreasoningly; the upper classes fear him too, but it is blended with a lively sense of what he means to Mexico. But mark you! there is nothing of the bully about him. The bully is always weak, a coward. If Diaz was arrogant, he would be assassinated in twenty-four hours. He knows that. He knows the blood of the cattle he drives. Nobody but a madman whips a blooded horse; but he must have an iron wrist and a good hold on the rein. And that is why one can safely describe Diaz as a born ruler. He instinctively understands his subjects: he has not learned it, for he began thirty years ago. He was never educated in statecraft, for, indeed, he had no education at all; he was merely the son of an innkeeper, first sent to a Jesuit seminary, whence he ran away and joined the army. No! the man's secret is an iron will and positively miraculous tact. Whatever he does, whatever he orders, is always done so nicely. Everybody knows it has got to be done. Nobody ever crosses Diaz and lives to boast of so doing. But he gilds the pills he thinks his people must swallow, and they gulp them down and look up with meek smiles into that awful face. Here is a little characteristic story of him. Some while back there was an election of governor of Yucatan. The Yucatecan people have always been one of the most restive of the presidential team. They nominated a man disagreeable to Diaz; he nominated a second. The election ballot took place. The Yucatecan nominee was successful by an enormous majority. The news is wired to Mexico City. Back comes the presidential answer: "Glad to know my man elected: am sending troops to formally inaugurate him." The troops came, and Diaz's man was formally installed. To the Chamber of Deputies no one can be elected against the president's wish. For the over-popular governor of a State, Diaz provides distinguished employment elsewhere. Such a case occurred while we were in Yucatan. Señor Olegario Molina, of whom we shall later speak more, has been for some years deservedly popular in Merida, for he has done much to improve it. President Diaz visited Merida recently, and on his return appointed Señor Molina a cabinet minister. When he arrived in Vera Cruz, Molina found the presidential train awaiting him, and on reaching Mexico City the president and the whole cabinet had come to the station to greet him, and drove him triumphantly to the Iturbide Hotel. Charming courtesies! how favorably the presidential eyes beam on him! Yes, but he is banished: as much banished as the shivering pauper Jew workman turned away from the London docks. He was too powerful: he is safer in Mexico City, far away from the madding crowds who would perchance have made him state dictator. A too popular cabinet minister, again, is sent as minister to Madrid: another is found essential to the pacification of a turbulent State of northern Mexico; and so the pretty game goes on, and there is literally no kicking amongst the presidential team. But there are fiercer exhibitions of autocracy at which people only hint, or of which they speak in whispers. There is no Siberia in Mexico, but there are the equivalents of banishment and disappearance for those who would challenge the authority of the Mexican czar. Even criticism is tyrannically repressed. There is a press, but the muzzling order has long been in force, and recalcitrant editors soon see the inside of the penitentiary. General Diaz's present (second) wife is a daughter of a prominent supporter of Lerdo de Tejada, who on the death of Juarez assumed the presidency, but was expelled in 1876 by Diaz. The alliance brought about an armed peace between the two men. But they tell this story: One day an argument arose, and hot words followed. It was at a meal; and when wine's in, wit's out. Diaz's father-in-law went far, and half in jest, half in earnest, said, "Why, Porfirio, you almost tempt me to turn rebel again." They all saw the president's face darken, but the storm blew over. That night it is said that Madame Diaz had to go on her knees to her husband to beg for her father's life. Such is the arbiter and autocrat of Mexico. What, then, is the state of the country politically, and what will be her future? Mexico's great weakness (she has many, but this overtops all others, and lowers menacing on her political horizon) is that she is not a nation. There is no true national feeling, and a moment's thought will show that the circumstances of her population forbid the existence of such. On the one side you have the Spanish Mexicans, the white population, representing the purest European blood in the country. They are but some nineteen per cent of a population of twelve million odd. Among them, and among them alone, is patriotism in its highest sense to be expected or found. On the other side you have the vast mestizo class---the half-castes---some forty-three per cent, and then the purer Indians, forming the remaining thirty-eight per cent. Of these three classes the characteristics are sufficiently marked to destroy hope of any welding or holding together. The Spanish Mexicans are sensual and apathetic, avaricious and yet indolent, inheriting a full share of that Castilian pride and bigotry which has worked the colonial ruin of Spain. Brave, with many of those time-honored traits of the proverbial Spanish don, they are yet a people inexorably "marked down" by Fate in the international remnant basket. They have had their day. Ye gods! they have used it , too; but it is gone. The mestizos---near half the population---have all the worst features of their Spanish and Indian parents. Turbulent, born criminals, treacherous, idle, dissolute, and cruel, they have the Spanish lust and the Indian natural cynicism, the Spanish luxury of temperament with the Indian improvidence. These are the true Mexicans; these are the unruled and unrulable hotchpotch whom Diaz's iron hand holds straining in the leash: the dogs of rapine, murder, and sudden death, whose cowardice is only matched by their vicious treachery. And last there are the Indians, heartless, hopeless, disinherited, enslaved, awaiting with sullen patience their deliverance from the hated yoke of their Spanish masters, not a whit less abhorrent to them because they have had four centuries in which to become accustomed to it. The heterogeneity of Mexico's population is only matched by the depth of the antagonism of each class to each in all their most vital interests. Source:From: Eva March Tappan, ed., The World's Story: A History of the World in Story, Song and Art, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), Vol. XI: Canada, South America, Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies, pp. 526-534Scanned by Jerome S. Arkenberg, Cal. State Fullerton. The text has been modernized by Prof. Arkenberg. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: First Conquest of the Desert: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Primer_Conquista_del_Desierto.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/the-mexican-war-of-independence/ https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/the-south-american-revolutions/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.573815	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87944/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87945/overview	Imperial Russia in the First Half of the 19th Century Overview On the Cusp of a New World: Russia from Alexander I to Alexander II Napoleon Bonaparte’s greatest adversary was a man who he, and much of Europe, greatly underestimated—Tsar Alexander I, the grandson of Catherine the Great of Russia. Alexander proved not only an excellent military strategist but also carried on the enlightened, domestic policies of his grandmother. He was a supreme autocrat, and truly acted as the “tsar of all the Russias,” as his title claimed. However, not all of the succeeding Romanov tsars would prove as capable a leader as Alexander I. Increasingly, a deep rift emerged between Russia’s outdated system of autocracy, and the growing desires of the people, who saw Western Europeans gaining rights and independence in ways that were impossible in Russia. As Russian territory expanded, so too did the discontent of its people. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the political, social, and economic challenges of Russia during the early-mid 1800s. - Analyze the growing differences between Russia in the 1800s, and Western Europe. Key Terms / Key Concepts Alexander I: Tsar of Russia in the early 1800s who defeated Napoleon and also continued enlightened, domestic reforms Alexander II: progressive tsar who liberated the Russian serfs Crimean War: war for the possession of Crimea between Russia, and an allied group of forces including England, France, and the Ottoman Empire Decembrist Uprising: event where part of the Russian military revolted against the ascension of the new tsar, Nicholas I Emancipation Reform of 1861: Russian document that liberated the serfs under Tsar Alexander II January Uprising: Polish revolt to reclaim independence that resulted in decades of Russian reprisals Kingdom of Poland: semi-independent Polish state with a constitution, but ruled by Russia monarchs Nicholas I: tsar of Russia during the Decembrist Uprising and the Crimean War November Uprising: Polish revolt against Russian violations of their constitution in 1830 – 31 Russo-Polish War: war that arose out of the November Uprising and resulted in the loss of Polish independence Alexander I and the Serfs Alexander I wanted to resolve a crucial issue in Russia—the status of the serfs. He acknowledged that serfdom was a feudal concept that Western Europe had dissolved centuries before in favor of more democratic and capitalist systems of labor. The fact remained, though, that Alexander was an autocrat. He ruled supremely in Russia. Entirely dissolving serfdom stood in direct contrast with his principles as tsar. During the reign of Alexander I only about 7,300 male peasants (with families) or about 0.5% of serfs were freed. While Alexander could not be so liberal in his thinking as to emancipate the serfs, he was still an enlightened tsar who believed in slow, progressive reform. He introduced new laws that allowed all classes except the serfs to own land, even small-time farmers; this was a privilege previously confined to the nobility. Alexander I and Poland After Napoleon’s final defeat and exile, Alexander I had two main goals: to gain control of Poland and promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. For the Poles, Alexander created the “Congress Poland” (formerly the Duchy of Warsaw), and granted the state a constitution. Though officially known as the Kingdom of Poland, the state had considerable political autonomy guaranteed by a liberal constitution, its rulers, the Russian Emperors, generally disregarded any restrictions on their power. Effectively it was little more than a puppet state of the Russian Empire. Thus, Alexander I became the constitutional monarch of Poland while remaining the autocratic tsar of Russia. He was also the monarch of Finland, which had been annexed in 1809 and awarded autonomous status. The Congress finalized Russian control of Finland. Alexander's Final Years Despite the liberal, romantic inclinations of his youth, later in his rule Alexander I grew steadily more conservative, isolated from the day-to-day affairs of the state, and inclined to religious mysticism. Once a supporter of limited liberalism, at the end of 1818 Alexander’s views began to change. A revolutionary conspiracy among the officers of the guard and a foolish plot to kidnap him are said to have shaken the foundations of his liberalism. It was the increasing discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander’s conversion. The lofty hopes that the tsar had once held for his country were frustrated by its immense size and backwardness. While vacationing in 1825, Alexander fell ill with typhus and died at only 47. Mysteriously, stories circulated soon afterward that the tsar had not died but had merely faked his death. The rumors bespoke of a monk in Siberia who was unusually tall (like Alexander) whom no one seemed to know. The monk, Feodor Kuzmich, also had unusual mannerisms and a social awkwardness that people described as someone hiding from a previous life. Adding to the rumors were the fact that much later, Kuzmich would receive a visit from the tsarevich (crown prince), Alexander III. His grave would also be visited by Tsar Nicholas II. While historians overwhelmingly dismiss the theory of Alexander I as nothing but popular legend, it is a legend with many twists and curiosities that has had popularity since the mid-1800s. The Decembrist Revolt When Alexander I died, he did not have a legitimate, direct heir. The imperial throne instead fell to one of his younger brothers—Nicholas or Constantine. Neither wanted the throne, or the responsibility of being the tsar. In secret, Constantine, Alexander’s heir apparent, had already renounced the throne. Fatefully, Nicholas, the youngest of the brothers, would become tsar. Although a capable man, Nicholas I was more conservative than Alexander. This, combined with the secret renunciation of the throne by Constantine, would set the new, young tsar on a collision course with his people. The Decembrist Revolt took place in Imperial Russia on December 26, 1825. It was largely an aristocratic movement whose chief actors were army officers. A group of officers commanding about 3,000 men refused to swear allegiance to Nicholas, proclaiming instead their loyalty to the idea of a Russia that had a constitution. They realized, however, that they were soon outnumbered and outgunned. The majority of the tsar’s troops remained loyal. Skirmishes erupted between the two sides. At one point, Nicholas I sent out his personal messenger to call for an end to the fight. The messenger was killed, and the Decembrists were quickly overrun. The surviving rebels were exiled to Siberia. Nicholas I defeated the Decembrists easily. Still, their discontent represented major, growing disparity between the government of Russia and its people. While most of Europe was enjoying increased rights and voices in government, Russia remained two-hundred-years behind the times. This point would haunt the Russian tsars, who intellectually understood the peoples’ frustration but still refused to give the people much power. This disparity would increase to such an extent that it would lead to the complete destruction of the tsarist government in 1917 and usher in communism. Tsar Nicholas I Nicholas I was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855, as well as King of Poland and Grand Duke of Finland. He is best-known as a political conservative whose reign was marked by geographical expansion, repression of dissent, economic stagnation, poor administrative policies, a corrupt bureaucracy, and frequent wars that culminated in Russia’s disastrous defeat in the Crimean War of 1853 – 56. Nicholas was successful against Russia’s neighboring southern rivals. Through successfully ending the Russo-Persian War (1826 – 28), he seized the last territories in the Caucasus held by Persia (land comprising modern day Armenia and Azerbaijan). After gaining what is now Dagestan, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia from Persia, the clear geopolitical and territorial upper hand in the Caucasus was Russia’s. He ended the Russo-Turkish War (1828 – 29) successfully as well. Later, however, he led Russia into the Crimean War (1853 – 56) with disastrous results. Historians emphasize that his micromanagement of the armies hindered his generals, as did his misguided strategy. Fuller notes that historians have frequently concluded that “the reign of Nicholas I was a catastrophic failure in both domestic and foreign policy.” On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its geographical zenith, spanning over 7.7 million square miles but in desperate need of reform. The November Uprising Even though Alexander I had given the Kingdom of Poland a constitution, the Russian tsars and their inner circle violated the constitution by increasingly ignoring or stripping away Polish freedoms. By the late 1820s, the Kingdom of Poland was little more than a puppet state of the Russian empire. In response to the violations of their liberties, Poles grew increasingly frustrated. In November 1830, a group of young men from the Warsaw Officer’s School attacked the Belweder Palace in Warsaw, where the tsar’s brother was living. Although he escaped, the Polish state rallied behind the movement. Soon, much of Warsaw, and Poland, was behind the movement to evict the Russian presence and establish independence. Across the Kingdom of Poland, Poles argued that they were a people entirely independent from the Russians. Their languages, though similar, were different. Poles were largely Catholic Christians, whereas Russians were Orthodox. Customs and traditions also differed. In short, the Poles argued they were their own people and worthy of complete independence. Russia disagreed, most likely because Poland was a country of enormous agricultural and natural resources. The Uprising continued to gain support in Poland as the Russians sent reinforcements to end the rebellion. By February 1831, the November Uprising had transformed into a war. The Russo-Polish War In February 1831, war enveloped much of the Kingdom of Poland. Early in the conflict, the Poles won small victories. But their overall strategy and defense remained poorly organized. Russian troops were well-trained, whereas Polish troops were inexperienced and undisciplined. Outnumbered and outgunned, the Poles were forced to surrender to the Russians in October 1831 as the Russians encircled Warsaw. For the time being, the Russians had defeated the Poles. Warsaw was stripped of its university and reduced in status to a military town. Poland lost its constitution and its autonomy. It would be a key component of the Russian empire for the next eighty years. Still, the Poles would prove that although they had been defeated in the Russo-Polish War, they had not lost the will to fight. The Crimean War For much of Nicholas’s reign, Russia was seen as a major military power with considerable strength. The Crimean War at the end of his reign demonstrated to the world what no one had previously realized: Russia was militarily weak, technologically backward, and administratively incompetent. Despite his grand ambitions toward the south and Turkey, Russia had not built its railroad network in that direction, and communications were bad. The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and inefficiency; and it was unprepared for war. The Navy was weak and technologically backward; the Army, although very large, was inadequate in a modern war. By war’s end, the Russian leadership was determined to reform the Army and the society. In 1853, Russia looked to claim the island of Crimea in the Black Sea, so as to have access to an ice-free port, as well as better shipping and trade routes. Western Europeans perceived the Russians as exploitive of the weakening Ottoman Empire and a threat to their naval trade. Britain, France, the Kingdom of Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire joined forces in the Crimean War against the Russians. In April 1854, Austria signed a defensive pact with Prussia. Thus, Russia found itself in a war with the majority of Europe. The European allies landed in Crimea and laid siege to the well-fortified Russian base at Sevastopol. The Russians lost battles at Alma in September 1854, followed by lost battles at Balaklava and Inkerman. After the prolonged Siege of Sevastopol (1854 – 55) the base fell, exposing Russia’s inability to defend a major fortification on its own soil. The defeats humiliated Russia and the tsar. In 1855, Nicholas I developed pneumonia. Rather than seeking medical treatment, he laid quietly at home, devastated by news of the Crimean War. He died in March 1855. The new tsar, Alexander II, would prove the strongest of the Romanov tsars. However, his early years were also marked with defeat. On January 15, 1856, he pulled Russia out of the war on very unfavorable terms, which included the loss of a naval fleet on the Black Sea. The Last Great Tsar: Alexander II Alexander II was born into a world of excessive privilege. As such, he received a liberal education that immersed him in concepts of the Enlightenment. He understood better than any tsar of the modern era, the importance of increasing rights for the people. Embarrassed by the Russian defeat in Crimea, he decided to focus on domestic improvements and modernization for Russia. To modernize the country, he needed to start, quite literally, from the ground up. The 1861 Emancipation of the Serfs Six years into his reign, Alexander II undertook the most radical and progressive reform in Russian history. He freed all serfs (over 23 million people) in a major agrarian reform, stimulated in part by his view that “it is better to liberate the peasants from above” than to wait until they won their freedom by uprisings “from below.” The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms effected during Alexander II’s reign (1855 – 1881). The reform effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire. Serfs gained the full rights of free citizens, including rights to marry without having to gain consent, to own property, and to own a business. Moreover, the edict prescribed that peasants would be able to buy land from the landlords. In Georgia the emancipation took place later, in 1864, and on much better terms for the nobles than in Russia. Effects of Emancipation Although the emancipation reform led to Alexander II’s nickname, “Alexander the Liberator,” its results were far from ideal. Household serfs were the worst affected as they gained only their freedom and no land. In reality, the reforms created a new system in which the monarch had to coexist with an independent court, free press, and local governments that operated differently and more freely than in the past. This would further set the tsar and his people on a collision course in the succeeding years. The reforms also transformed the Russian economy. The individuals who led the reform were in favor of an economic system similar to that of other European countries, which promoted the ideas of capitalism and free trade. The idea of the reformers was to promote development and encourage private property ownership, free competition, entrepreneurship, and hired labor. They hoped this would bring about an a more laissez-faire economic system with minimal regulations and tariffs. Soon after the reforms, there was a substantial rise in the amount of grain production for sale. Alexander's Other Reforms Alexander is remembered best for his liberation of Russia’s serfs but his reforms stretched far further. He was a relatively progressive tsar who was bent on modernizing Russia. During his twenty-five years as tsar, he passed many reforms that collectively are dubbed, “The Great Reforms.” He afforded Russian Jews greater status and protection. This measure was significant because many of his successors would implement pogroms. Alexander also reformed the Orthodox church, state education, and modernized infrastructure throughout Russia. Media restrictions were relaxed. Russian armies and navies were modernized along the lines of those in Western Europe, although never to the same extent. Very successfully, Alexander also reformed the Russian judiciary system. He removed the old, cumbersome system of the Russian legal courts, and streamlined how courts across Russia should operate. This new, unified, court system resulted in many significant improvements, including the right to jury trial. The January Uprising While Alexander enjoyed success at home in Russia, people were less content on the fringes of the Russian empire. In particular, the Poles and their allies, Lithuanians, detested Russian rule. A new generation of military and political leaders heard stories of the semi-independence their parents had enjoyed in the Kingdom of Poland, and in the 1860s, Poles yearned to have that independence restored. In January 1863, the Poles launched a revolt against Russian rule. The uprising, despite lasting eighteen months, stood little chance of success. The Poles were motivated by their desire for restoration of even partial independence, but they were, again outgunned and outmanned by the Russian forces. Similarly, they were poorly organized. Rather than face the Russian armies head-on, the Poles resorted to guerilla warfare, which further enraged the Russians. This was, to them, a dishonorable way of fighting. Eventually, the Poles were captured. Hundreds were executed. Thousands more were deported to labor camps in Siberia. For decades, the tsar carried-out reprisals against the Poles. More than 15,000 were sent to labor camps in Siberia, and their homes or farms confiscated. The January Uprising ended in a Polish defeat, just at the Russo-Polish war had. But it was not without a smaller victory for the Poles. In order to shatter the economic backbone of many of the Polish upper class (who had supported the uprising), Alexander II freed the serfs in Poland. Death of Alexander II Alexander II was a reformer and likely the best tsar of the modern era. He was, however, still an autocrat in an increasingly discontent Russia. Despite many reforms, he stopped short of giving the people direct power in government. This frustrated and enraged many Russians, especially the growing class of young intellectuals and political men and women. On March 13, 1881, the tsar was returning from a review of the troops to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg in his bullet-proof, closed carriage. All at once, a bomb was hurled beneath the carriage wheels. It killed one of Alexander’s Cossack guards, but the tsar exited the carriage, unhurt. According to some accounts, the tsar said, “Thank God I am unhurt.” From the crowd, a young man yelled, “Do not thank God, yet!” A second assassin pushed through the audience and threw a bomb at the tsar’s feet. It exploded, killing the assassin, and mortally wounding the tsar. His legs were shattered, and blood gushed forth from them. His chest and face were likewise mangled. Desperate to reach the Winter Palace, his guards hurried with the dying tsar. Members of the Romanov family, including the future tsars, Alexander III and Nicholas II, watched as the great “liberator tsar” breathed his last. At 3:30 that afternoon, Alexander II died in his office—almost twenty years to the day after he had signed the document that liberated the serfs. Legacy: Reactionaries and Reformers The years after Napoleon’s defeat were peculiar in Russia. In many ways, Russia attempted to modernize, but only to the extent to which their tsars could also remain autocrats. A trend developed. A progressive tsar such as Alexander I would reign and deliver a few freedoms to peoples within the Russian Empire. Immediately, the succeeding tsar would react to these measures with more conservative measures that tightened their grip on Russia. Then the next tsar would try, once again, to launch reforms. A cycle of reactionaries and reformists trickled through Russia's tsars. And although the Russian tsars were capable in many ways, none of them ever acted on the imminent danger of a discontented and growing intellectual class. Even Alexander II could not be so progressive as to share power with a parliamentary system. By trying to maintain a supreme, autocratic government in the world’s largest empire, the Romanov tsars sowed the seeds of their own, ultimate destruction. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless World History "Russia after Napoleon" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/russia-after-napoleon/ "Territorial Gains under Alexander I" "Decembrist Revolt" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-decembrist-revolt/ "The Wars of Nicholas I" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-hccc-worldhistory2/chapter/the-wars-of-nicholas-i/ "Emancipation of the Serfs" https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.624217	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87945/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87946/overview	Japan Overview Japan - An Introduction During the nineteenth century Japan was one of a number of traditional societies in Africa and Asia confronted with the military power of the industrialized and imperial powers of the West. These powers, including China, the Ottoman empire, and the Russian empire, each struggled to respond to the economic and military challenges presented by these Western powers. Learning Objectives - Explain the reactions to Western ideas and foreign aggression in Tokugawa Japan in the nineteenth century, particularly within the context of the responses of other tradition, preindustrial societies to impositions by the industrialized West. - Identify the main reforms and their significance during the Meiji Restoration, including within the context of other conservative and traditional societies’ efforts to modernize during the nineteenth century. - Explain the emergence of Japan as a world power by the early 20th century, including within the context of the emergence of other world powers. Key Terms / Key Concepts Tokugawa shogunate: the last feudal Japanese military government, ruling from 1603 to 1867, the end of which paved the way for the Meiji Restoration and the modernization of Japan From the late sixteenth century until 1868 Japan had a feudal political structure and was ruled by a military government that resisted change. This government, the Tokugawa Shogunate, was the third of three feudal shogunates that had ruled Japan from the twelfth century. Toward the end preventing changes that would endanger traditional Japanese culture and society the Tokugawa Shogunate had banned Christianity, outlawed firearms, criminalized any violations and even disrespect of the nation’s hierarchical structure, and ignored the growing role of merchants in the economy, as well as the developing urban culture in cities such as Edo (Tokyo). The Tokugawa also required respect for the emperor as a divine presence, only recognized the indigenous religion of Shintoism, and continued to embrace the traditional weapons and tactics of warfare. During the nineteenth century Japan had to determine how to respond to the power of the new industrialized imperial powers, as did other traditional African and Asian societies, such as the Zulu in southern Africa, China in east Asia, Russia in Eurasia, and the Ottoman empire in Africa and Eurasia. Of these traditional societies, Japan’s response was the most successful. After being confronted with foreign powers and enduring a civil war over how to respond, Japan by the late nineteenth century had embarked on a path of selective modernization and Westernization that would propel the nation into the ranks of the major world powers by the First World War. Among traditional Asian societies which attempted to modernize during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, including China and the Ottoman and Russian empires, Japan came closest to matching the Western imperial powers. However, facing discrimination and hostility from established Western industrialized imperial powers in reaction to Japanese imperial accomplishments, particularly in wars against China and Russia, Japan became alienated from them. Following the First World War authoritarian, militaristic, and nationally chauvinistic Japanese leaders exploited this feeling of alienation and took the Japanese empire down a self-destructive path that ultimately led to its dissolution. Meiji Restoration While China struggled with modernization during the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century, Japan embraced it with the Meiji Restoration. As a result, within half a century, Japan had evolved from a conservative, preindustrial society cut off from the outside world, to a modern, industrializing world power that had taken control of its own destiny. At the forefront of the Meiji Restoration was the new Japanese government, a combination of Japanese tradition, along with institutions and practices adapted from Western national governments, based on principles of representative and responsible government. The first principle of the new government, a part of Japanese tradition, was that the emperor and his ministers were at the center of the government, and that initiative lay with them. This principle defined the course of the Meiji Restoration and Japanese modernization. Learning Objectives - Explain the reactions to Western ideas and foreign aggression in Tokugawa Japan in the nineteenth century, particularly within the context of the responses of other tradition, preindustrial societies to impositions by the industrialized West. - Identify the main reforms and their significance during the Meiji Restoration, including within the context of other conservative and traditional societies’ efforts to modernize during the nineteenth century. - Explain the emergence of Japan as a world power by the early 20th century, including within the context of the emergence of other world powers. Key Terms / Key Concepts Tokugawa shogunate: the last feudal Japanese military government, ruling from 1603 to 1867, the end of which paved the way for the Meiji Restoration and the modernization of Japan Iwakura Mission: 1871-3 Japanese diplomatic mission to the United States and Europe toward the end of furthering Japanese modernization zaibatsu: industrial and financial business conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, emerging as part of the Meiji Restoration, and becoming influential players in Japan until the end of World War II 1890 Constitution - Japanese constitution promulgated as part of the Meiji Restoration, which provided for a conservative national government with select republican features and responsibility of government ministers to the emperor Bakumatsu The Tokugawa Shogunate came to an end during a period known as the Bakumatsu from 1853 to 1867, also known as the last years of the Edo period, when the Tokugawa shogunate ended. During this period Japan ended its isolationist foreign policy known as sakoku and changed from a feudal Tokugawa shogunate to the pre-modern empire of the Meiji government. In this transition from the Tokugawa Shogunate to the Meiji government pro-imperial nationalists called ishin shishi, who sought to end the Tokugawa Shogunate, triumphed over pro-Tokugawa forces, including elite shinsengumi swordsmen. Although these two groups were the most visible powers, many other factions attempted to use the chaos of Bakumatsu to seize power. There were two other main driving forces for dissent: growing resentment among outside feudal lords and growing anti-western sentiment following the arrival of Matthew C. Perry and the resulting end of isolationism. The feudal lords fought against Tokugawa forces at the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 and had from that point on been excluded permanently from all powerful positions within the shogunate. The anti-Western sentiment was often expressed in the phrase sonnō jōi, or “revere the Emperor, expel the barbarians.” During the last years of the Bakumatsu, the Tokugawa Shogunate took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers made it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. The Shogunate sent naval students to study in Western schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868, the Japanese navy already possessed eight western-style steam warships. In 1867 France established a military mission in Japan to help modernize the Shogunate armies. Japan sent a delegation to and participated in the 1867 World Fair in Paris. Tokugawa Yoshinobu took over the position of shogun at the time of massive turmoil. The opening of Japan to uncontrolled foreign trade brought massive economic instability. While some entrepreneurs prospered, many others went bankrupt. Unemployment and inflation rose. Coincidentally, major famines increased the price of food drastically. Incidents occurred between brash foreigners, qualified as “the scum of the earth” by a contemporary diplomat, and the Japanese. Boshin War The last step in the demise of the Tokugawa Shogunate was the 1868-9 Boshin War, a civil war between factions in support of a more rapid of modernization through the Meiji Emperor and factions that favored a slower more conservative pace through the Tokugawa Shogunate. The last Tokugawa Shogun, Yoshinobu, accepted that the end of the shogunate was inevitable and imminent. By 1869 pro-Meiji forces, including the Chōshū, Satsuma, and Tosa domains, as well as court officials, had triumphed over pro-Tokugawa forces. While the triumph of pro-Meiji forces ended the Tokugawa Shogunate, the last uprising against the Meiji Restoration, the Satsuma Rebellion did not occur until 1877. The defeat of the Satsuma Rebellion marked the end of organized efforts to restore the Tokugawa Shogunate. The Meiji Restoration and the resultant modernization of Japan influenced Japanese self-identity with respect to its Asian neighbors, as Japan became the first Asian state to modernize based on the European model, replacing the traditional Confucian hierarchical order that persisted previously under a dominant China with one based on modernity. Meiji Restoration The fall of Edo in 1868 marked the end of the Tokugawa shogunate, and a new era was proclaimed: Meiji. The first reform was the proclamation of the Charter Oath in 1868, a general statement of the aims of the Meiji leaders to boost morale and win financial support for the new government. Its main provisions included the establishment of assemblies, the involvement of all classes in carrying out state affairs, the revocation of class restrictions on employment, the introduction of the “just laws of nature,” and the search for international expertise to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule. Implicit in the Charter Oath was an end to exclusive political rule by the bakufu (a shogun’s direct administration including officers) and a move toward more democratic participation in government. To implement the Charter Oath, a short-lived constitution was drawn up in 1868. Besides providing for a new Council of State, legislative bodies, and systems of ranks for nobles and officials, it limited office tenure to four years, allowed public balloting, provided for a new taxation system, and ordered new local administrative rules. The Meiji government assured the foreign powers that it would follow the old treaties negotiated by the bakufu and announced that it would act in accordance with international law. Mutsuhito, who was to reign until 1912, selected a new reign title—Meiji, or Enlightened Rule—to mark the beginning of a new era in Japanese history. To further dramatize the new order, the capital was relocated from Kyoto, where it had been situated since 794, to Tokyo (Eastern Capital), the new name for Edo. In a move critical for the consolidation of the new regime, most daimyōs voluntarily surrendered their land and census records to the emperor in the abolition of the han (feudal domain) system, symbolizing that the land and people were under the emperor’s jurisdiction. Confirmed in their hereditary positions, the feudal lords became governors and the central government assumed their administrative expenses and paid samurai stipends. The han were replaced with prefectures in 1871 and authority continued to flow to the national government. Officials from the favored former han, such as Satsuma, Chōshū, Tosa, and Hizen, staffed the new ministries. Formerly old court nobles and lower-ranking but more radical samurai became a new ruling class. New Imperial Government After the Meiji restoration, the leaders of the samurai who overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate had no clear agenda or pre-developed plan on how to run Japan. Immediately after the resignation of Tokugawa Yoshinobu in 1867, with no official centralized government, the country was a collection of largely semi-independent feudal domains (the han system), held together by the prestige of the Imperial Court and the military strength of the Satchō Alliance (military alliance between the feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū formed in 1866 to combine their efforts to restore Imperial rule). In 1868, with the outcome of the Boshin War still uncertain, the new Meiji government summoned delegates from all of the domains to Kyoto to establish a provisional consultative national assembly. The Charter Oath was promulgated, in which Emperor Meiji set out the broad general outlines for Japan’s development and modernization. The same year, an administrative code known as Seitaisho was decreed to establish the new administrative basis for the Meiji government. It was a mixture of western concepts, such as division of powers and a revival of ancient Japanese structures of bureaucracy. Centralization: Abolition of Han System In 1869, the central government led by Ōkubo Toshimichi of Satsuma felt strong enough to effect centralization. After merging the armies of Satsuma and Chōshū into a combined force, Ōkubo and Kido Takayoshi convinced the feudal lords (daimyō) of Satsuma—Chōshū, Hizen, and Tosa—to surrender their domains to the emperor. Other daimyō were forced to do the same and all were reappointed as governors to their respective domains, now treated as sub-divisions of the central government. In 1871, Ōkubo and several other leaders held a secret meeting and decided to completely abolish the han domains. Eventually, all of the ex-daimyō were summoned to the emperor, who issued a decree converting the domains to prefectures headed by a bureaucratic appointee from the central government. The daimyō were generously pensioned into retirement and their castles became the local administrative centers for the central government. By the end of 1871, Japan was a fully centralized state. The transition was made gradually to avoid disruption to the lives of the common people and outbreaks of resistance or violence. The central government absorbed all of the debts and obligations of the domains and many former officials found new employment with the central government. In 1871, after the han domains were abolished, the central government supported the creation of consultative assemblies at the town, village, and county levels. The membership of the prefectural assemblies was drawn from these local assemblies. As the local assemblies only had the power of debate and not legislation, they provided an important safety valve without the ability to challenge the authority of the central government. The Meiji Constitution The Meiji Constitution, proclaimed in 1889, enacted in 1890, and known as the 1890 Constitution, established a mixed constitutional and absolute monarchy, with the emperor as head of state and the prime minister as head of government, creating tensions between opposing groups favoring a democratic or authoritarian government. Prior to the Meiji Restoration, Japan had no written constitution, and the idea of one became a subject of heated debate. The conservative Meiji oligarchy viewed anything resembling democracy or republicanism with suspicion. The Freedom and People’s Rights Movement demanded the immediate establishment of an elected national assembly and the promulgation of a constitution. In 1881, Itō Hirobumi was appointed to chair a government bureau to research various forms of constitutional government and in 1882, Itō led an overseas mission to observe and study various systems first-hand. The United States Constitution was rejected as too liberal. The French and Spanish models were rejected as tending toward despotism. The Reichstag and legal structures of the German Empire, particularly that of Prussia, proved to be of the most interest to the Constitutional Study Mission. Influence was also drawn from the British Westminster system, although it was considered being unwieldy and granting too much power to Parliament. The Council of State was replaced in 1885 with a cabinet headed by Itō as Prime Minister. The draft committee included Japanese officials along with a number of foreign advisers, in particular some German legal scholars. The central issue was the balance between sovereignty vested in the person of the emperor and an elected representative legislature with powers that would limit or restrict the power of the sovereign. The final version, drafted without public debate, was submitted to Emperor Meiji in 1888. The new constitution was promulgated by Emperor Meiji on February 11, 1889 (the National Foundation Day of Japan in 660 BC), coming into effect in 1890. The first National Diet of Japan, a new representative assembly, convened on the day the Meiji Constitution came into force. The organizational structure of the Diet reflected both Prussian and British influences, most notably in the inclusion of the House of Representatives as the lower house and the House of Peers as the upper house. The second chapter of the constitution, detailing the rights of citizens, bore a resemblance to similar articles in both European and North American constitutions of the day. The Meiji Constitution established clear limits on the power of the executive branch and the emperor. It also created an independent judiciary. Civil rights and civil liberties were guaranteed, although in many cases they were subject to limitation by law. Unlike its modern successor, the Meiji Constitution was founded on the principle that sovereignty resided in person of the emperor, by virtue of his divine ancestry “unbroken for ages eternal,” rather than in the people. The emperor had the right to exercise executive authority and to appoint and dismiss all government officials. He also had the sole rights to declare war, make peace, conclude treaties, dissolve the lower house of Diet, and issue Imperial ordinances in place of laws when the Diet was not in session. Most importantly, command over the Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy was directly held by the emperor and not the Diet. The Cabinet consisted of Ministers of State who answered to the emperor rather than the Diet. The Privy Council, an advisory council to the Emperor of Japan, was also established. Not mentioned in the Constitution were the genrō, an inner circle of advisers to the emperor, who wielded considerable influence. The Privy Council consisted of a chairman, a vice chairman (non-voting), 12 (later expanded to 24) councilors, a chief secretary, and three additional secretaries. All privy councilors were appointed by the emperor for life, on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. In addition to the 24 voting privy counselors, the prime minister and the other ministers of state were ex officio members of the council. The Meiji Constitution was ambiguous in wording and in many places self-contradictory. The leaders of the government and the political parties were left to interpret whether the Meiji Constitution could be used to justify authoritarian or liberal-democratic rule. It was the struggle between these tendencies that dominated the government of the Empire of Japan. Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, the Meiji Constitution was replaced by a new document, the postwar Constitution of Japan. This document—officially an amendment to the Meiji Constitution—replaced imperial rule with a form of Western-style liberal democracy. Japan’s Industrial Revolution The rapid industrialization of Japan during the Meiji period resulted from a carefully engineered transfer of Western technology, modernization trends, and education led by the government in partnership with the private sector. Iwakura Mission The Industrial Revolution in Japan began about 1870 when Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. In 1871, a group of Japanese statesmen and scholars known as the Iwakura Mission embarked upon a voyage across Europe and the United States. The mission is the most well-known and possibly most significant in terms of its impact on the modernization of Japan after a long period of isolation from the West. It was first proposed by the influential Dutch missionary and engineer Guido Verbeck, based to some degree on the model of the Grand Embassy of Peter I. The aim of the mission was threefold: to gain recognition for the newly reinstated imperial dynasty under the emperor Meiji, to begin preliminary renegotiation of the unequal treaties with the dominant world powers, and to explore modern Western industrial, political, military, and educational systems and structures. The mission was named after and headed by Iwakura Tomomi in the role of extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador, assisted by four vice-ambassadors. It also included a number of administrators and scholars, totaling 48 people. In addition to the mission staff, about 53 students and attendants joined. Several students were left behind to complete their education in the foreign countries, including five young women who stayed in the United States. Of the initial goals of the mission, the aim of revision of the unequal treaties was not achieved, prolonging the mission by almost four months but also impressing the importance of the second goal on its members. The attempts to negotiate new treaties under better conditions with the foreign governments led to criticism that members of the mission were attempting to go beyond the mandate set by the Japanese government. The missionaries were nonetheless impressed by industrial modernization in America and Europe and the tour provided them with a strong impetus to lead similar modernization initiatives. Industrialization in Japan Japan’s Industrial Revolution first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, traditionally made in home workshops in rural areas. By the 1890s, Japanese textiles dominated the home markets and competed successfully with British products in China and India. Japanese shippers competed with European traders to carry these goods across Asia and even in Europe. As in the West, the textile mills employed mainly women, half of them younger than age 20. They were sent by and gave their wages to their fathers. Japan largely skipped water power and moved straight to steam-powered mills, which were more productive. That in turn created a demand for coal. To promote industrialization, the government decided that while it should help private business to allocate resources and to plan, the private sector was best equipped to stimulate economic growth. The greatest role of government was to help provide the economic conditions in which business could flourish. In the early Meiji period, the government-built factories and shipyards were sold to entrepreneurs at a fraction of their values. Many of these businesses grew rapidly into larger conglomerates. The government emerged as chief promoter of private enterprise, enacting a series of pro-business policies. The government also provided infrastructure, : building railroads, improving roads, and inaugurating a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. Social Changes Important social changes supported by the government also fueled industrialization. One of the biggest economic impacts of the period was the end of the feudal system. With a relatively loose social structure, the Japanese were able to advance through the ranks of society more easily than before by inventing and selling their own wares. The Japanese people also now had greater access to education. The Meiji period leaders inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan. With a more educated population, Japan’s industrial sector grew significantly. Tsuda Umeko, who left Japan to study in the US at the age of 7, returned to Japan in 1900 and founded Tsuda College. It remains one of the most prestigious women’s institutes of higher education in Japan. Although Tsuda strongly desired social reform for women, she did not advocate feminist values and opposed the women’s suffrage movement. Her activities were based on her philosophy that education should focus on developing individual intelligence and personality. Government vs. Private Sector The government initially was involved in economic modernization, providing a number of “model factories” to facilitate the transition to the modern period. Economic reforms included a unified modern currency based on the yen, banking, commercial and tax laws, stock exchanges, and a communications network. Establishment of a modern institutional framework conducive to an advanced capitalist economy took time, but it was completed by the 1890s. By this time, the government had largely relinquished direct control of the modernization process, primarily for budgetary reasons. From the onset, the Meiji rulers embraced the concept of a market economy and adopted British and North American forms of free enterprise capitalism. The private sector—in a nation with an abundance of aggressive entrepreneurs—welcomed such change. Hand in hand, industrial and financial business conglomerates known as zaibatsu and government guided the nation, borrowing technology from the West. Many of the former feudal lords, whose pensions had been paid in a lump sum, benefited greatly through investments they made in emerging industries. Those who had been informally involved in foreign trade before the Meiji Restoration also flourished. Old firms that clung to their traditional ways failed in the new business environment. After the first twenty years of the Meiji period, the industrial economy expanded rapidly with inputs of advanced Western technology and large private investments. Implementing the Western ideal of capitalism into the development of technology and applying it to their military helped make Japan into both a militaristic and economic powerhouse by the beginning of the 20th century. Stimulated by wars and through cautious economic planning, Japan emerged from World War I as a major industrial nation. Japan gradually took control of much of Asia’s market for manufactured goods. The economic structure became very mercantilistic, importing raw materials and exporting finished products—a reflection of Japan’s relative poverty in raw materials. Consequences The phenomenal industrial growth sparked rapid urbanization. The proportion of the population working in agriculture shrank from 75 percent in 1872 to 50 percent by 1920. Japan enjoyed solid economic growth during the Meiji period and most people lived longer and healthier lives. The population rose from 34 million in 1872 to 52 million in 1915. Like in other rapidly industrializing countries, poor working conditions in factories led to growing labor unrest, and many workers and intellectuals came to embrace socialist ideas. The Meiji government responded with harsh suppression of dissent. Radical socialists plotted to assassinate the Emperor in the High Treason Incident of 1910, after which the Tokkō secret police force was established to root out left-wing agitators. The government also introduced social legislation in 1911, setting maximum work hours and a minimum age for employment. Taken together the changes in Japan in the Meiji period propelled the country into the ranks of the modern nations of the world, and the great powers. Emergence of Japan as a World Power As part of the Meiji Restoration, Japan emerged as a world power, with the acquisition of territories in northeast Asia and the western Pacific. This emergence included the formulation and pursuit of a new set of national goals as a world power, a reorientation of Japanese foreign policy, changes in relationships with imperial rivals and other world powers, and the modernization of Japanese military and naval forces. By the beginning of the First World War Japan’s development as a world power, along with discriminatory treatment by Russia and the European powers, would lay some of the foundations for Japanese participation as an Axis Power in the Second World War. Learning Objectives - Identify the main reforms and their significance during the Meiji Restoration, including within the context of other conservative and traditional societies’ efforts to modernize during the nineteenth century. - Explain the emergence of Japan as a world power by the early 20th century, including within the context of the emergence of other world powers. Key Terms / Key Concepts Treaty of Kanagawa: 1854 treaty imposed by the U.S. on the Tokugawa Shogunate, which, along with similar treaties imposed by various European powers, paved the way for the transition from the Tokugawa Shogunate to the Meiji Restoration Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Alliance: 1902 treaty between Japan and the United Kingdom that marked British recognition of Japan’s emergence as a world power First Sino-Japanese War: 1894-5 war between China and Japan, primarily about influence over Korea, that Japan won, as part of its emergence as a world power Treaty of Shimonoseki: 1895 treaty between Japan and China on Japanese terms, reflecting Japan's emergence as a regional power Triple Intervention: a diplomatic intervention by Russia, Germany, and France in 1895 reversing a number of terms in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, toward the end of discounting Japan's emergence as a regional power Russo-Japanese War: 1904-5 war between Russia and Japan, primarily about influence over Korea and Manchuria, that Japan won, as part of its emergence as a world power Battle of Tsushima Strait - concluding naval battle of the Russo-Japanese War fought between the Japanese and Russian Pacific fleets on 27-28 May 1905 in the strait between Japan and Korea, in which the Japanese fleet sunk 21 Russian ships and captured five others, leading to peace on Japanese terms 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth - treaty that ended the Russo-Japanese War on Japanese terms in northeastern Asia and reflected Japan's growing strength as a world power Japanese Militarization The modernization of the Japanese military during the Meiji period was a response to the growing presence and threat of Western colonial powers. It followed Western European military models, ending the centuries-long dominance of the samurai class. Meiji Militarization Efforts In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry inadvertently set off a chain of events leading to the Meiji Restoration and the rise of Japan as a world power with the visit of a U.S. naval squadron to Tokyo Bay. One of the purposes of his expedition was to open diplomatic relations with Japan. After Commodore Perry forced the signing of the Treaty of Kanagawa the next year, Japanese elites concluded that they needed to modernize the Japanese military and navy or risk further coercion from Western powers. The Tokugawa shogunate did not officially share this point of view, which was one factor in its downfall. But it was not until the beginning of the Meiji Era in 1868 that the Japanese government begin to modernize the military and the navy. Modernization of the Japanese military and navy included technological modernization, the use of new industrial manufacturing capabilities, and the democratization of the army and the navy. Toward these ends in 1868, the Japanese government established the Tokyo Arsenal, in which small arms and associated ammunition were developed and manufactured. Also in 1868, Masujiro Omura established Japan’s first military academy in Kyoto. In 1870, another arsenal opened in Osaka. At that site, machine guns and ammunition were produced, and four gunpowder facilities were opened. Under the new Meiji government, Omura—regarded today as the father of the modern Japanese army—was appointed to a post equivalent to vice minister of war. He was tasked with the creation of a national army along western lines and sought to introduce conscription and military training for commoners, rather than rely on a hereditary feudal force. He also strongly supported the abolition of the han system (feudal domains) and with it the numerous private armies maintained by the feudal lords, which he considered a drain on resources and a potential threat to security. Omura faced opposition from many of his peers, including most conservative samurai, who saw his ideas on modernizing and reforming the Japanese military as too radical, ending not only the livelihood of thousands of samurai but also their privileged position in society. In 1869, a group of ex-samurai assassinated Omura. When the Emperor Meiji assumed all the powers of state, he ordered the formation of Imperial Guard to protect himself, the Japanese imperial family, and their properties. In 1867, the Imperial Guard was formed from loyal retainers and former samurai. This unit would go on to form the nucleus of the new Imperial Japanese Army. By the 1870s the Imperial Guard, which had been organized and trained along French military lines, consisted of 12,000 officers and men. In 1873, the Conscription Law was passed, requiring every able-bodied male Japanese citizen, regardless of class, to serve a mandatory term of three years with the first reserves and two additional years with the second reserves. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasants and warriors. The peasant class interpreted the term used for military service—ketsu-eki (blood tax)—literally and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary, including self-mutilation, and protesting. The Conscription Law was also a method of social control, placing the unruly samurai class back into their roles as warriors. The Meiji Restoration initially caused dissent among the samurai class and the conscription system was a way of stabilizing that dissent. The samurai were generally resentful of the new, western-style military and at first refused to stand in formation with the lowly peasant class. Some of the samurai, more disgruntled than the others, formed pockets of resistance to circumvent the mandatory military service. Many committed self-mutilation or openly rebelled. The law also allowed the military to educate the enlisted, providing opportunities for both basic (e.g., learning how to read) and advanced education, as well as career advancement. The government realized that an educated soldier could be a more productive member of society, and education was seen as a path to the advancement of the state. Military service also required a medical examination. Those unable to pass the exam were sent back to their families. While there was no material penalty for failing the exam, the practice created a division between those able to serve the country and those who were not. The latter were often marginalized by society. In conjunction with the new law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military, and the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French. The French government contributed substantially to the training of Japanese officers. Many were employed at the military academy in Kyoto and many more were feverishly translating French field manuals for use in the Japanese ranks. End of the Samurai Class An imperial rescript of 1882 called for unquestioning loyalty to the emperor by the new armed forces and asserted that commands from superior officers were equivalent to commands from the emperor himself. Thenceforth, the military existed in an intimate and privileged relationship with the imperial institution. Top-ranking military leaders were given direct access to the emperor and the authority to transmit his pronouncements directly to the troops. The sympathetic relationship between conscripts and officers, particularly junior officers who were drawn mostly from the peasantry, tended to bring the military closer to the people, and contribute to the militarization of Japanese society from the Meiji Restoration to the Second World War. In time, most people came to look for guidance in national matters from military commanders rather than from political leaders. From the Meiji Restoration to the 1931 Japanese invasion of Manchuria Japanese military leaders gradually came to disregard then usurp the civilian government. An early such instance occurred in 1871 when a Ryukyuan ship shipwrecked on Taiwan, and the crew was massacred. In 1874, using the incident as a pretext, Japan sent a military expedition to Taiwan meant to assert its claims to the Ryukyu Islands. The expedition featured the first instance of the Japanese military ignoring the orders of the civilian government, as the expedition set sail after being ordered to postpone. At home, the decisive test for the new army came in 1877 when Saigō Takamori led the Satsuma Rebellion—the last samurai rebellion. Its name comes from Satsuma Domain, which became home to unemployed samurai after military reforms rendered their status increasingly obsolete. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō’s army, as they attempted to force their way into the castle. Two days later, Saigō’s rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō’s rebels in a frontal assault at what now is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day battle, Saigō’s nearly 10,000-strong army battled hand-to-hand with the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly 4,000 casualties. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō’s was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end the siege on Kumamoto castle after 54 days. Saigō’s troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. Enodake. Saigō’s army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The rebellion ended following the final engagement with Imperial forces, which resulted in the deaths of the remaining 40 samurai including Saigō, who was honorably beheaded by his retainer after suffering a fatal bullet wound. The national army’s victory validated the modernization of the Japanese army and ended the era of the samurai. Financially, crushing the Satsuma Rebellion cost the government greatly, forcing Japan off the gold standard and causing the government to print paper currency. The rebellion also effectively ended the samurai class, along with the concept of an explicit warrior caste in this new Japanese society, as the new Imperial Japanese Army built of conscripts without regard to social class had proven itself in battle. Foreign Policy in the Meiji Period Meiji Japan’s foreign policy was defined from the outset by the vision of gaining recognition as not only a major Asian power, but also a major world power in an international order dominated by the West. Toward the end of achieving this vision the principal foreign policy goals of the Meiji period (1868 – 1912) included securing the integrity and independence of Japan against Western domination and winning equal status with the leading nations of the West by reversing the unequal treaties they forced on Japan. Because fear of Western military power was the chief concern for the Meiji leaders, their highest priority was building up the military. With such power Japan would be able to wrest the respect of the Western powers and achieve equal status with them in the international community, even if the Western powers did not explicitly admit such status. The unequal treaties first imposed on Japan by the Western Powers when they forcefully reopened Japan symbolized Japan’s unequal status during the 1850s, before the Meiji Restoration. The treaties were objectionable to the Japanese not only because they imposed low fixed tariffs on foreign imports, and thus handicapped domestic industries, but also because their provisions gave a virtual monopoly of external trade to foreigners and granted extraterritorial status to foreign nationals in Japan, exempting them from Japanese jurisdiction and placing Japan in the inferior category of nations incapable of determining their own laws. Many of the social and institutional reforms of the Meiji period were designed to remove the stigma of backwardness and inferiority represented by the unequal treaties, and a major task of Meiji diplomacy was to press for the revision of the treaties. Overseas Expansion The Meiji government used the newly created military to extend Japanese power overseas. Meiji leaders believed national security depended on territorial expansion and not merely a strong defense. In 1873 and 1874, friction came about between China and Japan over Taiwan, particularly when the Japanese launched the previously referenced punitive expedition into Taiwan after several Okinawans were killed by Taiwanese aborigines. Later, after Japan’s victory in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894 – 95), the peace treaty ceded the island to Japan. The Japanese realized that its home islands could only support a limited resource base and hoped that Taiwan, with its fertile farmlands, would provide additional resources for further imperial expansion. By 1905, Taiwan was producing significant amounts of rice and sugar. Perhaps more importantly, Japan gained enormous prestige by being the first non-Western country to operate a modern colony, in which Japan installed a police state. The Korean Peninsula, a strategically located feature critical to the defense of the Japanese archipelago, occupied Japan’s attention in the late nineteenth century. Earlier tension over Korea had been settled temporarily through the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876, which opened Korean ports to Japan, as well as through the Tianjin Convention in 1885, which provided for the removal from Korea of both Chinese and Japanese troops sent to support contending factions in the Korean court. In effect, the convention made Korea a co-protectorate of China and Japan at a time when Russian, British, and American interests in the peninsula were also increasing. As a result of their intensifying competition over Korea, China and Japan went to war in 1894, a conflict that came to be known as the First Sino-Japanese War. After nine months of fighting, China and Japan agreed to a cease-fire and initiated peace talks. The resulting Treaty of Shimonoseki provided for the recognition of Korean independence, the cessation of Korean tribute to China, a 200 million tael indemnity to Korea from China (the equivalent in 1895 of $150 million US), the opening of Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) ports to Japanese trade, and the cession to Japan of Taiwan, the Penghu Islands, and the Liaodong Peninsula. It also assured Japanese rights to engage in industrial enterprises in China. Ironically, a decade after the Treaty of Shimonoseki forced China to recognize Korean independence, Japan, in the wake of the Russo-Japanese War, effectively forced Korea to sign the Eulsa Protective Treaty, which made it a protectorate of Japan. In 1910, Korea was formally annexed to the Japanese empire, beginning a period of Japanese colonial rule of Korea that would not end until 1945. Western Response Immediately after the terms of the treaty became public, Russia—with its own designs on and sphere of influence in China—expressed concern about the Japanese acquisition of the Liaodong Peninsula and the possible impact of the terms of the treaty on the stability of China, not to mention Russian interests in northeast Asia. Russia persuaded France and Germany to apply diplomatic pressure on Japan for return of the territory to China in exchange for a larger indemnity (Triple Intervention). Threatened with a tripartite naval attack by these three powers in Korean waters, Japan decided to give back Liaodong in return for a larger indemnity from China. Russia moved to fill the void by securing from China a 25-year lease of Dalian (Dairen in Japanese, also known as Port Arthur) and rights to the South Manchurian Railway Company, a semi-official Japanese company, to construct a railroad. Russia also wanted to lease more Manchurian territory, and although Japan was loath to confront Russia over this issue, it did move to use Korea as a bargaining chip. Japan would recognize Russian leaseholds in southern Manchuria if Russia would leave Korean affairs to Japan. The Russians only agreed not to impede the work of Japanese advisers in Korea, but Japan was able to use diplomatic initiatives to keep Russia from leasing Korean territory in 1899. At the same time, Japan was able to wrest a concession from China that the coastal areas of Fujian Province, across the strait from Taiwan, were within Japan’s sphere of influence and could not be leased to other powers. Japan also succeeded in attracting a Western ally to its cause. Japan and Britain, both of whom wanted to keep Russia out of Manchuria, signed the Anglo-Japanese Alliance Treaty in 1902, which stayed in effect until 1921 when the two signed the Four Power Treaty on Insular Possessions, taking effect in 1923. The British recognized Japanese interests in Korea and assured Japan they would remain neutral in case of a Russo-Japanese war but would become more actively involved if another power (an allusion to France) entered the war as a Russian ally. In the face of this joint threat, Russia became more conciliatory toward Japan and agreed to withdraw its troops from Manchuria in 1903. The new balance of power in Korea favored Japan and allowed Britain to concentrate its interests elsewhere in Asia. Hence, the Japanese government moved to gain influence over Korean banks, opened its own financial institutions in Korea, and began constructing railroads and obstructing Russian and French undertakings on the peninsula In response to the alliance, Russia sought to form alliances with France and Germany, which Germany declined. In 1902, a mutual pact was signed between France and Russia, which would have unrelated repercussions for Germany in the First World War. China and the United States strongly opposed the alliance. Nevertheless, the nature of the Anglo-Japanese alliance meant that France was unable to come to Russia’s aid in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, as this would mean war with Britain. Russo-Japanese War When Russia failed to withdraw its troops from Manchuria by an appointed date, Japan issued a protest. Russia replied that it would agree to a partition of Korea at the 39th parallel, with a Japanese sphere to the south and a neutral zone to the north; however, Manchuria was to be outside Japan’s sphere, and Russia would not guarantee the evacuation of its troops. The Russo-Japanese War broke out in 1904 with Japanese surprise attacks on Russian warships at Dalian and Chemulpo (in Korea, now called Incheon). With tremendous loss of life on both sides, the Japanese won a series of land battles and then decisively defeated Russia’s Baltic Sea Fleet (renamed the Second Pacific Squadron) at the Battle of Tsushima Strait in 1905. At a U.S.-mediated peace conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, Japanese and Russian representatives negotiated the 1905 Treaty of Portsmouth, marked by terms favorable to Japanese imperial interests in northeast Asia. Russia acknowledged Japan’s paramount interests in Korea and agreed to avoid “military measures” in Manchuria and Korea. Both sides agreed to restore the occupied areas to China and evacuate Manchuria, except for the Guandong Territory (a leasehold on the Liaodong Peninsula). Russia transferred its lease on Dalian and adjacent territories and railroads to Japan, ceded the southern half of Sakhalin to Japan, and granted Japan fishing rights in the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea. This treaty, which implicitly recognized Japan’s limited victory in this war, was another grudging acknowledgement of Japan’s emergence as a world power and a major power in northeast Asia. From the Meiji Restoration in 1868 to the beginning of the First World War, Japan expanded into a major regional empire in east Asia, acquiring a succession of territories and fighting two successful limited wars against the Chinese and the Russian empires for territories and influence across east Asia and the western Pacific Ocean. Victories over China and Russia, an alliance with Britain, and annexation of Korea marked Japan’s emergence as a world power, but not the recognition of this emergence by the imperial powers of Europe, the United States, or Russia. Regardless of this slight, or, in part, because of it, Meiji Japan went on to become a leader in East Asia and a highly respected military power among the most influential countries in the world. Primary Source: Mitsuhito, Emperor of Japan Letter from Meiji Emperor to U.S. President Grant In 1871, the fledgling Meiji government dispatched a mission of almost fifty high officials and scholars to travel around the world, including extended tours of the United States, Western Europe, Scandinavia, and Russia. The Iwakura Mission (named after its leader, Iwakura Tomomi, 1825-1883) spent almost two years studying the political, economic, social, legal, and educational systems of the developed world as potential models for the modernization of Japan. The leaders of the mission also attempted to begin the renegotiation of the "unequal treaties" — the exploitative diplomatic and economic agreements imposed by the Western powers on Japan in the 1850s, although governments in America and Europe were not yet willing to relax any of their privileges in Japan. This letter from the Emperor Meiji (Mutsuhito, 1852-1912; r. 1867-1912) was presented to U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885) when the Iwakura Mission visited Washington, D.C. “Letter from Meiji Emperor to U.S. President Grant” [Abridged] Mitsuhito, Emperor of Japan (1871) Mitsuhito, Emperor of Japan, etc., to the President of the United States of America, our good brother and faithful friend, greeting: Mr. President: Whereas since our accession by the blessing of heaven to the sacred throne on which our ancestors reigned from time immemorial, we have not dispatched any embassy to the Courts and Governments of friendly countries. We have thought fit to select our trusted and honored minister, Iwakura Tomomi, the Junior Prime Minister (udaijin), as Ambassador Extraordinary … and invested [him] with full powers to proceed to the Government of the United States, as well as to other Governments, in order to declare our cordial friendship, and to place the peaceful relations between our respective nations on a firmer and broader basis. The period for revising the treaties now existing between ourselves and the United States is less than one year distant. We expect and intend to reform and improve the same so as to stand upon a similar footing with the most enlightened nations, and to attain the full development of public rights and interest. The civilization and institutions of Japan are so different from those of other countries that we cannot expect to reach the declared end at once. It is our purpose to select from the various institutions prevailing among enlightened nations such as are best suited to our present conditions, and adapt them in gradual reforms and improvements of our policy and customs so as to be upon an equality with them. With this object we desire to fully disclose to the United States Government the constitution of affairs in our Empire, and to consult upon the means of giving greater efficiency to our institutions at present and in the future, and as soon as the said Embassy returns home we will consider the revision of the treaties and accomplish what we have expected and intended.… Your affectionate brother and friend, Signed Mutsuhito CountersignedSanjō Sanetomi, Prime Minister From Asia for Educators, Weatherhead East Asian Institute, Columbia University This text was adopted from the official translation as reproduced in The New York Times, March 15, 1872. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons and Metropolitan Museum of Art Title Image - Illustration of a Steam Locomotive Running on the Takanawa Railroad in Tokyo (Tōkyō takanawa tetsudō jōkisha sōkō no zu). Attribution: Utagawa Kuniteru, Public domain, via Metropolitan Museum of Art. Provided by: Metropolitan Museum of Art. Location: https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/55340. License: Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal. Boundless World History "From the Edo Period to Meiji Restoration in Japan" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/from-the-edo-period-to-meiji-restoration-in-japan/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Terakoya. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Japan. Provided by: Wikipedia. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87947/overview	European Social Shifts Overview Overview European Social Shifts Overview The Industrial Revolution and the Agricultural—or Neolithic—Revolution are two of the most consequential revolutions in human history. Each generated profound economic, political, social, and technological advances, among other changes. Each shifted the social structures of peoples who embraced the other changes in these revolutions. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. The social shifts that occurred with the Industrial Revolution in Europe redefined each class, realigned the class structure, and altered relationships among members of each class. Each class was redefined on the basis of quantification—the principle criterium for measuring prosperity and success in the Industrial Revolution. Quantification in terms of monetary wealth and factory production was easier to measure and simpler to discern as manifestations of status. These two criteria supplanted the old system of discerning class by hereditary status and the manifestations of wealth that accompanied it. As part of these social shifts in Europe the upper classes came to include new groups and classes of manufacturers, merchants, and bankers who owned and/or controlled the wealth created by the Industrial Revolution. They came to the forefront of European society at the expense of the old aristocracy, with factories, banks, and new department stores replacing landed estates as the generators of wealth. While members of these new upper classes embraced the styles of dress, menus, and home design of the old upper classes, they asserted their new identities. The new European middle classes grew out of new and evolved professions that came with industrialization, scientific advances, and technological advances. These new and evolved professions included doctors, lawyers, and new management positions, which required new training and brought higher salaries. Members of the new middle classes used the additional money they earned to purchase the growing number of new consumer goods being produced. A number of these new products marked a new type of conspicuous consumption that increased the distance between the middle classes and the working classes, while shortening the distance between the middle classes and the upper classes. The new working classes grew out of the new factory positions based on tending machines that produced the new products rather than making the products individually as the preindustrial artisans used to do. Members of these new working classes were cogs in the machines of production, which lessened their status by way of contrast with the old preindustrial artisans. The new consumer products, department stores, and mail order catalogs provided these working classes with tangible goals and status symbols to which to aspire for those interested in working their way up the new class hierarchy, along with visible reminders of what separated them from the new middle and upper classes. Relationships among members of these classes did not change. Many in the working classes sought to move up and saw industrialization as opening a new path for upward mobility. Others continued to resent those in the middle and upper classes, resentment which precipitated political and economic revolution, along with the formation of new parties. Members of the middle classes also strove to move up or make that opportunity available for their children, including through marriage. Members of the upper classes sought to solidify their positions. The approaches of members of each of these classes evolved with the economic and technological advances of industrialization and the political changes in Europe from the French Revolution to the First World War. This new class structure based on industrial wealth reflected the other changes that accompanied the Industrial Revolution, including standardization and rationalization. The new class structure also was part of a new set of more democratic cultures in terms of scientific research and conceptualization, religious affiliation, economic consumption, and political participation. Ultimately it was part of a new conception of the place of the individual in society. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - "Pyramid of Capitalist System", published in 1911 Industrial Worker. Attribution: Unknown artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pyramid_of_Capitalist_System.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Factory system. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_system. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Factory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruria Works. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Josiah Wedgwood. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Soho Manufactory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cromford Mill. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Luddite. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87948/overview	Growth of the Middle Class Overview Growth of the Middle Class with Industrialization Title Image description - Schubertiade in a middle-class Viennese household, heliogravure after a painting by Julius Schmid, 2nd half of 19th century During the Industrial Revolution, not everyone lived in poor conditions and struggled with the challenges of rapid industrialization. The Industrial Revolution also gave rise to a new middle class of industrialists and professionals who lived in much better conditions than they had before. In fact, one of the earlier definitions of the middle class equated it to the original meaning of capitalist: someone with so much capital that they could rival nobles. To be a capital-owning millionaire was an important criterion of the middle class during the Industrial Revolution. Additionally, the period witnessed a growth in professionals, including lawyers, doctors, small business owners, and government officials; these professionals did not share the fate of the early industrial working class and enjoyed a comfortable standard of living in growing cities. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. This new industrial middle class also was defined by its members’ limited access to the new consumer goods made possible through mass production. In this respect these new consumer goods gave rise to the new materialistic aspirations; the satisfaction of which determined one’s place in the new industrial class hierarchy. These new consumer goods were the core of a new consumer culture. Other components of this new consumer culture included department stores, mail order catalogs, and world fairs, where such consumer goods could be displayed. Department stores, such as Le Bon Marche which opened in Paris in 1852, allowed shoppers to actively shop with the store serving as a huge display case. This model of shopping replaced the old model in which shopkeepers controlled the process of shopping. Mail order catalogs allowed consumers to shop by mail, using railroads to transport their purchases. World fairs, the first of which took place in London in 1851, known as the Crystal Palace Exhibition, provided huge showcases of new products and inventions to titillate the new desires of shoppers. Both a new working and upper class emerged with industrialization. These new working, middle, and upper classes were continuations of the preindustrial working, middle, and upper classes, but evolved with the changes of industrialization. Through the changes of industrialization the new incarnations of these classes distinguished themselves in the same sorts of ways that they had distinguished themselves before the Industrial Revolution, including dress, housing, associations, recreational pursuits, and conspicuous spending, among other visible signs of class status. Even more than before the Industrial Revolution such visible manifestations of class status reflected the accomplishments of one within her or his class. These manifestations were part of the new quantification that took hold with industrialization. Relations among members of all three new classes changed accordingly. As part of these changing relationships members of the new industrial middle class sought to close the distance between themselves and the new industrial upper class, while increasing the distance from the new industrial working class. These efforts by the middle classes to distance themselves from the working class, along with other developments, inspired the establishment of political parties and other kinds of organizations that were designed to empower them politically. These new parties were part of the larger trend of political democratization that grew out of the Industrial Revolution. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - Au Bon Marche, opened in Paris in 1887. Attribution: Unknown authorUnknown author, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Au_Bon_March%C3%A9_(vue_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_-_gravure).jpg. License: Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87949/overview	Cult of Domesticity Overview The Cult of Domesticity in the Aftermath of the Industrial Revolution With the Industrial Revolution emerged new ideas and traditions toward the end of adapting the subordination of women to the new economic developments and technological advances of industrialization; one of those new ideas being the cult of domesticity. This set of conventions in the continuing subordination of women took hold in the industrial societies of the United States and Europe. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. - Compare the new political and labor organizations with governmental responses to worker unrest. Key Terms / Key Concepts Cult of Domesticity - term for nineteenth-century system of gender subordination imposed on women, mostly in the middle and upper classes, in industrializing nations The Cult of Domesticity was part of the Separate Spheres ideology which held that men and women operated in separate spheres: women in the home and men outside the women. The Culture of Domesticity (often shortened to Cult of Domesticity or Cult of True Womanhood) is a term used by historians to describe what they consider to have been a prevailing value system among the upper and middle classes during the 19th century in the United States. This value system emphasized new ideas of femininity, the woman's role within the home, and the dynamics of work and family. “True women,” according to this idea, were supposed to possess four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness. The idea revolved around the woman being the center of the family, as “the light of the home.” There are more inclusive representations of domesticity in today's media versus the more limited, heteronormative examples of the past. Domesticity and media have always been interconnected. One of the first films ever shown was a family-centered piece entitled, Le Repas de Bébé or “Baby's Meal.” This 1895 Lumière brothers film depicted a French couple feeding their infant breakfast. Older content including domestic themes, often served to represent white, nuclear, families and female-centered tropes, the “women's weepie” being one common trope, in which mothers sacrificed their own personal identity and wellbeing in order to provide for their children. This is a drastic difference from the current “femme fatale” trope, which demonstrates a rejection of domestic life and family connection in favor of romance, sexuality, danger, and drama. As part of the cult of domesticity women took on new roles in their families, as being responsible for the home, the children, and their education, within the confines of the continued subordination of women. Accordingly, when they worked, they were employed as maids, cooks, nurses, and teachers. Their behavior in these roles was still defined by four cardinal virtues: piety, purity, submission, and domesticity. Peity in this context referred to a woman’s religious faith, as opposed to a man’s intellectual capabilities. Purity referred to virginity. Submission meant that a wife should obey her husband—and other male superiors, and domesticity referred to a woman’s roles in the home. As part of this ideology women were seen as being competent within the home, but not so much outside of the home. Practically, the conventions of the cult of domesticity could only be followed by middle- and upper-class families. Most working class and lower middle-class families needed the income from both the fathers and the mothers, along with many of the children. Middle-class women who took on allowed occupational roles, such as nurse or teacher, were still held to the domestic idea of gender. Working class women, however, were not held to these conventions as much because of the prevailing social prejudices that treated them as unequal to their upper-class counterparts, and instead often as objects to use. Influence on the West of the Cult of Domesticity The Cult of Domesticity influenced the participation of women in the labor market during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. For instance, it affected married women's labor market participation in the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century. “True Women” were supposed to devote themselves to unpaid domestic labor and refrain from paid, market-oriented work. Consequently, in 1890, 4.5% of all married women were “gainfully employed,” compared with 40.5% of single women. Women's complete financial dependence upon their husbands proved disastrous, however, when wives lost their husbands through death or desertion and were forced to fend for themselves and their children. Additionally, this division between the domestic and public spheres had effects on women's power and status. In society as a whole, particularly in political and economic arenas, women's power declined. Within the home, however, they gained symbolic power. Learning Objectives - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Identify, explain, and assess the historic significance and impact of the new developments and trends in the aftermath of the Industrial Revolution. - Compare the new political and labor organizations with governmental responses to worker unrest. Key Terms / Key Concepts Cult of Domesticity - term for nineteenth-century system of gender subordination imposed on women, mostly in the middle and upper classes, in industrializing nations The legal implications of this ideology included the passage of protective labor laws, which also limited women's employment opportunities outside the home. These laws, as well as subsequent U.S. Supreme Court rulings, such as Muller v. Oregon, were based on the assumption that women's primary role was that of mother and wife, and that women's non-domestic work should not interfere with their primary function. As a result, women's working hours were limited and night work for women was prohibited, essentially costing many female workers their jobs and excluding them from many occupations. The Cult of Domesticity “privatized” women's options for work, for education, for voicing opinions, or for supporting reform. Arguments of significant biological differences between the sexes (and often of female inferiority) led to pronouncements that women were incapable of effectively participating in the realms of politics, commerce, or public service. Women were seen as better suited to parenting. Also, because of the expected behaviors, women were assumed to make better teachers of younger children. One of the first public jobs for women was teaching. Catharine Beecher, who proselytized about the importance of education and parenting, once said, “Woman's great mission is to train immature, weak, and ignorant creatures [children] to obey the laws of God...first in the family, then in the school, then in the neighborhood, then in the nation, then in the world....” One estimate says that, with the growth of public education in the northern tier of states, one-quarter of all native-born Massachusetts women, in the years between 1825 and 1860, were schoolteachers at some point in their lives. Connection to Women’s Rights Movements Women's rights advocates of the late 18th and early 19th centuries—such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Frances Wright, and Harriet Martineau in Britain—were widely accused of disrupting the natural order of things and condemned as unfeminine. “They are only semi-women, mental hermaphrodites,” wrote Henry F. Harrington in the Ladies' Companion. However, after the Jacksonian era (1812 to 1850) saw the expansion of voting rights to virtually all white males in the United States, many women believed it was their opportunity for increased civil liberties. Early feminist opposition to many of the values promoted by the Cult of Domesticity (especially concerning women's suffrage, political activism, and legal independence) culminated in the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848. This convention was the first national effort in the U.S. and one of the early national efforts in the West to contest the discrimination that underlay the Cult of Domesticity. The slow progress that women have had to endure in their efforts to end gender discrimination and repudiate the Cult of Domesticity since the Industrial Revolution illustrate the resilience of both. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - Godey's Lady's Book magazine cover, June 1867. Attribution: Unknown artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GodeysLadysBookCoverJune1867.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Factory system. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_system. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Factory. 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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87950/overview	Poverty and the Urban Working Class Overview Poverty and the Urban Working Class Industrialization changed living and working standards dramatically, reducing many to poverty. People in the working classes had new opportunities for employment and faced new challenges. A new culture of consumption grew out of the mass production of a growing number of inexpensive consumer goods. Members of the working classes enjoyed only limited access to these goods, along with only crowded, substandard, even unhealthy, housing in the growing industrial cities of England, Europe, and the United States. Such conditions effectively consigned many in the industrial working classes to an effective state of poverty. These conditions and the responses of people in these working classes to these conditions changed the economic, political, and social landscapes of the industrializing world. Learning Objective - Analyze the human and environmental consequences of Industrialization and the factory system in England. - Compare the lives of factory owners and workers in England during Industrialization. Key Terms / Key Concepts The Condition of the Working Class in England: Friedrich Engels' influential 1844 study of the impact of the Industrial Revolution, which inspired numerous reforms in industrial Britain Friedrich Engels’ The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 is arguably the most important record of how workers lived during the early era of industrialization in British cities. Engels, who remains one of the most important philosophers of the 19th century, came from a family of wealthy industrialists. He described backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns where people lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed, some with dirt floors. These towns had narrow walkways between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary facilities. Population density was extremely high. Eight to ten unrelated mill workers often shared a room with no furniture and slept on a pile of straw or sawdust. Toilet facilities were shared if they existed. Disease spread through contaminated water sources. New urbanites—especially small children—died due to diseases spreading because of the cramped living conditions. Tuberculosis, lung diseases from the mines, cholera from polluted water, and typhoid were all common. Engels’s interpretation proved to be extremely influential with British historians of the Industrial Revolution. He focused on both the workers’ wages and their living conditions. He argued that the industrial workers had lower incomes than their pre-industrial peers and lived in more unhealthy environments. This proved to be a wide-ranging critique of industrialization and one that was echoed by many of the Marxist historians who studied the industrial revolution in the 20th century. Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts that regulated things like sewage, hygiene, and home construction. In the introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world, including Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years, and it was only slightly higher in Britain. In Britain and the Netherlands, food supply had been increasing and prices falling before the Industrial Revolution due to better agricultural practices (Agricultural Revolution). However, the population grew as well. Before the Industrial Revolution, advances in agriculture or technology led to an increase in population, which again strained food and other resources, limiting increases in per capita income. This condition is called the Malthusian trap and according to some economists, it was overcome by the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution resulted in better and faster transportation that allowed for the faster movement of goods from different regions of countries. Transportation improvements, such as canals and improved roads, lowered food costs because they helped increase supply. The post-1830 rapid development of railway further reduced transaction costs, which in turn lowered the costs of goods, including food. The distribution and sale of perishable goods such as meat, milk, fish, and vegetables were transformed by the emergence of the railways, giving rise not only to cheaper produce in the shops but also to far greater variety in people’s diets, which improved nutritional intake. The question of how living conditions changed in the newly industrialized urban environment has been very controversial. A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population at the bottom of the social ladder suffered severe reductions in their living standards. Conversely, economist Robert E. Lucas, Jr., argues that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standards of living of the poorest segments of society gradually, if slowly, improved. Others, however, have noted that while growth of the economy’s overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries and that in many ways workers’ living standards declined under early capitalism. For instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain increased only 15% between the 1780s and 1850s and that life expectancy in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s. Not everyone lived in poor conditions and struggled with the challenges of rapid industrialization. The Industrial Revolution also created a middle class of industrialists and professionals who lived in much better conditions than they had before. In fact, one of the earlier definitions of the middle class equated it to the original meaning of capitalist: someone with so much capital that they could rival nobles. To be a capital-owning millionaire was an important criterion of the middle class during the Industrial Revolution although the period also witnessed a growth of a class of professionals (e.g., lawyers, doctors, small business owners) who did not share the fate of the early industrial working class and enjoyed a comfortable standard of living in growing cities. Attributions This photo is Jacob Riis' 1889 "Lodgers in a Crowded Bayard Street Tenement--'Five Cents a Spot'". Images courtesy of Wikipedia Commons Title Image - Jacob Riis, "Lodgers in a Crowded Bayard Street Tenement--'Five Cents a Spot'". Attribution: Jacob Riis, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jacob_Riis,_Lodgers_in_a_Crowded_Bayard_Street_Tenement.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Boundless World History "Social Change" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/social-change/ CC licensed content, Shared previously - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC licensed content, Specific attribution - Factory system. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Factory_system. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Factory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Etruria Works. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Josiah Wedgwood. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Soho Manufactory. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Cromford Mill. Provided by: Wikipedia. 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License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Meeting_of_the_trade_unionists_in_Copenhagen_Fields_April_21_1834_for_the_purpose_of_carrying_a_petition_to_the_King_for_a_remission_of_the_sentence_passed_on_the_Dorchester_labourers_1293402.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 1024px-William_Edward_Kilburn_-_View_of_the_Great_Chartist_Meeting_on_Kennington_Common_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.816477	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87950/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87953/overview	American Imperialism Overview American Imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th Centuries In the 1890s and early 1900s, the United States established its own brand of imperialism. Territories were acquired, and intervention in neighboring countries was undertaken to protect American interests. Although the United States never established colonies as the Western Europeans did, it undeniably had a large sphere of influence in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, which was mainly established by military intervention. Learning Objectives - Evaluate American imperialism. Key Terms / Key Concepts American imperialism: American economic, military, and cultural influence on countries Monroe Doctrine: American foreign policy that warned Europeans not to further colonize in the New World Reconcentration camps: deplorable camps established for Cuban civilians by the Spanish in 1896 – 1897 Spanish-American War: a small military conflict between fought between Spain and the United States in Cuba, and in the Pacific in 1898 U.S.S. Maine: an American naval vessel that exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898 yellow journalism: sensationalist news that uses bold headlines and bright images Philippine-American War: war fought between the Filipinos and the United States for control of the Philippines (1899 – 1902) Emilio Aguinaldo: leader of the Filipino forces against the Americans in the Philippine-American War 1898 Treaty of Paris: treaty that ended the Spanish-American War and gave the United States the right to annex the Philippines from Spain Open Door Policy: American policy that declared China should be kept free and open to trade among all Western powers Banana Wars: small military actions throughout the Caribbean and Central America in which the United States sent military troops to protect their interests in bananas, tobacco, sugar, and other goods United Fruit Company: major American corporation that traded in tropical fruit Standard Fruit Company: major company established for the trade in tropical fruit, particularly in Honduras Roosevelt Corollary: piece of legislation created by Teddy Roosevelt that established American right to monitor, and possibly intervene, in situations of unrest in the western hemisphere Panama Canal: fifty-mile canal cut across the isthmus of Panama that linked Atlantic and Pacific Oceans American Imperialism: Background American imperialism is a term that refers to the economic, military, and cultural influence of the United States on other countries. It first was used during the presidency of James K. Polk in the 1840s. While the United States never had colonies as their Western European counterparts did, they did accrue spheres of influence—regions around the world that were affected directly by American politics. During the 1880s, industrialization caused American businessmen to seek new international markets in which to sell their goods. In addition, the increasing influence of social Darwinism led to the belief that the United States was inherently responsible for bringing concepts such as industry, democracy, and Christianity to less developed “savage” societies. The combination of these attitudes and other factors led the United States toward imperialism. American imperialism is partly rooted in American exceptionalism—the idea that the United States is different from other countries due to its specific world mission to spread liberty and democracy. This theory often is traced back to the writing of 1800s French observer Alexis de Tocqueville, who concluded that the United States was a unique nation “proceeding along a path to which no limit can be perceived.” The Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was a U.S. foreign policy regarding domination of the Americas in 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention. At the same time, the doctrine noted that the United States would neither interfere with existing European colonies nor meddle in the internal concerns of European countries. The Doctrine was issued in 1823 at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved, or were at the point of gaining, independence from the Portuguese and Spanish Empires. The intent and impact of the Monroe Doctrine persisted with only minor variations for more than a century. Its stated objective was to free the newly independent colonies of Latin America from European intervention and avoid situations that could make the New World a battleground for the Old World powers, so that the United States could freely exert its own influence, undisturbed by other powers. The doctrine asserted that the New World and the Old World were to remain distinctly separate spheres of influence, for they were composed of entirely separate and independent nations. Inherent in the Monroe Doctrine are the themes of American exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny—two ideas that refer to the right of the United States to exert its influence over the rest of the world. Under these conditions, the Monroe Doctrine was used to justify American intervention abroad multiple times throughout the nineteenth century, most notably in the Spanish-American War and with the annexation of Hawaii. The Annexation of Hawaii During the “Age of American Imperialism,” the United States exerted political, social, and economic control over countries such as the Philippines, Cuba, and China. One of the most notable examples of American imperialism in this age was the annexation of Hawaii in 1898, which allowed the United States to gain possession and control of all ports, buildings, harbors, military equipment, and public property that had formally belonged to the Government of the Hawaiian Islands. On January 17, 1893, the last monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaii, Queen Liliuokalani, was deposed in a coup d’état led largely by American citizens who were opposed to Liliuokalani’s attempt to establish a new Constitution. This action eventually resulted in Hawaii’s becoming America’s 50th state in 1959. The Spanish-American War The Spanish-American War was a four-month-long conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States. It was the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain’s Pacific possessions led to U.S. involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine-American War. Background Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans. With the abolition of slavery in 1886, former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and the urban working class, many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and the number of sugar mills declined. Moreover, human rights abuses were rampant. Outmatched militarily by Spain, the Cuban fighters were forced to use hit and run tactics to attack their enemies. In response, Spain appointed Valeriano Weyler as Governor General of Cuba with the intent of crushing the rebellion. From 1886 to 1887, Weyler launched a plan to round-up civilians in the countryside and force them into reconcentration camps near cities. This way, they would be able to distinguish their enemies easier, and separate them from their livelihoods. Theoretically, Weyler wanted the civilians to survive to avoid permanently running relationships with the Cuban people. However, over 100,000 Cuban civilians perished in these camps due to malnutrition, disease, and starvation. To win public support for the Cubans, American journalists produced numerous articles highlighting the brutality of the Spanish toward the prisoners inside the camps. Increasingly, public opinion in the United States pushed for intervention in Cuba because of the human suffering. When, however, the American government sent ships to Cuba it was done in order to show force and protect American interests more than protect the Cuban people. Although it remained Spanish territory politically, Cuba started to depend on the United States economically. Only companies and the most powerful plantation owners remained in business, and during this period, U.S. financial capital began flowing into the country. The Sinking of the U.S.S. Maine In the name of “protecting” Cuba, and American interests, the United States sent one of their battleships to Cuba as a show of force against the Spanish presence. In the early hours of February 15, 1898, an event happened which would change the course of American diplomacy. Moored in Havana Harbor in Cuba, the U.S.S. Maine suddenly exploded with extraordinary violence. Roughly two-thirds of the crew were killed. Outrage over the event exploded in the United States. Newspapers portrayed the event in vivid, color images, and bold headlines. Without awaiting an investigation, papers reported that the attack that claimed over two-hundred American sailors was directly perpetrated by the Spanish—which serves as a fine example of yellow journalism. War hawks turned out in all corners of American society and beseeched President McKinley to declare war on Spain. “Remember the Maine!” became the popular rallying point for war. To date, the cause of the Maine’s explosion is debated. While most Americans asserted that a Spanish water mine had set-off the explosion, scholars have since claimed that the Maine could have exploded through a spontaneous fire caused by off gassing inside its hull. Regardless of the true cause of the explosion, by April, McKinley caved under public, bipartisan pressure. The United States sent an ultimatum to Spain that demanded it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which the Spanish rejected; the Spanish were well-aware of their declining status in world affairs and reluctant to abandon their colonial possessions. As McKinley tried to negotiate, Spain declared war on the United States. Immediately following the declaration, the United States declared war on Spain. Although Spain’s military was decidedly in poor, declining shape, the military of the United States seemed also underdeveloped. At the time of the war declaration, the United States had only seven battleships and a standing army of around 30,000 troops. The War The Spanish-American War was swift and decisive on both land and sea. And owing to Spain’s colony, the Philippines, it was fought in Cuban and in the Pacific. Under Admiral George Dewey, a small American naval fleet sailed to the Philippines, which was then a Spanish colony. On May 1 in Manila Bay near the Philippines, the Spanish and American navies engaged one another. The result was nearly instant. The Spanish fleet could not withstand the, by comparison, heavily armed American gunboats and cruisers. The Spanish fleet was destroyed with scarcely an American casualty. Thus, Spain’s rule in the Philippines and in the Pacific was effectively over. On land, future president Teddy Roosevelt made history with his famous charge up San Juan Hill outside of Santiago, Cuba. The Spanish troops were heavily dug into the hill and armed with advanced, German-manufactured rifles. To weaken the Spanish resistance, Teddy Roosevelt ordered a unit of Buffalo Soldiers—African American troops—to charge up the hill first. These soldiers encountered the brunt of the fighting and sustained heavy casualties, but also inflicted heavy casualties. Later, Theodore Roosevelt and his Rough Riders followed, effectively dislodging and defeating the Spanish troops. The Spanish army units and spirited defenses in places such as San Juan Hill. Legacy of the Spanish-American War The immediate result of the war was the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Its terms gave America temporary control of Cuba, as well indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines following their purchase from Spain. The war also effectively ended the Spanish Empire. Spain had been declining as an imperial power since the early nineteenth century because of Napoleon’s invasion. The loss of Cuba caused a national trauma because of the affinity of peninsular Spaniards with Cuba, which was seen as another province of Spain rather than as a colony. Spain retained only a handful of overseas holdings: Spanish West Africa, Spanish Guinea, Spanish Sahara, Spanish Morocco, and the Canary Islands. The Philippine-American War The Philippine-American War (1899 – 1902), was a war between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. Even though it is frequently overlooked in U.S. History, it was very significant at the time because of its length and high casualties on both sides. When the Americans defeated the Spanish at Manila Bay in 1898, the Filipinos cheered. They believed they would finally be free of colonial rule and allowed independence. A temporary, democratic government was formed by their leader, Emilio Aguinaldo. However, when the United States made it clear that they would not allow the Filipinos to self-govern, and moreover that it would annex the Philippines, war erupted between the two sides. On one side, Americans hammered the Filipinos with the use of far superior military weaponry. In response, the Filipinos employed guerilla warfare to strike at the Americans at opportune moments. The war was noted for its exceptional brutality. Atrocities occurred on both sides. American troops showed little mercy to civilians, including women, children, and elderly. Villages were burned. And in retaliation, the Filipinos would frequently torture American prisoners of war through mutilation and live burials. Although resistance to American presence continued throughout the early 1900s, the Philippine-American War ended officially in 1902. The Open Door Policy The “Open Door Policy” is a U.S. doctrine established in 1899 and the early twentieth century, by Secretary of State, John Hay. The policy proposed to keep China open to trade with all countries on an equal basis, keeping any one power from total control of the country. In practice, the policy had little legal standing; it was mainly used to mediate competing interests of the colonial powers without much meaningful input from the Chinese. This policy would also galvanize American intervention in China during the Boxer Rebellion. The Banana Wars The Banana Wars were a series of occupations, police actions, and interventions involving the United States in Central America and the Caribbean. This period of conflict started with the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the subsequent Treaty of Paris, which gave the United States control of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Thereafter, the United States conducted military interventions in Cuba, Panama, Honduras, Nicaragua, Mexico, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. The series of conflicts ended with the withdrawal of troops from Haiti in 1934 under President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Reasons for these conflicts were varied but were largely economic in nature. The conflict was called the “Banana Wars” because of the connections between U.S. interventions and the preservation of American commercial interests in the region. The United Fruit Company, the predecessor of the modern-day Chiquita Fruit Company, had significant financial stakes in the production of bananas, tobacco, sugar cane, and various other products throughout the Caribbean, Central America, and northern South America. The United States also was advancing its political interests, maintaining a sphere of influence and controlling the Panama Canal, which it had recently built and was critically important to global trade and naval power. Honduras and American Fruit Companies Honduras, where the United Fruit Company and Standard Fruit Company dominated the country’s key banana export sector, saw the insertion of American troops repeatedly through the early 1900s. In fact, American involvement in Honduran affairs became so extensive that American author, O. Henry, coined the term “banana republic” in 1904 to describe Honduras. "Speak Softly and Carry a Big Stick": Teddy Roosevelt and the Panama Canal American President Theodore Roosevelt was brash, bold, and committed to participating in foreign affairs. Famously, he said of his foreign diplomacy that the United States must “speak softly and carry a big stick.” He was invested in seeing the United States become a global actor. As such, he established an addition to the Monroe Doctrine called the Roosevelt Corollary. In this document, Roosevelt established that the United States had the right to monitor, and intervene, if necessary, in situations of political unrest in the western hemisphere. As former Secretary of the Navy, Roosevelt was captivated by naval matters. Above all, he was fixated on the idea of developing a fifty-mile canal across Panama that would link Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In 1903, Panama was in turmoil. Panamanians, tired of being under Colombian rule, started a revolution. When President Roosevelt learned of the news, he struck an off-the-tables deal with the Panamanians. The U.S. would send its navy to the Panamanian coast, effectively preventing Colombia from sending ships, and helping Panama to achieve its independence. In exchange, Panama would grant the United States territory for the canal. Following the peace treaty with Spain that granted Panama’s independence, the United States sent labor forces to start construction on the canal. Construction of the canal began in 1904 and proved arduous. Americans relied heavily on immigrants and minorities for much of the labor. Yellow Fever and malaria hounded the workers for two years and slowed the construction of the canal. Before the diseases were brought under control, they had claimed over 5,000 lives. In 1914, the Panama Canal was finally opened. The two oceans were connected, shortening travel and shipment of goods forever. It was a remarkable achievement. It also established the precedent of intervention in Latin American affairs when American interests were at stake. Long-term Impact The late 1800s and early 1900s marked the start of American imperialism. Although considered a second-rate power by many of its Western European counterparts, the United States quickly proved it was a military and political powerhouse. Intervention in other countries, especially countries in Latin America set a precedent that would explode during the Cold War. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless US History, “American Imperialism” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/american-imperialism/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.858639	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87953/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87954/overview	Australia at the turn of the Twentieth Century Overview Australia at the turn of the Century On January 1, 1901, Australia was proclaimed a commonwealth by Queen Victoria of England. By the clauses of the new Australian constitution, this upgrade in status meant that Australia was no longer a colony of England; rather, it was an associated nation within the larger British empire based on republican laws and values. It was also granted a parliament. Under the Australian Commonwealth, each of the Australian provinces was granted the status of “states” with their own governments. Australia’s new status provided more rights and freedoms to its white citizens, but it did little to protect its Aborigine population. In fact, the early years of the Australian Commonwealth were marked by increasingly repressive measures against the Aborigines. As Australians worried about internal threats, they also laid the foundation work for an alliance that would bring them into World War I. Learning Objectives - Examine Australia’s development, socially and politically, during its early years as a Commonwealth nation. Key Terms / Key Concepts Australian Commonwealth: Australian republic founded in 1901 Immigration Restriction Act: immigration act passed in 1901 to restrict emigration to Australia from China, Indonesian, and other parts of Asia Australians and the Protection of "White Australia" In the late 1800s, Australia had experienced high immigration rates from China, and many parts of the Pacific Islands, most of which were still under European occupation. In 1901, Australia was proclaimed a commonwealth and given a host of new powers, rights, and responsibilities. Many white politicians felt as though their power was threatened by the increased presence of non-whites in the country. To combat the growing numbers of immigrants, Australians passed the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act. This act, also called the “White Australian Policy,” restricted immigrants from China and Asia. To immigrate to Australia, all immigrants were required to pass a dictation test in which they wrote fifty words in a European language. In addition to restricting immigrants, the measure also helped ensure that Australia remained “British.” A year later, a bill was passed to restrict voting rights of Aborigines. The Australian Trade Union movement, which gathered nearly a million followers by 1914, similarly echoed the cries of white politicians and argued that Australian businesses should reflect white, Australian purity. For their parts, the Aborigines mostly remained separate societies from “white” Australia. On rare occasions when the two groups met, the Aborigines were regarded by most white Australians as primitive spectacles to gawk at from afar. Australia as a Military Power In the 1900s, Australia had a small but well-trained army. As part of the British Empire, it sent troops to fight in the Boer Wars of South Africa in 1902. But as an island nation far removed from England, Australians started to feel uneasy about their lack of naval protection. In particular, the Japanese victory over Imperial Russia during the Russo-Japanese War made the Australians acutely aware of their expansive coast, and lack of naval power. In 1907, Australians, led by their prime minister, clamored for the creation of an Australian navy. For four years, Australia and Great Britain negotiated for the establishment of an Australian navy. At last, in 1911, the British constructed an entirely new Pacific fleet. One of the three squadrons created was given to Australia and consisted of three light cruisers, six destroyers, and three submarines. While tension mounted in Europe, Australia enacted measures at home in case it should be drawn into war. Among its most stringent laws was one passed in January 1911 that required all boys, excluding Aborigines, twelve and older to register for the militia service. Additionally, boys were required to have some military training. Although the law seemed draconian to many in England, Australia saw it as essential. Other than New Zealand, they had no immediate allies, and were separated by vast oceans from England and the United States. If Australia were attacked, it would rely upon itself for defense of the nation. And if pulled into war, it would not be caught off-guard. Indeed, when World War I erupted in 1914, Australia had over 200,000 men working for the Australian armed forces. This reservoir of soldiers would prove critical to the Allies’ war effort in World War I. Legacy Australia at the turn of the century was a nation unsure of its place in the world. It was simultaneously a commonwealth with republican laws, but also remained part of the British Empire. Its white population was, generally, very invested in the perseverance of Australia for whites. As a result, Aborigines saw a reduction in the limited rights afforded them. Racial tension remained strong as white Australians developed the eastern Australian seaboard. For the average, white Australian, though, life in this country “down under” was glorious. Their social security system was unmatched by any country in the world at that time. They were afforded freedom to travel and relocate with government support, free education, and a basic living wage. On the eve of World War I, Australia was still considered a fledgling and inexperienced nation of farmers, miners, bankers, and ruffians. But the war would change that idea forever. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Welsh, Frank. Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land. The Overlook Press, New York: 2004. 334-362.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.883172	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87954/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87956/overview	Mexican Revolution Overview Introduction The Mexican Revolution was a significant turning point for the country in the early 20th century. The end of the Porfiriato brought a true social revolution to Mexico. By focusing on the lower classes this meant there was a significant change for the indigenous populations throughout. The Mexican Revolution had many different phases, the first phrase was the election of 1910, the second was the Constitution, the third was the 1920s, and the fourth was the 1930s. By the end of the second phase, Mexico was very different than it was in the 19th century. The period following independence was full of political, social, and cultural problems for the country. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the impact of the Porfirio Diaz regime on the origin of the Mexican Revolution. - Analyze the different stages of the Mexican Revolution. - Analyze what the different groups goals and wants of the Mexican Revoution. Key Terms / Key Concepts Plan de la Noria: a revolutionary call to arms with the intent of ousting Mexican President Benito Juarez Porfiriato: the period during which Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori and his allies ruled Mexico, from 1876 to 1911 The Porfiriato The Mexican Revolution was instigated by Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori—a Mexican soldier and politician, as well as a veteran of the Reform War and the French intervention in Mexico. As president, he served seven terms in office for a total of 35 years (1876 to 1911). The period during which he and his allies ruled the country became known as the Porfiriato. Jose de la Cruz Porfirio Diaz Mori strengthened his regime to create the internal order necessary to foster economic development; however, it was his authoritarian grasp on the presidency sparked the Mexican Revolution. The Campaign of “No Re-election” In 1870, Diaz ran against President Juarez and Vice President Lerdo de Tejada for president. Juarez won in July and was confirmed by Congress in October, but Diaz claimed the election was fraudulent. Diaz launched the Plan de la Noria, a revolutionary call to arms with the intent of ousting Mexican President Benito Juarez on November 8, 1871. The plan was supported by a number of local rebellions throughout the country; however, it ultimately failed. Juarez died while in office in 1872, and when Vice President Lerdo succeeded him to the presidency, he offered amnesty to the rebels, which Diaz accepted. Subsequently, Diaz took up residency in Veracruz and served as the region’s representative in the legislature. Over time, opposition to Lerdo’s presidency grew as anticlerical sentiment and labor unrest increased. Under these circumstances, Diaz saw an opportunity to plot a more successful rebellion. As a result, he left Mexico in 1875 for New Orleans and Brownsville, Texas, with his political ally Manuel Gonzalez. A year later, he issued the Plan of Tuxtepec as a call to arms against Lerdo, who was running for another presidential term. Lerdo was re-elected in July 1876, but continued rebellion and political unrest before and after the election forced him out of office. In November, Diaz occupied Mexico City, and Lerdo was exiled to New York. General Juan Mendez was named provisional president, but Diaz was elected to the office in the beginning of 1877. One of Diaz’s first actions was to amend the 1857 liberal constitution to prevent re-election to the presidency. Diaz initially served only one term in office, in light of his past resistance to Lerdo’s re-election policy. In order to side-step the convention, he handpicked his successor, Manuel Gonzalez, with the intention of maintaining his power in everything but name. During the four-year period of Gonzalez’s rule, corruption and official incompetence abounded, so when Diaz ran for office again in 1884, he was greeted with open arms by the public. At that point, very few people remembered the “no re-election” promise that had characterized his previous campaign, though some underground political papers reversed his previous slogan, “Sufragio Efective, No Reeleccion”, to “Sufragio Efectivo No, Reeleccion”. During his second term, Diaz amended the constitution twice, initially allowing for two terms in office, then removing all restrictions on re-election. Political Career As a popular military hero and astute politician, Diaz determined that his main goal as president was to create the internal order necessary to foster economic development throughout the country. His eventual establishment of peace, termed the Pax Porfiriana, became one of his crowning achievements. To achieve this goal, Diaz created a systematic and methodical regime with a staunch military mindset. He dissolved all local and federal-level authorities that had once existed in order to ensure that all leadership stemmed from his office. Legislative authorities that remained within Mexico were stacked almost entirely with his closest and most loyal allies. Diaz also suppressed the media and controlled the Mexican court system. Diaz developed many pragmatic and personalist approaches to the political conflicts that occurred during his first term in office. Although known for standing with radical liberals, he made sure not to come across as a liberal ideologue while in office and maintained control of his political allies via generous systems of patronage. He was skilled at catering to interest groups and playing them off of one another to create the illusion of democracy, as well as quell rebellions before unrest began. He maintained the structure of elections so that a facade of liberal democracy remained during his rule, but his administration became famous for their suppression of civil society and public revolts. He also paid the US $300,000 in settlement claims to secure recognition of his regime and met with Ulysses S. Grant in 1878 while the latter visited Mexico. Collapse On February 17, 1908, Diaz gave an interview with an American journalist, James Creelman of Pearson’s Magazine, in which he stated that Mexico was ready for democracy and elections. Diaz also stated that he would retire and allow other candidates to compete for the presidency. Immediately, opposition groups began the search for suitable candidates. As candidates began to campaign, Diaz decided he was not going to retire, but instead run against a candidate he deemed appropriate. He chose Francisco Madero, an aristocratic but democratically leaning reformer. Madero was a landowner and ideologically similar to Diaz, but hoped for other Mexican elites to rule alongside the president. Ultimately, Diaz had Madero jailed during the election. Despite this, Madero gained substantial popular support. However, when the results were announced, Diaz was proclaimed re-elected almost unanimously in a massive display of electoral fraud, arousing widespread anger throughout the country. Madero called for revolt against Diaz. Diaz was forced from office and fled the country for Spain on May 31, 1911. And the Mexican Revolution began. The Mexican Revolution 1910-1917 The Mexican Revolution took place over the course of a decade and radically transformed Mexican culture and government. It was a major armed struggle from 1910 through 1920 that radically transformed Mexican culture and government. Its outbreak is attributed to Porfirio Diaz’s failure to resolve the problem of presidential succession. In the short term, events were precipitated by the results of the 1910 presidential election in which Diaz committed massive electoral fraud and declared himself the winner against his then-jailed opponent, Francisco Madero. Armed conflict ousted Diaz from power and a new election was held in 1911, in which Madero won the presidency. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the role of the Porfirio Diaz on the Mexican Revolution. - Analyze the impact of the United States on the Mexican Revolution. Key Terms / Key Concepts Plan de Ayala: a document drafted by revolutionary Emiliano Zapata during November 1911, denouncing President Madero for his perceived betrayal of revolutionary ideals and setting out a vision of future land reform Treaty of Ciudad Juarez: a peace treaty signed between then-President of Mexico Porfirio Diaz and revolutionary Francisco Madero on May 21, 1911, ending the fighting between their respective forces and ending the initial phase of the Mexican Revolution The Madero Presidency, 1911 – 1913 Despite Madero’s lack of political experience, his election as president in October 1911 raised high expectations for positive change. However, these expectations were tempered by the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez, signed on May 21, 1911, between Diaz and Madero, which put an end to fighting between the two factions but also stipulated that certain essential elements of the Diaz regime, such as the federal army, stay in place. Madero called for the rebels who had brought him to power to return to civilian life. In their place, Madero increasingly relied upon the federal army to deal with armed rebellions that broke out in Mexico from 1911 to 1912. The press, newly unencumbered by Madero’s less authoritarian regime, embraced their newfound freedoms by making the president himself the object of criticism. Organized labor exercised their newfound freedoms under the Madero regime by staging strikes, which foreign entrepreneurs found threatening to their business concerns. A rise in anti-American sentiment accompanied these developments. The anarcho-syndicalist Casa del Obrero Mundial was founded in September 1912 and served primarily as a center of agitation and propaganda rather than exclusively as a labor union. A number of political parties also proliferated across the country, including the National Catholic Party, which was particularly strong in a number of regions. Madero, unlike Diaz, failed to reward those who had brought him to power, though many revolutionary leaders expected personal rewards or major reforms in return for their service. Emiliano Zapata, in particular, long worked for land reform in Mexico and expected Madero to make some major changes. However, during a personal meeting with the guerrilla leader, Madero told Zapata that the agrarian question needed careful study, giving rise to the belief that Madero—a member of a rich northern landholding family—was unlikely to implement comprehensive agrarian reform. In response, Zapata drafted the Plan de Ayala in November 1911, declaring himself in rebellion against Madero. Zapata renewed guerrilla warfare in the state of Morelos, and Madero was forced to send the federal army to deal, unsuccessfully, with his forces. Likewise, the northern revolutionary general Pascual Orozco felt slighted after being put in charge of large forces of rurales in Chihuahua, instead of being chosen as governor of the same region. After being passed over and witnessing Madero’s refusal to agree to social reforms calling for better working hours, pay, and conditions, Orozco assembled his own army to rebel against the president, aggravating U.S. businessmen and other foreign investors in the northern region. For many, these upheavals signaled Madero’s inability to maintain the order that had underpinned Diaz’s 35-year long regime. Madero dispatched General Victoriano Huerta of the federal army to put down Orozco’s revolt in April 1912. Ultimately, Huerta was successful in ending the rebellion, leading many conservative forces to tout him as a powerful counter-force to Madero’s regime. A number of other rebellions occurred during a period known as the Ten Tragic Days. During this time, U.S. Ambassador Henry Lane Wilson brokered the Pact of the Embassy, formalizing an alliance between Huerta and Felix Diaz—a nephew of the former president and rebel leader. The treaty ensured that Huerta would become provisional president of Mexico following the resignations of Madero and his vice president. However, rather than being sent into exile, the two were murdered during transport to prison, which though shocking did not prevent recognition of Huerta’s regime by most world governments. Following the assumption of Huerta of the presidency, former revolutionaries had no formally organized opposition to the established government. The Huerta Dictatorship, 1913 – 1914 Although Huerta’s regime attempted to legitimize his hold on power and demonstrate its legality by pursuing reformist policies in the first several months of his presidency, after October 1913 he dropped all attempts to rule within a legal framework and murdered political opponents while battling revolutionary forces that had united against his regime. For these reasons, Huerta’s presidency is usually characterized as a dictatorship. Huerta’s regime was supported initially by foreign and domestic business interests, landed elites, the Roman Catholic Church, and the German and British governments. And Mexico was militarized to a greater extent than ever before. However, within a month of the coup that brought Huerta to power, several rebellions broke out across the country. The Northern revolutionaries fought under the name of the Constitutionalist Army and Zapata continued his rebellion in Morelos under the Plan de Ayala, despite Huerta’s interest in land reform as an issue. Huerta offered peace to Zapata, but he rejected it. Incoming U.S. President Woodrow Wilson refused to recognize Huerta’s government despite the urging of Ambassador Wilson, who played a key role in the regime change. In the summer of 1913, President Wilson recalled Ambassador Wilson and sent John Lind—his own personal representative—to continue U.S.-Mexican diplomatic relations. Lind was a progressive who sympathized with the Mexican revolutionaries and urged other European powers to join America in non-recognition of the Huerta regime. He also urged Huerta to call elections and not step up as a candidate, using economic and military threats to back up his pleadings. Mexican conservatives were also seeking an elected civilian alternative to Huerta’s regime and brought together a number of candidates in a National Unifying Junta. The fragmentation of the conservative political landscape reinforced Huerta’s belief that he would not be removed from power, whereas the proliferation of political parties and presidential candidates proved to the country’s conservative elite that there was a growing disillusionment with Huerta and his regime. On October 26, 1913, Huerta dispensed with the Mexican legislature, surrounding the building with his army and arresting congressmen he perceived hostile to his regime. Congressional elections went ahead, but the fervor of opposition candidates decreased. The October 1913 elections ended any pretension of constitutional rule within Mexico, and civilian political activities were banned. Additionally, many prominent Catholics were arrested, and Catholic periodicals were suppressed. Huerta’s position continued to deteriorate, and his army suffered several defeats during this time. Finally, in mid-July 1914, he stepped down and fled the country. He died six months after going into exile, after having been arrested by US authorities and held at Fort Bliss, Texas. Huerta’s resignation also marked the dissolution of the federal army and the beginning of an era of civil war among the revolutionary factions that united to oppose Huerta’s regime. War of the Winners, 1914 – 1915 The revolutionary factions that remained in Mexico gathered at the Convention of Aguascalientes in October 1914. During this time, there was a brief break in revolutionary violence. However, rather than facilitate a reconciliation among the different factions, Venustiano Carranza and Pancho Villa engaged in a power struggle, leading to a definitive break between the two revolutionaries. Carranza expected to be named First Chief of the revolutionary forces, but his supporters were overpowered during the convention by Zapata and Villa’s supporters, who called on Carranza to resign executive power. Carranza agreed to do so only if Villa and Zapata also resigned and went into exile. He also stipulated that there be a pre-constitutionalist government to carry out the necessary political and social reforms the country needed before a fully constitutional government was reestablished. As a result of these conditions, the convention declared Carranza in rebellion and civil war resumed. Northern general Villa formed an alliance with the southern leader Zapata. The resultant combined forces were called the Army of the Convention. In December 1914, their forces moved on Mexico City and captured it, Carranza’s forces having fled shortly beforehand. In practice, however, the Army of the Convention did not survive as an alliance beyond this initial victory against the Constitutionalists. Shortly thereafter, Zapata returned to his southern stronghold and Villa resumed fighting against Carranza’s forces in the north. In the meantime, the United States sided with Carranza, who was based in American-occupied Veracruz. The United States timed its exit from Veracruz to benefit Carranza, sending his forces munitions and formally recognizing his government in 1915. Villa’s forces met with those of Carranza’s allies at the Battle of Celaya in April 6 – 15, 1915, which ended in a decisive Constitutionalist victory due to their superior military tactics. As a result, Carranza emerged as Mexico’s political leader with support from the army. Constitutionalism Under Carranza, 1915 – 1920 As revolutionary violence subsided in 1916, the leaders of Mexico met to draw up a new constitution. The Mexican Constitution of 1917 that resulted was strongly national. Article 27 provided the government with the right to expropriate natural resources from foreign interests, enabling land reform. There were also provisions to protect organized labor and articles extending state power over the Roman Catholic Church within Mexico. Carranza also pushed for women’s rights and equality during his presidency, which helped to transform women’s legal status within the country. Carranza, though able to enact many reforms, was still vulnerable to revolutionary unrest. Zapata remained active in Morelos, which due to its proximity to Mexico City remained a vulnerability for the Carranza government. The Constitutionalist Army, renamed the Mexican National Army, was dispatched to fight Zapata’s Liberating Army of the South, and government agents assassinated Zapata in 1919. Carranza also sent generals to track down Villa in the north, but they were only able to capture some of his men. Due to the legacy of Diaz’s “no re-election” policy, it was politically untenable for Carranza to seek re-election after his first term, so instead, when his term in office was nearly finished, he endorsed political unknown Ignacio Bonillas. However, some existing northern revolutionary leaders found the prospect of a civilian Carranza puppet candidate untenable and hatched a revolt against Carranza called the Plan of Agua Prieta. As a result, Carranza attempted to flee Mexico, but died on his way to the Gulf Coast. The 1920s The National Revolutionary Party held power consistently from 1929 to 2000 by settling disputes among different political interest groups within the framework of a single party machine. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the impact of the Mexican Revolution on the 1920s. - Analyze the long term goals of the Mexican Revolution and how they affected individuals. Key Terms / Key Concepts Democratic Current: a movement within the PRI founded in 1986 that criticized the federal government for reducing spending on social programs to increase payments on foreign debt (PRI members who participated in the Democratic Current were expelled from the party and formed the National Democratic Front (FDN).) Mexican Modernist School: the artistic movement within Mexico that was especially prolific in the 1930s, glorifying the Mexican Revolution and redefining the Mexican people vis-à-vis their indigenous and colonial past; large-scale murals were its preferred medium National Revolutionary Party: the Mexican political party founded in 1929 that held executive power within the country for an uninterrupted 71 years (It underwent two name changes during its time in power: once in 1938, to Partido de la Revolucion Mexican (PRM), and again in 1946, to Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI).) Plan de Ayala: a document drafted by revolutionary Emiliano Zapata during November 1911, denouncing President Madero for his perceived betrayal of revolutionary ideals and setting out a vision of future land reform surrealist: a cultural and artistic movement that mixed dream and reality into one composition History Although the armed phase of the Mexican Revolution ended in 1920, Mexico continued to experience political unrest in the years that followed. In 1928, president-elect Alvaro Obregon was assassinated, giving rise to a political crisis. The following year, this led to the founding of the National Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, Partdio Nacional Revolucionario, or PNR) by sitting president Plutarco Elias Calles. Calles’s intention in founding the PNR was to end the violent power struggles taking place between factions of the Mexican Revolution, as well as guarantee the peaceful transmission of power across presidential administrations. In the first years of the PNR’s existence, it was the only political machine in existence. In fact, from 1929 until 1982, the PNR won every presidential election by well over 70 percent of the vote. In 1938, Lazaro Cardenas, the president of Mexico at the time, changed the name of the PNR to Partdio de la Revolucion Mexicana, or PRM. The PRM’s revised aim was to establish a socialist democracy of workers. In practice, however, this was never achieved, and the PRM was split functionally into many mass organizations that represented different interest groups. Settling disputes within the framework of a single political party helped to prevent legislative gridlock and militarized rebellions, which were common during the Mexican Revolution. For these reasons, its supporters maintained that the party itself was crucial to the modernization and stability of Mexico as a whole. In fact, the first four decades of PRM rule were dubbed the “Mexican Miracle” due to the economic growth that occurred as a result of import substitution, low inflation, and the implementation of successful national development plans. Between 1940 and 1970, Mexican GDP increased sixfold and peso-dollar parity was maintained. Party detractors, however, pointed to the lack of transparency and democratic processes, which ultimately made the lower levels of administration subordinate to the whims of the party machine. Corruption and Opposing Political Parties As in previous regimes, the PRM retained its hold over the electorate due to massive electoral fraud. Toward the end of every president’s term, consultations with party leaders would take place and the PRM’s next candidate would be selected. In other words, the incumbent president would pick his successor. To support the party’s dominance in the executive branch of government, the PRM sought dominance at other levels as well. It held an overwhelming majority in the Chamber of Deputies, as well as every seat in the Senate and every state governorship. As a result, the PRM became a symbol over time of corruption, including voter suppression and violence. In 1986, Cuauhtemoc Cardenas, the former Governor of Michoacan and son of the former president Lazaro Cardenas, formed the Democratic Current, which criticized the federal government for reducing spending on social programs to increase payments on foreign debt. Members of the Democratic Current were expelled from the party, and in 1987, they formed the National Democratic Front—or Frente Democratico Nacional (FDN). In 1989, the left wing of the PRM, now called Partido Revolucionario Institucional, or PRI, went on to form its own party called the Party of the Democratic Revolution. The conservative National Action Party, likewise, grew after 1976 when it obtained support from the business sector, in light of recurring economic crises. The growth of both these opposition parties resulted in the PRI losing the presidency in 2000. Art and Culture in 20th-Century Mexico The Mexican Modernist School used large-scale murals to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes. Mexican Muralism and Revolutionary Art The Mexican Revolution had a dramatic effect on Mexican art. The government allied itself with intellectuals and artists in Mexico City and commissioned murals for public buildings to reinforce political messages, especially those that emphasized Mexican rather than European themes. The production of art in conjunction with government propaganda is known as the Mexican Modernist School, or the Mexican Muralist Movement. Many such works glorified the Mexican Revolution or redefined the Mexican people vis-à-vis their indigenous and colonial past. The first of these commissioned works was done by Fernando Leal, Fermin Revueltas, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and Diego Rivera at San Ildefonso, a prestigious Jesuit boarding school. The muralist movement reached its height in the 1930s with four main artists: Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, Jose Clemente Orozco, and Fernando Leal. It is now the most studied aspect of Mexico’s art history. These four artists were trained in classical European techniques and many of their early works were imitations of then-fashionable European paintings styles. Many Mexican government buildings featured murals glorifying Mexico’s pre-Hispanic past and incorporating it into the definition of Mexican identity. Many of these muralists also revived the fresco technique in their mural work, although some like Siqueiros moved to industrial techniques and materials such as the application of pyroxilin, a commercial enamel used for airplanes and automobiles. Diego Rivera Rivera painted his first significant mural, Creation, in the Bolivar Auditorium of the National Preparatory School in Mexico City in January 1922 while guarding himself with a pistol against right-wing students. In the autumn of 1922, Rivera participated in the founding of the Revolutionary Union of Technical Workers, Painters and Sculptors, and later that year he joined the Mexican Communist Party. His murals were greatly influenced by his leftist political leanings, dealing with Mexican society and reflecting the country’s 1910 Revolution. He developed his own native style based on large, simplified figures and bold colors. A strong Aztec influence was present in his works, and much of his art emulated the Mayan steles of the classical era. Frida Kahlo Frida Kahlo de Rivera was a Mexican painter known for her self-portraits. While she painted canvases instead of murals, she is still considered part of the Mexican Modernist School due to the emphasis of Mexican folk culture and use of color in her works. She was married to muralist Diego Rivera and like Rivera was an active communist. Kahlo was influenced by indigenous Mexican culture, as demonstrated by her use of bright colors, dramatic symbolism, and primitive style. She often included monkeys in her works; while this is usually a symbol of lust in Mexican mythology, Kahlo’s portrayal was tender and protective. Christian and Jewish themes were often depicted in Kahlo’s work. She combined elements of classic religious Mexican traditions with surrealist components in her paintings. Primary Source: Francisco Madero: The Plan of San Luis Potosi, November 20, 1910 The Mexican presidential election of 1910 was stolen when Porfirio Diaz - the longtime dictator, had his opponent Madero arrested and imprisoned. Madero took refuge infled to San Antonio, and issued the Plan of San Luis Potosi calling for the nullification of the elections and upon Mexicans to take up arms against the government. The date of its issue marks the beginning of the Mexican Revolution. Francisco Madero: The Plan of San Luis Potosi, November 20, 1910 Peoples, in their constant efforts for the triumph of the ideal of liberty and justice, are forced, at precise historical moments, to make their greatest sacrifices.Our beloved country has reached one of those moments. A force of tyranny which we Mexicans were not accustomed to suffer after we won our independence oppresses us in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because its basis is not law, but force; because its object is not the aggrandizement and prosperity of the country, but to enrich a small group who, abusing their influence, have converted the public charges into fountains of exclusively personal benefit, unscrupulously exploiting the manner of lucrative concessions and contracts.The legislative and judicial powers are completely subordinated to the executive; the division of powers, the sovereignty of the States, the liberty of the common councils, and the rights of the citizens exist only in writing in our great charter; but, as a fact, it may almost be said that martial law constantly exists in Mexico; the administration of justice, instead of imparting protection to the weak, merely serves to legalize the plunderings committed by the strong; the judges instead of being the representatives of justice, are the agents of the executive, whose interests they faithfully serve; the chambers of the union have no other will than that of the dictator; the governors of the States are designated by him and they in their turn designate and impose in like manner the municipal authorities.From this it results that the whole administrative, judicial, and legislative machinery obeys a single will, the caprice of General Porfirio Diaz, who during his long administration has shown that the principal motive that guides him is to maintain himself in power and at any cost.For many years profound discontent has been felt throughout the Republic, due to such a system of government, but General Diaz with great cunning and perseverance, has succeeded in annihilating all independent elements, so that it was not possible to organize any sort of movement to take from him the power of which he made such bad use. The evil constantly became worse, and the decided eagerness of General Diaz to impose a successor upon the nations in the person of Mr. Ramon Corral carried that evil to its limit and caused many of us Mexicans, although lacking recognized political standing, since it had been impossible to acquire it during the 36 years of dictatorship, to throw ourselves into the struggle to recover the sovereignty of the people and their rights on purely democratic grounds....In Mexico, as a democratic Republic, the public power can have no other origin nor other basis than the will of the people, and the latter can not be subordinated to formulas to be executed in a fraudulent manner. . . ,For this reason the Mexican people have protested against the illegality of the last election and, desiring to use successively all the recourses offered by the laws of the Republic, in due form asked for the nullification of the election by the Chamber of Deputies, notwithstanding they recognized no legal origin in said body and knew beforehand that, as its members were not the representatives of the people, they would carry out the will of General Diaz, to whom exclusively they owe their investiture.In such a state of affairs the people, who are the only sovereign, also protested energetically against the election in imposing manifestations in different parts of the Republic; and if the latter were not general throughout the national territory, It was due to the terrible pressure exercised by the Government, which always quenches in blood any democratic manifestation, as happened in Puebla, Vera Cruz, Tlaxcala, and in other places.But this violent and illegal system can no longer subsist.I have very well realized that if the people have designated me as their candidate. for the Presidency it is not because they have had an opportunity to discover in me the qualities of a statesman or of a ruler, but the virility of the patriot determined to sacrifice himself, if need be, to obtain liberty and to help the people free themselves from the odious tyranny that oppresses them.From the moment I threw myself into the democratic struggle I very well knew that General Diaz would not bow to the will of the nation, and the noble Mexican people, in following me to the polls, also knew perfectly the outrage that awaited them; but in spite of it, the people gave the cause of liberty a numerous contingent of martyrs when they were necessary and with wonderful stoicism went to the polls and received every sort of molestation.But such conduct was indispensable to show to the whole world that the Mexican people are fit for democracy, that they are thirsty for liberty, and that their present rulers do not measure up to their aspirations.Besides, the attitude of the people before and during the election, as well as afterwards, shows clearly that they reject with energy the Government of General Diaz and that, if those electoral rights had been respected, I would have been elected for President of the Republic.Therefore, and in echo of the national will, I declare the late election illegal and, the Republic being accordingly without rulers, provisionally assume the Presidency of the Republic until the people designate their rulers pursuant to the law. In order to attain this end, it is necessary to eject from power the audacious usurpers whose only title of legality involves a scandalous and immoral fraud.With all honesty I declare that it would be a weakness on my part and treason to the people, who have placed their confidence in me, not to put myself at the front of my fellow citizens, who anxiously call me from all parts of the country, to compel General Diaz by force of arms, to respect the national will. From United States Congress, Senate Subcommittee on Foreign Relations, Revolutions in Mexico, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 730-736, passim. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Pancho Villa and his followers: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Pancho_and_his_followers.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/mexico/ Primary Source: https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/mod/1910potosi.asp	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.923327	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87956/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87957/overview	China in the Early 20th Century Overview China in the Early 20th Century The fall of the Qing Dynasty was an important turn in Chinese history. Out of the Qing rose two political ideas that would become in direct polar opposition of one another and would take a half a century for China to resolve the conflict. Key Terms / Key Concepts Beiyang Government: the government of the Republic of China, in place in the capital city of Beijing from 1912 to 1928 (It was internationally recognized as the legitimate Chinese government but lacked domestic legitimacy.) Kuomintang: a major political party in the Republic of China, currently the second-largest in the country, often translated as the Nationalist Party of China or Chinese Nationalist Party (Its predecessor, the Revolutionary Alliance, was one of the major advocates of the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and the establishment of a republic. The party was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen shortly after the Xinhai Revolution of 1911.) Early Republic The History of the Republic of China begins after the Qing dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China as a constitutional republic put an end to 4,000 years of Imperial rule. The Qing dynasty ruled from 1644 – 1912. The Republic experienced many trials and tribulations after its founding, including domination by warlord generals and foreign powers. The Republic of China was a state in East Asia that existed from 1912 to 1949. It largely occupied the present-day territories of China, Taiwan, and, for some of its history, Mongolia. As an era of Chinese history, it was preceded by the last imperial dynasty of China, the Qing dynasty, and ended with the Chinese Civil War. After the war, the losing Kuomintang retreated to the island of Taiwan to found the modern Republic of China, while the victorious Communist Party of China established the People’s Republic of China on the Mainland. The Republican Era of China began with the outbreak of revolution on October 10, 1911, in Wuchang among discontented modernized army units whose anti-Qing plot had been uncovered. This would be known as the Wuchang Uprising, celebrated as Double Tenth Day in Taiwan. It was preceded by numerous abortive uprisings and organized protests in China. The revolt quickly spread to neighboring cities, and members of the underground resistance movement Tongmenghui rose in support of the Wuchang revolutionary forces throughout the country. After a series of failures of the revolutionary forces, during the 41-day Battle of Yangxia, 15 of 24 provinces declared their independence from the Qing empire. On January 1, 1912, delegates from the independent provinces elected Sun Yat-sen as the first provisional president of the Republic of China. The last emperor of China, Puyi, was forced to abdicate on February 12. Although Sun was inaugurated in Nanjing as the first provisional president, power in Beijing already had passed to Yuan Shikai, who had effective control of the Beiyang Army—the most powerful military force in China at the time. To prevent civil war and possible foreign intervention from undermining the infant republic, Sun agreed to Yuan’s demand for China to be united under Yuan’s Beijing government. On March 10 in Beijing, Yuan Shikai was sworn in as the second provisional president of the Republic of China. Although many political parties were vying for supremacy in the legislature, the revolutionists lacked an army, and Yuan soon revised the constitution and revealed dictatorial ambitions. In August 1912, the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) was founded by Song Jiaoren, one of Sun’s associates. It was an amalgamation of small political groups, including Sun’s Tongmenghui. In the national elections held in February 1913 for the new bicameral parliament, Song campaigned against the Yuan administration and the Kuomintang won a majority of seats. Over the next few years, however, Yuan proceeded to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and declared himself emperor in late 1915, but his imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates. Faced with the prospect of rebellion, he abdicated in 1916 and died the same year. His death left a power vacuum in China and ushered in what would be known as the Warlord Era, during which much of the country was ruled by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders. The poster commemorates the permanent President of the Republic of China Yuan Shikai and the provisional President of the Republic Sun Yat-sen. The text on the poster reads, "Chinese Republic forever," an unconventional English translation of "Long Live the Republic of China." Yuan Shikai (left) and Sun Yat-sen (right) with flags representing the early republic. The Warlord Era Despite the fact that various warlords gained control of the government in Beijing during the Warlord Era, a new form of control or governance did not emerge at the time because other warlords did not acknowledge the transitory governments of the period. These military-dominated governments were collectively known as the Beiyang Government; the name derives from the Beiyang Army, which dominated its politics. Although the government and the state were nominally under civilian control with a constitution, the Beiyang generals were effectively in charge, with various factions vying for power. Although the Beiyang Government’s legitimacy was challenged domestically, it had international diplomatic recognition and access to the tax and customs revenue, as well as could apply for foreign financial loans. In 1917, China declared war on Germany in the hope of recovering its lost province, then under Japanese control. On May 4, 1919, there were massive student demonstrations against the Beijing government and Japan. The political fervor, student activism, and iconoclastic and reformist intellectual currents set in motion by the protest developed into a national awakening known as the May Fourth Movement. The intellectual milieu in which this movement developed was known as the New Culture Movement. The student demonstrations of May 4, 1919 were the high point of the New Culture Movement and the terms are often used as synonyms. Chinese representatives refused to sign the Treaty of Versailles due to intense pressure from both the student protesters and public opinion. The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy among leftist Chinese intellectuals led to radical lines of thought inspired by the Russian Revolution and supported by agents of the Comintern sent to China by Moscow. This created the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century. In the 1920s, Sun Yat-sen established a revolutionary base in south China and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With assistance from the Soviet Union, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling Communist Party of China. After Sun’s death from cancer in 1925, one of his protégés, Chiang Kai-shek, seized control of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party or KMT) and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the Northern Expedition (1926 – 1927). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In 1927, Chiang turned on the CPC and chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases, the CPC forces embarked on the Long March across China’s most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at Yan’an in Shaanxi Province. During the Long March, the communists reorganized under a new leader, Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung). Primary Source: Sun Yat-sen: Fundamentals of National Reconstruction (1923 CE) Sun Yat-sen (1844-1925 CE) began life as the son of poor farmers, yet became the father of' modern China. A younger son, he was brought to Hawaii by an older brother who had immigrated there as a laborer. Sun studied at a missionary school and ultimately earned a medical degree in Hong Kong. His years in the west induced in him a dissatisfaction with the government of China and he began his political career by attempting to organize reform groups of Chinese exiles in Hong Kong. In l895 a coup he plotted failed, and for the next 16 years Sun was an exile in Europe, the United States and Japan. In Japan he joined dissident Chinese groups and soon became their leader. He was expelled from Japan and was in America when he learned of the successful rebellion against the Qing emperor. Sun immediately returned to China, headed the revolutionary movement for a time, and then went back into exile until 1923, when he finally emerged as president of China. He died two years later, having founded the Koumintang (Nationalist Party). Fundamentals of National Reconstruction is Sun Yat-sen's most important political statement. It enunciates his famous three principles whereby he set China on the road to modernity. Fundamentals of National Reconstruction Sun Yat-sen (1923) HISTORY OF THE CHINESE REVOLUTION Following China's war with France (1883-1884) I made up my mind to devote myself to the revolution. In 1895 I started the first insurrection in Canton and the revolution of 1911 culminated in the establishment of the Republic.. Up to present the task of revolution, however, has not yet been completed. A span of thirty-seven years of my revolutionary work is to be chronicled by future historians from all manner of facts and incidents. An outline sketch is given below. I Principles of Revolution The term Kemin, or revolution, was first used by Confucius. Incidents of a revolutionary' nature repeatedly happened in Chinese history after Tang (founder of the Shang Dynasty,. 1766 BCE) and Wu (founder of the Zhou Dynasty, 1122 BCE). In Europe revolutionary tides surged in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries and they have since spread over the whole world. In due course they created republics, they conferred constitutions on monarchies. The principles which I have held in promoting the Chinese revolution were in some cases copied from our traditional ideals, in other cases modeled on European theory and experience and in still others formulated according to original and self-developed theories. They are described as follows:- l. Principle of Nationalism Revelations of Chinese history prove that the Chinese as a people are independent in spirit and in conduct. Coerced into touch with other people, they could at times live in peace with them by maintaining friendly relations and at others assimilate them as the result of propinquity. During the periods when their political and military prowess declined, they could not escape for the time from the fate of' a conquered nation, but they could eventually vigorously reassert themselves. Thus the Mongol rule of China (1260-1333 CE), lasting nearly a hundred years was finally overthrown by Tai Tse of the Ming dynasty and his loyal follower. So in our own time was the Manchu yoke thrown off by the Chinese. Nationalistic ideas in China did not come from a foreign source; they were inherited from our remote forefathers. Upon this legacy is based my principle of nationalism, and where necessary, I have developed it and amplified and improved upon it. No vengeance has been inflicted on the Manchus and we have endeavored to live side by side with them on a n equal footing. This is our nationalistic policy toward races within our national boundaries. Externally, we should strive to maintain independence in the family of nations, and to spread our indigenous civilization as well as to enrich it by absorbing what is best in world civilization, with the hope that we may forge ahead with other nations towards the goal of ideal brotherhood. 2. Principle of Democracy In ancient China we had the Emperor Yao (2357-2258 BCE) and Emperor Shun (2258-2206 BCE) who departed from the hereditary system and chose their successors. We also had Tang and Wu who overthrew kingdoms by revolution. Preserved in our books are such sayings as :Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven hears as the people hear." "We have heard of a person named Zhou having been slain, we have not heard of a monarch having been murdered " "The people are most important, while the king is of the least importance." All these sayings ring with democratic sentiments. Since we have had only ideas about popular rights, and no democratic system has been evolved, we have to go to Europe and America for a republican form of government. There some countries have become republics and others have adopted constitutional monarchism, under which royal power has shrunk in the face of the rising demand for popular rights. Though hereditary monarchs have not yet disappeared, they are but vestiges and shadows of their former selves. All through my revolutionary career I have held the view that China must be made a republic. There are three reasons. First, from a theoretical point of view, there is no ground for preserving a monarchical form of government, since it is widely recognized that the people constitute the foundation of a nation and they are all equal in their own country. In the second place, under Manchu occupation the Chinese were forced into the position of the vanquished, and suffered oppression for more than two hundred and sixty years. While a constitutional monarchy may not arouse deep resentment in other countries and can maintain itself for the time being, it will be an impossibility in China. This is from a historical point of view. A third reason may be advanced with an eye on the future of the nation. That in China prolonged periods of disorder usually followed a revolution was due to the desire of every insurgent to be a king and to his subsequent contention for the throne. If a republican government is adopted, there will be no contention. For these three reasons, I have decided for the republican form of government in order to realize the principle of democracy. My second decision is that a constitution must be adopted to ensure good government. The true meaning of constitutionalism was discovered by Montesquieu. The threefold separation of the legislative, judicial, and executive powers as advocated by him was accepted in every constitutional country in Europe. On a tour of Europe and America I made a close study of their governments and laws and took note of their shortcomings as well as their advantages. The shortcomings of election, for instance, are not incurable. In the past China had two significant systems of examination and censoring and they can be of avail where the Western system of government and law falls short. I therefore advocate that the examinative and censorial powers should be placed on the same level with legislative, judicial and executive, thereby resulting in the five-fold separation of powers. On top of that, the system if the people's direct political powers should be adopted in order that the provision that the sovereign power is vested in the people may become a reality. In this way my principle of democracy may be carried out satisfactorily. 3. Principle of Livelihood. With the invention of modern machines, the phenomenon of uneven distribution of wealth in the West has become all the more marked. Intensified by crosscurrents, economic revolution was flaring up more ferociously than political revolution. This situation was scarcely noticed by our fellow- countrymen thirty years ago. On my tour of Europe and America, I saw with my own eyes the instability of their economic structure and the deep concern of their leaders in groping for a solution. I felt that, although the disparity of wealth under our economic organization is not so great as in the West, the difference is only in degree, not in character. The situation will become more acute when the West extends its economic influence to China. We must form plans beforehand in order to cope with the situation. After comparing various schools of economic thought, I have come to the realization that the principle of state ownership is most profound, reliable and practical. Moreover. it will forestall in China difficulties which have already caused much anxiety in the West. I have therefore decided to enforce the principle of the people's livelihood simultaneously with the principles of nationalism and democracy, with the hope to achieve our political objective and nip economic unrest in the bud. To sum up, my revolutionary principles in a nutshell consist in the Three Principles of the People and the Five Power Constitution. Those who have a clear knowledge of the general tendency of the world and the conditions in China will agree that my views are practical and must be put in practice. II Fundamentals of Revolution In the age of autocracy, the masses of the people were fettered in spirit and body so that emancipation seemed impossible Those who worked for the welfare of the people and were willing to sacrifice themselves for the success of revolution not only did not receive assistance from the people but were also ridiculed and disparaged. Much as they desired to be the guides of the people, they proceeded without followers. Much as they desired to be the vanguards, they advanced without reinforcement. It becomes necessary that., apart from destroying enemy influence, those engaged in revolution should take care to develop the constructive ability of the people. A revolutionary program is therefore indispensable. According to my plan, the progress of our revolution should be regulated and divided into three stages: First, military rule; second, political tutelage; third, constitutional government. The first stage is a period of destruction, during which military rule is installed. The revolutionary: army is to break doom (as it did) Manchu despotism, sweep away official corruptions, and reform vicious customs. The second stage is a transitional period, during which a provisional constitution (not the present. one) will be promulgated. Its object is to build a local self-government system for the development of democracy. The Hsien or district will be unit of self-government. When disbanded troops are disposed of and fighting ceases, every district should accept the provisional constitution, which will regulate the rights and duties of the people and the administrative powers of the revolutionary government. It will be in force for three years, at the end of which period the people will choose their district magistrates. Even before the expiration of the period, the people in a district may be empowered to choose their own magistrate and become a complete self-governing body on the following conditions: That the self-government bureau of the said district has already cleaned the district of its long-standing corruptions; that it has succeeded in getting more than half of its population to understand the Three Principles of the People and devote themselves to the republic; that. it has fulfilled the minimum requirements of the provisional constitution in regard to census-taking, residence registration, police, health, education and road-building. In reference to the self-government body, the revolutionary government may exercise the power of political tutelage only in accordance with the provisional constitution. Six years after the whole nation is restored to peace and order, each district which has attained complete self-government. may elect. one delegate, and these delegates will form the People's Congress to adopt the five-power constitution. The central government will have five yuan or boards. The five yuan. will be (1) The Executive Yuan, (2) The Legislative Yuan, (3) The Judicial Yuan, (4) The Examination Yuan, and (5) The Censor Yuan. Following the promulgation of the constitution, citizens of the various districts will elect the President by vote for the formation of the Executive Yuan, and elect representatives for the formation of the Legislative Yuan. The heads of the three other yuan will be appointed by the President with the consent of the Legislative Yuan, but they will not be responsible to the President and the Legislative Yuan. All the five yuan will be responsible to the People's Congress. Members of a yuan, in case of failure to discharge their duties, may be impeached before the People's Congress by the Censor Yuan. In case the members of the Censor Yuan fail in their duties, the Congress will directly impeach them and remove them. The duty of the Congress is solely to attend to the amendment of the constitution and the punishment of public servants. The qualification of the employees in the Congress and the five yuan as well as be high and junior officials of the whole nation will be determined by the Examination Yuan. Following the adoption of the five-power constitution and the election of the President and representatives, the revolutionary government will be turned over to the President elected by the people, whereupon the period of political tutelage will terminate. The third stage, which marks the completion of national reconstruction, will usher in constitutional government. During this period the self-governing bodies in the various districts should exercise the direct political powers of the people. In district political affairs citizens should have the rights of universal suffrage, initiative, referendum and recall. In national political affairs they should. while directly exercising the right of election, delegate the three other rights to their representatives in the People's Congress. This period of constitutional government marks the completion of national reconstruction and the successful conclusion of the revolution. If we can proceed according to the revolutionary fundamentals that have been briefly out-lined, not only can we clean the Augean stable of autocracy and carry out the rights of the people, but we can also strengthen and safeguard the constructive power of the people against the manipulations of politicians and the unscrupulousness of militarists. It becomes obvious that the principles of revolution must depend upon the fundamentals of revolution for a thorough realization. From University of Delawary Index of History Sun Yat-sen, Fundamentals of National Reconstruction , (Taipei: China Cultura; Service, 1953), pp. 76-83, as excerpted in Mark A. Kishlansky, Sources of World History , Vol. 2 (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 281-285 Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: Mao and Chiang Kai Shek: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek#/media/File:%E9%87%8D%E6%85%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AB%87_%E8%94%A3%E4%BB%8B%E7%9F%B3%E8%88%87%E6%AF%9B%E6%BE%A4%E6%9D%B1.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/communist-china/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:56.950569	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87957/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87959/overview	World War I on the Western Front Overview World War I Erupts On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand was shot dead in Sarajevo by Bosnian Serb, Gavrilo Princip. This event led to a diplomatic crisis and the outbreak of World War I. Franz Ferdinand was an Archduke of Austria-Hungary from 1896 until his death, as well as heir presumptive to the Austro-Hungarian throne. His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Serbia. This caused the Central Powers—including Germany and Austria-Hungary—and Serbia’s allies—Russia, and later England and France—to declare war on each other, starting World War I. Learning Objectives - Examine how the assassination of Franz Ferdinand caused the outbreak of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Archduke Franz Ferdinand: heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary whose assassination started World War I Austria-Hungary: multi-ethnic, multi-lingual state in central Europe comprising a territory that included present-day Austria, Hungary, Bosnia, parts of Romania, Poland, and the Balkans Serbia: small, independent country comprised of Slavic-speaking peoples Sarajevo: major city in present-day Bosnia famous as the site of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and his wife Black Hand: a clandestine, Serbian-based society that used terrorist tactics to achieve political goals; famous for its role in the assassination of Franz Ferdinand Gavrilo Princip: nineteen-year-old Serbian nationalist and member of the Black Hand who assassinated Franz Ferdinand and his wife July Ultimatum: Austria-Hungary’s list of demands placed on Serbia during July 1914 that was designed to humiliate Serbia in the name of preserving peace July Crisis: breaking of diplomatic ties between Austria-Hungary and Serbia Central Powers: one of the major combatant sides of World War I that included primarily Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire Allies: the major combatant side of World War I that initially was led by England, France, and Russia, which later changed to England, France, and the United States in 1918. Background Franz Ferdinand was born in Graz, Austria as the eldest son of Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria and his second wife, Princess Maria Annunciata of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. In 1875, when he was only 11 years old, his cousin Duke Francis V of Modena died, naming Franz Ferdinand his heir. Franz Ferdinand thus became one of the wealthiest men in Austria. In 1889, Franz Ferdinand’s life changed dramatically. His cousin Crown Prince Rudolf committed suicide at his hunting lodge in Mayerling. This left Franz Ferdinand’s father, Karl Ludwig, first in line to the throne. Ludwig then died of typhoid fever in 1896. The death of his father meant that Franz Ferdinand, grandson of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph, was now the direct heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. Emperor Franz Joseph was displeased by the fact that his brash grandson was now his immediate heir and successor. To him, Franz Ferdinand was an arrogant and indulged man who had spent his adulthood traveling, hunting large game, and pursuing women who were not of royal stock. One of his pursuits led Franz Ferdinand to fall in love with a lady-in-waiting, Sophie Chotek. Alleging that he was deeply in love, Franz Ferdinand refused to marry anyone else. He was only granted the right to marry the commoner when he agreed to certain stipulations that would limit Sophie’s rights as a duchess and erase royal privileges for their children. The relationship between Franz Ferdinand and his grandfather remained stormy. Still, despite his personal misgivings and dislike of his grandson, Emperor Franz Joseph conceded that he must train and treat his grandson as heir to the throne. In June 1914, he had Franz Ferdinand accept an invitation to inspect troops in Sarajevo. As a concession, the emperor allowed Sophie to travel with her husband. Little did the emperor suspect how radically that trip would shape the future of Europe. The Assassination of Franz Ferdinand On June 28, 1914, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie, arrived in Sarajevo. A large city located in the southern part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now present-day Bosnia), it offered a stark comparison to the mainly German city of Vienna. Sarajevo was a city comprised of Bosnians, Serbs, and other minorities. Many of the minorities wished to break free of the Germanic Austro-Hungarian crown and form independent states like their neighbor: the tiny Slavic country of Serbia. This sentiment was well-known by Emperor Franz Joseph who sought to strengthen the power and presence of the crown in the southern parts of his kingdom. As such, Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s visit was conducted largely as a show of power and presence. Little did the royals know that an underground, secret Serbian organization named the Black Hand was exhaustively planning the assassination of the heir to the throne. In Sarajevo, Franz Ferdinand and Sophie were welcomed by the governor and a motorcade. But not long after their welcome, a grenade hurled overhead, landing under the car behind their open carriage. A dozen men in the cars behind the archduke were injured. The rest of the motorcade arrived at city hall, shaken, but determined to carry-forth with the Archduke’s parade. Blood from the injured men remained on the Archduke’s uniform as he snapped at the city mayor, “Is this how you greet your guests?” What followed is, perhaps, among the strangest coincidences in modern history. Miscommunication among aides and drivers resulted in Franz Ferdinand’s chauffer, a stranger in Sarajevo, becoming lost in the city streets. He turned right at the Latin Bridge, onto Franz Joseph Street. Realizing his mistake, he stopped the car right outside of Schiller’s Delicatessen, which unintentionally stalled it. In a peculiar twist of events, Gavrilo Princip, a young Serb nationalist and assassination-conspirator of the Black Hand, was standing right out front of the deli. He ran to Franz Ferdinand’s stalled-out limousine and shot the archduke and his wife at point-blank range, killing them both. Before he could commit suicide, Princip was seized and taken into custody. The Black Hand’s attempt to assassinate the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne succeeded, albeit in the strangest of ways. But little did the clandestine group suspect that soon all of Europe would be engulfed in a “war to end all wars.” Choosing Sides: Europe Divided The murder of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire and his wife produced widespread shock across Europe, and there was initially much sympathy for the Austrian position. Within two days of the assassination, Austria-Hungary and Germany advised Serbia that it should open an investigation, but Secretary General to the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Slavko Gruic, replied “Nothing had been done so far and the matter did not concern the Serbian Government.” An angry exchange followed between the Austrian and Serbian governments. Behind the scenes, a special friendship and bond existed between Austria-Hungary and its stronger, more militaristic neighbor, Germany. Unofficially, Germany offered military and diplomatic advice to their Austrian cousins. And assured Austria that they would ally with them in the event a war erupted between Austria and Serbia. After conducting a criminal investigation, Austria-Hungary issued a formal letter to the government of Serbia. The letter contained specific demands aimed at preventing the publication of propaganda that advocated the violent destruction of Austria-Hungary, removing the people behind this propaganda from the Serbian Military, arresting the people on Serbian soil who were involved in the assassination plot, and preventing the clandestine shipment of arms and explosives from Serbia to Austria-Hungary. Serbia agreed to most of the demands but would not accept that clause that suggested the government was involved in the assassination plot of Franz Ferdinand. This letter became known as the July Ultimatum, and Austria-Hungary stated that if Serbia did not accept all of the demands in total within 48 hours it would recall its ambassador from Serbia. But much as Germany privately advised and built an alliance with Austria, Russia privately came to the aid of its smaller, Slavic nation, Serbia. And this Russian aid emboldened the Serbs. The situation quickly escalated from a small conflict in the Balkans, to a looming war that would pit Austria-Hungary and Germany against Serbia and Russia. After receiving private assurance of Russian military support, Serbia mobilized its army. Austria-Hungary responded to Serbian mobilization by breaking diplomatic relations. This diplomatic crisis is known as the July Crisis. By the end of July, Serbian reserve troops crossed onto the Austro-Hungarian side of the river at Temes-Kubin and Austro-Hungarian soldiers fired into the air to warn them off. The report of this incident was initially sketchy and reported to Emperor Franz-Joseph as “a considerable skirmish.” Austria-Hungary then declared war and mobilized the portion of its army that would face the already mobilized Serbian Army on July 28, 1914. This moment marked the start of World War I. Moreover, under the Secret Treaty of 1892 France was obliged to mobilize its army because its ally, Russia, had also mobilized. No longer an isolated conflict in the Balkans, a war erupted that pulled in most of Europe to its battlefields within days. With the crossing of German troops into initially neutral Belgium, England joined the war on the side of France, Russia, and Serbia. Thus, the two sides of the war became the Central Powers (predominately Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) and the Allies (Russia, Serbia, France, England, and in 1918, the United States). Because most of the combatant nations also had colonial territories around the world, troops from across the globe were sent to fight in Europe’s war over the next four-and- half-years. And European troops would discover themselves fighting a war in places as remote as German East Africa. Impact The assassination of Franz Ferdinand did not cause World War I. Indeed, the middle-aged heir to the throne was disliked by many of his own inner circle, and even his grandfather, Emperor Franz Joseph, reportedly did not mourn the loss as personal, so much as the symbolic loss for Austria. Many historians cite the turning of the twentieth century in Europe as a moment filled with tension. Tension between increasingly powerful European nations. The root causes of World War I were hyper-nationalism, hyper-militarism, colonial rivalries, the rivalry between England and Germany as the dominant European power, and the alliances between European nations. All of these played vital roles in creating a war-mongering climate in Europe. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand acted as a final blow in a long series of tensions between European nations. It marked the tipping point that caused war to finally erupt. Although few heads of state, or military leaders predicted a long war. Perhaps only British Foreign Secretary, Edward Grey, had the foresight to see what the European war would become in 1914 when he wrote, “The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.” The Western Front: England, France, and Germany: 1914-1917 The Western Front was a four-hundred-mile line of fortifications that stretched from the northern border of Belgium and the Netherlands to the northern border of Switzerland. This territory became the primary center of action for the Allies and Central Powers in World War I. The Western Front is often emphasized in studies of World War I because of the extensive combat between German troops and those of the French and British. Beginning in 1918, the United States also fought on the Western Front. It was the Western Front battles that turned the war’s tide in favor of the Allies in 1918. Learning Objectives - Evaluate how the Western Front became the primary center of combat in World War I. - Explore the development of “modern warfare” techniques, including trench warfare, and modern weapons. - Examine why some historians argue that “the war was won and lost on the Western Front.” Key Terms / Key Concepts Western Front: four hundred miles of trenches established by the Allies and Germany from the border of northern Belgium to northern Switzerland, predominately in France and Belgium Race to the Sea: the frantic building of trenches by the Allies and Germans in 1914 to Belgium’s coast First Battle of the Marne: decisive 1914 battle that resulted in the development of trench warfare trench warfare: stagnant form of warfare in which firepower exceeds mobile ability No Man’s Land: area between opposing enemy trenches, typically characterized as open field covered with barbed wire Schlieffen Plan: German offensive strategy in 1914 used to try and defeat France on the Western Front by first invading them from the north through neutral Belgium Battle of Verdun: major 1916 battle between the French and Germans on the Western Front Battle of the Somme: major 1916 battle between predominately the British and Germans on the Western Front War of Attrition: a form of combat in which the end goal is to wear down the enemy to the point of collapse through patience and the destruction of their men Stalemate: a battle in which there is no clear victor Total War: a form of warfare in which the international rules of warfare, particularly those applying to the treatment of civilians, POWs, and use of technology, are increasingly ignored in favor of “no rules” of warfare Meuse-Argonne Offensive: campaign led by the French and Americans in Fall 1918 against the Germans on the Western Front Alvin C. York: most decorated American soldier of World War I Poison Gas: typically chlorine, phosgene, or mustard gas that was used extensively on the Western Front as an irritant that would attack the skin, eyes, lungs, or some combination thereof Background In July 1914, most of Europe had chosen sides in World War I. Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and to a lesser extent, Bulgaria, comprised the Central Powers. The Allies consisted of England, France, Russia, and smaller states such as Serbia. Each European country also recruited colonial troops from Africa, India, and other parts of their empires to fight on the Western Front. Fatally, the mentality of each European nation was initial excitement and the expectation of a short war. Heads of state touted their military developments and the belief that they could “lick” the enemy within six months. None of the combatant nations had developed defensive strategies. On the contrary, each nation developed offensive plans. A dance of offensive and counter-offensive maneuvers ensued throughout Belgium and France. When it became clear that the war would not end in six months, both sides developed trench warfare, and they “dug in” for a long and costly war. The Schlieffen Plan The Schlieffen Plan was Germany’s offensive strategy for defeating France in August 1914. Germany’s military strategists planned to deploy troops using the modernized railways, and thought they would quickly defeat the Allies on the Western Front before turning their attention to helping Austria-Hungary defeat the Russians on the Eastern Front. This strategy was meant to ideally prevent Germany from fighting a two-front war: one in the east and one in the west. To achieve this, German troops would march through the northern half of neutral Belgium, then encircle French troops from the north. Thus, France would be defeated before England could come to their aid. Although a respectable plan on paper, it proved harder to successfully enact. Germany attacked their neighbor, Luxembourg, on August 2; on August 3 it declared war on France. On August 4, after Belgium refused to permit German troops to cross its borders into France, Germany declared war on Belgium as well. Britain declared war on Germany on the same day following an “unsatisfactory reply” to the British ultimatum that Belgium must be kept neutral. In the end, Germany failed to avoid a long, two-front war, but it had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and effectively halved France’s supply of coal. It had also killed or permanently crippled 230,000 more French and British troops than it itself had lost. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of a more decisive outcome. Early Battles Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium but were forced back with the First Battle of the Marne. First Battle of the Marne The German Army came within 43 miles of Paris; however, at the First Battle of the Marne (September 6 – 12) French and British troops were able to force a German retreat by exploiting a gap that appeared between the German 1st and 2nd Armies. This ended the German advance into France. The German Army retreated north of the Aisne River, establishing the beginnings of a static western front that would last for the next three years. Following this German retreat, the opposing forces made reciprocal outflanking maneuvers known as the Race for the Sea and quickly extended their trench systems from the Swiss frontier to the North Sea. The territory occupied by Germany held 64% of French pig-iron production, 24% of its steel manufacturing, and 40% of the coal industry, dealing a serious blow to French industry. Trench Warfare After the German march on Paris was halted at the First Battle of the Marne, both sides dug in along a meandering line of fortified trenches stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. The Western Front settled into a war of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. Trench warfare is a style of combat in which combatant nations have excellent firepower, but poor mobility. While trench warfare was not new in World War I, it quickly became associated with World War I because of its prolonged use by both Germany, and the Allies, on the Western Front. Both sides of the war would dig long networks of trenches that sometimes extended as deep as twelve-fifteen feet underground. Trenches were fortified (strengthened) by use of boards and sandbags. Both sides also employed the use of barbed wire rows in front of their trenches. In between the two sides was a massive, usually open field called No Man's Land that was extremely dangerous to cross because of mines, barbed wire, snipers, artillery, and machine gun fire. And yet for nearly four years, this form of combat was the definitive form of warfare on the Western Front. Attacks involved sending hundreds of men, sometimes thousands, charging across No Man’s Land to dislodge or defeat the enemy who was in the opposing trench system. This tactic frequently resulted in massive losses of life, such as half a million men in a month, as well as stalemated battles in which neither side had a clear victory. Throughout 1915 – 17, the British Empire and France suffered more casualties than Germany because of the strategic and tactical stances chosen by the sides; while the Germans only mounted one major offensive, the Allies made several attempts to break through the German lines. Daily Life inside a Trench In accounts of the trench warfare of World War I, the daily life of the men is over overshadowed by the sweeping battles of the Western Front. But one of the primary challenges of the war was combatting the daily struggles of living inside a trench. Indeed, many soldiers could not escape these horrors and succumbed to shell shock, which is a form of PTSD. On both sides of the war, soldiers were confronted with the challenges of fighting a war on a poor diet. Rations for the British were notoriously bad and became worse as the war waged on. Tinned beef and biscuits were the mainstay for most troops. At best, soldiers could hope to receive a package from home with something to supplement their diets. As a result of poor diet, combined with exhaustion, many troops also contracted diseases and experienced malnutrition. Harold Mayhall of the Durham Light Infantry, recalled with horror, his diet on the Western Front: Oh, that’s a sore point: rations were very poor. The rations when you went up in the trenches and you couldn’t get rations up! You’d try to brew tea and you couldn’t, it was always cold and probably the water was all tasted of petrol because it came up in petrol tins – which were never cleaned out properly – and the tea was half petrol and cold. The food, they were supposed to give you some bacon, well you were lucky if you got a piece of bacon it was all cold and greasy. I mean you couldn’t get any. If you were out of the line they’d cook some bacon and you could, they’d let you have – you’d get a piece of bread and dip it in, that was that, or you could have a tiny bit of bacon without dipping your bread in, that was all you got. And the cooks, probably if a man was a chartered accountant they’d make him a cook or something like that because it was always square pegs in round holes, you know. They couldn’t cook; we used to say they couldn’t boil water without spoiling it or something. The food was terrible. In addition to poor diet, soldiers had to deal with pests. Their presence ranged from annoyances, such as snakes and spiders, to outright dangerous. For instance, lice and fleas infested soldiers; one American soldier reported that the average soldier had a quart of lice on his person. And typhus, a disease carried by lice, ravaged soldiers on all fronts in World War I. But the most dangerous, and famous, of the pests to plague soldiers were the notorious trench rats. They not only carried fleas and lice that would infect the soldiers; they also carried diseases, and did not hesitate to chew on anything inside the trench, including a human face. James Harvey, an English soldier, gave an account of this issue: Rats were common, very common, you didn’t dare leave a bit of food about or else there’d be swarms of rats round you. And all the time you didn’t attack them, they didn’t attack you. But on one occasion where we got a bayonet and stuck one; needless to say we got out of that place quick! There were thousands of rats, must’ve been thousands, the number I couldn’t count them – didn’t stop to count ’em! Didn’t matter what part of the line you was in, you’d got these rats. One of our men who was asleep, and had his forehead all bitten by them. Oh yes, he had to go into hospital special for it. Given the poor living conditions, continual presence of disease, and the looming threat of death, it is unsurprising that many soldiers suffered from shell shock. But many more suffered from wounds, injury, and mysterious fevers, as they fought to stay alive another day on the Western Front. "We Shall Bleed France White": The Battle of Verdun In February 1916 the Germans attacked the French defensive positions near the symbolic and ancient French village of Verdun. The attack’s goal was simple in the eyes of the German commander, Erich von Falkenhayn. “We shall bleed France white.” In short, the goal was to kill or critically wound as many French soldiers as possible, thereby forcing France to surrender. After their surrender, the Germans could sue the British for peace. Although the Battle of Verdun became the longest, and one of the costliest battles of World War I in terms of human life, the Germans came very close to achieving this goal. Lasting for ten months (until December 1916), the battle saw initial German gains before French counterattacks returned them near their starting point. Casualties were greater for the French, but the Germans bled heavily as well. Between the two sides, the Battle of Verdun inflicted nearly one million casualties in ten months. Verdun became a symbol of French determination and self-sacrifice. The outcome of the battle was a stalemate. Critically though, the Battle of Verdun (and also the Battle of the Somme) helped alter the mentality of the war. Having suffered such intense, high casualties, both sides of the war increasingly disregarded the rules of warfare prescribed under international law. The two major battles would transform World War I from a war theoretically governed by agreed-upon rules of war, into a total war 1917. Relieving Pressure: The Battle of the Somme News of the horrible French casualties at Verdun prompted the British to launch an attack against the Germans to try and relieve pressure on their French allies. After months of planning, the British began their attack in June 1916. From June 24 – June 30, 1916, the British bombarded the German trenches and defensive position near the Somme River in northeastern France. British artillery and aerial bombardment hammered No Man’s Land with the goal of destroying barbed wire and obliterating the German trench network. Convinced that the week-long bombardment had been largely successful, the British then strategized an attack that would charge over No Man’s Land and defeat the surviving German troops in their trenches. The decision proved one of the most underestimated and costliest mistakes of World War I. For although the bombardment had looked successful, the barbed wire had become badly mangled in No Man’s Land, rather than destroyed. Twisted and bent into virtual soldier traps, the barbed wire formed a nearly impassable network of obstacles. Worse for the British, they had underestimated German engineering. During the weeklong bombardment, the Germans had simply gone deep into their trenches, some twelve to fifteen feet underground. The result was that most of the German army had survived the British bombardment, unbeknownst to their enemy. When the British infantry attacked, the Germans were ready and waiting. The British, unaware of the follies of their bombardment, launched an infantry attack on the German defensive position early in the morning of July 1, 1916. Quickly, troops were ensnared in the endless barbed wire rows. As they worked to free themselves, the German machine gunners opened fire. In a matter of a few hours, No Man’s Land was transformed into a slaughterhouse. In one day alone, the British suffered 57,470 casualties with 19,240 dead; including many officers. A young lieutenant in the British army named John Ronald Reuel Tolkien experienced the Battle of the Somme firsthand. He wrote of how at night; he would go with medics to help retrieve bodies from the battlefield. Horrified, he recalled seeing the mangled bodies of comrades who seemingly peered up him through the mud with shocked and ghostly expressions. Decades later, his memories inspired the eerie “Dead Marshes” in his famous book The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers. The scene depicts heroes Frodo and Sam traversing a swamp with their guide, Gollum, while ghoulish corpses leeringly peered and reached up through the mud and water toward the travelers. The successive weeks and months proved horrible for both sides. Infantry attacks, artillery bombardments, horrific weather, and failed charges resulted in massive casualties. The entire Somme offensive cost the British Army some 420,000 casualties. Their French allies suffered another estimated 200,000. The Germans suffered an estimated 500,000. In only five months, Europe had suffered over one million casualties (mostly young men) in a single battle. World War I was indeed, tearing Europe apart. New Weaponry Both sides tried to break the trench stalemate using scientific and technological advances. Machine guns, tanks, airplanes such as the biplane and triplane, Zeppelins, grenades, artillery, and personal weapons were employed on the Western Front. The Use of Poison Gasses on the Western Front The French Army was the first to use gas on the battlefield. They deployed tear gas, a skill and eye irritant, against the invading German Army in August 1914. Very quickly, the idea of using gas as a weapon took hold. An English war poet, second lieutenant Wilfred Owen wrote several poems depicting the horrors of battle on the Western Front. One of his most famous, “Dulce et decorum est” is an ironic title, which translated as “It is sweet and fitting to die for ones country.” Among the most poignant points expressed in the poem is the horrific experience of a poison gas attack: “Gas! GAS! Quick Boy—an ecstasy of fumbling Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time, But someone was still yelling out and stumbling And flound’ring like a man in fire or lime.— Dim through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.” Perhaps more than any other form of technological warfare, poison gas became the iconic weapon employed on the Western Front. As well as the most feared. Although banned by international law, both the Germans and the Allies would use various poison gases, including tear, chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas, which was the most-deadly. Some of the gasses simply irritated exposed skin and eyes; others attacked mucus membranes. The most-feared, mustard gas, attacked both skin and the lungs. Importantly, mustard gas also lingered in low lying areas of the battlefield for several days after it was deployed and was difficult to see. This combination made it particularly dangerous for advancing troops. On April 22, 1915, at the Second Battle of Ypres, the Germans used chlorine gas for the first time on the Western Front. After a two-day bombardment, the Germans released a cloud of 171 tons of chlorine gas onto the battlefield. Though primarily a powerful irritant, it can asphyxiate in high concentrations or prolonged exposure. The gas crept across no man’s land and drifted into the French trenches. The green-yellow cloud killed some defenders and those in the rear fled in panic, creating an undefended 3.7 mile gap in the Allied line. The Germans were unprepared for the level of their success and lacked sufficient reserves to exploit the opening; this resulted in Canadian troops on the right drawing back their left flank and repelling the German advance. The success of this chlorine gas attack would not be repeated, as the Allies countered by introducing gas masks and other countermeasures. The British retaliated, developing their own chlorine gas and using it at the Battle of Loos in September 1915. Fickle winds and inexperience led to more British casualties from the gas than German fatalities. French, British, and German forces all escalated the use of gas attacks throughout the rest of the war. Tanks and Airplanes Tanks were developed by Britain and France, and they were first used in combat by the British during the Battle of Flers–Courcelette (part of the Battle of the Somme) on September 15, 1916, but only with partial success. Unlike later counterparts used in World War II, the tanks of World War I were clumsy, enormous, and difficult to maneuver effectively. However, their effectiveness would grow as the war progressed; the Allies built tanks in large numbers, whilst the Germans employed only a few of their own design supplemented by captured Allied tanks. For the first time in human history, a major conflict was fought in the air. And far more romantic than the war on land was the war in the air. The Germans employed the use of Zeppelins—rigid airships—that could silently fly over major targets such as London and drop bombs on the city under the cover of darkness. All sides of the war employed the use of airplanes. Famously, the English developed the olive-green Sopwith Camel biplane for use on the Western Front in 1917. Far more famous though was the German DR.1 Fokker triplane piloted by aerial ace, Baron Manfred von Richthofen. The highest-scoring ace of World War I, the “Red Baron” has been immortalized as the rival pilot of Charles M. Schultz’s comic strip beagle Snoopy. Biplanes and triplanes became a common feature, and often a welcome sight, for troops on the Western Front. As the war evolved into a total war in 1917, fighting increased in severity and scope. For the final two years of the war, planes were regularly employed with mixed success. The Western Front: America enters the War:1917-1918 Background The role of the United States in World War I is constantly being evaluated by historians. On the one hand, as a neutral nation from 1914 until 1917 it provided aid in the form of material goods and food stuffs to both the Allies and Germany. It also acted as the main monitor of prisoner of war camps from 1914 until 1917 for both the Allies and Germany because according to the rules of international warfare established by the Hague Convention of 1907, neutral nations must monitor POWs and POW camps. Yet, the United States was far from entirely neutral even before its official entry into the war. President Woodrow Wilson, a confirmed Anglophile, privately sided and supported England’s cause in the war. However, he knew that the American public did not necessarily share his support. In fact, many Americans were German American and resisted the idea of fighting against Germany. Still, more Americans were outraged that England had the audacity to seize American naval vessels at sea and strip them of cargo bound for Germany or Austria-Hungary. But as tension on the high seas mounted between Germany and England, hostility toward Germany increased within the United States. American and the RMS Lusitania At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the United States pursued a policy of non-intervention, avoiding conflict while trying to broker a peace. Things started to change with the development of the British blockade of Germany, and Germany’s policy of unrestricted submarine warfare. Although the Germans had put notices in many famous American newspapers warning Americans not to sail on any British ship, Americans did not heed the warning. When the German U-boat U-20 sank the British liner RMS Lusitania on May 7, 1915, 128 Americans were killed. In response, President Woodrow Wilson insisted that “America is too proud to fight” but demanded an end to attacks on passenger ships. Germany complied, and Wilson unsuccessfully tried to mediate a settlement. Wilson was re-elected in 1916 under the banner, “He kept us out of the war.” The Zimmermann Telegram In January 1917, Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, realizing it would mean American entry. The German Foreign Minister, in the Zimmermann Telegram, invited Mexico to join the war as Germany’s ally against the United States. In return, the Germans would finance Mexico’s war and help it recover the territories of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The United Kingdom intercepted the message and presented it to the U.S. embassy in the UK. From there it made its way to President Wilson, who released it to the public. Wilson asked Congress for “a war to end all wars” that would “make the world safe for democracy” and eliminate militarism from the globe. He argued that the war was important and that the U.S. thus must have a voice in the peace conference. After the sinking of seven U.S. merchant ships by German submarines and the publication of the Zimmermann telegram, Wilson called for war on Germany, which the U.S. Congress declared on April 6, 1917. The American Expeditionary Force (AEF) The United States initially had a small army, but after the passage of the Selective Service Act 2.8 million men were drafted. By summer 1918 America was sending 10,000 fresh soldiers to France every day. The British and French wanted American units to reinforce their troops already on the battle lines and not waste scarce shipping on supplies. General John J. “Blackjack” Pershing, American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) commander, refused to break up American units to be used as filler material. As an exception, he did allow African-American combat regiments to be used in French divisions. The Harlem Hell Fighters fought as part of the French 16th Division and earned a unit Croix de Guerre for their actions at the Battles of Château-Thierry, Belleau Wood, and Sechault. AEF doctrine called for the use of frontal assaults, which had long since been discarded by British Empire and French commanders due to the large loss of life that resulted. Final Battles of WWI The Hundred Days Offensive—the Allies’ series of decisive victories on the Western Front—began on August 8, 1918 with the Battle of Amiens. The battle involved over 400 tanks and 120,000 British, Dominion, and French troops. After an advance as far as 14 miles, German resistance stiffened, and the battle was concluded on August 12. In nearly four weeks of fighting that began on August 8, over 100,000 German prisoners were taken. The German High Command realized that the war was lost and made attempts to reach a satisfactory end. The day after that battle, Ludendorff said: “We cannot win the war anymore, but we must not lose it either.” The final assault on the Hindenburg Line began with the Meuse-Argonne Offensive, launched by French and American troops on September 27. This offensive attack would prove a turning point, as it resulted in the devastation of German morale. On October 8, 1918, a gangly, red-haired man from Pall Mall, Tennessee became the most decorated American soldier of the war during one event of the Meuse-Argonne Campaign. Corporal (later Sergeant) Alvin C. York, who had initially been a conscientious objector—someone who does not believe fighting in a war is right, led his unit up a hill north of the Chatel-Chéhéry village in northern France. Ordered to assault and capture the position, York and thirteen of his men charged the hill. Using a technique he learned hunting turkeys in Tennessee, York attacked the German soldier at the rear of the advancing line, before attacking the ones at the front. At the end of the day, he had captured 132 German soldiers and destroyed twenty-five machine gun nests. When York returned to camp that night with his columns of German prisoners, his superior officer remarked, “Well York, I see you captured the whole damned German Army.” Modestly, York replied, “No Sir, I’ve caught 132.” York’s actions earned him the Medal of Honor, the French Medal of Honor, and numerous other awards. With the military faltering and widespread loss of confidence in the Kaiser, Germany moved towards surrender. Prince Maximilian of Baden took charge of a new German government to negotiate with the Allies. Maximilian immediately began negotiations with President Wilson in the hope that he would offer better terms than the British and French. On November 9, 1918, Germany was declared a republic. The Kaiser, kings, and other hereditary rulers were removed from power and Wilhelm fled to exile in the Netherlands. The new Germany, known as the Weimar Republic, would emerge as a democratic state fraught with social and political challenges and turmoil. Soon after the Weimar Republic was enacted, the Germans signed the Armistice of Compiègne, which ended the fighting on the Western Front. It went into effect at 11 a.m. Paris time on November 11, 1918 (“the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month”); this marked a victory for the Allies and a complete defeat for Germany, although not formally a surrender. Although the armistice ended the actual fighting, it took six months of negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty: the Treaty of Versailles. Legacy The Western Front proved the decisive front in the outcome of World War I. Some historians claim “the war was won and lost on the Western Front.” However, the Western Front must not overshadow the scope, scale, and losses endured around the world as World War I raged. Many historians argue that Germany could have potentially won the war had the German Army not been scattered across various parts of the world and instead had been solely focused on the Western Front. On the other hand, some historians argue that Germany was doomed to defeat from the moment it went to war because it lacked the industrial, agricultural, and human resources to be successful. The legacies of Germany’s loss in World War I were felt immediately as the new Weimar Republic struggled to stay afloat. Hyperinflation, violence, and political instability rocked the new country. Meanwhile, England, France, and Belgium struggled to repair and compensate for their countries’ unbearable losses (financial, physical, and human). Only the United States would emerge financially triumphant after World War I. And that triumph would come crashing to a complete collapse in 1929 with the arrival of the Great Depression. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Owen, Wilfred. "Dulce et Decorum Est." Poetry Foundation. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/46560/dulce-et-decorum-est Boundless World History "Events of World War I" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/events-of-world-war-i/ "The Coming of War" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-coming-of-war/ "The End of World War I" https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-end-of-world-war-i/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.024119	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87959/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87960/overview	Death Knell on the Eastern Front Overview World War I on the Eastern Front: 1914-1916 World War I is today best remembered most for the campaigns and battles waged in France and Belgium on the Western Front. However, the Eastern Front proved as essential to winning the war as the Western Front. The Eastern Front was a more fluid line of combat in present-day Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. It pitted some of the most powerful nations against one another. Fighting on the side of the Central Powers were Austria-Hungary and Germany. For the Allies, the Russian Empire led the charge. Unfortunately for Russia, the charge would prove futile, and the largest land-based empire in the world would be brought to its knees. Learning Objectives - Examine how battles and events on the Eastern Front contributed to the collapse of the Russian Empire. - Evaluate why the German and Austro-Hungarian Armies proved more successful than the Russian Army on the Eastern Front. - Examine the legacies of Russia’s losses and defeat in World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Eastern Front: mobile combat zone that occupied much of present-day Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic countries between 1914 and 1918 Battle of Tannenberg: major German victory on the Eastern Front in August 1914 Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff: officers of the German High Command during World War I on the Eastern Front The Brusilov Offensive: the last significant Russian victory on the Eastern Front, occurring in 1916 Tsar Nicholas II: last tsar of Russia who took personal charge of the Russian army in 1916 to disastrous effect Background: A War Between Cousins Nicky and Willy It is difficult to imagine that World War I was a war fought between heads of state who were also cousins. Two of the most powerful heads of state during World War I were Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany and Tsar Nicholas II of Russia; they were close cousins who had attended family events together, sailed, hiked, and even dressed in one another’s dress uniforms for photographs. However, when news of Franz Ferdinand’s assassination erupted, Germany and Russia found themselves pressured to join a larger war among European nations and the two cousins became enemies. In late July 1914, the Tsar and the Kaiser sent one another a series of telegrams in which they addressed each other as “Nicky” and “Willy” and attempted to avert a war between their nations. Each appealed to the other to halt the mobilization of their respective armies. Within days, though, their respective governments had overpowered the voices of their monarchs. Ever easily manipulated, Nicholas succumbed to the pressure to mobilize Russia’s army on behalf of their small ally, Serbia. And on August 1, 1914, Germany declared war on Russia. Early Days of the War in the East Background When Germany declared war on Russia, two main concerns erupted for them. Firstly, Germany recognized it would have to serve on a two-front, European war (a fact to be repeated in World War II). It would engage in combat against the French and British along the Western Front and Russia along the Eastern Front. Secondly, most of Europe regarded Russia as a country with innumerable resources, particularly in manpower. For this reason, Germany employed the Schlieffen Plan in Western Europe with the goal of knocking France out of the war before England could fully deploy its strength. Then Germany could turn its full strength toward defeating Russia. For its part, Russia sought to regain territory that had once belonged to it. In particular, they sought to reclaim parts of Eastern Prussia in Northern Germany. Fatally, the Russians incorrectly believed that German forces proved less of a threat to them than those of Austria-Hungary. Therefore, they deployed enormously insufficient troops to assault the German forces near Northern Prussia. Most of their troops were, instead, sent further south to fight against the Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia—a territory in the present-day areas of eastern Poland and western Ukraine. Unlike the Western Front, which was iconic for its use of trench warfare, the Eastern Front was largely a war of mobility. This involved troops attacking one other’s borders and territory by launching large supply chains and armies. Logistics and Russia’s dramatic lack of resources account for the different style of warfare. While strong in its human resources, Russia remained a century behind the rest of Europe in terms of its technological and military developments. Because of the Schlieffen Plan, Germany was initially under-defended on their eastern borders. As a result, Russia experienced early, small success with their attacks. But by the third week of August, things would shift to favor Germany. The Battle of Tannenberg In late August 1914, the German High Command sent two officers, Paul von Hindenberg and Erich Ludendorff, to take command of their forces in East Prussia. They quickly earned a reputation as the “brains” of the German Army that extended through the rest of the war. Making use of the superior German artillery and the element of surprise, the German army encircled the Russians at the Battle of Tannenberg (present-day northeast Poland). Caught entirely by surprise, the battle resulted in the destruction of multiple Russian units with nearly 200,000 Russian casualties in less than a week. In comparison, the Germans lost only 12,000 men. The disparity in the battle casualties between Russia and Germany remained enormous for the next three years. Adding insult to the enormous injury that the Russian army sustained at Tannenberg, the Austro-Hungarian army had achieved a strong victory against the Russians further south at the Battle of Lemberg (Lviv) in present-day Ukraine. By the end of August, the Central Powers had kicked Russia out of East Prussia and pushed the Eastern Front toward Russian territory. The fall of 1914 marked an ominous beginning for the Russian war effort and set in motion events that would bring down the mighty Russian empire. The Great Russian Retreat: 1915 In the spring of 1915, the better organized and equipped German Army came to the aid of the struggling Austro-Hungarian Army. Their arrival marked the beginning of the end for the Russian Army, despite the fact it would take more than three years before the Treaty of Brest Litovsk was signed, officially ending Russia’s involvement in the war. From May to September 1915, the German and Austro-Hungarian Armies repeatedly attacked and advanced against the Russian Army. Suffering from disorganization and severe lack of supplies the Russians suffered enormous casualties, with Russian prisoners of war numbering in the hundreds of thousands. In August, the Germans captured the city of Warsaw—a city that had been under Russian control for a hundred years. By September, the Russian Army was pushed entirely out of Galicia (present-day Poland and Ukraine) and forced to retreat toward Russia. In their retreat, Russia lost access to grain-growing regions; villagers in the region succumbed to starvation and disease as the German Army occupied the lands. Worse news was yet to come for Russia. In September 1915, Tsar Nicholas II dismissed his senior military chiefs to lead and oversee the Russian Army himself from his headquarters at Stavka. This was a choice undertaken by Nicholas to inspire Russian troops to continue fighting. Moreover, it suited Nicholas’ personal fascination with the military. However, the tsar entirely lacked knowledge in military matters, and his decision to lead the army proved disastrous. Russia Fights Back: The Brusilov Offensive In June 1916, Russia found its most successful general of World War I: Alexei Brusilov. A seasoned war commander, he led the attack against the Austro-Hungarian Army. In June 1916, the Russians launched the Brusilov Offensive--a short artillery bombardment on the enemy positions. Brusilov’s units then launched a coordinated offensive attack up and down the Eastern Front. The Russians achieved initial victories from Lutsk to Czernowitz (present-day Ukraine). Despite their initial successes, the Russians sustained enormous casualties by the end of July 1916, when German forces were sent to bolster the Austro-Hungarian Army. By the end of the campaign, the Russian Army had lost nearly half a million men. Moreover, vast shortages of army supplies continued to plague the Russian Army. Many soldiers were under-equipped. Accounts reported that many Russian soldiers had to wait for a comrade to die before they could find a rifle. In comparison to the Central Powers, particularly the German Army, Russia remained critically under-prepared to fight in a modern war. World War I on the Eastern Front: Russia in Tumult Learning Objectives - Examine how battles and events on the Eastern Front contributed to the collapse of the Russian Empire. - Evaluate why the German and Austro-Hungarian Armies proved more successful than the Russian Army on the Eastern Front. - Examine the legacies of Russia’s losses and defeat in World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Tsarina Alexandra: German-born wife of Tsar Nicholas II who was enormously unpopular in Russia Grigory Efimovich, “Rasputin”: a Russian “monk” and “holy man” from Siberia whose seemingly “mystical, healing powers” won over the support of the Russian royal family February Revolution: first of two revolutions waged in Russia in 1917 Provisional Government: the poorly constructed, democratic governing body in Russia created after the abdication of the tsar, headed by Alexander Kerensky Alexander Kerensky: democratic leader of the Russian provisional government Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: peace treaty signed in early 1918 between Russia and the Central Powers that marked the end of Russian involvement in World War I Background Nicholas and Alexandra. Their story is far more compelling than any Hollywood film. A true love match formed against the desires of Nicholas’ parents, the tsar and tsarina remained unshakingly devoted to one another for their entire married lives. Their wealth far exceeded comprehension. But it is best exemplified by the gift Nicholas bestowed upon his niece at her wedding—a bag of diamonds ranging from one to seven carats in size. At its height, Nicholas’ empire included one-sixth of the world. And his union with Alexandra yielded five hauntingly beautiful children—four daughters and a son. But it was their family life, and Nicholas’ determination to rule as an eighteenth-century autocrat in a twentieth century world, that would bring about the collapse of the Russian Empire and ultimately lead to their brutal execution. At age twenty-six, Nicholas was crowned tsar. Even in his naivety, the tsar knew he had inherited the role too young. His large and powerful father, Tsar Alexander III, had died prematurely, and left his heir with only one guiding principle: rule with an iron-fist. For short-statured, easily-manipulated “Nicky,” this order proved impossible to carry-out well. And he lacked the sense or foresight to adjust his administration to meet the modern needs of the Russian people. Moreover, his wife was immediately disliked for being born a shy and exceedingly private “German” princess. One that was observed to have “come into Russia behind a coffin,” for Tsarina Alexandra had wed Nicholas just before his father’s death. In private, Nicholas and Alexandra carried a terrible secret. Their only son, Alexei, suffered from hemophilia—a genetic disease that affects the blood’s ability to clot. And while the royal couple had four beautiful daughters—Olga, Tatiana, Maria, and Anastasia, they could not, by Russian law, inherit the throne. Therefore, Alexei’s precarious health remained at the center of the family’s activity and actions. Any bump or bruise could result in immense, internal swelling and excruciating pain for the young heir. Indeed, Alexei suffered many such incidents that resulted in his temporarily being crippled, and two that nearly claimed his life. And yet, Nicholas and Alexandra never publicly revealed the tsarevich’s (crown prince’s) illness. As any parent might, they turned to unconventional methods of controlling Alexei’s disease when modern doctors and medicine failed. For Alexandra in particular, the solution arrived in the form of a “holy man” from Siberia who could seemingly slow her son’s bleeding through a type of hypnosis. It is, perhaps, no surprise that the Russian people wondered at the royal family’s endorsement of this man Grigory Efimovich, or “Rasputin,” who, to everyone but Nicholas and Alexandra, was a lewd, womanizing, and physically dirty “mad monk from Siberia.” Tsarina in Charge During WWI, with the tsar at his military headquarters near the front, Tsarina Alexandra was responsible for overseeing the daily functions of Russia. Inside their palace, however, Alexandra remained reclusive and wrapped entirely around the health of her frail son. And, following Alexei’s nearly fatal hemorrhage, Alexandra relied increasingly on the mystical words of the “holy man” Rasputin. Rasputin Historians still debate who “Rasputin” really was. A self-trained “holy man” from Siberia, he was born Grigory Efimovich. People around him noted his uncanny, piercing eyes and hypnotic voice. But outside of these intriguing qualities, the man who would later be dubbed “Rasputin” (“dissolute” in Russian) by the Russian people, was a serial womanizer, famous for his modest and often filthy appearance. His other vice was Russian vodka, which he often enjoyed in the company of women. And yet he cast a powerful spell over the royal family, particularly Alexandra, for his ability to soothe Tsarevich Alexei during one of the boy’s hemorrhages. Moreover, Rasputin was exceptionally shrewd and knew how to behave around the tsar and tsarina. Undoubtedly power-hungry and comfortable in the tsar’s palace, he was cautious and humble, and maintained the illusion he was a devout servant of God. Undoubtedly this was essential to winning the support of the extremely religious tsar and tsarina. The Romanov Royal Family with Rasputin. Row one (seated): Grand Duchess Marie, Grand Duchess Tatiana, Olga Alexandrovna (tsar’s younger sister). Row two: Grand Duchess Anastasia, Tsarevich Alexei, Rasputin, Tsarina Alexandra. Grand Duchess Olga stands in the background. Circa 1910-1911 inside the tsarina’s room at the Alexander Palace, Saint Petersburg. For the Russian people, though, it appeared as if the royal family was tied closely to a man nearer to the Devil than God. And indeed, Rasputin became Alexandra’s right-hand man during the tsar’s absence in World War I. It was a recipe ripe for disaster. Russian poster produced of Rasputin controlling the tsar and tsarina. Note that Nicholas and Alexandra are depicted as small and malleable as Rasputin looms over them. For her entire tenure as tsarina of Russia, Alexandra had connected very little with the needs and wants of the Russian people. She remained consumed by concerns for her son, and enjoyed only the company of her husband, children, and a select number of acquaintances. Shy and unfamiliar with Russia, she was intensely disliked, particularly when World War I erupted and the people called her, “The German spy.” Alexandra chose to ignore the popular comments about her but remained convinced she could little trust the advisors and ministers around her. In the tsar’s absence, she increasingly relied on the one outside voice she believed she could trust—Rasputin’s. His advice to her became increasingly self-serving and ultimately horrendous for the Russian war effort. His presence in the royal court revolted both peasant and noble alike. From outside the palace walls, everyone, even members of the tsar’s extended family, could see their time running out. For while the royal family lived in nearly incomprehensible luxury, the rest of Russia was starving, riddled with cold and disease, and lacking fuel. In a desperate bid to save the autocracy and the Romanov family, two young nobles, Prince Dmitri and Felix Yusupov, decided to take matters into their own hands. Under a clever pretense, they invited Rasputin to supper—one that they fully intended should be the mad monk’s last. On December 30, 1916, they served their guest a luxurious dinner, complete with poisoned tea and cakes. But the poison seemed to affect Rasputin very little. In an attempt to finally kill Rasputin, Yusupov shot him several times outside the house. Amazingly though, Rasputin was still alive. The nobles then beat him with iron chains and threw his body into the frozen Neva River. Several days later, an autopsy confirmed that Rasputin had died from drowning. Photo of Rasputin’s corpse after he was found in the Neva River, Jan. 1917. The February Revolution By 1917, it was evident to even the humblest peasant that the war was not going well for Russia. Hundreds of thousands of families across the country had lost family members in the war. Daily life became a brutal struggle, particularly for the people in the cities, as the war exacted higher and higher human and resource costs. Living conditions plummeted for all but the wealthiest members of society. In February 1917, riots erupted across the capital city of Saint Petersburg over food and fuel shortages. Rioters demanded bread, grain, and coal. With the tsar at the front, responsibility for quelling the riots fell to the tsarina. But Alexandra remained huddled inside her palace with her children. Soldiers and guards sent to end the riots instead, joined on the side of the rioting peasants. This left the royal family with only a handful of guards ensuring their safety. Their capital city in shambles, a group of political leaders from various parties formed a Provisional Government to govern the city, and soon Russia as a whole. Among other demands, they called for the unconditional abdication of the tsar—who had failed both the people and his army. On March 15, 1917, three hundred years of Romanov rule ended inside a train car with the stroke of a pen when Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on behalf of himself and his ill son, Alexei. Nicholas then returned home, entirely defeated. The Provisional Government, headed by Alexander Kerensky, set to work establishing order in Saint Petersburg and transferring power to the Russian parliament. Their goal was to establish a democratically elected government and constitution similar to England’s. It was not to be. For a massive, multi-ethnic, country governed by an autocratic government cannot be transformed into a democratic society overnight. Eager to win the respect and support of British and French Allies, the Provisional Government remained committed to fighting in the war. But the decision proved fatal for them. Frustrated by a war they little understood, the people were exhausted by the hardships that came with it. And they felt the new government did not understand their concerns. Alexander Kerensky, head of the Russian Provisional Government. Kerensky (in foreground) was an intellectual man who had served in the Russian Duma (Parliament), and who was sought to restructure the Russian Government in the style of England—a democracy with a parliament which held the power, a constitution with rights, and a figurehead monarch. Before he could successfully enact these measures, however, Vladimir Lenin overthrew the Provisional Government and Kerensky was forced to flee for his life. Then in April, a man emerged from the shadows of a train station who assured the Russian people their time was at hand; that man was Vladimir Lenin. He would not only lead the people in the largest communist revolution of the early twentieth century, but also negotiate an end to Russia’s part in World War I through the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk in 1918. From there, Lenin would go on to establish the largest communist union in the world: the Soviet Union. Russian victories against the German and Austro-Hungarian Armies were limited on the Eastern Front. The fear of a “Russian steamroller” proved unfounded due to lack of transportation, deficient military resources, outdated military equipment, and general disorganization at home and at the front. Troops were captured by the hundreds of thousands. Thousands more were killed, wounded, or deserted as the Russian war effort collapsed. And yet, it is perhaps because of Russia’s participation in the war that the Allies ultimately won World War I. Had the Germans only fought against the British and French on the Western Front, they would have had significantly larger resources to wage their Western campaign. It is quite possible, too, that they would have been supported by the Austro-Hungarian Army. Regardless, the Germans defeated the Russians on the Eastern Front. And, under the new communist government installed by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks during the October Revolution of 1917, Russia signed the peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk in the spring of 1918. The peace treaty forced Russia’s unconditional surrender and ceded many of their lands over to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Both sides exhausted, Russians returned from the war to rebuild their country from the inside out, while German units were sent to the Western Front to fight in the final months of World War I against the British, French, and newly arrived Americans. Primary Source: "Kerensky Pleads for the Help of the Allies" (Nov. 3, 1917) The New York Times (3 November 1917) Kerensky Pleads for Help of the Allies Insists Russia has No Thought of Quitting War, but is Worn Out Economically PETROGRAD, Thursday, Nov. 1 (via London, Nov. 2)—In view of the reports reaching Petrograd that the impression was spreading abroad that Russia was virtually out of the war, Premier Kerensky discussed the present condition of the country frankly today with the Associated Press. He said that Russia was worn out by long strain, but that it was ridiculous to say Russia was out of the war. The Premier referred to the years in which Russia had fought her campaigns alone, with no such assistance as has been extended to France by Great Britain and now, by America. He said he felt that help was needed urgently, and that Russia asked it as her right. The Premier urged that the United States give aid, in the form of money and supplies, and appealed to the world not to lose faith in the Russian revolution. Russia, M. Kerensky added, was taking an enormous part in the struggle, and those who said she was out of it must have short memories. Says Russia Saved Allies “Russia has fought consistently since the beginning,” he said. “She saved France and England from disaster early in the war. She is worn out from the strain, and claims as her right that the Allies now shoulder the burden.” The correspondent called attention to widely contradictory reports on Russian conditions, and asked the Premier for a frank statement of the facts. “It has been said by travelers returning from England and from elsewhere to America, the opinion among the people, not officially but generally, is that Russia is virtually out of the war,” was explained. “Is Russia out of the war?” Premier Kerensky repeated the words and laughed. “That,” he answered, “is a ridiculous question. Russia is taking an enormous part in the war. One only has to remember history. Russia began the war for the Allies. While she was already fighting, England was only preparing, and America was only observing. Russia at the beginning bore the whole brunt of the fighting, thereby saving Great Britain and France. People who say she is out of the war have short memories. We have fought since the beginning, and have the right to claim that the Allies now take the heaviest part of the burden on their shoulders.” Asks, “Where is British Fleet?” “At present, Russian public opinion is greatly agitated by the question, ‘Where is the British fleet now that the German fleet is out in the Baltic?’ “Russia,” the Premier repeated, “is worn out. She has been fighting one and one-half years longer than England.” “Could an American army be of use if sent to Russia?” was asked. “It would be impossible to send one,” said Kerensky. “It is a question of transportation. The difficulties are too great.” “If America cannot send troops, what would be the most useful way for her to help Russia?” was the next question. “Have her send boots, leather, iron, and,” the Premier added emphatically, “money.” Premier Kerensky here drew attention to the fact that Russia has fought her battles alone. “Russia has fought alone—is fighting alone,” he said. “France has had England to help her from the start and now America has come in.” The Premier was asked regarding the morale of the Russian people and army. He answered: “The masses are worn out economically. The disorganized state of life in general has had a psychological effect on the people. They doubt the possibility of the attainment of their hopes.” Pleads for Faith in Revolution “What is the lesson to the democracies of the world of the Russian revolution?” “This,” Premier Kerensky replied, “is not for them to find out. They must not lose faith in the Russian revolution because it is not a political revolution, but an economic one, and a revolution of facts. The Russian revolution is only seven months old. No one has the right to feel disillusioned about it. It will take years to develop.” “In France, which is only as large as three Russian departments (States), it took five years for their revolution to develop fully.” Asked what he expected from the Constituent Assembly, the Premier said: “The Constituent Assembly begins a new chapter in the history of the revolution. Its voice will certainly be the most important factor in the future of Russia.” “What future for Russia do you picture after the war?” “No one can draw any real picture of the future,” Kerensky said. “Naturally a man who really loves his country will hope for all good things, but that is only his viewpoint, which may or may not be accepted by others.” Premier Kerensky, pale and earnest, sat at the end of a carved table in the former private office of the Emperor in the Winter Palace and emphasized the points of his statement by tapping the table with his fingers. He wore a brown, undecorated uniform buttoned closely. The Premier appeared to be fatigued from his many trips to the front and his constant audiences. Note from the textbook author (2022): This article was published in the New York Times on November 3, 1917. Four days after this article’s publication (Nov. 7, 1917), Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks would seize power in Russia with the arrival of their “October Revolution.” The name, "October Revolution" is reflective of the fact that Russia still used the Julian calendar at the time, which was roughly three weeks behind the Gregorian calendar used by the United States and most of Europe. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. D.K. Ltd., New York: 2009. 46-48; 114-119; 146-50; 226-7. The New York Times. "Kerensky Pleas for the Help of the Allies." November 3, 1917. Hosted by University of Louisiana at Monroe.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.086563	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87960/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87962/overview	Hero of the Turkish Army: Mustafa Kemal and the Dardanelles Campaign Overview The Dardanelles Campaign: 1915-1916 On present-day Turkey’s northwest coast is a narrow strip of water, the Dardanelles strait. It connects the Aegean Sea, through the Bosporus, to the Sea of Marmara, and ultimately, the Black Sea. It has been a coveted shipping and transportation route for centuries, the Dardanelles also marks the divide between Europe and Asia. In World War I, the strait was coveted by opposing armies to transport troops between fronts, and to strategic locations. The British and French also assumed that if they could secure the Dardanelles, they would drastically weaken the already weak, Ottoman Empire, thus knocking one of the Central Powers out of the war. They would relieve the pressure Russia faced from the Ottomans and claim Constantinople. Learning Objectives - Analyze the British failure of the Gallipoli Campaign - Evaluate the success of Mustafa Kemal as a leader of the Turkish army Key Terms / Key Concepts Dardanelles: narrow strait that connects the Aegean Sea, Sea of Marmara, and Black Sea Gallipoli: peninsula on Turkey’s northwest coast Mustafa Kemal "Ataturk": commander of the Ottoman Army at the Battle of Gallipoli Preparations In 1915, the Allies began planning an attack on Turkey’s northwest coast at the strategic peninsula, Gallipoli. The Allies launched a bombing campaign over the Dardanelles in early 1915. It failed to destroy the Ottoman defenses which had been heavily fortified in advance of the Allies’ attack. Minefields and artillery defenses remained along the peninsula. As such, it was clear to the Allies that an amphibious landing was the solution. They would deploy British, French, and raw troops from Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) to secure the Gallipoli peninsula. Behind the plan was the British Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill. The Landings at Gallipoli At 2:00 AM on April 25, 1915, Ottoman scouts spotting a fleet advancing toward them. An hour later, the fog rolled in, obscuring the army. But it set the Ottomans on the alert. Among the earliest to receive the news was a young commander named Mustafa Kemal. As a young officer, he had served in the earlier, Balkans Wars. Now, he led the 19th Division, and the 5th Army Reserve. Militarily shrewd, he calculated that the Allies would try to divide the Ottoman forces. To combat their attack, Kemal staged a simple plan—hold the defensive heights above the beaches. They would not surrender one inch of territory to the Allies. At dawn, he is said to have told his troops, “I am not ordering you to attack, I am ordering you to die. In the time that it takes us to die; other commanders and forces can come and take our place.” From the dawn of April 15 forward, the Ottoman troops were fiercely loyal to their staunch and pragmatic leader. When the attacks came, they would be ready and carry Kemal’s order to the letter. ANZAC Cove The Allies had planned two landings. The British and French forces would land at Helles Cape on the southern tip of the peninsula. The ANZACs, Australian and New Zealand troops, would land further west. Fatefully, the British and French landing would prove less deadly. Just after dawn, the ANZACs, many of who were raw troops with no combat experience, landed at the fortified beach of Gallipoli at a cove now aptly named, ANZAC Cove. Above the beach, the terrain was rugged and steep, and heavily fortified by the Ottomans. Strips of minefields also waited for the ANZACs. Upon their landing, the ANZACs were greeted with immense artillery and machine gun fire. The ANZACs initially gained ground, only to be repelled by Kemal’s forces later in the day. Counterattacking, the Australians were driven from the heights. By the end of the first day, over 2,000 of the 16,000 ANZAC troops were dead or wounded. For the next eight months, the ANZAC troops “dug in” in a stalemated battle at Gallipoli. They faced harsh weather and rough terrain, and epidemics of dysentery, typhoid, and rheumatic fever. The ANZACs never gained ground after the first day, and the campaign turned into a bloody stalemate. Combat often involved hand-to-hand fighting in the rocky, rough terrain. At other times, it was a battle waged by sending men “over the top” of their trenches and fortifications to charge headlong into the Ottoman machine gun nests. Further south, the British and French faced similar challenges. At the end of the year, the Allied casualties reached 500,000, not including those who perished from disease. The Gallipoli Campaign was not only a defeat, it was an Allied disaster. Significance In January 1916 did the Allied troops admit defeat and evacuate their positions at Gallipoli. The campaign, which had lasted a year, was over. But the cost was enormous: it remains the bloodiest campaign in the histories of Australia and New Zealand. April 25 is celebrated as ANZAC Day in both countries. It also demonstrated to the world the ability and resilience of the Australian and New Zealand soldiers, who were largely untried soldiers before Gallipoli. For Mustafa Kemal and Turkey, the significance of Gallipoli was far greater. It marked their triumph over the Allied forces. The victory catapulted Kemal into the national spotlight where he was known as the “Rock of Gallipoli.” Almost overnight, he was promoted to Brigadier General of the Ottoman Army. For the remainder of the war, he served as a main military commander for the Ottomans in multiple campaigns. Following the defeat, and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I, Kemal served in the Turkish wars of independence, and then turned to politics. He became a strong statesman, and in the 1920s, the founded of the Republic of Turkey. With this achievement, he was given a new title: Atatürk—father of the Turks. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. D.K. Publishing, New York: 2012. 76-83.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.112778	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87962/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87961/overview	War in the Desert: World War I in the Middle East Overview The World War in the Middle East World War I was a global war fought in most corners of the earth, and the Middle East was no exception. A large and long war raged in the Middle East that involved the Ottoman Empire, the British, the Russians, and independent Arab kingdoms. The war was fought in the Middle East from 1914-1918, throughout present-day Turkey, Jordan, Syria, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Palestine. Of the many wars that raged in the Middle East during World War I, none is as famous as the 1916 Arab Revolt, which involved the exploits of British archeologist, T.E. Lawrence. Learning Objectives - Examine the significance of the Arab Revolt Key Terms / Key Concepts Arab Revolt: revolt against the Ottoman Empire led by the Arab forces from the kingdoms of Hejaz and Transjordan Emir Faisal: Arab prince who led the Arab Revolt T.E. Lawrence: British archeologist who orchestrated, and helped lead much of the Arab Revolt The Arab Revolt Background The Ottoman Empire had an extensive military history when World War I erupted. Because of its military pursuits, it had created many enemies, including many in the Middle East. One of the groups who strongly resented the Ottomans were the independent Arab clans, particularly those in present-day Saudi Arabia. For this reason, the Arabs did not side with the Ottomans when World War I began. Instead, they saw the war as an opportunity to break away from their former overlords and aggressors. In 1915, a young archeologist from Great Britain would enter their world—T.E. Lawrence. He had investigated numerous Middle Eastern archeological sites before the war, and learned Arabic, and many Arab customs. For these reasons, he was employed by the British army as an intelligence officer in the Middle East in 1915. Once there, he developed a close friendship with Emir Faisal, prince of the Kingdom of Hejaz in present-day Saudi Arabia. The Arab Revolt of 1916 On June 5, 1916, the Arab forces under Emir Faisal attacked the Ottoman garrison at Medina, launching the Arab Revolt. For three days, the forces fought against the better-equipped Ottomans. Although they were officially forced to retreat with the Ottomans in pursuit, Arab nationalism ran strong, and the Arab Revolt had just begun. On June 10, the Arabs captured the holy city, Mecca. Owing to a secret treaty with the Arabs, the British launched a naval bombardment of the Ottoman ports along the Red Sea. When the port cities fell to the British, increased numbers of troops and supplied funneled into the Middle East. Thomas Edward (T.E.) Lawrence became instrumental in liaising between the British and the Arab forces. For the rest of 1916, Lawrence would team with the Arabs in a series of hit and run tactics that included the destruction of Ottoman infrastructure. Of particular importance was the campaign to capture Aqaba, a major port city in present-day Jordan. With the city captured, Faisal took command of Aqaba and the British sent additional resources and men to bolster the Arabs. The desert, however, was not an easy environment to endure. 400,000 gallons of water per day were required for the British troops and their animals. Disease was rampant, especially dysentery, malaria, syphilis, and typhoid. The heat was scorching, the land remote and unforgiving. Tragically, the easiest and fastest way to send for medical help was by camel. To combat the elements, British troops frequently dressed in Arab robes and sandals or bare feet. Additional Victories After the capture of Aqaba, the Arab forces achieved numerous other victories. In 1917, they opened the Palestinian Front, and ultimately captured Gaza. The following year, much of the Hejaz Railroad that the Ottomans had constructed was destroyed by Emir Faisel and his forces. Jerusalem was taken over by the Arabs, and the important city of Damascus fell to the Arabs. After these successive defeats, the Ottomans surrendered in November 1918. After the World War The British remained allied with the Arabs throughout the rest of World War I, although the alliance was far from smooth. In 1918, the Arabs imagined they would be rewarded for their efforts in the war by the creation of a national Arab state. They were misled by their European allies, who rejected the idea of a national Arab state. Instead, Britain and France divided much of the Middle East into protectorates of their empires. Primary Source: Excerpt from, Revolt in the Desert, T. E. Lawrence T.E. Lawrence's account of a village destroyed by the Turks in Sept., 1918 "The village lay stilly under its slow wreaths of white smoke, as we rode near, on our guard. Some grey heaps seemed to hide in the long grass, embracing the ground in the close way of corpses. We looked away from these, knowing they were dead; but from one a little figure tottered off, as if to escape us. It was a child, three or four years old, whose dirty smock was stained red over one shoulder and side, with blood from a large half-fibrous wound, perhaps a lance thrust, just where neck and body joined. The child ran a few steps, then stood and cried to us in a tone of astonishing strength (all else being very silent), 'Don't hit me, Baba.' Abd el Aziz, choking out something - this was his village, and she might be of his family - flung himself off his camel, and stumbled, kneeling, in the grass beside the child. His suddenness frightened her, for she threw up her arms and tried to scream; but, instead, dropped in a little heap, while the blood rushed out again over her clothes; then, I think, she died. We rode past the other bodies of men and women and four more dead babies, looking very soiled in the daylight, towards the village; whose loneliness we now knew meant death and horror. By the outskirts were low mud walls, sheepfolds, and on one something red and white. I looked close and saw the body of a woman folded across it, bottom upwards, nailed there by a saw bayonet whose haft stuck hideously into the air from between her naked legs. About her lay others, perhaps twenty in all, variously killed. The Zaagi burst into wild peals of laughter, the more desolate for the warm sunshine and clear air of this upland afternoon. I said, 'The best of you bring me the most Turkish dead,' and we turned after the fading enemy, on our way shooting down those who had fallen out by the roadside and came imploring our pity. One wounded Turk, half naked, not able to stand, sat and wept to us. Abdulla turned away his camel's head, but the Zaagi, with curses, crossed his track and whipped three bullets from his automatic through the man's bare chest. The blood came out with his heart beats, throb, throb, throb, slower and slower. Tallal had seen what we had seen. He gave one moan like a hurt animal; then rode to the upper ground and sat there a while on his mare, shivering and looking fixedly after the Turks. I moved near to speak to him, but Auda caught my rein and stayed me. Very slowly Tallal drew his headcloth about his face; and then he seemed suddenly to take hold of himself, for he dashed his stirrups into the mare's flanks and galloped headlong, bending low and swaying in the saddle, right at the main body of the enemy. It was a long ride down a gentle slope and across a hollow. We sat there like stone while he rushed forward, the drumming of his hoofs unnaturally loud in our ears, for we had stopped shooting, and the Turks had stopped. Both armies waited for him; and he rocked on in the hushed evening till only a few lengths from the enemy. Then he sat up in the saddle and cried his war cry, 'Tallal, Tallal,' twice in a tremendous shout. Instantly their rifles and machine-guns crashed out, and he and his mare riddled through and through with bullets, fell dead among the lance points. Auda looked very cold and grim. 'God give him mercy; we will take his price.' He shook his rein and moved slowly after the enemy. We called up the peasants, now drunk with fear and blood, and sent them from this side and that against the retreating column. The old lion of battle waked in Auda's heart, and made him again our natural, inevitable leader. By a skilful turn he drove the Turks into bad ground and split their formation into three parts. The third part, the smallest, was mostly made up of German and Austrian machine-gunners grouped round three motor cars and a handful of mounted officers or troopers. They fought magnificently and repulsed us time and again despite our hardiness. The Arabs were fighting like devils, the sweat blurring their eyes, dust parching their throats; while the flame of cruelty and revenge which was burning in their bodies so twisted them that their hands could hardly shoot. By my order we took no prisoners, for the only time in our war.'” From Eyewitness to History http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/lawrence.htm Attributions Willmott, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, New York: 2012. 236-241. Excerpt from, Revolt in the Desert. Lawrence, Thomas Edward, 1927. Hosted by EyeWitnesstoHistory.com. Lawrence of Arabia, 1918 (eyewitnesstohistory.com) Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.141399	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87961/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87963/overview	More than Mimi and Toutou: World War I in Africa Overview World War I in Africa The campaigns fought in Africa during World War I were unlike any other; they were plagued by brutal and shifting weather, bees, parasites, and charging rhinoceroses. The war in Africa saw hundreds of thousands of black African troops fighting for each side of the war, and millions of lives and property disrupted by the conflict. Notably, the campaign in German East Africa was the longest conflict of World War I. It achieved the status also as being the only place in the world where the Germans were never militarily defeated by the Allies. German East Africa also holds the record for the highest number of different ethnicities fighting one another in all of World War I. Given these unique characteristics, it is surprising and ironic that the war in Africa is largely forgotten and ignored. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the importance of the World War in Africa. - Analyze the roles of Africans in the World War. Key Terms / Key Concepts Askaris: African non-commissioned officers and enlisted men “Battle of the Bees”: 1914 German victory at the port city of Tanga Geoffrey Spicer-Simson: eccentric British commander at the Battle of Lake Tanganyika German East Africa: present-day Tanzania, the longest campaign of World War I Jan Smuts: commander of the British army in WWI from 1916 – 1918 King’s African Rifles: British army in the African colonies with British officers and African enlisted men Mimi and Toutou: British, armed motor boats that were carried overland to Lake Tanganyika Paul Lettow von Vorbeck: German commander who continually evaded, and defeated the Allies in German East Africa during World War I Schutztruppe: German army in the African colonies with German officers and African enlisted men The Battle of Lake Tanganyika: battle for control of the most important lake in German East Africa The War in Africa Background In the 1880s, Germany established four colonies in Africa during the “Scramble for Africa”: Kamerun (Cameroon), Togoland (Togo), German Southwest Africa (Namibia), and German East Africa (Tanzania). Of the four, German East Africa proved the most important before, and during World War I. It had a large and thriving population, developed infrastructure, cash crops, and gold mining. As important as the products produced was the fact that German East Africa was geographically nestled in a coveted area among Africa’s three Great Lakes: Victoria, Tanganyika, and Malawi. These lakes provided easy and efficient transportation of goods, and later people and armaments. They also helped create a bio-rich region in which plants and animals thrived. Because of its network of sweeping lakes and rivers that connected to the sea, the region was highly coveted by Europeans. Early Campaigns When war broke out in Europe in August 1914, war quickly followed into Africa. The King's African Rifles (KAR) built the basis of the British forces in the war in Africa. A pre-war creation, the KAR consisted of white, British officers, and black African enlisted troops from throughout the British colonies called askaris. Similarly, the Germans doubled the size of their colonial force—the Schutztruppe—and widely recruited askari troops. The world of the askaris was very fluid and complex on both sides of the war. Hundreds of ethnicities from the African colonies served as askari troops. From German East Africa alone, there were nearly one hundred distinct African clans that served as askaris in the colonial army. Reports indicate that the Germans used them more widely than the British, who also had a formal army. By the start of the war, the Germans had recruited over 14,000 askaris for service in the Schutztruppe. By the end of the war, the Germans and Allies combined would enlist over 100,000 askaris. The askaris serving in the German colonial army were paid relatively well and were trained by German officers. In their effort to recruit troops, the Germans frequently connected combat and service to the ideas of African masculinity and provided them with food and wine. The askaris were also allowed to bring their family members with them as camp followers. On each side of the war, askaris were issued uniforms and armaments. Askari troops in the King’s African Rifles were dressed in tan uniforms with a red cummerbund and fez hat, usually red. The askaris in the German Schutztruppe were likewise dressed in tan uniforms and fezzes, often red or tan. Combat took place in all four of the German colonies. Togoland was the first German colony to surrender to the British and French troops. With next to no military force in the colony, the Germans surrendered within three weeks, and Togoland was divided between the British and French. The German colonies of German Southwest Africa and Kamerun were likewise invaded and fell to the Allies by 1916. From afar, it looked as if the Allies had won World War I in Africa by 1916. But there was one colony that they could not defeat: German East Africa. The German East Africa Campaign German East Africa was located largely in Tanzania, an area rich with mountains, lakes and rivers, rainforests, and plains. Over the course of their colonial administration, the German forces and commanders had learned the terrain well, and their knowledge of the area proved essential in World War I. The terrain played a significant role in the German’s success in German East Africa, but they had another significant advantage. General Paul von Lettow-Voerbeck was the archetype of what a German officer should be: educated, disciplined, gentlemanly, a tactician, and an excellent judge of character. As a personal hobby, Lettow-Vorbeck had also closely studied East Africa’s terrain. Through his command, the German army would evade, engage, and defeat the Allies time and again for over four years in German East Africa. The Battle of Tanga In November 1914, the Allies blockaded Tanga, a German port city perched high on a plateau on the East African coast. Confident of a swift victory, the British mistakenly announced their intentions to attack Tanga publicly. News of the impending attack was printed in the newspapers, giving the Germans time to fortify the area. The British forces outnumbered the German forces 8:1. When the attack came, they felt sure of an easy victory. Troops descended on the beaches at Tanga, unaware that the Germans were reinforced and stationed in the high ground above the coast. What ensued was one of the worst defeats for the Allies during the war. The Battle of Tanga quickly dissolved into a turkey shoot for the Germans. Gunfire rained down on the advancing Allies from the German forces who were positioned high above them. Then, an unexpected adversary joined the fight. In their charge up the heights, the British troops had unknowingly run straight into nests of bees. Enormous swarms of infuriated bees attacked the Allies and their horses. Men reported that as many as 300 stings could be on one man, and at least one horse was stung to death. For this reason, the Battle of Tanga is frequently called, “The Battle of the Bees”. Allied troops were forced to retreat, leaving their dead and much of their military equipment behind. Once the dust and bees had settled, and the Allied troops retreated, Lettow-Vorbeck led his troops down to the water. They collected the abandoned weapons and ammunition. At the end of the day, the Battle of Tanga was a major German victory. Moreover, Lettow-Vorbeck seemed to be carrying-out his larger goal: keeping the Allies, especially the British, “tied up” so that the Germans could achieve victories in Europe. The Battle of Lake Tanganyika In 1915, the British set their sights on a major German target: Lake Tanganyika, which was famous for being the second deepest lake in the world. The Germans dominated the lake with the use of their converted gunboat: the Graf von Goetzen. By controlling the lake, the Germans were able to move troops and supplies easier and faster than the Allies, thus giving them a strong advantage in German East Africa. In December 1915, the British ordered that the lake be taken, even though it seemed as impossible plan. The British decided to carry two of their small, armed boats overland to Lake Tanganyika. The plan seemed preposterous because it required British troops to carry the boats Mimi and Toutou (in English, “Meow” and “Woof woof”) all the way from South Africa to Tanzania through the African jungles. To lead this effort, the British appointed lieutenant commander, Geoffrey Spicer-Simson. Spicer-Simson inspired awe and fierce loyalty in his troops, but he was described by colleagues as extremely eccentric. Covered in tattoos of snakes, plants, and other animals, he smoked monogramed cigarettes and wore a khaki drill skirt. With teams of oxen and hundreds of porters, the British floated and hauled the two gunboats overland between December 1915 – July 1916. When the boats were launched in late July, the British quickly defeated two of the smaller German gunboats on Lake Tanganyika, but the Graf von Goetzen escaped. Later, it was scuttled by the Germans and sunk. For the first time in over two years, the Germans lost control of the lake. For the remainder of the war, the British and Belgians controlled East Africa’s most important lake. The Hunt for Lettow-Vorbeck After the German defeat on Lake Tanganyika, Lettow-Vorbeck realized he could not win the battle for German East Africa in conventional terms. Mainly because the British had a new, excellent commander in Jan Smuts. A South African native, Smuts was every bit Lettow-Vorbeck’s equal. Years later, Lettow-Vorbeck would write, “When Smuts arrived, we really began to fight.” Ironically, the two men became friends at the end of World War I and remained so for the rest of their lives. For the final two years of the war, though, Lettow-Vorbeck adopted guerilla warfare. Rather than engage the British in direct battles, the Germans would fight strategically. Lettow-Vorbeck recognized that it was better to surrender specific positions, rather than be militarily defeated, and he never lost sight of the goal of “tying up the British army.” Battles erupted, and before the British could capture and defeat the German forces, they would retreat. Any armaments or supplies were burned by the retreating Germans. The last years of the war resulted in a cat and mouse game with the British chasing after Lettlow-Vorbeck in the dense jungles and rugged mountains. Ultimately, the British would never catch Lettow-Vorbeck and his troops; their leader had far superior knowledge of the terrain and consistently used it to his advantage. Daily Life in the German East Africa Campaign The war in Africa tried the European forces, especially the British. It was a war unlike any that they had ever encountered. Firstly, the terrain was fierce, and the British intelligence was extremely poor. The weather was violent—extremely hot and often soggy with torrential rains. Pests of all shapes and sizes pursued the British and German troops. Telegraph wires had to be strung exceptionally high to avoid giraffe collisions. River crossings were feared because of the sharp-nosed crocodiles. Snakes and rats were everywhere. And the insects were relentless. Chiggers, fleas, and lice infested soldiers, bringing with them a multitude of diseases. Medics reported that the chiggers would eat away a soldier’s toes, leaving the rest of the foot as a “dirty mass of putrefying rags.” Mosquitoes swarmed the troops, which resulted in rampant malaria. Soldiers would contract the disease and erupt in a fever of 104 – 105 degrees, excreting dark, bloody urine. Even five doses of quinine a day was not enough for most soldiers to endure the disease. Most horrifying to the troops were the invisible parasites—notably the guinea worms. These parasites were found in the water. If not properly boiled, unknowing soldiers would drink water filled with the parasites. A few days later, their bodies would erupt in boils. When popped, a tiny maggot would start to emerge. To make matters worse, soldiers learned they could not immediately extract the worm because it would break, spilling eggs into their bloodstream. Instead, they had to slowly extract the parasite by winding it around a twig, a little at a time, each day until the worm was removed. Outside of the challenges produced by the weather, pests, and terrain, soldiers were frequently malnourished and hungry. Supplies ran short, and when they could be procured, were often tinned meat and biscuits. This forced the troops to survive off the land. Hippopotamus meat was described as tasting like “sweet, stewed beef.” Mangoes, unknown fruits, and berries were eaten to supplement their diets. But it was also not uncommon for soldiers to boil leather and consume it and make “pies” out of bush rats. Famously, a British soldier reported that a donkey had died from disease. They buried the donkey; then, three days later, they dug it up and ate it. End of the War Despite their best efforts, the British and their allies from Belgium and France never captured Lettow-Vorbeck or defeated his army. The war in East Africa continued when the ceasefire in Europe was declared on November 11, 1918. It took nearly two weeks longer for a ceasefire to be established in Africa. Lettow-Vorbeck and his army relinquished their arms to the British. Later, he returned to Germany where he lived the rest of his life. World War I in Africa was significant, and far more than just “Mimi and Toutou.” It involved hundreds of different ethnicities—more than any other front in the war. Well over 100,000 African troops were enlisted in the services of the Germans or Allies. It also was the one theater of war where a German army was never militarily defeated. Tragically for the Africans, their territory was frequently destroyed by combat and their soldiers treated as inferiors. Many of the African cultures were changed by the war, their livestock and infrastructure destroyed, but the Europeans refused to allow Africans to govern themselves until after World War II. Under the 1919 Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to give-up their colonies. The British, French, and Belgians would divide former German territory and rule it in their stead. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Farwell, Bryon. The Great War in Africa: 1914-1918. W.W. Norton & Company, 1989. Krech, Hans. Die Kampfhandlungen in den ehemaligen deutschen Kolonien in Africa während des 1. Weltkrieges (1914-1918). Berlin: Dr. Köster, 1999.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.180174	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87963/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87964/overview	The Battle for the Atlantic Overview World War I at Sea In World War I, the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean were significant battlegrounds. In particular, the Atlantic Ocean transformed into a sea of naval clashes. The British always had the superior navy, with massive battleships called Dreadnaughts. The Germans, contrastingly, developed their Unterseebooten (U-boats). These early submarines ultimately were more psychologically threatening than they proved to actually be in combat. For the course of the war, the Atlantic would be the scene of clashes and unfortunate mishaps between the U-boats that stalked the ocean and the battleships that sought to destroy them. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the importance of the Atlantic Ocean as a theater of war in World War I Key Terms / Key Concepts Blockade of Germany: British blockade of the German coast with their navy from 1914 – 1918 convoys: groups of military vessels traveling together for protection Dreadnaught: British battleships RMS Lusitania: British passenger ship that was torpedoed in World War I by German U-boat that caused American sentiment to favor the British in the war U-Boats: shorthand for Unterseebooten—German submarines in World War I Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: 1917 – 1918 German policy of attacking any ship that was sailing near British or German waters The Blockade of Germany In 1914, the British decided the easiest way to defeat the Germans was to starve their civilian population. Germany was an industrial country with little ability to provide sufficient foodstuffs to its people unless it imported goods. It was largely a landlocked country with only a small coast that jutted into the violent and bitterly cold waters of the North Atlantic. Britain recognized early in the war that they could employ their navy to help defeat Germany. They imposed a blockade of Germany’s coast with the intent of starving the country into defeat. In August 1914, the British deployed their ships to cut off all merchant and military ships, while British ships patrolled the ocean between Scotland and Norway. The British blockade of Germany was highly illegal and violated international law. However, it seemed to work. The German navy was no match for the British battleships, so the Germans began accelerated construction of their submarines. At the beginning of the blockade, Germany had only 29 U-Boats, most of which were used to lay mines. In 1915, Germany began to feel the effects of the blockade and launched a U-boat campaign that targeted military and merchant vessels near their coast. The international community, especially Britain, was outraged. To them, the use of submarines to attack merchant and military vessels was deplorable. This new campaign produced mixed results. The Germans successfully destroyed hundreds of tons of cargo, as well as began patrolling British waters. However, the U-boat threat was feared more because of its use of stealth and secrecy, rather than for its overall effectiveness in knocking Britain out of the war. Claims by the Allies, primarily the British, that submarine warfare was illegal and inhumane resonated around the world when a U-boat crew sunk the RMS Lusitania in May 1915 off the coast of Ireland. RMS Lusitania was a British passenger ship on which 123 Americans were aboard, and the Americans were citizens of a then neutral country. Outraged, Americans clamored for Germany to be punished, though they largely stopped short of advocating a declaration of war on Germany. Woodrow Wilson pressed Germany for a reduction in U-boat warfare, insisting on the American right to travel as neutral citizens aboard passenger ships. The Germans initially balked. Truthfully, they explained they had placed ads in over 50 major American newspapers warning them not to ride about the Lusitania. And, as the Germans suspected, the British were secretly loading the hulls of passenger ships with military armaments to aid them in the war against Germany. This violated international law and transformed merchant ships into military targets in the eyes of Germany. But Wilson would not be persuaded of German claims. In 1915, the German government reversed their policy of attacking merchant and neutral ships. Unrestricted Submarine Warfare In 1917, World War I entered its third year. Armies on the continent had experienced millions of casualties, while civilians endured intense deprivation. These conditions led to total war on land, and at sea, where international law was largely ignored. In early 1917, the German government again reversed its maritime policies. They implemented a new measure: Unrestricted Submarine Warfare. This meant that German submariners could attack merchant and military vessels without fear of repercussions. The growing strain on German civilians undoubtedly provoked the measure. Germany felt it needed to defeat Britain by the summer of 1917, or they could face defeat. For the final two years of the war, Germany launched continual attacks on ships encroaching on their territory, and in the waters surrounding the British Isles. At the height of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare over 100 U-boats were deployed. To counter the U-boat threat to merchant vessels, the British (and later Americans) began using convoys. This strategy protected merchant vessels and dramatically increased U-boat casualties. When the war ended in 1918, the U-Boats had reduced the cargo bound for Britain, but they failed to defeat the British military. Significance The Battle for the Atlantic was not a decisive theater of war in World War I, but it pitted two of the primary belligerent nations against one another: Germany and Great Britain. Both suffered significant losses. The British lost ships and hundreds of tons of cargo, while the mortality rate among U-boat crews were astronomical. The war at sea also introduced modern technology that would be further developed when World War II began. Among the technologies developed were the submarine, torpedo, depth charge, and sonar. Britain and Germany both violated international law many times throughout the Battle for the Atlantic, but neither entirely gained the upper hand on the ocean. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, London: 2009. 176-185.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.205614	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87964/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87965/overview	Evicting "Fritz": World War I in the Pacific World Overview World War I in the Pacific World War I in the Pacific was a sideshow to the larger theaters of war in Europe and the Middle East. The war, however, had significant repercussions. The Allied victory over Germany meant that Germany would lose its Pacific colonies, and by extension, its status as a global empire. More significantly, the Pacific theater of war brought a new country in on the side of the Allies—Japan. Although Japan’s role was significant, the other Allies (Britain, France, and the United States) failed to see it as such in the postwar era. This oversight causes strong resentment among the Japanese people who felt that they had not received dues for their part in the war. The political slight by Western nations during the signing of the Treaty of Versailles led the Japanese to increasingly distrust Western leaders. When World War II erupted in Europe in 1939, the Japanese nation remembered the failed promises of the Allies after World War I, and they allied with Nazi Germany. Learning Objectives - Examine the events and significant of World War I in the Pacific. Key Terms / Key Concepts Tsingtao: port city on China’s east coast where the Germans’ primary naval base was in World War I The Siege of Tsingtao War came to the Pacific in late August 1914. Even at the time, it was considered a minor war within the “Great War.” Although the Germans had naval bases throughout the Pacific, they were primarily small and insignificant to the rest of Europe. The British, Americans, and Japanese all possessed far stronger navies than the Germans. Still, Britain worried that perhaps the Germans might engage in expansion throughout the Pacific or strike British colonial possessions. Australia and New Zealand also felt poorly defended. While their troops fought for the Allies in far-flung locations, their homelands were left wide open to attack. Aware that the navies of Australia and New Zealand were small and marginal, the British called upon their ally, Japan, to help defeat the Germans in the Pacific. The Japanese readily agreed, less because of their alliance to Britain, and more because they hoped to secure Pacific possessions and expand their influence and power through much of Oceania. In late September, the Japanese advanced on the German naval base at Tsingtao. Combined, their army exceeded 60,000. By comparison, the Germans left to defend their base did not reach 5,000. Low on ammunition and far outnumbered, the Germans surrendered to the Japanese in November 1914. The siege of Tsingtao, the only major battle of the Pacific, was won with comparatively few casualties, and Germany lost its foothold in Asia and the Pacific forever. Impact Following the fall of the German naval base at Tsingtao, the Japanese continued to “mop up” the smaller German bases throughout the Pacific islands. Alarmed by Japanese expansion, the Australians and New Zealanders also sent naval vessels to German colonial possessions, namely Samoa, and were met with no resistance. Before World War I officially ended in 1918, Germany had lost all of its Pacific colonies. Little did the Japanese suspect that their success in the Pacific would largely be ignored by the Western allies, and little did the Allies suspect that this gross oversight would one day push the Japanese to side with the Germans in an even more brutal world war—World War II. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, London: 2009. 90-91.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.226648	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87965/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87966/overview	The Human Cost of War Overview The Human Cost of World War I One of the often-overlooked costs of World War I is its human cost. Not only were lives lost, but lives were also disrupted, maimed, and uprooted. The war destroyed landscapes around the world, forced rationing and saw food scarcity, caused forty million casualties, resulted in trillions of dollars of damage globally, shifted borders, saw the end of empires and monarchs, ushered in communism in Europe, sparked rampant inflation and war debt, and left millions of widows and orphans behind. Learning Objectives - Examine the human cost of World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Broken Faces: soldiers who obtained severe facial wounds in World War I, usually through shrapnel wounds Homefront: part of a country at war that is inhabited and operated by civilians Spanish Flu of 1918: largest epidemic of the 20th century The Homefronts in World War I Across the globe, World War I galvanized the homefronts. Civilians were eager to help the war effort. People created victory gardens at home and in public parks, served in the Red Cross, donated money, collected scrap metal, and served in anyway they could to rally support for their troops, as well as protect their countries. Women in World War I Women’s roles shifted dramatically with the start of World War I, particularly in Western Europe. No longer were women confined to the kitchen, church, and children. With the outbreak of war, women took over jobs vacated by men. War munitions were produced largely by women workers in mass factories. Nursing and field hospital work was undertaken by women. Women also replaced men on the farms, doing the plowing and harvesting. In Britain, women frequently filled the artillery shells and were dubbed “canaries” because their skin was turned bright yellow by the powder. Women served as welders, woodworkers, streetcar drivers, teachers, and painters. Virtually every sector of labor relied upon a female labor force during the war years. Additionally, women managed their children and homes at the end of the workday. Women’s roles were not confined to the homefront. Many served in the military, legally or illegally, often disguised as men. Women were also used as spies in World War I. Two of the most famous female spies of the war were women. Edith Cavell helped English, French, and Belgian refugees escape from German-occupied Holland; she was later executed by a German firing squad in 1917. Contrastingly, the Dutch dancer and courtesan, Mata Hari, was accused by the French as being a German spy; she was executed by a French firing squad in 1917. The now world-famous female spy network—the Alice Network—operated for the Allies in World War I. Rationing and Shortages Throughout the war, countries struggled to provide food and resources to their civilians. Armies always received preferential treatment in terms of supplies, especially foodstuffs. Most of the belligerent countries experienced scarcity of raw materials and resources, as well as war munitions, at some point in the war. For instance, France had a troubled, chaotic economy at the start of the war that left them significantly under-supplied in the number of artillery shells they needed. During the war, the United States emerged as the breadbasket of the Allies. Under future president Herbert Hoover, the United States Food Administration was created. Through public campaigns, he urged Americans to eat less on “Meatless Mondays” and “Wheatless Wednesdays” so that extra food and rations could be sent to the millions of civilians living under German occupation in France and Belgium. The public response was overwhelming. By the end of the war, over $615 million dollars of food was sent to Western Europe. Hoover took the act one step further at the war’s end: he supplied food and rations to Europeans across the continent, including their vanquished enemies because of the soaring rates of malnourishment and starvation. Germany suffered terribly from shortages. In part because it was a relatively small, industrialized country with not enough farms to feed their people. In part, also, because of the naval blockade of their coast by Great Britain. Dubbed the “hunger blockade,” by Germans, they cited it as the reason for the starvation and malnutrition of their children and elderly. In particular, Germany suffered during the winter of 1915 – 1916, when it was unusually cold and fuel supplies were lacking. This time is infamously remembered as the “Turnip Winter” because the German people found very little to eat outside of their fall turnips. More than any other nation in World War I, Russia experienced staggering shortages in both food and supplies. The country was so far behind in the production of their rifles that by 1915, entire units were forced to train without a gun. Besides lacking basic equipment, by the end of the war soldiers were suffering from starvation and malnutrition. On the Russian homefront, civilians were starving because of the loss of Poland and parts of the Baltic countries, which had routinely shipped grains and other foodstuffs to Russia. The Spanish Flu of 1918 In the spring of 1918, neutral Spain began to report about a new influenza virus in their newspapers. It seemed mild in its symptoms but rapidly spread. The timing of the virus could not have been worse. All over the world, troops were being deployed, shipped home, crossing countries, and interacting with one another. In August 1918, just as World War I was approaching its end, the second wave of the Spanish Flu of 1918 struck with vengeance. It spread rapidly throughout the United States, West Africa, and France. Then it spread throughout the Americas, Europe, and Africa. This wave of the virus quickly resulted in pneumonia in most patients, sparking a high mortality rate. In part, because antibiotics such as penicillin were not discovered until the late 1920s. A third, milder, wave struck in spring 1919. By the end of the flu’s course, 500 million people worldwide had contracted the virus, and about 10% or 50 million perished from it. Estimates suggest that over 660,000 Americans died from the Spanish Flu in the course of roughly a year—more than the combined total of deaths in the four years of the American Civil War, which was America’s bloodiest war. Casualty figures continue to be debated. But one thing remains certain, by the spring of 1919, the Spanish Flu vanished mysteriously. Collapse of Governments Very few of the governments which were in place at the outbreak of World War I would not be changed by its course. The war caused the collapse of the Russian, German, Ottoman, and Austro-Hungarian Empires. Communism swept through much of Eastern Europe, and even had a strong movement in Weimar Germany. In the Middle East, the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire did not result in the creation of new Arab states. Although a few Arab states existed fleetingly. Instead, it resulted in the creation of European protectorates over large swathes of the Middle East. In Africa, the German colonies were relinquished upon Germany’s defeat, only to be divided between the French and British. Independence remained a pipedream for most of the African countries. Returning to Normalcy? After World War I, American president Warren G. Harding declared a “Return to Normalcy.” But returning to a normal state proved difficult for many people around the world. Prisoners of war often remained in foreign nations well after the ceasefire and Treaty of Versailles due to logistical difficulties. France, Belgium, and parts of Eastern Europe had been occupied, the war had resulted in civilian deaths. Soldiers returning home faced psychological and physical challenges. Shell-shock, a mental illnesses akin to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, was widespread among soldiers. Although seldom diagnosed, depression and anxiety also plagued soldiers. Outwardly, troops frequently faced challenges, too. Millions had lost an arm or leg, and had to rely upon a prosthetic if they could get one. For civilians, a sure sign of the war’s brutality could been seen in the grotesque facial injuries soldiers had obtained, usually through shrapnel wounds. In France, soldiers with facial injuries were called the “Broken Faces.” In an effort to reduce stress on the affected soldier, physicians worked with professional mask makers to create masks that matched the man’s face and was worn to cover the injury. This development is considered the beginning of the field of modern plastic surgery. Global Impact For millions across the globe, there would be no return to “normalcy.” No return to pre-war ways of life. Families had been displaced. Many had endured the loss of a father, son, husband, or brother. For millions across Europe, soaring inflation meant they could no longer afford their homes or necessities such as food and fuel. For soldiers, the years immediately following World War I’s end proved psychologically and physically challenging as they attempted to adjust to a “normal life” after experiencing years of war. Of the belligerent nations in World War I, only the United States would emerge with a booming economy, and that would topple in 1929 with the beginning of the Great Depression. For women, the impact of World War I and its aftermath was great. Their experiences working in traditionally "male" occupations during the war helped them gain strong support for women's suffrage globally. In 1918, women won the right to vote in Germany, Britain, Austria, the Baltic Nations, Russia, and parts of Holland, Canada, and Ireland. The following year, 1919, saw women achieve the right to vote in Holland, Belarus, Luxembourg, Ukraine, and Belgium. And in 1920, women received the right to vote in the United States, Albania, Slovakia, and the Czech Republic. The subsequent years would see women receiving increased voting rights around the world. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Willmott, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, New York: 2012. 122-131; 287.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.256431	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87966/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87967/overview	The Treaty of Versailles and Other Treaties Overview The 1919-20 Paris Peace Conference With the conclusion of armistices that ended the fighting, the Allied Powers organized the peacemaking process that officially ended the war. Allied leaders carried out this process at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference, negotiating peace treaties with each of the five major Central Powers. And each of these treaties influenced the course of subsequent events across Eurasia, leading to the Second World War and the Cold War. Learning Objectives Analyze the aims and negotiating roles of world leaders at the Paris Peace Conference and the consequences of the treaties that ended the war. Key Terms / Key Concepts Congress of Vienna: a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and held in Vienna from November 1814 to June 1815, though the delegates had arrived and were already negotiating by late September 1814 (The objective was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace.) Paris Peace Conference - 1919-20 meeting of delegates from the Allied nations that crafted the treaties which ended World War I David Lloyd George: British Liberal politician and statesman, who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer (1908 – 1915) and was a key figure in the introduction of many reforms that laid the foundations of the modern welfare state. His most important role came as the highly energetic Prime Minister of the Wartime Coalition Government (1916 – 22), during and immediately after the First World War. He led the British delegation to the Paris peace conference. His priorities were security from Germany and being able to justify to his political coalition in the British Parliament and British voters the nation’s sacrifices in the war. Fourteen Points: a statement of principles used for peace negotiations to end World War I, as outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech by President Woodrow Wilson to the United States Congress on war aims and peace terms George Clemenceau: French prime minister during World War I, and leader of the French delegation to the Paris peace conference, who made French security his highest priority in the negotiation of peace with Germany. Accordingly, he pursued military restrictions on Germany, the demilitarization of the Rhineland in western Germany, and the restoration of Alsace and Lorraine to France. League of Nations: an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War; the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Stab-in-the-back myth: The notion, widely believed in right-wing circles in Germany after 1918, that the German Army did not lose World War I on the battlefield but was instead betrayed by the civilians on the home front, especially the republicans who overthrew the monarchy in the German Revolution of 1918 – 19. Advocates denounced the German government leaders who signed the Armistice on November 11, 1918, as the “November Criminals.” Treaty of Versailles: the most important of the peace treaties that ended World War I, which was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Vittorio Orlando: Italian prime minister who led the Italian delegation at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and sought Italy’s acquisition of various territories from the disintegrating Austrian empire (Germany was a secondary concern to him.) Woodrow Wilson: an American politician and academic who served as president during World War I and led the U.S. delegation to the Paris peace conference. He sought a lasting peace, without explicit winners and losers. Paris Peace Conference The Paris Peace Conference, also known as Versailles Peace Conference, was the meeting of the Allied victors after the end of World War I to set peace terms for the defeated Central Powers following the armistices of 1918. It took place in Paris during 1919, opening on 18 January 1919. This date was symbolic as the anniversary of the proclamation of William I as German Emperor in 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, shortly before the end of the Siege of Paris. This date was also imbued with significance in Germany as the anniversary of the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701. More than thirty nations, along with a number of peoples and non-governmental organizations sent voting and non-voting delegations. Each pursued its own agenda. The work of the conference was overwhelming. The attendees addressed dozens of widely varied issues, including the postwar disposition of prisoners of war, responsibility for the war, undersea cables, and international aviation; this was done in an effort to craft a lasting peace, while at the same time pursuing their own agendas. To handle this work, the participants set up fifty-two commissions, which held over sixteen hundred sessions to complete their work—much of it reports for the delegates to consider in their deliberations. The treaties crafted by the delegates were prodigious. The Treaty of Versailles, the Allied treaty with Germany, included fifteen chapters and 440 clauses. Thirty-two countries and nationalities, along with a number of non-governmental groups, sent delegations to the conference. Significantly, neither the Central Powers, the incipient Soviet Union, nor what was left of the disappearing Tsarist Russian empire were invited to send delegations. Leading the conference were the “Big Four”: President Woodrow Wilson of the United States, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, Georges Clemenceau of France, and Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando of the Kingdom of Italy. They were known as the Big Four because their nations were the most powerful Allied nations in Europe. They met informally 145 times and made all the major decisions, which in turn other national delegations ratifie The task of the delegates to craft peace treaties was complicated, even defined, by their conflicting agendas. Each of the Big Four, along with the leaders of the other countries invited to send delegates, had their own separate interests, concerns, and groups to which they were accountable. Consequently, coming to consensus on the terms of each treaty was difficult. Each of the Big Four was concerned primarily with his nation’s national security and imperial interests, very much as their predecessors had been at previous European peace conferences, such as the 1814 – 15 Congress of Vienna. Just like these predecessors the Big Four were not as concerned about inequities they felt were not directly related to the war, including European subjugation of Africans and Asians and gender discrimination. For example, none of these four leaders was a champion of women’s suffrage, and Wilson was a racist who approved of the white supremacist regime in the U.S. In a number of respects, however, the agendas of the Big Four reflected the democratization of the West. Each considered the demands and expectations of his national constituencies, and each recognized the growing opposition to Western imperialism. French Agenda For France, the only nation of the Big Four invaded by the Germans, the first priority in the treaty with Germany was security from another German invasion. The French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau—leader of the French delegation at the conference—focused on permanently weakening Germany, militarily and economically. Having personally witnessed two German attacks on French soil in the last 40 years, he was adamant that Germany should not be permitted to attack France again. In particular, Clemenceau sought an American and British guarantee of French security in the event of another German attack. Clemenceau also expressed skepticism and frustration with Wilson’s Fourteen Points: “Mr. Wilson bores me with his fourteen points,” complained Clemenceau. “Why, God Almighty has only ten!” Wilson won a few points by signing a mutual defense treaty with France, but back in Washington he did not present it to the Senate for ratification and it never took effect. Another alternative French policy was to seek a resumption of harmonious relations with Germany. In May 1919 the diplomat René Massigli was sent on several secret missions to Berlin. During his visits, Massigli offered on behalf of his government to revise the territorial and economic clauses of the upcoming peace treaty. The Germans rejected the French offers because they considered the French overtures to be a trap to trick them into accepting the Versailles treaty “as is,” and because the German foreign minister, Count Ulrich von Brockdorff-Rantzau, thought that the United States was more likely to reduce the severity of the peace terms than France. However, it proved to be Lloyd George who pushed for more favorable terms for Germany. British Agenda At the conference the British delegation sought to protect its imperial holdings and justify the empire’s sacrifices in the Allied war effort. Maintenance of the British Empire’s unity, holdings, and interests was an overarching concern for the British delegates to the conference, with more specific goals of: ensuring the security of France, removing the threat of the German High Seas Fleet, settling territorial contentions, and supporting the League of Nations. David Lloyd George commented that he did “not do badly” at the peace conference, “considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon.” This was a reference to the very idealistic views of Wilson on the one hand and the stark realism of Clemenceau, who was determined to see Germany punished, on the other. Nationalist Agendas A number of peoples across the world sought national independence from European imperial control. These peoples fall into two categories: 1) the descendants of British and European colonists in the settlement colonies of Australia, Canada, and New Zealand, and 2) African and Asian peoples subject to European, Russian, and U.S. imperial control. Related to and growing out of the British agenda, Australia, Canada, and India, and New Zealand pursued their own agendas. Indian nationalists sought independence. Convinced that Canada had become a nation on the battlefields of Europe, its Prime Minister, Sir Robert Borden, demanded that it have a separate seat at the conference. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw a dominion delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men compared to the 50,000 American losses, it at least had the right to the representation of a “minor” power. The British Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. These nations also received their own seats in the League of Nations. Italian Approach In 1914 Italy remained neutral despite its alliances with Germany and Austria. In 1915 it joined the Allies, motivated by gaining the territories promised by the Allies in the secret Treaty of London. These territories included the Trentino, the Tyrol as far as Brenner, Trieste and Istria, most of the Dalmatian coast except Fiume, Valona and a protectorate over Albania, Antalya in Turkey, and possibly colonies in Africa or Asia. In the meetings of the “Big Four, in which Orlando’s powers of diplomacy were inhibited by his lack of English, the others were only willing to offer Trentino to the Brenner, the Dalmatian port of Zara and some of the Dalmatian islands. All other territories were promised to other nations, most likely because the great powers were worried about Italy’s imperial ambitions. Even though Italy did get most of its demands, Orlando was refused Fiume, most of Dalmatia, and any colonial gain, so he left the conference in a rage. There was a general disappointment in Italy, which the nationalist and fascist parties used to build the idea that Italy was betrayed by the Allies and refused what was due. This led to the general rise of Italian fascism. Japanese Agenda The Japanese delegation came to the peace conference with a shopping list of German Pacific territories that they sought, as well as the expectation of respect from the European imperial powers and the U.S. The Empire of Japan sent a large delegation headed by former Prime Minister, Marquess Saionji Kinmochi. It was originally one of the “big five” but relinquished that role because of its slight interest in European affairs. Instead, it focused on two demands: 1) as part of the respect Japanese leaders sought, the inclusion of a racial equality proposal in the Covenant of the League of Nations, and 2) approval of Japanese territorial claims with respect to former German colonies, namely Shantung (including Kiaochow) and the Pacific islands north of the Equator (the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, the Mariana Islands, and the Carolines). The Japanese delegation became unhappy after receiving only half of the rights of Germany, and they walked out of the conference. Japanese imperialists and nationalists perceived this as another in a line of slights dating back to the Meiji Restoration. This resentment, building since the Meiji Restoration, contributed to the rise of ultranationalism and Japanese aggression in World War II. While Japan cannot be excused for its atrocities in the Second World War, the European imperial powers cannot be excused for their discrimination against Japan as an Asian imperial power. U.S. Agenda Not having the security concerns and imperial interests of France, Italy, and the United Kingdom, Wilson’s approach to peace was to avoid imposing a winners’ peace on the Central Powers. In addition, his influence at the conference was diminished by the late entry of the U.S. into the war in 1917. Even then, the Wilson Administration continued U.S. detachment from the Allied Powers by referring to the U.S. as an Associated Power, rather than an Allied Power. On 8 January 1918 Wilson outlined his vision for peace, introducing his Fourteen Points, in a speech before Congress. Wilson’s diplomacy and his Fourteen Points influenced the circumstances under which armistices were drafted that ended the fighting of World War I. Wilson was the first president to attend an international peace conference while president, and only the third president, after his two immediate predecessors, to leave the country during his presidency for diplomatic purposes. Wilson believed it was his duty and obligation to the people of the world to establish an international framework for avoiding another global conflict. Accordingly, fulfilment of that responsibility meant that he had to play a leading role at the peace conference. He continued and developed further Theodore Roosevelt’s initiative for U.S. interventionism in global affairs with a moral imperative. Every president since, except Donald Trump, either accepted or acquiesced to this initiative. High hopes and expectations were placed on Wilson to deliver what he had promised for the post-war era. In doing so, Wilson ultimately began to lead the foreign policy of the United States toward interventionism, a move strongly resisted in some domestic circles. Wilson took many domestic progressive ideas and translated them into foreign policy (free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self-determination). One of his major aims was to found a League of Nations “for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” Background of the U.S. Entry into World War I The immediate cause of the United States’ entry into World War I in April 1917 was the German announcement of renewed unrestricted submarine warfare and the subsequent sinking of ships with Americans on board. But President Wilson’s war aims went beyond the defense of maritime interests. In his War Message to Congress, Wilson declared that the United States’ objective was “to vindicate the principles of peace and justice in the life of the world.” In several speeches earlier in the year, Wilson sketched out his vision of an end to the war that would bring a “just and secure peace,” not merely “a new balance of power.” The United States joined the Allied Powers in fighting the Central Powers on April 6, 1917. Its entry into the war had in part been due to Germany’s resumption of submarine warfare against US merchant ships trading with France and Britain. However, Wilson wanted to avoid the United States’ involvement in the long-standing European tensions between the great powers; if America was going to fight, he wanted to unlink the war from nationalistic disputes or ambitions. The need for moral aims was highlighted when after the fall of the Russian government, the Bolsheviks disclosed secret treaties made between the Allies. The Fourteen Points President Wilson subsequently initiated a secret series of studies named the Inquiry, primarily focused on Europe and carried out by a group in New York that included geographers, historians, and political scientists; the group was directed by Colonel Edward House. Their job was to study Allied and American policy in virtually every region of the globe and analyze economic, social, and political facts likely to come up in discussions during the peace conference. The group produced and collected nearly 2,000 separate reports and documents plus at least 1,200 maps. The studies culminated in a speech by Wilson to Congress on January 8, 1918, in which he articulated America’s long-term war objectives. The speech was the clearest expression of intention made by any of the belligerent nations and projected Wilson’s progressive domestic policies into the international arena, being a statementof principles used for peace negotiations following the end World War I. The speech, known as the Fourteen Points, was developed from a set of diplomatic points by Wilson and territorial points drafted by the Inquiry’s general secretary, Walter Lippmann, and his colleagues, Isaiah Bowman, Sidney Mezes, and David Hunter Miller. Lippmann’s territorial points were a direct response to the secret treaties of the European Allies, which Lippman was shown by Secretary of War Newton D. Baker. Lippman’s task, according to House, was “to take the secret treaties, analyze the parts which were tolerable, and separate them from those which we regarded as intolerable, and then develop a position which conceded as much to the Allies as it could, but took away the poison…It was all keyed upon the secret treaties.” The Fourteen Points was a statement ; they were outlined in a January 8, 1918, speech on war aims and peace terms given by President Woodrow Wilson to the United States Congress. Wilson’s speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin’s Decree on Peace of November 1917 immediately after the October Revolution, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war, called for a just and democratic peace that was not compromised by territorial annexations, and led to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk on March 3, 1918. The speech made by Wilson took many domestic progressive ideas and translated them into foreign policy (free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self-determination). The Fourteen Points speech was the only explicit statement of war aims by any of the nations fighting in World War I. Some belligerents gave general indications of their aims, but most kept their post-war goals private. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson’s points, but his main Allied colleagues (Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy) were skeptical of the applicability of Wilsonian idealism. In the speech, Wilson directly addressed what he perceived as the causes for the world war by calling for the abolition of secret treaties, a reduction in armaments, an adjustment in colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and colonists, and freedom of the seas. Wilson also made proposals that would ensure world peace in the future. For example, he proposed the removal of economic barriers between nations, the promise of self-determination for national minorities, and a world organization that would guarantee the “political independence and territorial integrity [of] great and small states alike”— a League of Nations. Though Wilson’s idealism pervades the Fourteen Points, he also had more practical objectives in mind. He hoped to keep Russia in the war by convincing the Bolsheviks that they would receive a better peace from the Allies, to bolster Allied morale, and to undermine German war support. The address was well received in the United States and by Allied nations, as well as even by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin as a landmark of enlightenment in international relations. Wilson subsequently used the Fourteen Points as the basis for negotiating the Treaty of Versailles that ended the war. It has long been argued that Wilson’s Fourteen Points, in particular the principle of national self-determination, were primarily anti-Left measures designed to tame the revolutionary fever sweeping across Europe in the wake of the October Revolution and the end of the war by playing the nationalist card. Once Wilson arrived at the conference, however, he found “rivalries, and conflicting claims previously submerged.” He mostly tried to sway the direction that the French (Georges Clemenceau) and British (Lloyd George) delegations were taking towards Germany and its allies in Europe, as well as the former Ottoman lands in the Middle East. Wilson’s attempts to gain acceptance of his Fourteen Points ultimately failed after France and Britain refused to adopt some specific points and its core principles. Wilson was further hindered by U.S. forces having only been fighting on the Western Front since the spring of 1918. In Europe, several of his Fourteen Points conflicted with the desires of other powers. Wilson hoped to establish a more liberal and diplomatic world, as stated in the Fourteen Points, where democracy, sovereignty, liberty, and self-determination would be respected. The French and British governments, on the other hand, already controlled empires, wielded power over their subjects around the world, and still aspired to be dominant colonial powers. For example, Wilson did not encourage or believe that the responsibility for the war placed on Germany through Article 231 was fair or warranted. It would not be until 1921 that the United States finally signed separate peace treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Fourteen Points vs. the Versailles Treaty President Wilson became physically ill at the beginning of the Paris Peace Conference, allowing French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau to advance demands substantially different from Wilson’s Fourteen Points. Clemenceau viewed Germany as having unfairly attained an economic victory over France, due to the heavy damage their forces dealt to France’s industries even during retreat, as well as expressed dissatisfaction with France’s allies at the peace conference. Notably, Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which would become known as the War Guilt Clause; it was seen by the Germans as assigning full responsibility for the war and its damages on Germany. However, the same clause was included in all peace treaties and historian Sally Marks has noted that only German diplomats saw it as assigning responsibility for the war. The myth that Germany had not lost World War I, which came to be known as the Stab-in-the-back-myth, began in the last year of the war. The text of the Fourteen Points had been widely distributed in Germany as propaganda prior to the end of the war and was thus well-known by the Germans. The differences between this document and the final Treaty of Versailles fueled anger among Germans. German outrage over reparations and the War Guilt Clause is viewed as a likely contributing factor to the rise of national socialism. At the end of World War I, foreign armies had only entered Germany’s prewar borders twice: the advance of Russian troops into the Eastern border of Prussia, and, following the Battle of Mulhouse, the settlement of the French army in the Thann valley. This lack of important Allied incursions contributed to the popularization of the Stab-in-the-back myth in Germany after the war. Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. It was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice signed on November 11, 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on October 21, 1919. Learning Objectives - Analyze the aims and negotiating roles of world leaders at the Paris Peace Conference and the consequences of the treaties that ended the war. Key Terms / Key Concepts League of Nations: an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War; the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Paris Peace Conference - 1919-20 meeting of delegates from the Allied nations that crafted the treaties which ended World War I Treaty of Versailles: the most important of the peace treaties that ended World War I, which was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required “Germany accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage” during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion, roughly equivalent to $442 billion USD in 2017). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes, predicted that the treaty was too harsh—a “Carthaginian peace”—and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that have since been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently. The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European Powers, and the renegotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. Other Treaties of the Paris Peace Conference Along with the Treaty of Versailles, the Paris Peace Conference drafted four other treaties to be imposed on each of the other Central Powers: Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary(to be treated separately from Austria), and the Ottoman Empire(later Turkey). Each treaty was a punitive treaty which reflected the national interests of the concerned Allied Powers. Although the Treaty of Versailles was the most prominent, each of the other treaties had its own consequences. Learning Objectives Analyze the aims and negotiating roles of world leaders at the Paris Peace Conference and the consequences of the treaties that ended the war. Key Terms / Key Concepts Treaty of Versailles: the most important of the peace treaties that ended World War I, which was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Paris Peace Conference - 1919-20 meeting of delegates from the Allied nations that crafted the treaties which ended World War I All together Allied representatives prepared five major peace treaties at the Paris Peace Conference (with the subject countries in parentheses): The Treaty of Versailles, June 28, 1919 (Germany); The Treaty of Saint-Germain, September 10, 1919 (Austria); The Treaty of Neuilly, November 27, 1919, (Bulgaria); The Treaty of Trianon, June 4, 1920 (Hungary); The Treaty of Sèvres, August 10, 1920; subsequently revised by the Treaty of Lausanne, July 24, 1923, (Ottoman Empire /Republic of Turkey). Austria-Hungary was partitioned into several successor states, including Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia, largely but not entirely along ethnic lines. Transylvania was shifted from Hungary to Greater Romania. The details were contained in the Treaty of Saint-Germain and the Treaty of Trianon. As a result of the Treaty of Trianon, 3.3 million Hungarians came under foreign rule. Although the Hungarians made up 54% of the population of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, only 32% of its territory was left to Hungary. Between 1920 and 1924, 354,000 Hungarians fled former Hungarian territories attached to Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Yugoslavia. The Russian Empire, which had withdrawn from the war in 1917 after the October Revolution, lost much of its western frontier as the newly independent nations of Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland were carved from it. Romania took control of Bessarabia in April 1918. The Ottoman Empire disintegrated, with much of its Levant territory awarded to various Allied powers as protectorates, officially referred to as "mandates", including Palestine, chiefly to the British and the French empires. The Turkish core in Anatolia was reorganized as the Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire was to be partitioned by the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. This treaty was never ratified by the Sultan and was rejected by the Turkish National Movement, leading to the victorious Turkish War of Independence and the much less stringent 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. As the conference’s decisions were enacted unilaterally and largely on the whims of the Big Four, for the duration of the Paris Peace Conference was effectively the center of a world government that deliberated over and implemented sweeping changes to the political geography of Europe. Most famously, the Treaty of Versailles itself weakened Germany’s military and placed full blame for the war and costly reparations on Germany’s shoulders. The League of Nations proved controversial in the United States as critics said it subverted the powers of Congress to declare war. The U.S. Senate did not ratify any of the peace treaties and the U.S. never joined the League; instead, the Harding administration of 1921 – 1923 concluded new treaties with Germany, Austria, and Hungary. Germany was not invited to attend the conference at Versailles. Representatives of White Russia (but not Communist Russia) were present. Numerous other nations sent delegations to appeal for various unsuccessful additions to the treaties; parties lobbied for causes ranging from independence for the countries of the South Caucasus to Japan’s demand for racial equality among the other Great Powers. The League of Nations The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War. It was the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace, specifically preventing another world war. Its primary goals, as stated in its Covenant, included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Other issues in this and related treaties included labor conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, human and drug trafficking, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe. At its greatest extent, from September 28, 1934, to February 23, 1935, it had 58 members. However, by 1939 economic depression, radicalized nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation (particularly in Germany) contributed to its demise and paved the way for World War II. Learning Objectives Analyze the aims and negotiating roles of world leaders at the Paris Peace Conference and the consequences of the treaties that ended the war. Key Terms / Key Concepts League of Nations: an intergovernmental organization founded on January 10, 1920, as a result of the Paris Peace Conference that ended the First World War; the first international organization whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. Its primary goals as stated in its Covenant included preventing wars through collective security and disarmament and settling international disputes through negotiation and arbitration. Paris Peace Conference - 1919-20 meeting of delegates from the Allied nations that crafted the treaties which ended World War I Woodrow Wilson: an American politician and academic who served as president during World War I and led the U.S. delegation to the Paris peace conference. He sought a lasting peace, without explicit winners and losers. Fourteen Points: a statement of principles used for peace negotiations to end World War I, as outlined in a January 8, 1918 speech by President Woodrow Wilson to the United States Congress on war aims and peace terms Treaty of Versailles: the most important of the peace treaties that ended World War I, which was signed on June 28, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand Establishment of the League of Nations American President Woodrow Wilson instructed Edward M. House to draft a U.S. plan that reflected Wilson’s own idealistic views (first articulated in the Fourteen Points of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Committee. The outcome of House’s work and Wilson’s own first draft, proposed the termination of “unethical” state behavior, including forms of espionage and dishonesty. Methods of compulsion against uncooperative states would include severe measures, such as “blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary…” The two principal architects of the covenant of the League of Nations were Lord Robert Cecil (a lawyer and diplomat) and Jan Smuts (a Commonwealth statesman). Smuts’s proposals included the creation of a Council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation of a mandate system for captured colonies of the Central Powers during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side and proposed annual Council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League’s administrative duties. At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, Wilson, Cecil, and Smuts put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the Hurst-Miller draft was finally produced as a basis for the Covenant. After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved the proposal to create the League of Nations on January 25, 1919. The final Covenant of the League of Nations was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. On June 28, 44 states signed the Covenant, including 31 states that took part in the war on the side of the Triple Entente or joined it during the conflict. The League would consist of a General Assembly (representing all member states), an Executive Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent secretariat. Member states were expected to “respect and preserve as against external aggression” the territorial integrity of other members and to disarm “to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety.” All states were required to submit complaints for arbitration or judicial inquiry before going to war. The Executive Council would create a Permanent Court of International Justice to make judgments on the disputes. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, and provide an army when needed. However, the Great Powers were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting Red Cross medical tents, Benito Mussolini responded that “the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out." Despite Wilson’s efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in October 1919, the United States did not join. Opposition in the Senate, particularly from two Republican politicians—Henry Cabot Lodge and William Borah, especially in regard to Article X of the Covenant, ensured that the United States would not ratify the agreement. Their objections were based on the fact that by ratifying such a document, the United States would be bound by international contract to defend a League of Nations member if it was attacked. They believed that it was best not to become involved in international conflicts. The League held its first council meeting in Paris on January 16, 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force. On November 1, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to Geneva, where the first General Assembly was held on November 15. The aftermath of the First World War left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allies tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that during the early interwar period, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties. Successes and Failures of the League As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the center of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members. The United States and Russia, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain, and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League’s machinery to improve relations and settle their differences. After a number of notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the Axis powers in the 1930s. Germany withdrew from the League, as did Japan, Italy, Spain, and others. The onset of the Second World War showed that the League had failed its primary purpose to prevent any future world war. The League lasted for 26 years; the United Nations (UN) replaced it after the end of the Second World War in April 1946 and inherited a number of agencies and organizations founded by the League. In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations. Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the Nansen passport, the first internationally recognized identity card for stateless refugees. For all of its successes, the League failed to intervene in many conflicts leading up to World War II, including the Italian invasion of Abyssinia, the Spanish Civil War, and the Second Sino-Japanese War. Certainly, the onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose: the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organization, such as voting structure that made ratifying resolutions difficult and incomplete representation among world nations. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States’s refusal to join. New World Order: Britain, France, the United States The end of World War I saw the defeat of the Ottomans and Germans, and the Russians reduced to a chaotic, communist state. In the early 1920s, many of the world’s major actors were in a state of crazed confusion, which effectively reduced their global influence. As such, the global community was spearheaded by a decidedly Western group of countries, primarily Great Britain, United States, and France. Although Britain still reeled from economic hardships, its status as an international lawmaker and arbiter still far surpassed that of the largely isolationist United States. France, likewise, reeled with the pain of economically, and physically rebuilding their country. Still, these “big three” nations: Britain, the United States, and France, dominated much of the New World Order following World War I. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the argument that the “New World Order” was really a “New Western Order” after World War I. Key Terms / Key Concepts Matthias Erzberger: German minister of finance who signed the Treaty of Versailles on behalf of Germans New World Order: global approach to establishing precedents, laws, ideas following World War I Second Polish Republic: rebirth of an official country of Poland in 1918 The Peace Settlement and the Discontented Germany In October 1918, Matthias Erzberger—a German politician who had dramatically opposed the war—arrived in the quiet French forest of Compiègne to negotiate a peace settlement with the Allies. Aware that they had the Germans in a vise grip, the Allies would not give way on their peace terms. In the same forest in France, Erzberger sat in a boxcar and reluctantly signed the document which accused the Germans of starting the war and that forced them to pay massive war reparations to the Allied nations. A year later, these terms would be formalized under the Treaty of Versailles. Erzberger received no accolades for his behavior. Although largely ignored in society, far-right paramilitary groups and organizations resented him for “betraying” the German nation. In 1921, Erzberger was assassinated by two members of the far-right organization Organisation Consul. It was a foreshadowing of future events with the rise of far-right German organizations, political assassinations, and entrenched belief that Germany had been betrayed from within. Twenty-two years after Erzberger signed the surrender of the Germans to the Allies, Adolf Hitler would force the French to sign their surrender to the German forces in the very same boxcar. Italy Germany was not the only country discontented with the Treaty of Versailles and its provisions. Critically, all three of the three main Axis countries in World War II were slighted by the 1919 Treaty. The Italians had played a small role in which they supported the Allies, but the Italian casualty-rate was above average. Italy expected compensation for their losses. Instead, the big three countries, Britain, the U.S., and France, dominated talks at Versailles and largely ignored Italy. Unlike the British and French, who acquired substantial territory after World War I, Italy gained very little territory, and was refused their coveted territory: Fiume. The slights at Versailles helped propel political chaos in Italy in 1919 – 1920, as well as prompted them to adapt fascist policies. Japan Japan was also disappointed by the Treaty of Versailles. As a non-European people, Japan sought racial equality in the League of Nations Commission. They considered it their due for their part in fighting for the Allies in World War I, albeit it on a minimal scale. Moreover, the Japanese considered themselves equal in every measure to the Western Europeans, Americans, and Australians. They had secured territory throughout the Pacific, modernized, and developed a strong navy. For these reasons, they sought equal terms in negotiating world affairs. Their demands were rejected unanimously by the British, Americans, Australians, and French. The Australians, whose government promoted a “White Australia” policy, vehemently opposed the idea that Japan be given equal status with them in the League of Nations. Japan, like Italy, had been slighted in the worst way by the Allies. Like Italy, Japan would carry the memories of the slight into the opening years of World War II. Birth of the Second Polish Republic In deciding the global order, the British, French, and Americans often ignored nationalist movements and cries for independence. They regularly slighted the Japanese and Arabs, as well as ignored the Africans and much of Latin America. In one case, though, they promoted the creation of a country: Poland. Under the Treaty of Versailles, the Allies agreed to oversee the recreation of a Polish state. In late 1918, the Second Polish Republic was born based on historical borders and Polish populations. While it cannot be doubted that the restoration of Poland was a morally good maneuver, it had little to do with the welfare of the Poles, and the Allies did not understand the complex problems that would arise from the creation of the state. Indeed, the recreation of Poland provoked Russia, Germany, and Ukraine. Wars were tipped off between Poland and each of its eastern neighbors during the interwar years, unsettling the area politically and economically. Moreover, most of the Allies saw new Polish state as a buffer. It was a Catholic nation that separated the Western Europeans from the “godless,” communists in Russia. It also was further insult to the vanquished enemies, Austria-Hungary, and Germany, which lost territory with the creation of the Second Polish Republic. Long Term Impact After World War I, the new world order was led by Western nations who concerned themselves primarily with protecting Western interests. They openly rejected partnership with non-Europeans and slighted former allies. While the ideas of peace and world rebuilding were promoted, the new world order largely turned a blind eye to problems outside of the West, with fateful consequences. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Title Image - 27 May 1919 candid photo of the Council of Four. Attribution: Edward N. Jackson (US Army Signal Corps), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_four-1919-cropped.jpg. License: Creative Commons Zero v1.0 Universal. Willmont, H.P. World War I. DK Publishing, New York: 2012. 282-305. Boundless World History "The Treaty of Versailles" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-treaty-of-versailles/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike World War I. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike International relations of the Great Powers (1814u20131919). Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814-1919). License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Big_four.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_four.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright World War I. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike The Inquiry. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Inquiry. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Fourteen Points. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen_Points. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Idealism in international relations. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Stab-in-the-back myth. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stab-in-the-back_myth. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Big_four.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_four.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen_Points#/media/File:Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike World War I. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Paris Peace Conference. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference%2C_1919. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Treaty of Versailles. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Carthaginian peace. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carthaginian_peace. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Big_four.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_four.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen_Points#/media/File:Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike William_Orpen_u2013_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright World War I. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike League of Nations. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Big_four.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Big_four.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteen_Points#/media/File:Wilsons_Fourteen_Points_--_European_Baby_Show.png. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike William_Orpen_u2013_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William_Orpen_%E2%80%93_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors,_Versailles_1919,_Ausschnitt.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.317901	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87967/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, European Imperialism and Crises 1871-1919 CE", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87726/overview	American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) Student Ethics Essay 2022 Overview This assignment was developed for an undergraduate course in communication sciences and disorders. Assignment Guidelines ASHA SEEA Competition 2022 Assignment Guidelines You will write and submit an essay to the ASHA Student Ethics Essay Award (SEEA) competition. Detailed information about the competition and instructions for writing your essay can be found at the website ASHA Student Ethics Essay Award. Purpose The purpose of this assignment is to help you develop and apply your understanding of the ASHA Code of Ethics. The knowledge and skills you will gain from this assignment will help you engage in ethical decision-making in future clinical experiences. Preparation In preparing to write your essay, you should: - Read the Topic Background section at the website provided above. - Review some of the examples of previous awardees at Student Ethics Essay Award Recipients. Note that these examples are not based on the same topic about which you will be writing. Deadlines Deadlines for submitting this assignment are in the syllabus calendar. Drafts You will submit drafts of sections of your essay prior to the ASHA submission deadline. The purpose of submitting drafts is so that I can provide you with feedback for crafting your final submission. You are expected to integrate all feedback into your drafts to strengthen them for each round of revisions. Drafts will not be graded - only the final submission (see below) will be graded. The sections of the essay are: Introduction - This section includes the scenario you have devised and transitions to the body of the essay. Body - In this section, you will demonstrate your knowledge of ethics and how they are applied to the scenario. This is the longest section of your paper. Summary/Conclusion - In this section, you will summarize and connect all of the information you have presented in the intro and body, and leave the reader with a sense of closure. Title - Your essay must have a title! Sometimes it works better if you wait till you are finished writing to select a title. Final Submission The final assignment submission process entails 2 steps: - Submit your final draft through the SEEA Submission Portal. - Submit your final draft AND proof of your ASHA submission to the appropriate Folio dropbox. Rubric The rubric for the assignment is based on the evaluation criteria for the competition. This work by April Garrity is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Assignment Rubric See attached resources for Google Drive link to evaluation rubric	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.344732	Homework/Assignment	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87726/overview", "title": "American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) Student Ethics Essay 2022", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65793/overview	Contingent Decision Making Overview Gives an idea about Contingent decision Making Definition of Contingent Decision Making “Contingent decision making refers to that type of decision making where people make their purchase decision during an unplanned and contingent situation which need immediate solution but not necessarily void of rationality”.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.401413	04/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65793/overview", "title": "Contingent Decision Making", "author": "Sanjay Rizal" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105684/overview	Writing WeBWorK problems in a Differential Equations Class Overview This was an assignment in a junior-level Differential Equations class at Fitchburg State University. It was also part of an Open Pedagogy group in which all participants produced materials for a class in an Open Pedagogy sense. The goal of the group was twofold: 1) to learn what open pedagogy is, both in the general sense as well as in one's particular academic field and 2) to develop an Open Pedagogy assignment in a current or future class. Assignment: Create WeBWorK problems in a differential equation class Although this was a very specific example in a specific course, this assignment can be generalized to other courses using WeBWorK or other platforms. This is a multistage project to create some WeBWorK problems. In short, you will write 3 WeBWorK problems that come from differential equations. Stage 1: Write out the text of 3 problems. The problems can come from any of the topics that we have (or will cover). You may want to look ahead to some of the other chapters instead of looking back. The problems that you pick - should be able to be randomized. That is, there should be specific parameters in the problem that can give unique problems to students. - should be from different parts/chapters of the course. - may have the ability to include plots, but not required. The first stage of this is due on XXXXX and you can simply write out problems that you are interested in. Explain what parts of the problem will be randomized. You should also provide a solution written up for the problem. Stage 2: Take the 3 problems and create actual webwork problems. You will have access to an editing environment and there will be a session on creating and editing problems. For this stage, I will give you access to a webwork course where you can do some editing of the problems. I will provide a workshop for one of the days to get you started as well as giving sample problems that you can use to build on. There is always a little bit of coding needed and I'm happy to help you through this. For each of the 3 problems: - make sure there is randomization - give metadata at the top of the problem. This includes your name, date, institution (Fitchburg State) and subject/chapter/section for the problem. The chapter will be Differential Equations. You can look in the Library Brower for other problems to determine the chapter and section. - give a solution to your problem coded up in the solution section of the problem Stage 2 will be due on XXXX and your three problems should be written up in full with randomization. Stage 3: A few days after Stage 2 is completed, you will receive feedback. Please incorporate any recommended changes to your problems and submit by XXXX Learning Objectives and Grading Rubric Learning Objectives Students will be able to - Develop problems in Differential Equations - Think broadly about a mathematical problem - Use a programming language to create random problems and solutions Grading the Project Since this is a unique project, I want to lay out a grading rubric. The total number of possible points is 100. First, overall, you should select problems from different chapters/parts of the course (max 10 points) For each problem, - Create a working problem with some randomization that will give quite a few unique problems. (15 pts) - Ensure that all of the metadata is entered correctly. (5 pts) - A solution to the problem with the proper randomization. (10 pts)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.418421	Peter Staab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105684/overview", "title": "Writing WeBWorK problems in a Differential Equations Class", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106783/overview	Consultation Model Overview The following resource provides an overview of the consultation model within the school-based system. The resources provided are recommended to assist new hires in orienting themselves to this model especially if they're transitioning from a medical mode/private practice setting. Consultation Model In order to help new therapists understand how their role differs from a medical or private practice setting, the following resources are provided: Physical and Occupational Therapy under IDEA in Oregon: Early Intervention, Early Childhood and School Age Special Education in Educational Setting Rifton Blog "Beyond The Medical Model" School-Based PT 101 (Pink Oatmeal) Consultation, Collaboration and Coaching (75 min recorded session) Suggest activities include: Discussion: What does it mean to be a consultant? Discussion: How/when are direct services selected? Discussion: Direct service within the consult model Discussion: Effective consultation strategies Discussion: Data collection and monitoring as a consultant Consider having new therapists complete some shadowing with experienced therapists	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.438083	07/17/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106783/overview", "title": "Consultation Model", "author": "Nathaniel Baniqued" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66159/overview	Size and shape of viruses Viral Replication INTRODUCTION TO VIRUSES Overview This resource has an overview of the size,shape,replication and cultivation of viruses. Introduction to Viruses In 1898, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch found evidence that the cause of foot-and-mouth disease in livestock was an infectious particle smaller than any bacteria. This was the first clue to the nature of viruses, genetic entities that lie somewhere in the grey area between living and non-living states. Viruses depend on the host cells that they infect to reproduce. When found outside of host cells, viruses exist as a protein coat or capsid, sometimes enclosed within a membrane. The capsid encloses either DNAor RNA which codes for the virus elements. When it comes into contact with a host cell, a virus can insert its genetic material into its host, literally taking over the host's functions. An infected cell produces more viral protein and genetic material instead of its usual products. Some viruses may remain dormant inside host cells for long periods, causing no obvious change in their host cells (a stage known as the lysogenic phase). But when a dormant virus is stimulated, it enters the lytic phase: new viruses are formed, self-assemble, and burst out of the host cell, killing the cell and going on to infect other cells. The diagram below at right shows a virus that attacks bacteria, known as the lambda bacteriophage, which measures roughly 200 nanometers. Viruses cause a number of diseases in eukaryotes. In humans, smallpox, the common cold, chickenpox, influenza, shingles, herpes, polio, rabies, Ebola, hanta fever, and AIDS are examples of viral diseases. Even some types of cancer -- though definitely not all -- have been linked to viruses. Viruses themselves have no fossil record, but it is quite possible that they have left traces in the history of life. It has been hypothesized that viruses may be responsible for some of the extinctions seen in the fossil record (Emiliani, 1993). It was once thought by some that outbreaks of viral disease might have been responsible for mass extinctions, such as the extinction of the dinosaurs and other life forms. This theory is hard to test but seems unlikely, since a given virus can typically cause disease only in one species or in a group of related species. Even a hypothetical virus that could infect and kill all dinosaurs, 65 million years ago, could not have infected the ammonites or foraminifera that also went extinct at the same time. On the other hand, because viruses can transfer genetic material between different species of host, they are extensively used in genetic engineering. Viruses also carry out natural "genetic engineering": a virus may incorporate some genetic material from its host as it is replicating, and transfer this genetic information to a new host, even to a host unrelated to the previous host. This is known as transduction, and in some cases it may serve as a means of evolutionary change -- although it is not clear how important an evolutionary mechanism transduction actually is. Replication of viruses As viruses are obligate intracellular pathogens they cannot replicate without the machinery and metabolism of a host cell. Although the replicative life cycle of viruses differs greatly between species and category of virus, there are six basic stages that are essential for viral replication. 1. Attachment: Viral proteins on the capsid or phospholipid envelope interact with specific receptors on the host cellular surface. This specificity determines the host range (tropism) of a virus. 2. Penetration: The process of attachment to a specific receptor can induce conformational changes in viral capsid proteins, or the lipid envelope, that results in the fusion of viral and cellular membranes. Some DNA viruses can also enter the host cell through receptor-mediated endocytosis. 3. Uncoating: The viral capsid is removed and degraded by viral enzymes or host enzymes releasing the viral genomic nucleic acid. 4. Replication: After the viral genome has been uncoated, transcription or translation of the viral genome is initiated. It is this stage of viral replication that differs greatly between DNA and RNA viruses and viruses with opposite nucleic acid polarity. This process culminates in the de novo synthesis of viral proteins and genome. 5. Assembly: After de novo synthesis of viral genome and proteins, which can be post-transrciptionally modified, viral proteins are packaged with newly replicated viral genome into new virions that are ready for release from the host cell. This process can also be referred to as maturation. 6. Virion release: There are two methods of viral release: lysis or budding. Lysis results in the death of an infected host cell, these types of viruses are referred to as cytolytic. An example is variola major also known as smallpox. Enveloped viruses, such as influenza A virus, are typically released from the host cell by budding. It is this process that results in the acquisition of the viral phospholipid envelope. These types of virus do not usually kill the infected cell and are termed cytopathic viruses. After virion release some viral proteins remain within the host’s cell membrane, which acts as potential targets for circulating antibodies. Residual viral proteins that remain within the cytoplasm of the host cell can be processed and presented at the cell surface on MHC class-I molecules, where they are recognised by T cells. Cultivation of viruses - Viruses are obligate intracellular parasites so they depend on host for their survival. - They cannot be grown in non-living culture media or on agar plates alone, they must require living cells to support their replication. - The primary purposes of virus cultivation is: - To isolate and identify viruses in clinical samples. Demonstration of virus in appropriate clinical specimens by culture establishes diagnosis of viral diseases. - To do research on viral structure, replication, genetics and effects on host cell. - To prepare viruses for vaccine production. - Isolation of virus is always considered as a gold standard for establishing viral etiology of a disease. - Most of the viruses can be cultivated in - Experimental animals - Embryonated eggs or - Tissue culture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.467002	05/04/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66159/overview", "title": "INTRODUCTION TO VIRUSES", "author": "Sheela S" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105166/overview	AFFECTIVE-BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Overview Affective Assessment is an assessment based on the student's attitudes, interest and values. Affective Domain .The Affective Taxonomy, which describes objectives that reflects underlying emotions, feelings, or values rather than cognitive or thought complexity AFFECTIVE-BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT Subject: Personal Development Grade Level: Grade 10 Topic: Coping with Stress INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES \| : At the end of the lesson the students with 80% of accuracy should have: - Understand the basic principles of stress management. - Recognize your stress triggers and how to manage them. - Develop proactive responses to stressful situations.. ASSESSMENT TASK: • To evaluate students communication skills in terms of coping with stress INSTRUCTIONS: Materials: Self- Report Questionnaires Process/ Mechanics: • School will provide a workshop seminar to trade ideas, thoughts, and view on how the students can cope up with stress • Before the workshop seminar, dissiminate the student self-report questionnaires, then the questionnaires will be administered at the end of term to view the improvement of the students Tips & Reminder: - Take care of yourself. Eat healthy, exercise, get plenty of sleep, and give yourself a break if you feel stressed out. And then - Recognize when you need more help. If problems continue and the teacher/facilitator cannot help you out, or you are thinking about suicide, talk to a psychologist, social worker, or professional counselor. Time frame: - Approximately a hour or so on. Submission: The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. RUBRICS: Instructions: Teachers/Facilitators will use this Self- Report Questionnaires to their students in coping with stress. - The questionnaire should be shared with the students before the assessment will begin, in order the student will know on how they will be evaluated - The questionnaire will be use to evaluate and finalize the overall student performance - The submission due date will be communicated by the teacher or facilitator. - Teachers should introduce the questionnaire and explain its components and criteria to the students - Students should familiarize themselves with the questionnaire, understanding the criteria and expectations for each component (RATING SCALE) DIRECTION: Put the score on the column for each of the statements as it applies to you. Use 1 to 5, one being the lowest and 5 the highest possible score. \| SCORE \| \| \| \| \| (valuing/ self-confidence) \| \| (characterizing/self-confidence) \| \| (receiving/self-confidence) \| \| (organizing/attitude) \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| REFERENCES: (APA, categorized, alphabetical) Online Sources: https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/about/copingwith-stresstips.html https://pmctraining.com/site/training-course/stress-management-skills/ Learning Materials: Affective Assessment. (2022). Retrieved from https://www.studocu.com/ph/document/university-of-southern-mindanao/bseducation/learning-materials-affective-assessment/36810487 Books: Journals: PREPARED BY: DUMDUM, MARIAN ANGELI A. (marianangeli.dumdum@ctu.edu.ph) May 2023 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.514255	06/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105166/overview", "title": "AFFECTIVE-BASED AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT", "author": "Marian Angeli Dumdum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/52825/overview	Video: domestic violence Overview The students will raise awareness of the problem of domestic violence and learn about how to create a digital video. Section 1 The students will raise awareness of the problem of domestic violence and learn about how to create a digital video.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.530820	Jose Nobre	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/52825/overview", "title": "Video: domestic violence", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66421/overview	The History and Importance of the Magna Carta Magna Carta Overview In this lesson there is a video presentation that goes over the Anarchy, King Henry II, King Richard, King John, the Articles of Barons, and the Magna Carta. There is also a 10 question quiz that goes over information learned in the presentation. Magna Carta The video presentation is an overview of the history and importance of the Magna Carta. It goes over the Anarchy, King Henry II's family, the civil war that led to King Richard's crowning, and the crusades that led to England's debt. It also covers the actions of King John, the Articles of Barons, and finally, the Magna Carta itself. The second attatchment is a quiz that goes over a few major points of the presentation as well as some interesting facts.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.548736	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66421/overview", "title": "Magna Carta", "author": "Lecture" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64313/overview	Measures of Central Tendency Overview This lesson will be a fun way for students to be create and use the collected data to find the measures of central tendency. Goal for today: This lesson will be a fun way to collect data, that will then be used to find the measures of central tendency. Calculating the measures of central tendency using using paper airplanes. What are measures of central tendency? What is the mean? How do I find it? Data set 1: 9, 3, 5, 7, 6 Find the mean: First add the numbers. 9+3+5+7+6=30 Then divide the sum by the number of numbers in the set. 30/5=6 The mean is 6. What is the median? How do I find it? Data set 1: 9, 3, 5, 7, 6 Find the median: First, put the set of numbers in ascending order. 3 5 6 7 9 The 6 is in the middle of the set so the median of data set 1 is 6. Data set 2: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 Find the median: Put in ascending order 3 5 6 7 9 10 The 6 and 7 are in the middle of the set so the median is the average of those two numbers 6 + 7 = 13/2=6.5 The median is 6.5 What is the mode? How do I find it? Data Set 3: 11, 15, 15, 18, 10, 9 The mode is the most common number in the data set. The mode for this set is 15. Data Set 4: 5, 2, 9, 4, 6, 6, 2 The modes for this set are 2 and 6. They both occur twice. Data Set 5: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 No number happens more than any in the set so we say "No Mode". What can we use to collect data? Give the students this direction. Then sit back and see the students be creative and curious about their airplanes. They will experiment to see what works and what doesn't. I gave each student 3 pieces of typing paper and said they could throw their best 2. Today you will research and experiment to make the best paper airplane that you can. How far will it go? I took students out into the hall a few at a time. I laid a tape measure down on the ground. After the student threw their plane, they had to come and see what the measurment was. Many students did not know how to read the tape measure, so it was a teachable moment. They each got 2 throws and took the longest distance. When your planes are done, go out to the hall with the teacher to throw and measure. You each will have a practice throw and then 2 more throws. The longest throw will be the piece of data you will collect. Write it down. Looking at the data. Depending on the number of students in the class, you can use the data of the whole class, or divide them into managable sized groups to calculate the measures of central tendency. You could collect all the data in a spreadsheet and show a basic way to graph the data or the simple formulas you could use within the spread sheet. Or just make the information easier to see. In your groups you should collect the length of airplane throws from everyone. In your notebooks: Calculate the mean for the group. Calculate the median for the group. Calculate the mode for the group. Make an observation in your notebook about comparing your individual throw with the answers you got in the group. Is the same? higher? lower? Does that make sense? Why or why not?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.573167	Valerie Rosenthal	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64313/overview", "title": "Measures of Central Tendency", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65249/overview	Mental Health Provider Directory SENG Model Parent Groups Social Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG) Overview Supporting the Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG) is a national resource for exclusively social-emotional support. Founded in 1981 following the suicide of a gifted student attending the University of Michigan, the late James T. Webb. Unique to other resources presented, SENG offers a mental health provider directory and local parent groups, Seng Model Parent Groups (SMFG), listed by state. Facilitators who run the SMFG meetings support and guide parents through discussion groups as they struggle to parent their complex children.Three membership options are available: $99.00/annually, $12.00/monthly, or $12.00 trial membership. Membership carries many perks, ranging from discount codes to online support groups and conferences and more, as well as free subscription to SENGVINE. Supporting emotional needs of the gifted. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2020, from https://www.sengifted.org/ Social Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG) Supporting the Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG) is a national resource for exclusively social-emotional support. Founded in 1981 following the suicide of a gifted student attending the University of Michigan, the late James T. Webb. Unique to other resources presented, SENG offers a mental health provider directory and local parent groups, Seng Model Parent Groups (SMFG), listed by state. Facilitators who run the SMFG meetings support and guide parents through discussion groups as they struggle to parent their complex children.Three membership options are available: $99.00/annually, $12.00/monthly, or $12.00 trial membership. Membership carries many perks, ranging from discount codes to online support groups and conferences and more, as well as free subscription to SENGVINE. Supporting emotional needs of the gifted. (n.d.). Retrieved April 15, 2020, from https://www.sengifted.org/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.591897	04/14/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65249/overview", "title": "Social Emotional Needs of the Gifted (SENG)", "author": "Julie Cronin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78415/overview	Understanding Compassion Overview The purpose of this mini-lesson is for students to gain a better understanding of compassion and how it applies to the world around them. It is intended to be completed before starting a unit centered around the theme of compassion; however, this is very flexible and can be done at any point during a unit. Brain-Based Mini Lesson Brian-Based Lesson Lesson Objectives: \| \|\|\| \| Grade: 10th GradeTime frame: 25 mins \| Lesson Title: Understanding Compassion \| \|\| Brain-based Strategies Used in the Lesson: \| Formative or Summative Assessments: \| \|\| \| Prior to this lesson: What understanding and/or knowledge was taught prior? Where does this lesson fit in your unit?This lesson will introduce the unit “Examining Human Compassion”. This lesson will allow students to develop their own understanding of what compassion means, as well as how it applies to their own life before we begin our unit. Prior to the lesson, students will need to have an understanding of searching for images on Google or other search engines. With this, they will need to be familiar with either Google Drawings, Canva, or Piktochart to create their visual representation of compassion. They will also need to know how to properly cite a source using MLA formatting. \| \|\|\| \| Materials: Technology materials: \| \|\|\| Content Core Standard: CCSS.ELA-LITERACY.SL.9-10.5: Make strategic use of digital media (e.g., textual, graphical, audio, visual, and interactive elements) in presentations to enhance understanding of findings, reasoning, and evidence and to add interest. \| \|\|\| Technology used: \| \|\|\| \| Time \| Materials \| Lesson Procedures(Include the materials & technology.) \| \| \| 5Mins \| Laptop, Google Classroom access. \| Question on Google Classroom - What does compassion mean to you? (5 minutes to answer) \| \| \| 5 Mins. \| Compassion Activity Outline \| Use the responses from the warm-up to develop a class definition for compassion. Once we have developed a definition, the teacher will walk through Google Drawings, Canva, and Piktochart to remind students how to log into these platforms. \| \| \| 10 Mins \| Access to Google Drawings, Canva, or Piktochart \| Students will then create a visual exploring their own thoughts on the term compassion. They will find images, as well as a story, that are all examples of what compassion means to them. \| \| \| 5 Mins. \| Access to Google Classroom Discussion Post \| Students will then post their visual to a discussion board on Google classroom. For homework, they will review at least two other visuals posted by their peers and provide feedback. In this feedback they will compare their own visual with the visuals created by their peers. \| \| \| Homework or in-class assignment \| Assessment(s): (assignments and/or activities) \| All materials for this lesson can be found on this document or on the Assignment Outline.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.613961	Interactive	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/78415/overview", "title": "Understanding Compassion", "author": "Diagram/Illustration" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73342/overview	Museum Virtual Tour Vatican Roman Art and Architecture Overview Two interactive assinments to accompany a section on the Roman World Roman Architecture and Art This Lesson accompanies the section form the class text on “The Roman World” (Ch 26 Sec. 2)[1] Watch this 10 minute video on the Roman Colosseum Answer the following questions. (15 Points total 5 points per question) 1. Why and when did the Colosseum get its name? Does it have a different one? What is it? 2. Why was the Colosseum built? By whom? 3. List three events that took place at the Colosseum, along with the time of day the events were held. Go to the Vatican museum website and move around the virtual tours page, select at least 4 rooms out of the 18 available online. Pay attention to the art styles used in each room along with the subjects and medium used. Each student will choose to create their own mosaic or mural art piece. You will not be graded on the artistic skill of the piece, but effort in it needs to be seen. Your subject does not have to be one that the Romans would have used, but they do need to be in those categories. Such as: a person or a landscape. The idea is to use the Roman art style to create something that is meaningful to you. Rubric for Roman art project: 30 points total 15 points Presence of Roman Art Elements 15 points Creativity and Effort Vatican virtual tour webpage: http://www.museivaticani.va/content/museivaticani/en/collezioni/musei/tour-virtuali-elenco.1.html	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.635047	Christina Tourtelotte	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73342/overview", "title": "Roman Art and Architecture", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96275/overview	Tree and Branches Overview In this lesson, students will recognize and celebrate their differences and diversity within their classroom community by creating a classroom tree to display. Additionally, they will discuss the importance of inclusivity and acceptance. Lesson Overview Introduction In this lesson, students will recognize and celebrate their differences and diversity within their classroom community by creating a classroom tree to display. Additionally, they will discuss the importance of inclusivity and acceptance. Grades K – 3 Themes - Inclusion - Belonging - Respectfulness - Kindness - Acceptance Objectives During this lesson, students will: - Explore similarities and differences among the classroom community - Recognize the importance of demonstrating inclusion and acceptance of others Essential Questioning Students should be able to answer these questions by the end of this lesson: - How can I demonstrate inclusion and acceptance of others? - What makes me unique and special? Indiana Academic Standards INSS.ELA – K.SL.1 - Listen actively and communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. INSS.ELA – 1.SL.1 - Listen actively and adjust the use of spoken language (e.g., vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. INSS.ELA – 2.SL.1 - Listen actively and adjust the use of spoken language (e.g., conventions, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. INSS.ELA – 3-4.SL.1 - Listen actively and adjust the use of spoken language (e.g., conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of audiences and for different purposes. Download the attached PDF document for complete lesson materials. Download the attached Word document for a fully accessible document. Coming Soon	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.658241	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96275/overview", "title": "Tree and Branches", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93219/overview	Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation and its significance, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole and build toward a particular tone and outcome (e.g., a sense of mystery, suspense, growth, or resolution). Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation and its significance, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole and build toward a particular tone and outcome (e.g., a sense of mystery, suspense, growth, or resolution). Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Learning Domain: Writing Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Write narratives to develop real or imagined experiences or events using effective technique, well-chosen details, and well-structured event sequences. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Engage and orient the reader by setting out a problem, situation, or observation and its significance, establishing one or multiple point(s) of view, and introducing a narrator and/or characters; create a smooth progression of experiences or events. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use narrative techniques, such as dialogue, pacing, description, reflection, and multiple plot lines, to develop experiences, events, and/or characters. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use a variety of techniques to sequence events so that they build on one another to create a coherent whole and build toward a particular tone and outcome (e.g., a sense of mystery, suspense, growth, or resolution). Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Use precise words and phrases, telling details, and sensory language to convey a vivid picture of the experiences, events, setting, and/or characters. Cluster: Text Types and Purposes. Standard: Provide a conclusion that follows from and reflects on what is experienced, observed, or resolved over the course of the narrative.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.725739	Activity/Lab	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93219/overview", "title": "Content of Your Character", "author": "Sociology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22483/overview	Presentation Video Student Worksheet Teacher Answer Key Answer Key - The Pearl Student Worksheet Teacher Slides - The Pearl by John Steinbeck - PowerPoint The Pearl Student Worksheet Video Presentation - The Pearl by John Steinbeck Explained The Pearl by John Steinbeck - Diving Deeper Overview The following resources are aids to help you understand and dive deeper into John Steinbeck's novel, The Pearl. The resources to the right are learnings aids and a Check Your Understanding Assessment. The video includes audio and more information on the Presentation. However, if you missed something, you can go back through the slides at your own pace. The student worksheet can be used as a check your understanding or notes while the student watches the videos or as an assessment to check understanding. The teacher answer key has answers to the student worksheet. Clicking View will allow you to view the slide on Google slides, the video on Vimeo, and the worksheets in Google Docs. Simply make copies of the Student Worksheet by going File, Make a copy, inside Google Docs, if students are filling out online. Otherwise, simply print the document as is. Created by a high student, for high school students. Presentation Content & Student Worksheet This is a resource that summarizes The Pearl by John Steinbeck intended for high school students. The original slides are attached but the slide content is quite vague. However, a video presentation of the slides is included, which presents information about the Pearl. Additionally, while students watch the video, they can fill out the provide student worksheet. This worksheet is intended to check understanding and ensure students are paying attention to the video. Includes: - Teacher presenter slides on The Pearl by John Steinbeck - Video presentation (uses presenter slides) about The Pearl - provides answer to Student Worksheet - Student Worksheet - Student Worksheet Answer Key	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.747556	Melanie Spence	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/22483/overview", "title": "The Pearl by John Steinbeck - Diving Deeper", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69702/overview	All Kinds of STEM: Oil Spill Cleaner-Upper Overview Oil spill cleaner-upper \| micro:bit Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing states and least-developed countries. This activity is in two parts, you can do either part – or both. The first part can be completed with no additional hardware or even micro:bits, comprising a challenge to design an efficient algorithm to clean an area of sea. The second part builds on this to create an autonomous vehicle that can mop up oil spills. Design Challenge Title: Oil spill cleaner-upper Author(s): Janice Beitzel, Heather Brown, Lori Blantz, Erica Peterson, Andi Fellows \| Background and Question/Challenge: Oil spill cleaner-upper \| micro:bit Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the development of developing countries, in particular small island developing states and least-developed countries.This activity is in two parts, you can do either part – or both. The first part can be completed with no additional hardware or even micro:bits, comprising a challenge to design an efficient algorithm to clean an area of sea. The second part builds on this to create an autonomous vehicle that can mop up oil spills. \| \| \| SDG Goal: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development \| Why is this challenge relevant to students? Healthy oceans and seas are essential to our existence. They cover 70% of our planet and we rely on them for food, energy and water, yet we have managed to do tremendous damage to these precious resources. We must protect them by eliminating pollution and overfishing and immediately start to responsibly manage and protect all marine life around the world. \| \| Constraints/Criteria: Based on the individual needs and student choice:Some students will work on the code/microbitSome students will create a spill proof matSome students will create a device to pick up the oil from the water \| Materials: Microbit: \| \| Math, Science, T&E, CS Standards: 3.1.12.A1.Relate changes in the environment to various organisms’ ability to compensate using homeostatic mechanisms 3.3.10.A5. Explain how there is only one ocean. Explain the processes of the hydrologic cycle. Explain the dynamics of oceanic currents and their relationship to global circulation within the marine environment.3.4.10.C1. Apply the components of the technological design process.3.4.10.C2. Analyze a prototype and/or create a working model to test a design concept by making actual observations and necessary adjustments.3.4.10.C2. Analyze a prototype and/or create a working model to test a design concept by making actual observations and necessary adjustments.3A-AP-19 Systematically design and develop programs for broad audiences by incorporating feedback from users.CC.2.2.HS.D.7 Create and graph equations or inequalities to describe numbers or relationships.CC.2.4.HS.B.1 Summarize, represent, and interpret data on a single count or measurement variable.CC.2.4.HS.B.5 Make inferences and justify conclusions based on sample surveys, experiments, and observational studies. \| \| Problem Solving Practice(s)/Process(s): Design Thinking \| Coding Activities/Lessons: The build:· Introduce the concept of the paddle wheel and why we need two servos (to allow steering)· If needed, look at the suggested design for the boat and discuss· Introduce the servo control board and if needed go over how to add the extension to MakeCode· Encourage learners to design the algorithm and the boat before making it, encourage them to consider the materials and their suitability for use on water· Provide the learners with the activity sheet, micro:bits and making resources, learners will need to extend the algorithm as only the first two steps are demonstrated· Troubleshoot the making and programming and intervene where necessary· Remind learners to refer back to the success criteria \| STEM Career Connections: \| Literature Connections:Key words:· Sensors - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor· Node - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)· Gateway - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Default_gatewayBig data - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_dataShort Stories/ Books: \| \| Attachments/Student Handouts: Oil Spill Cleaner-UpperAlternate/ Additional Assignments:Operation Oil Spill Lab- Create Oil Cleanup Device/TechniqueSpill Proof Mat Lesson PPT for teacher \| \| \| Additional Resources/Notes: \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.774090	Heather Brown	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69702/overview", "title": "All Kinds of STEM: Oil Spill Cleaner-Upper", "author": "Lori Blantz" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64667/overview	OER and Google Classroom Overview OER to demonstrate OER used in Google Classroom Introduction This OER will be used to demonstrate the import of a Google Document into OER Commons and back again. Google Apps for Education (GAFE) Tools Why? “Artifacts” created with GAFE Tools are able to be collaborated on, shared with others. Shared to a variety of individuals: within a domain, with anyone with a shared link, or with anyone on the Internet. “Artifacts” can easily be organized in Google Classroom which provides additional structure for use in education. Sidebar: So why not use Google Classroom? Google Classroom provides limited time on task data. Attendance data and ‘seat time’ is limited/non-existent, respectively. If more detailed tracking/reporting is required, a Learning Management System (LMS) may be advisable. LMS options for many districts include: Toolset Google Doc Microsoft Equivalent: Word Word processing Google Spreadsheet Microsoft Equivalent: Excel Spreadsheet applications and also online data extraction and munging or wrangling. Google Slides Microsoft Equivalent: PowerPoint Slides and publications Google Keep Microsoft Equivalent: OneNote Online note taking tool Google Form Microsoft Equivalent: SharePoint (Forms) “Survey-based” application which allow information to be collected and stored in a Google Spreadsheet.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:57.789666	03/29/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/64667/overview", "title": "OER and Google Classroom", "author": "Thomas McClain" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106640/overview	Statistics/Data Analytics Overview Basic Statistics for Non Mathematical Backgraound Basic Statistics for Non-Mathematical Background Basic_Statistics_for_Non_Mathematical_Backgraound.rtf Introduction In the recent decades, we have witnessed tremendous development in technology. As a result Indian Government has is opting for digitization of many systems and bring transparency in paying taxes, crediting subsidies and many more. Most of the banks have computerised their traditional processes. Across the countries in the world, organizations and individuals are adopting digitization of processes. This enables people to store large size information. Thus, huge amount of data is generated by the computers. Information and technology experts have developed new and efficient software to analyse the data. Now government, corporate and NGOs have plenty of data which can be used for decision making. Question is how to use the data? This has created new jobs for developing various software for different purposes to analyse the data. Before we think of advanced analysis, basic knowledge in statistics is needed. It easy to use the software but what statistical tool should be used for required solution is to be known. Purpose of this book is meant for explain basic statistics using data available in public domain. In recent years Government of India releases data on their government data portal. RBI publishes data on their website. List of the websites for availing data is provided at the end of the book. Book is organised in 9 chapters. Data used for analysis is provided in excel sheet for each of the topic. Analysis of data using excel is shown in the same sheet. Interpretation and procedure for analysing is explained in the text. Prerequisites of Data Analytics Data analytics is about organising, analysing the data in business or social sciences and presenting the information which is easy to understand. This can be used to develop the insights. Question here is how data is collected. Data is obtained by measuring the object, subjects, or processes. Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules. In our routine life, size of the room is measured in length, width and hight. Size of class or theatre is measured in no of the people can be accommodated. Fruits and vegetables are measured in kilograms and grams. Volume of the container is measured in cubic meters or cubic litre. In business world performance of the product/services are measured in sale or demand. Similarly, performance of the governments is measured by measuring the satisfaction of the citizens. Thus, in our daily life measurement is everywhere. We record this information or data. All these measurements we mentioned are of different types or at different scale. We will briefly discuss different types of scales of data. There are four types of measurement scales. Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio level. Nominal Level In nominal scale, the numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects/subjects. The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects with one-to-one correspondence. For example, classification of employees into male and female or according to the position of the job. People can be classified according to the region, language, or religion. These are the examples where one can’t measure them but classify them in to classes. Ordinal Level Ordinal data include classification plus an indicator of order. Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. This data is one dimension only. Rank is very common example of ordinal scale. Performance of students, employees can be ranked according to their performance. Cities can be ranked according the safety of the people residing in the city. Many times, liking of the people is measured on 1 to 5 or 1-to-10-point scale. Where each number indicates liking of the people in order. 5 or 10 indicates the highest liking and 1 is the lowest. This is known as Likert scale. Rate your mobile services on 1-7 point scale Poor……………………………………………………Excellent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Rate your brand according to preference Most Preferred Somewhat preferred No preference 1 2 3 Interval Level Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. It permits comparison of the differences between objects. The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. For example, percentage of employment. Or percentage of the people who are vaccinated for covid 19. Ratio level Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales plus it has an absolute zero or origin point. Zero value in data represents that characteristic being studied is absent in data. It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. For example, Height, weight, time, volume. Data Summarization It is essential to understand the data we want to analyse. Question is how to do it. Two aspects of understanding data: develop the clarity on definition of variables in the data. Second is, to have grip on the data in the case of large size and this can be done visually as well as numerically. Understanding of the data can be developed by summarizing the data. Summary figures represent the entire data. There are different ways of summarising the data. Most common methods of developing summary are, Graphical(visual), Tabular and Numerical. Choice of the method depends upon; type of data under consideration and purpose of the analyser. Analyser can summarise data by one or more than one method according to the need. Graphical Summary - Consider the Data on estimated GROSS VALUE ADDED at Constant price with base year 2011-12 from RBI. This is quarterly data from the year 2011-12 to first two quarters of the year 2021-22. Table 2. Estimated Gross Value Added at Constant Price (Base Year 2011-12). (File includes the data file and graphical summary of data.) This is time series data. Analyser would like to know variation over a period of time under consideration. In this case best way is to plot a line chart as exhibited in the figure 1. Figure 1. Yearly Gross Value Added at Basic price. How to read the graph? Graph shows that Gross value is increasing marginally till the quarter 4 of the financial year 2019-20. Then suddenly is reduced in quarter 1 of the financial year 2020-21 which is effect of pandemic COVID. And increasing again from the next quarter. Thus, simple line graph summarises the entire data and reveals the characteristics of the data. Now this insight can be helpful for developing statistical model. - Let us consider the data set for number of persons educated in 23 districts of Andhra Pradesh. This is data available on Census of India 2011 website. Researcher wants to know what is the education status in various districts. Which district has maximum number of educated people. OR which district has low number of educated persons. Data also provides separately for males and females. Understanding of this data will help government or NGOs, where to promote education or needs more schools. Industrialists can use this understanding to decide what kind of industry to set up based on educated persons. Graphical summary of this data is done by plotting simple bar charts. As shown in the figure. Data and graphs are provided in the following worksheet. Let us consider first the number of persons. Bar chart for this data is as shown in figure 2. Graph shows that Hyderabad and Rangareddy has maximum number of educated persons and there are quite a few districts where number of educated persons are very less. Data is also about number of educated males and females separately. Suppose analyser wants to comparison of all the three data series then again bar chart will be very useful as given in the figure 3. Figure 3 reveals that uniformly in all the districts, number of graduate females are much less compared to males. Thus, simple graphical display of data makes it easy to develop insights of data. Option to Bar chart: Option to bar chart is pie chart. Let us consider only number of female graduates. Figure 4 Conclusion from Graphical summary of data: It is very easy to understand and develop insights of data by plotting simple graphs. How to plot graphs in excel? - Select the data array to graph. - Click on Insert - There are options for the graph - Select the type of graph - Output is desired graph Data for practice Tabular Summary of Data: Sample survey was conducted to know the favourite colour of shampoo they use. 66 persons participated in a survey. Data can be tabulated as follow. Count of RespondentNo \| \| FavouriteShampooColour \| Total \| Black \| 13 \| Blue \| 13 \| Green \| 4 \| Pink \| 5 \| Red \| 6 \| White \| 24 \| Yellow \| 1 \| (blank) \| \| Grand Total \| 66 \| This is very common way of preparing tables. Secondly consider the data on Industrial connections in towns of Gujarat from census of India 2011. Data is on number of connections in a town. Gujarat has 348 towns and census has recorded the no of industrial connections in each town. Data for each town does not reveal much. We need to summarise the data in such way it is easy to understand. Data is provided in a following table. Most appropriate way of summarising the data is to develop a table, indicates the pattern in the data. Here analyser’s or government’s interest can be to understand the distribution of towns with number of connections. The number of connections perceived to be similar are grouped to gather and number of towns in the group as shown in the table. No of Towns in a Group with Industrial Connections \| \| 0-150 \| 210 \| 151-300 \| 56 \| 301-450 \| 14 \| 451-600 \| 16 \| 601-750 \| 10 \| 751-900 \| 8 \| 901-1050 \| 8 \| 1051-1200 \| 3 \| Above 1200 \| 23 \| Total \| 348 \| Table shows that there are 210 towns with number of connections between 0-150. There are only 3 towns in Gujarat has number of connections between 1051 -1200. And 23 towns have number of connections above 1200. Table can be presented graphically. Graph shows very uneven pattern. Policy makers can use this to increase the number of connections or industrialist can decide where set up a new industrial unit. Figure 6 Cross Tab: Consider the data on consumer survey. Data includes consumer’s name, Education, and Income of the family. Researcher wants to understand the association between education of the person and income of the family. Data is as follow. To understand the association between the two characteristics; one should think of developing the cross tab. Numerical summary: Numerical summary is the most common method of summarising the data. In numerical summary we want represent the characteristics of the entire data with one or two numbers. (A)Numerical summary can tell us central point of the data. This means that majority data points are closed or equal to this value. When we want to understand central tendency of the data, there are three measures; mean, median and mode. For example, score of the 10 students is as follow: {35, 34, 37, 35, 34, 35, 37, 38, 38, 37} All the score values are between 34 and 38. Line plot is as follow We can say that overall students have scored 36 points. We can say that score is around 36 OR centre of this data is 36. In statistical language it is called mean of the data. Thus 10 figures of the data set are represented by simply one number =36. Which in usually known as mean or average of the data. Mean = Sum of all the number / number of datapoints = 360/10 =36 Statistical Notations: In statistics, we use the notations and formulas for expressing the same. Score values for 10 students varies and so we call it variables. For variables, usually small letters of alphabets are used. Score values are x1,x2,x3,x4,x5,x6,x7,x8,x9,x10. Instead of writing this way, we write xi where i=1,2,…………….10 Mean ={x1+x2+x3…………….+X10 }/10 OR Mean = Median: It is not possible to accept the mean as average of the data when extreme values are present in the data. For example, if data points are; 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, 16,16,17,19,19, 20, 21, 22. We can observe that data points are not closed by, some are small and some are relatively big numbers. Thus, numbers are not approximately uniform. In such cases, to use mean as average or representative of data is not right. We prefer median. Median is the middle value in the ordered data. If data is not ordered, then should be ordered in ascending or descending order. Choose the middle value as median Advantage of median is, it is not affected by extreme values. In the above dataset, middle value is 15. Median=15. Mode: Is the most frequent number appearing in the data set. For example, if data set is of the numbers; 12, 15, 25,16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 18, 18. Number 18 is occurring most frequently. Mode=18. All the three averages can be found using excel. Consider the data in earlier used for percentages of slum population. Now the question is; is it fair to say overall data points are equivalent to the mean? When we say data points are equal to average, we miss the information that some of the data points are at distance from the average. Thus, we need to know what is the spread of the data. In statistics, data spread is measured mainly two ways. - Range= Maximum value -Minimum value - Variance or Standard Deviation This second method of measuring the spread or dispersion of the data is more scientific. It takes into account the distance between each of the data point and the mean of the data. Let us first understand the formula and calculation of variance and standard deviation. Variance = Standard Deviation = Formula for variance is an average squared distance between each of the value and mean of the data. Formula for standard deviation is positive square root of the variance. This indicates the average absolute distance between each of the data point and mean. Let us understand this through calculations as shown in the following table. Score (xi) \| Mean \| Difference \| Square of Difference \| 35 \| 36 \| -1 \| 1 \| 34 \| 36 \| -2 \| 4 \| 37 \| 36 \| 1 \| 1 \| 35 \| 36 \| -1 \| 1 \| 34 \| 36 \| -2 \| 4 \| 35 \| 36 \| -1 \| 1 \| 37 \| 36 \| 1 \| 1 \| 38 \| 36 \| 2 \| 4 \| 38 \| 36 \| 2 \| 4 \| 37 \| 36 \| 1 \| 1 \| \| \| Total \| 22 \| Detailed calculations are shown in the table. Variance 22. Standard deviation is square root of the variance =4.69 Percentiles of the data: Percentile of the data which divide the data into 100 parts. At least n% of the data lie below the nth percentile, and at most (100 - n) % of the data lie above the nth percentile. Example: 90th percentile indicates that at least 90% of the data lie below it, and at most 10% of the data lie above it. The median and the 50th percentile have the same value. Quartiles of the data: Quartile is the value which divide the data into four parts. Q1: 25% of the data set is below the first quartile Q2: 50% of the data set is below the second quartile Q3: 75% of the data set is below the third quartile Q1 is equal to the 25th percentile Q2 is located at 50th percentile and equals median Q3 is equal to the 75th percentile Introduction to Probability Everyone wants to predict the future based on what happened in the past or what is happening presently. In some of the instances, as a lay person, in general conversation when you predict, it is casual statement based on your experience or intuitions. For example, predictions from the doctors and many researchers about third wave of covid 19 peak and when it will reside. These are based on the past data we had from India and other countries. No one predict with 100% accuracy. There is always degree of uncertainty. This is where role of statistician comes into picture. Statisticians can’t predict with 100% accuracy but they can tell us what is the degree of certainty or uncertainty in prediction. Which can help us in taking decision with known risk. When statistician/ mathematicians make a statement on predictions, it is based on the actual past data with degree of certainty. Statistician/ mathematicians have developed the measure of degree of certainty or uncertainty known as probability. Definition of Probability There are two approaches to define probability; classical approach and empirical approach. Classical Approach to define probability: In a classical approach, we know the total possible events likely to occur. For example, if toss the coin, we know that head or tail will occur without actually tossing the coin. Similarly, if we throw a die, we know that totally six possible events can occur. Each of these events are mutually exclusive. If head occurs then tail does not. Thus, there number of such cases, in which we know the total number of possible events will occur. If we want to find the probability of occurrence of a particular event, then probability of desirable event is P(E)=p= Number of desirable events / Total possible number of events For example, probability of a head will occur in a toss of coin is = Probability of occurrence of head / Total number possible events = 1/2 Practical Applicability of Classical Probability In real world, there are many situations where possible outcomes are known and we want to find out the probability of the desirable event. For example, while checking the quality of the product, one wants to know what is the probability that product is defective. Marketer could be interested in knowing the probability that a particular product out of known number of products is preferred by the customer. In this case also total number of possible events are known and probability of favourable event is of interest. There are many such situations where number of possible outcomes are known and we want to find out probability of a specific event. Empirical Approach to Define Probability: To find the probability by this approach, one needs to conduct the experiment of interest. Based on the data collected though experiment is used to calculate the probability. Consider the example in summarisation of data as follow. Sample survey was conducted to know the favourite colour of shampoo they use. 200 persons participated in a survey. Data can be tabulated as follow. Colour of Shampoo \| No of Persons \| White \| 50 \| Black \| 40 \| Red \| 18 \| Yellow \| 15 \| Green \| 20 \| Blue \| 12 \| Pink \| 45 \| Total \| 200 \| Probability that consumer will prefer green colour of the shampoo, is = number of the consumer who chose green colour/ total number of consumers in survey = 20/200=0.1 Consider another example where data is summarised according to the following table indicating the number of towns with industrial connections. Data is summarised in a groups. Number of industrial connections in a town \| No of Towns in a Group with Industrial Connections \| 0-150 \| 210 \| 151-300 \| 56 \| 301-450 \| 14 \| 451-600 \| 16 \| 601-750 \| 10 \| 751-900 \| 8 \| 901-1050 \| 8 \| 1051-1200 \| 3 \| Above 1200 \| 23 \| Total \| 348 \| Probability that towns having number of the connections between 601 and 750 is =10/ 348 =0.03 approximately. Statistical probability is usually denoted by p and value of p is always 0<=p<=1. p=1 means that there are 100% chance that event will occur and p=o means event will not occur. Types of Probability and General Probability Rules In real life, probabilities are not simply probability of an event. Very often events are independent or one event depends upon other one. Sometimes probability of two events could be of interest. Occurrence of an event may be dependence of another event. It could also be of interest to find the probability of occurrence of all the events simultaneously. To find these probabilities, there some rules to calculate these various types of probabilities. We shall discuss different types of probabilities with the example and how to calculate. Marginal Probability is the probability of an event irrespective of the outcome of another variable. Consider the example of perfume manufacturing company. Company has three sizes of perfumes and supplies to four cities. Their data for the last year is summarised as in the following table. Note: Demand of the cities is independent of each other. This means that demand in Delhi does not depend or affect the demand in Bombay or any other city. Capacity of Bottles \| Ahmedabad \| Bombay \| Kolkata \| Delhi \| Total \| 50 ml \| 2400 \| 1000 \| 800 \| 1400 \| 5600 \| 100 ml \| 3000 \| 600 \| 2200 \| 1200 \| 7000 \| 150 ml \| 2800 \| 1800 \| 1200 \| 1600 \| 7400 \| Total \| 8200 \| 3400 \| 4200 \| 4200 \| 20000 \| Company wants to plan their production for the coming year. They need to predict what are the chances that demand from these cities will be the same in the coming year as last year. Question: What is the probability that demand from Kolkata will be the same this year also? Answer: Total demand for Kolkata is 4200 bottles and total supply of bottles to all the cities is 20000. Thus probability that demand from Kolkata = 4200/20000 = 0.21. This is marginal probability for Kolkata. Thus there is 21% chance that Kolkata will demand the same number of all the bottles. Similarly, we can find the probability of demand of 100 ml in all 4 cities = 7000/20000 =0.35. Additional Probability: This is the probability that either one or both events occur. P(AUB)= P(A) + P(B)- P (A B) In the above example, if we want to predict the probability of demand in Kolkata and Delhi, the it the probability of demand in Kolkata and Delhi. This probability is calculated as; (4200/20000) +(4200/20000) =0.42 Conditional Probability: Is the probability if conditional event. Means that event B will occur only if event A occur. We use the notation as P(B\|A). Other way, P(A\|B) is the probability that event A will occur only if event B occur. Let us try to understand this with the above example. Delhi has conveyed that next year their demand for 50 ml bottles has to be met. Company is short of resources and so if they meet the demand from Delhi, then what is the probability that demand from Ahmedabad will be met? Total number of 50 ml bottles is 5600. Requirement of Ahmedabad is 2400. Probability that Ahmedabad demand will be met = 2400/5600=0 .42 Can be written as P(A\|B). It means that given that demand for Delhi is met, probability that Ahmedabad demand will be met. Multiplication Probability: This is the probability that both events occur. - If A and B are independent then, P(A and B) = P(A)P(B). This particular rule extends to more than two independent events. For example, P (A and B and C) = P(A)P(B)P(C) - If events are not independent then, P(A and B) = P(A) • P(B\|A) or P(B)P(A\|B) . Let us understand through the example. - Because demand for Delhi and Kolkata are independent, joint probability that demand of Delhi and demand of Kolkata are met is P(D∩K) =p(D) x p(K)=0.210.21=0.0441 - Consider another example to understand multiplication when events are dependent. Approaches for Calculation of Probability In a lay person’s language probability is proportion. Probabilities are calculated by conducting experiments or using the past data. There are few classic experiments; outcomes of which are known without conducting the experiments. For in an experiment of tossing a coin, there are two outcomes, either head occurs or tail will occur. In rolling of an die , total number of outcomes are six. In drawing a card from a deck of 52 cards, total number of outcomes are 52. Outcomes of an experiment are known in advance and have very specific mathematical pattern. In all these experiments we observe that, 1) every trial of experiment is independent of each other. 2) Number of outcomes are identical. 3) If head occurs, tail does not occur. Both the events are mutually exclusive. 4)If experiment is conducted n times, then probability of head or tail remains the same. Secondly, we can use the past data and calculate the desired probability using the relative frequency distribution of data. Calculation of Probability: General formula for calculation of is Probability, p = (No of desirable outcomes)/ (Total possible outcomes) Probability that head occurs if you toss the coin = ½ If you toss the coin 25 times, then what is the probability that out of 25, 10 times head /tail occur? This probability can be calculated without tossing a coin. If we toss the coin say n times, then probability that x number of times head or tail will occur can also be found without tossing the coin. For different values of x =1,2,3……………n. creates the pattern. This pattern is known as probability distribution. It can be noticed that x is variable and values of x are integers means discrete values. Theoretical Probability Distributions: Thus, there are some theoretical probability distributions. These probability distributions are mathematically modelled so that it is easy to calculate the probabilities. Beauty of these distributions functions is that, one can find the probability of a desirable event without conducting the experiment. Types of variables decide the type of Probability distribution. If variable is discrete, probability distribution of the variable is discrete and if variable is continuous the it’s probability distribution is continuous. Most basic discrete probability distributions are Binomial and Poisson. Normal distribution, t distribution, Chi-square and F distributions are continuous probability distributions widely used for different purposes. Empirical Probability Distributions: These probability distributions are derived by conducting the experiment. Experimental data is collected and organised in tabular form as discussed earlier. Values of the variable can be grouped and corresponding frequency is written. Relative frequency approach can be used to calculate probability. Probability Distributions Probability distributions are divided into two parts; Theoretical probability distributions and empirical probability distributions. Theoretical probability distributions are mathematically modelled so that it is easy to calculate the probabilities using probability functions. Beauty of these distributions functions is that, one can find the probability of a desirable event without conducting the experiment. Empirical Probability Distributions are derived by conducting the experiment. Experimental data is collected and organised in tabular form as discussed earlier. Values of the variable are tabled and corresponding frequency is written. Relative frequency approach is used to calculate probability. Example: Sample survey was conducted to know the favourite colour of shampoo they use. 200 persons participated in a survey. Data can be tabulated as follow. Color of Shampoo \| No of Persons \| White \| 50 \| Black \| 40 \| Red \| 18 \| Yellow \| 15 \| Green \| 20 \| Blue \| 12 \| Pink \| 45 \| Total \| 200 \| Probability that randomly selected person will like white colour shampoo is p=50/200. =.25 Color of Shampoo \| No of Persons \| Probability \| White \| 50 \| 0.25 \| Black \| 40 \| 0.2 \| Red \| 18 \| 0.09 \| Yellow \| 15 \| 0.075 \| Green \| 20 \| 0.1 \| Blue \| 12 \| 0.06 \| Pink \| 45 \| 0.225 \| Total \| 200 \| 1 \| Expected Mean and Variance: Probabilities in the table indicates that, randomly selected individual will like/prefer one of the colors listed. These probabilities can be used for expected number of individuals in a population. Consider another example where random variable is score of the students in exam. Suppose 5 questions are asked in exam and so probabilities for correct answers for each of the questions is known form the past data as provided in the table below. x \| p(x) \| Expected (x) p(x) \| 0 \| 0.17 \| 0 \| 1 \| 0.33 \| 0.33 \| 2 \| 0.21 \| 0.42 \| 3 \| 0.22 \| 0.66 \| 4 \| 0.04 \| 0.16 \| 5 \| 0.03 \| 0.15 \| \| 1 \| 1.72 \| Last column gives the expected value of x. And expected average number of correct answers are calculated using the formula; =1.72. Expected Variance = Expected Standard Deviation= Theoretical Probability Distributions: Types of variables decide the type of Probability distribution. If variable is discrete, probability distribution of the variable is discrete and if variable is continuous the it’s probability distribution is continuous. Most basic discrete probability distributions are Binomial and Poisson. Widely used continuous probability distributions are Normal distribution, t distribution, Chi-square and F distributions. Discrete Probability Functions As mentioned before, if variable is discrete, probability distribution function is discrete. In this book, we will discuss two basic probability distributions. Binomial Probability Distribution Let us consider the example of tossing a coin we discussed before. We know that probability that head or tail will occur is 0.5 in a single toss. If the coin is tossed 10 times, what is the probability that 6 times head will occur. Every time coin is tossed, number of possibilities are created. For example, if coin is tossed 3 times, the possible outcomes are; - H, H, H (2) H, T, H (3) H, H, T, (4) T, H, H (5) T, T, T (6) T, H, H, (7) T, T, H It can be noticed that 5th outcome does not have a single H. Probability pattern is created as listed in the table. No of heads =x \| Out Come \| Number of Heads \| P(x) \| 0 \| T, T, T \| 3C0 =1 \| (1/2)^3=0.125 \| 1 \| T, T, H \| 3C1 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 2 \| H T H , H H T, T, H, H \| 3C2 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 3 \| H HH \| 3C3=1 \| (1/2)^3 =0.125 \| It can be seen that distribution of probabilities is symmetric. If p=0.5, distribution of probabilities are symmetrically distributed. These probabilities are mathematically modelled as Where p is the probability of occurrence of head and q is the probability of tail. x is the number of heads in an experiment of 3 tosses. Model for n number of tosses or trials is as below and \| Note: Total probability =1 Mean of Binomial distribution = \| Variance = Parameters of the distribution are, N and p and notation used is B (N, p). Probabilities for binomial distribution are available in excel tables. Probability distribution for n=9 and p=0.5 x \| P(x) \| 0 \| 0.001953 \| 1 \| 0.017578 \| 2 \| 0.070313 \| 3 \| 0.164063 \| 4 \| 0.246094 \| 5 \| 0.246094 \| 6 \| 0.164063 \| 7 \| 0.070313 \| 8 \| 0.017578 \| 9 \| 0.001953 \| Following figures show distribution pattern for different values of p and n. \| It can be noted that as N increases, distribution is becoming symmetric even though p is not the 0.5 Key conditions of Binomial Distribution - Random variable is discrete. - There are only two outcomes. - Each of the outcome is independent of each other. - Outcome of one trial is independent of the other trial. Probability of desirable event (p) remains the same in experiment. - Total probability is equal to one. - Because probability distribution is mathematically modelled, probabilities for different values of n and p are provided in tables. Excel software has the tables. - For large value of n, distribution becomes symmetric. Examples Gujarat government believe that 60 % of villages in the district are having facility of vocational training schools. In the village, either there is vocational training school or not. Only two out comes in a single village and probability=1/2. Existence of vocational training school in one village does depend upon another village. Thus, each of the trials are independent of each other. Probability that village have vocational training school in each of the villages is ½. Thus, conditions for Binomial distribution are satisfied. Consider Kachchh district of Gujarat. Researchers take a sample of 25 villages. What is the probability that exactly 15 villages have vocational training school? Solution: In this example, p=0.6, q=0.4 , n=25 , x=15 Probability function= We can find this probability from binomial table provided in excel. Follow the steps below. - Click on f(x), choose binomial distribution. Dialogue box will appear. - Four boxes are to be filled. 1. Number _s this is number of successes or favourable event. In our case, this is 15. 2. Trials this is total number of trials in experiment=25 3. Probability_s this is probability of success or favourable event in a single trial =0.6 4. Cumulative Here you need to choose one of two options of your interest. If you want exact probability of x=15, then enter the option, FALSE. P(x=15) =0.1611 If you want cumulative probability, then enter TRUE. P(x,<=15 )= 0.5753 Poisson Distribution This is also a basic discrete probability distribution of discrete variable. Poisson process describes discrete occurrences of the event of interest over interval. For example, number of printing mistakes in a page, number of vehicles passing through at specific point in a small interval, number of patients suffering from side effects of covid vaccine. To sum up, in a fixed interval of time, number of objects or subjects is a Poisson variable. Variable assumes values between 0 and infinity. Probability of occurrence of the event of interest is very small. Each occurrence is independent of the other and number of occurrences is infinite. The expected number of occurrences remain the same throughout experiment. Thus, Poisson distribution has only one parameter denoted by lambda l. Probability function is Mean of the distribution =l Variance of the distribution =l Standard deviation= Because this is theoretical distribution, probabilities are given in the excel table. How to use excel for Poisson probabilities. - Click on f(x) and choose Poisson distribution - Dialog box will popup. Put the value of x, number of events. - Mean, expected number of events or value of lambda. - Lastly if you need point probability that is x=a then choose FALSE and if probability x<=a, cumulative probability then choose TRUE. For example, if lambda =5, and we want to find the probability (x=8). Then, p(x=8) =0.065 P(x<=8) =0.9319 Shape of the Poisson distribution for different values of l is shown in the following figure. Discrete Probability Functions As mentioned before, if variable is discrete, probability distribution function is discrete. In this book, we will discuss two basic probability distributions. Binomial Probability Distribution Let us consider the example of tossing a coin we discussed before. We know that probability that head or tail will occur is 0.5 in a single toss. If the coin is tossed 10 times, what is the probability that 6 times head will occur. Every time coin is tossed, number of possibilities are created. For example, if coin is tossed 3 times, the possible outcomes are; - H, H, H (2) H, T, H (3) H, H, T, (4) T, H, H (5) T, T, T (6) T, H, H, (7) T, T, H It can be noticed that 5th outcome does not have a single H. Probability pattern is created as listed in the table. No of heads =x \| Out Come \| Number of Heads \| P(x) \| 0 \| T, T, T \| 3C0 =1 \| (1/2)^3=0.125 \| 1 \| T, T, H \| 3C1 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 2 \| H T H , H H T, T, H, H \| 3C2 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 3 \| H HH \| 3C3=1 \| (1/2)^3 =0.125 \| It can be seen that distribution of probabilities is symmetric. If p=0.5, distribution of probabilities are symmetrically distributed. These probabilities are mathematically modelled as Where p is the probability of occurrence of head and q is the probability of tail. x is the number of heads in an experiment of 3 tosses. Model for n number of tosses or trials is as below and \| Note: Total probability =1 Mean of Binomial distribution = Std Deviation = \| Variance = Parameters of the distribution are, N and p and notation used is B (N, p). Probabilities for binomial distribution are available in excel tables. Probability distribution for n=9 and p=0.5 x \| P(x) \| 0 \| 0.001953 \| 1 \| 0.017578 \| 2 \| 0.070313 \| 3 \| 0.164063 \| 4 \| 0.246094 \| 5 \| 0.246094 \| 6 \| 0.164063 \| 7 \| 0.070313 \| 8 \| 0.017578 \| 9 \| 0.001953 \| Following figures show distribution pattern for different values of p and n. N=5 \| It can be noted that as N increases, distribution is becoming symmetric even though p is not the 0.5 Key conditions of Binomial Distribution - Random variable is discrete. - There are only two outcomes. - Each of the outcome is independent of each other. - Outcome of one trial is independent of the other trial. Probability of desirable event (p) remains the same in experiment. - Total probability is equal to one. - Because probability distribution is mathematically modelled, probabilities for different values of n and p are provided in tables. Excel software has the tables. - For large value of n, distribution becomes symmetric. Examples Gujarat government believe that 60 % of villages in the district are having facility of vocational training schools. In the village, either there is vocational training school or not. Only two out comes in a single village and probability=1/2. Existence of vocational training school in one village does depend upon another village. Thus, each of the trials are independent of each other. Probability that village have vocational training school in each of the villages is ½. Thus, conditions for Binomial distribution are satisfied. Consider Kachchh district of Gujarat. Researchers take a sample of 25 villages. What is the probability that exactly 15 villages have vocational training school? Solution: In this example, p=0.6, q=0.4 , n=25 , x=15 Probability function= We can find this probability from binomial table provided in excel. Follow the steps below. - Click on f(x), choose binomial distribution. Dialogue box will appear. - Four boxes are to be filled. 1. Number _s this is number of successes or favourable event. In our case, this is 15. 2. Trials this is total number of trials in experiment=25 3. Probability_s this is probability of success or favourable event in a single trial =0.6 4. Cumulative Here you need to choose one of two options of your interest. If you want exact probability of x=15, then enter the option, FALSE. P(x=15) =0.1611 If you want cumulative probability, then enter TRUE. P(x,<=15 )= 0.5753 Poisson Distribution This is also a basic discrete probability distribution of discrete variable. Poisson process describes discrete occurrences of the event of interest over interval. For example, number of printing mistakes in a page, number of vehicles passing through at specific point in a small interval, number of patients suffering from side effects of covid vaccine. To sum up, in a fixed interval of time, number of objects or subjects is a Poisson variable. Variable assumes values between 0 and infinity. Probability of occurrence of the event of interest is very small. Each occurrence is independent of the other and number of occurrences is infinite. The expected number of occurrences remain the same throughout experiment. Thus, Poisson distribution has only one parameter denoted by lambda l. Probability function is Mean of the distribution =l Variance of the distribution =l Standard deviation= Because this is theoretical distribution, probabilities are given in the excel table. How to use excel for Poisson probabilities. - Click on f(x) and choose Poisson distribution - Dialog box will popup. Put the value of x, number of events. - Mean, expected number of events or value of lambda. - Lastly if you need point probability that is x=a then choose FALSE and if probability x<=a, cumulative probability then choose TRUE. For example, if lambda =5, and we want to find the probability (x=8). Then, p(x=8) =0.065 P(x<=8) =0.9319 Shape of the Poisson distribution for different values of l is shown in the following figure. Conditions for using Poisson Distribution - Variable is discrete. - Probability of occurrence of favourable event in a specific interval is very small. - Average number of occurrences remain the same through out the experiment Examples: On an average, 2 persons riding a vehicle get memo for violating the traffic rule at a particular traffic signal at the interval of half an hour. Then what is the probability that exactly 5 persons will violate the traffic rules and get memo. Because probability of persons violating the traffic rule is small and number of the persons on the road is infinity, we can apply Poisson distribution. Solution: Random variable is number persons, x getting memo. Lambda =2 We need to find the probability that x=5 We can use Poisson table to find the probability. Probability(x=5) =0.036. Discrete Probability Functions As mentioned before, if variable is discrete, probability distribution function is discrete. In this book, we will discuss two basic probability distributions. Binomial Probability Distribution Let us consider the example of tossing a coin we discussed before. We know that probability that head or tail will occur is 0.5 in a single toss. If the coin is tossed 10 times, what is the probability that 6 times head will occur. Every time coin is tossed, number of possibilities are created. For example, if coin is tossed 3 times, the possible outcomes are; - H, H, H (2) H, T, H (3) H, H, T, (4) T, H, H (5) T, T, T (6) T, H, H, (7) T, T, H It can be noticed that 5th outcome does not have a single H. Probability pattern is created as listed in the table. No of heads =x \| Out Come \| Number of Heads \| P(x) \| 0 \| T, T, T \| 3C0 =1 \| (1/2)^3=0.125 \| 1 \| T, T, H \| 3C1 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 2 \| H T H , H H T, T, H, H \| 3C2 =3 \| 3(1/2)^3=0.375 \| 3 \| H HH \| 3C3=1 \| (1/2)^3 =0.125 \| It can be seen that distribution of probabilities is symmetric. If p=0.5, distribution of probabilities are symmetrically distributed. These probabilities are mathematically modelled as Where p is the probability of occurrence of head and q is the probability of tail. x is the number of heads in an experiment of 3 tosses. Model for n number of tosses or trials is as below and \| Note: Total probability =1 Mean of Binomial distribution = Std Deviation = \| Variance = Parameters of the distribution are, N and p and notation used is B (N, p). Probabilities for binomial distribution are available in excel tables. Probability distribution for n=9 and p=0.5 x \| P(x) \| 0 \| 0.001953 \| 1 \| 0.017578 \| 2 \| 0.070313 \| 3 \| 0.164063 \| 4 \| 0.246094 \| 5 \| 0.246094 \| 6 \| 0.164063 \| 7 \| 0.070313 \| 8 \| 0.017578 \| 9 \| 0.001953 \| Following figures show distribution pattern for different values of p and n. N=5 \| It can be noted that as N increases, distribution is becoming symmetric even though p is not the 0.5 Key conditions of Binomial Distribution - Random variable is discrete. - There are only two outcomes. - Each of the outcome is independent of each other. - Outcome of one trial is independent of the other trial. Probability of desirable event (p) remains the same in experiment. - Total probability is equal to one. - Because probability distribution is mathematically modelled, probabilities for different values of n and p are provided in tables. Excel software has the tables. - For large value of n, distribution becomes symmetric. Examples Gujarat government believe that 60 % of villages in the district are having facility of vocational training schools. In the village, either there is vocational training school or not. Only two out comes in a single village and probability=1/2. Existence of vocational training school in one village does depend upon another village. Thus, each of the trials are independent of each other. Probability that village have vocational training school in each of the villages is ½. Thus, conditions for Binomial distribution are satisfied. Consider Kachchh district of Gujarat. Researchers take a sample of 25 villages. What is the probability that exactly 15 villages have vocational training school? Solution: In this example, p=0.6, q=0.4 , n=25 , x=15 Probability function= We can find this probability from binomial table provided in excel. Follow the steps below. - Click on f(x), choose binomial distribution. Dialogue box will appear. - Four boxes are to be filled. 1. Number _s this is number of successes or favourable event. In our case, this is 15. 2. Trials this is total number of trials in experiment=25 3. Probability_s this is probability of success or favourable event in a single trial =0.6 4. Cumulative Here you need to choose one of two options of your interest. If you want exact probability of x=15, then enter the option, FALSE. P(x=15) =0.1611 If you want cumulative probability, then enter TRUE. P(x,<=15 )= 0.5753 Poisson Distribution This is also a basic discrete probability distribution of discrete variable. Poisson process describes discrete occurrences of the event of interest over interval. For example, number of printing mistakes in a page, number of vehicles passing through at specific point in a small interval, number of patients suffering from side effects of covid vaccine. To sum up, in a fixed interval of time, number of objects or subjects is a Poisson variable. Variable assumes values between 0 and infinity. Probability of occurrence of the event of interest is very small. Each occurrence is independent of the other and number of occurrences is infinite. The expected number of occurrences remain the same throughout experiment. Thus, Poisson distribution has only one parameter denoted by lambda l. Probability function is Mean of the distribution =l Variance of the distribution =l Standard deviation= Because this is theoretical distribution, probabilities are given in the excel table. How to use excel for Poisson probabilities. - Click on f(x) and choose Poisson distribution - Dialog box will popup. Put the value of x, number of events. - Mean, expected number of events or value of lambda. - Lastly if you need point probability that is x=a then choose FALSE and if probability x<=a, cumulative probability then choose TRUE. For example, if lambda =5, and we want to find the probability (x=8). Then, p(x=8) =0.065 P(x<=8) =0.9319 Shape of the Poisson distribution for different values of l is shown in the following figure. Conditions for using Poisson Distribution - Variable is discrete. - Probability of occurrence of favourable event in a specific interval is very small. - Average number of occurrences remain the same through out the experiment Examples: On an average, 2 persons riding a vehicle get memo for violating the traffic rule at a particular traffic signal at the interval of half an hour. Then what is the probability that exactly 5 persons will violate the traffic rules and get memo. Because probability of persons violating the traffic rule is small and number of the persons on the road is infinity, we can apply Poisson distribution. Solution: Random variable is number persons, x getting memo. Lambda =2 We need to find the probability that x=5 We can use Poisson table to find the probability. Probability(x=5) =0.036. Sampling Methods In most of the studies population size very large. It is not possible to enumerate every subject or object in the population. At the same time, we want to know the population characteristics. Option is to draw a sample of appropriate size. Sample drawn should be representative of the population which describes all the characteristics of the population. To draw the sample from population, there are few methods. Choice of the method depends type of the population. We shall discuss basic methods of sampling. Before we discuss the sampling methods, let us understand the reasons for sample study instead of population enumeration. - Feasible: It is feasible to study sampling units within the constraints such as time, cost. Apart from that it is feasible to approach all types of people in defined population. - Time: Any study has contextual to time. It is not relevant if its findings are found too late. By that time population characteristics are changed and has no meaning of your findings. Thus, any study of your target population has to be completed within time frame. - Cost: Population study costs. Sample is fraction of population and so cost is much less than in studying population through sample. - Scope: Scope of studying sample units is much more than it could have in population study because units in sample are much smaller than population, detailed study of each of the units in the sample is possible. If needed, expensive equipment, qualified personnel can be used in the survey. - Non-sampling errors: Errors which are not due to sample are known as non-sampling errors. These errors can be due to data entry, wrongly filled data, not appropriate instrument used for study. - Better Accuracy: Well general concept is that population enumeration will give accurate results. But in reality, it does not especially when population size is large. In sample study, due to less cost and time, more qualified personnel can be used and if needed better technology can also be used. As a result sample survey provides better accuracy in findings. Sampling Methods Having realised the need for sampling we need to know how to draw a sample from the population. For drawing a sample from the population, fore most step is to prepare sampling frame. Sampling frame makes it is to draw the sample from population. Sampling frame is simply a list of all units in the population. For example, List of employees in the organization, list of the customers in any service, list of the all the students in the university are few examples of sampling frame. Having prepared sampling frame, it is easy draw the random sample. We shall discuss here the most basic sampling methods. Use of method depends upon the type of population and objective of the study. Sampling methods are as shown in the figure. There are two possibilities while drawing sample. If units drawn in the sample are replaced back to population, then it is known as sampling with replacement. In this, methos, there is a possibility of drawing the same unit in the sample. Another way of drawing a sample is in which unit drawn in the sample is not placed back to the population. This is known as sampling without replacement. In this method, each of the units in the sample is unique. No unit in the sample is repeated. Simple Random Sampling As name indicates, Simple Random Sampling method is very simple. Condition to use this method is population is homogenous. For example, while designing the vaccination plan, it was believed to be that risk level of covid infection is same among the people of age group, 60 and above. Now if researcher wants to study the effect on immunisation due to vaccine, researcher can use simple random sampling method. Whenever population is perceived to be uniform with respect to the characteristics to be studied, simple random sample is appropriate. Question how to draw the sample? Use sampling frame available or prepare the sampling frame of the population under consideration. Having listed and numbered the units in the population, use random generator provided in excel software to draw the sample of the appropriate size. Let us understand this through following example. What should be size of sample will be discussed later. One particular society of Ahmedabad, there 500 persons are residing of which 275 people were of the age group 60 and above. Ahmedabad Municipal corporation wants to take a sample of size 50. Then steps to be followed are, - Prepare list of the 275 persons in the target population. - Now click on f(x) and choose the option, RANDBETWEEN - Enter the smallest number in BOTTOM= 1 and highest number in TOP=275. - Random number will be generated between 1 and 275. - Drag this cell till sample size is =50. - Now copy these numbers and do paste special in the next column to fix the sample. Because these numbers will change if they are not fixed. Random sample is drawn of the size 50. First number chosen is 255. This means person with number 255 is chosen in the sample. Similarly other numbers are interpreted. Notations used in Simple random sampling are; \| Population \| Sample \| Size \| N \| n \| Mean \| \|\| Variance \| σ2 \| S2 \| Proportion \| P \| p \| What should be the size of the sample? In general sample should be such that sample describes all the characteristics of the population. At the same time, we do have criteria for deciding the size of the sample. Criteria for choosing sample size - It is within budget - Sample survey or collection / analysis of data can be done within time frame - Should be such that non-sampling errors are minimum - Should cover the entire population Stratified Random Sample When population under consideration is not homogenous, then it is known as heterogeneous. In such case, to draw the sample from the population, heterogeneous population is divided into homogeneous groups/ strata. Each of these homogeneous groups /strata is considered as population and simple random sample is drawn as discusses before. This sample known as stratified sample. Let us consider the population of mobile users. This population is heterogeneous as all age groups as well as all professionals use mobile phone. They can be divided according to their profession or age groups. Let us say that population is divided into groups; profession. Groups are academicians, business, service and laborers. Suppose size of each of the groups is; 200, 500, 800 and 1000. Population size is 2500. Suppose sample of 400 is to be drawn from the population. There two ways to look into this (1) irrespective of size of each of the groups, sample of 100 from each of the groups can drawn randomly buy using random generator. This (2) Random sample from each of the groups should be proportionate to the group size. Let us first calculate the proportion of the group in population. This is known as proportional stratified sample. In stratified sample; G1: 200 : 200/2500 = 0.08 of the population G2: 500 : 500/2500= 0.2 of the population G3: 800 : 800/2500 = o.32 of the population G4: 1000: 1000/2500 =0.4 of the population Now draw the sample in this proportion from each of the group. This gives representation of each of the groups in sample. Sample from group G1: 32, G2: 80, G3: 128, G4: 160 Total sample size is 400 Systematic Random Sample As name suggests this is a very systematic method of drawing a sample. It is very convenient and relatively simple to administer. Decide the size of the sample. If size of the sample is n and size of the population is N, then ratio k=n/N. Now choose any number randomly between 1 and k. This number is the first unit of the sample. Thereafter, sample elements are selected at a constant interval, k, from the ordered sequence frame. Consider the population of the size 100 and sample of size 10 is to be drawn from the population. Randomly the number chosen between 1 and 10 is 4. Then next unit in the sample is 14. Subsequently all the units are chosen at the interval of 10. Entire sample is; 4, 14,24,34,44,54,64,74,84,94. Systematic sampling in practice: If population size is known, then sample size will determine the value of k as discussed before. If population size is not known in that case one chose randomly some number, day, hour and draw the systematic sample. For example, restaurant can decide to consider the number of customers at 8 o’clock in the evening every day for planning the resources. Production unit may draw a sample unit every half an hour. Service unit may draw a sample unit every 100th bill to study the consumption of services. Thus there ample examples where systematic sampling is possible. Caution: While using systematic sampling procedure one should be cautious about the fact that if there is natural periodicity in the list of units, then systematic random sampling is not appropriate method of drawing random sample. Cluster Sampling This is fourth sampling procedure used when population is large and heterogeneous. Purpose of sampling is to capture all types of population units and their characteristics. In this case sample can also be a geographic space. To draw a cluster sample, population is divided into non overlapping clusters or areas. Population is divided into non-overlapping clusters or areas. Each cluster is a miniature, of the population. A subset of the clusters is selected randomly for the sample. Clusters are made so that clusters are identical but internally cluster is heterogeneous. Each cluster has pattern identical to population. Thus, random sample of clusters exhibits both demographic and socioeconomic characteristics of population. Cluster Sampling is convenient for geographically dispersed populations. In the case need for travel for sample survey, it is less expensive and easy to contact sample units. It also simplifies the administration of the survey. Cluster sampling is statistically less efficient when the cluster elements are similar. Cluster sampling is more expensive and time consuming compared to simple random sampling. Two stage cluster sampling: In the case of large size clusters, clusters are further divided into clusters before selecting basic units in the sample. For example, sample of cities on the country can further be divided into blocks. Sample of blocks can be used for selection of individuals. Sampling in Practice: In practice, quite often it may not be possible to employ single method for drawing sample. Combination of two or more methods can be used. For example, HSBC bank wants to understand customer satisfaction in India. SRS can be used first to select cities across India and Stratified random sample of customers can be drawn from all categories. Non-Random Sampling Methods Till now we discussed the random sampling methods depending on the type of population and tried to ensure that sample units are selected without any prejudice. Non-random sampling methods are meant to select the population units with specific reason; own judgement or policy. This is much simpler as process of selections of units in the sample is predefined. There four major methods; convenience sampling, judgmental sampling, quota sampling and snowball sampling. Convenience Sampling: Selection of sample units is done according to the investigator’s convenience. Least expensive and least time consuming. This sample could be biased and may not be true representative of sample. For example, to do consumer research, investigator may go to the shopping malls and take the responses of those who are available. Judgmental Sampling: Units in the sample are selected based on researcher’s judgment – particular individual represents the population This method is mostly used for pilot research in marketing. This is different form of convenient sampling and thus sample drawn could be biased. Market research regarding VAS – entertainment, may select the youths from your neighborhood/organization for testing the design of the same. Quota Sampling: As name suggests, quota is by considering the various characteristics of the target population. Quotas are decided such that composition of the sample is similar to the composition of population. This method is combination of judgmental and convenient sampling Snowball Sampling: Initial respondents are selected at random. They are asked to identify the other respondents who belong to target population. Subsequent respondents are selected based on referrals leading to a snow balling effect. This sample is biased – referrals depend upon acquaintance. Sampling and Non-Sampling errors Because sample is fraction of population, there are likely to occur errors due to sampling as well as non-sampling. Sampling errors are the errors due to sampling. The reasons due to sampling could be; (1) Sample is not representative of population. (2) Sampling is done by inappropriate selection procedure. (3) Sampling procedure is not appropriate (4) Sample is too small or too large. Non-sampling Errors: Are the errors not related to sampling. The reasons for these errors could be due to (1) Missing Data, Recording, Data Entry, and Analysis Errors. (2) Poorly conceived concepts, unclear definitions, and defective questionnaires. (3) Response errors occur when people do not know, will not respond, or overstate in their answers. Statistical Inference We have discussed probability distribution and how to draw a sample from the population. Now question is how to use sample findings. Sample findings are used to understand population characteristics. We infer the population parameters based on sample findings. This entire process is known as statistical inference. Inferential statistics is about finding the best statistics with known error. Inferential statistics includes Statistical Estimation and Statistical Testing of Hypothesis. Statistical estimation methods provide us the point estimates and interval estimate with desirable accuracy. Testing hypothesis confirms the accuracy level of estimates. Statistical Estimation: As mentioned before, there are two types of estimates ; point and interval estimates. Point estimate is the single value calculated from sample data and used for estimating the population parameter. For example, sample mean x-bar is used for estimating the population mean. Sample variance is used for estimating the population variance. Question here is what is the best estimator of parameter? Statistical estimate should be unbiased, consistent, efficient and sufficient. We will try understand these properties of estimator without getting into detailed statistical derivation. Unbiased estimator means, on an average estimator is expected to be equal or equivalent to population parameter. Expected value of sample mean is equal to population mean. Expected value of sample variance is equal to population variance. Unbiased estimator of population variance = Consistent estimator means accuracy in estimation increases as sample size increases. Or Consistent estimator approaches to value of the parameter as sample size increases. Both and s2 are consistent because as n increases estimators are moving towards true value of the parameters. Efficient estimator means the estimator with minimum variance among the class of estimator. Again and s2are efficient estimators for the population mean and population variance. Sufficient estimator is the estimator which is calculated with all the information from the sample compared to all other information. and s2 are both theoretically proved to be sufficient estimators for population mean and population variance. Till now we have discussed estimators for population mean and variance only because these are ones used most of the time. Interval Estimation Whenever we estimate the population parameter, we need to consider some margin of error as point estimate is based on one sample findings. Point estimate may be or may not be exact or close to population parameter. The question is what can be the margin of error for point estimate. This margin of error on both the side will give us interval estimate for population parameter. Margin of error can be affordable or desirable value. How to decide the margin of error? As mentioned, based on your experience, you can decide what is feasible and financially affordable in production or services. This may become debatable issue among the peers. Statisticians provide very objective solution to this. Using our knowledge of sampling distributions, we can decide the margin of error given the accuracy level or desired probability that population para meter falls within the interval. In interval estimation, an interval is constructed around the point estimate, and it is stated that this interval is likely to contain the corresponding population parameter. Point estimate for population mean µ, thenfollows normal distribution with mean µ and Variance =. Interval estimate for population mean µ is; is interval estimate for population mean. Questions we need to address here are; How reliable these intervals are for estimating population mean? What is the probability that population mean will fall into this interval? What is confidence level for the estimated interval? Value of z will depend upon answers to these. Probability that population mean will fall into interval is 1-α. This is interpreted as; probability that population mean will fall into interval {, } is 1-α and known as confidence interval with confidence coefficient 1-α. If σ is not known the sample std, s is used. Confidence Interval to Estimate m when n is Large and s is Unknown; The confidence level associated with a confidence interval states how much confidence we have that this interval contains the true population parameter. The confidence level is denoted by (1 –α)100%. α Is desirable proportion of observations to be rejected and α is known as significance level. For example, a= .05 means that 5 % of the observations are rejected. 95% of the observations are accepted. For given a, value dividing the data into 5% and 95% is critical value. Before we construct the confidence interval for practical examples, let us clarify the confidence intervals through the following figures. Let us understand to find the confidence interval through few examples. - Gujarat has 33 districts. To estimate the number of vaccinated persons, conducts the survey among 400 persons in each of the districts. Average number of persons who are vaccinated in a district is 80% and std is 15%. What is the confidence interval which assures that 95% of the chance that population average falls within the interval? Solution: Sample mean, =80%. And population std, σ=15%. Confidence coefficient=1-α=0.95 Use the formula, Prob ()=1-α is found from the normal tables. Steps to be followed; - Click on f(x) and choose, CONFIDENCE.NORM - Enter the values; α=0.05, std,σ=15, sample size n=400 - =1.4699 - 0.95% confidence interval is [80-1.4699, 80+1.4699] = [75.53, 81.47] If Sample size is small and population σ is unknown, t statistic is used to determine the confidence interval. In this case sample mean has t distribution as discussed before. Confidence Intervals for m, when Sample size is =<30 and Unknown s , To calculate , t table is used as discussed in earlier section. Suppose typist working in a firm, makes mistakes per day is recorded for 14 days. Given the data for 14 days, calculate 99% confidence interval for population mean. Data : 3,1,3,2,5,1,2,1,4,2,1,3,1,1 Solution: Sample size =14, α=.01, 1-α=0.99, Sample mean=2.14, s=1.29 D.f=n-1=13, value of t for two tails and df=13=3.012 99 % confidence interval is; 99% of times, average mistakes typist will make between 1.1 and 3.18. Sampling Distribution of proportion Sample proportion is point estimate of population proportion p. where x is no of elements of interest in sample of size n. Expected value of =p Std deviation of is= \| Testing Hypothesis In this section, we hypothesise value of population parameter based on past data or desirable value of the population. We draw the sample of appropriate size. Process of testing hypothesis involves; decide the point estimate of the population parameter, identify the distribution of the estimate and derive the interval with required confidence interval. If sample statistic fall within this interval, we confirm that hypothetical value is right or wrong. Let me explain this with the simple example. Umbrella seller has to stock the umbrellas for the coming monsoon. Question for him is how many he should stock? He looks at the figures for the last 10 years and finds it average sale of umbrellas was 1500 /year and average variation, (std deviation) was 15. He decides to order 1600 umbrellas. Do you think he was right in his decision? Seeking answer to this is the process of testing hypothesis. Seller hypothesises the sale of 1500 umbrellas but orders 1600 umbrellas. We want to confirm if the decision was right or wrong. Statistical procedure in testing of hypothesis helps to decide if the difference between two population parameters or two sample means or hypothetical value of parameter and sample mean is acceptable. We have two types of hypotheses; Null Hypothesis H0: A tentative assumption about population parameter Alternative Hypothesis Ha: This is an alternative statement to null hypothesis Forms of Hypothesis: Hypothesis for population mean - H0 : m=20 v/s Ha≠ 20 two tailed - H0 : m=20 v/s Ha> 20 one tailed - H0 : m=20 v/s Ha< 20 one tailed Hypothesis for population proportion - H0 : p=0.4 v/s Ha≠ o.4 two tailed - H0 : p=0.4 v/s Ha>0.4 one tailed - H0 : p=0.4 v/s Ha<0.4 one tailed Three steps are involved in testing of hypothesis; - Establishing the hypothesis - Conducting the test - Determining the business implications Let us try to understand how to conduct the test through few examples. Example1: Consumer of Vodafone Ides, a mobile service provider has to plan his financial expenses per month. He allots Rs. 800 with variation of 50. When actual data usage is examined, it is found that average monthly bill for data use is 900 and std =25 for the past 12 months. Was his assumption while planning right? Answer: It is natural to assume that bill amount follows normal distribution with mean 800 and standard deviation =50. Null and alternative hypothesis can be formulated as follows. Rejection region for rejecting the null hypothesis and acceptance region for accepting the null hypothesis is shown in the following figure. \| \| \| \| \| How to decide Rejection or Acceptance Region? We take a decision of accepting or rejecting hypothesis based on sample findings. So it is likely that we might commit the mistake in decision making. There four possibilities; (!!) null hypothesis is accepted when it is true. (2) null hypothesis is rejected when it is true. (3) null hypothesis is accepted when it not true (4) null hypothesis is rejected when it is not true. This can be displayed in the following table. Decision \| H0 is true \| H0 is not True \| Accept H0 \| Correct \| Error Type II \| Reject H0 \| Error Type I \| Correct (Power) \| As seen in the table, we may commit errors in two situations. These errors are classified as type I error and type two error. Type I Error - Rejecting a true null hypothesis - The probability of committing a Type I error is called a, the level of significance. Type II Error - Accepting false null hypothesis - The probability of committing a Type II error is called b. We can see that in two situations, we are likely to make mistakes and two situations, we are likely to make correct decision. When null hypothesis is not true and accepted, then this correct decision is known as power of the test. Objective in testing of hypothesis is minimize the errors. It is not possible to reduce both the errors simultaneously. General practice is that decide the value of a and minimize the value of b. Normal practice is to fix the value of a=0.1, 0.05. Significance level is 10 % or 5%. Steps involved in Testing of Hypothesis 1. Establish hypotheses: state the null and alternative hypotheses. 2. Determine the appropriate statistical test and sampling distribution. 3. Specify the Type I error rate (a). 4. State the decision rule. 5. Gather sample data. 6. Calculate the value of the test statistic. 7. State the statistical conclusion. 8. Interpret your conclusions with reference to the problem. Testing Hypothesis for Population Meanσ is known: - When population is normal probability distribution with known value of σ, irrespective of size of the sample, sample mean is also normally distributed. - If population is not normal and sample size is large, even then sample mean is approximately normal. These results are theoretically proved in statistics. We do not discuss the statistical derivations in this text but do use these results. Example 1: Average income of the farmers was believed to be 74914 and standard deviation sigma=14530 in Dang district in Gujarat. Researcher wants to confirm if it is true. Random sample of 112 farmers was drawn. Sample mean was found to be 78695. Test the hypothetical value of average income of the farmers. Answer: It can be assumed that income of the farmers follows normal distribution as some will have more than average and some will have less than average. H0:m= 74914 V/S Ha: m ≠ 74914 Population variance is known, s=1453 Appropriate statistic is P(Type I error) =a =.05 and α/2=.025 Because it is two tailed test, we need consider α/2=.025 Acceptance and rejection region can be explained through the following figure. \| \| Acceptance region is 0.95. We need to find the critical value. Zcritical = 1.96 for two tailed test when a=.05 We need to calculate the value of z statistic using the above formula. Id value of z falls into acceptance region, hypothesis is to be accepted. If value of z falls into rejection region, null hypothesis is rejected. Z=2.75 is > 1.96 means it falls into the rejection region. Null hypothesis that H0:m= 74914 is rejected because there is significant difference between hypothetical mean and sample mean. Average income of the farmers is more than 74914. Example 2: In the above example, if researcher want to test if average income of the farmers is greater than the hypothetical average 74914. Then test the hypothesis at 0.05 significance level. Answer: in this case, H0:m= 74914 V/S Ha: m > 74914 Population variance is known, s=1453 P(Type I error) =a =.05 Zα =1.645 Rejection region is only on the right tail. Z=2.75 >1.645 . Means that sample mean falls in rejection region. Hypothesis is to be rejected. Sample evidence indicates that hypothetical value is not true because there is significant difference between hypothetical average and sample mean. Example 3: In the above example, if researcher wants to test if average income of the farmer is less than hypothetical value of average. Then test the hypothesis at 0.05 significance level. Answer: in this case, H0:m= 74914 V/S Ha: m < 74914 Population variance is known, s=1453 P(Type I error) =a =.05 Sample mean = 73914 Zα = - 1.645 In this case rejection region is on the left side. _-7.28<-1.645 and falls into rejection region. There is significant difference between hypothetical value of average and sample mean. Again, hypothetical value is not true. Example 4: Department store wants to introduce the festival discounts to their big spenders. Previous years bills during the same period indicated that average amount of bill/day was Rs 1400 and standard deviation was 980. Based on this data, store manager decides to give 20 % discount to all those who spend more than 4000.00. After the current season was over, he asked Mr. Rajat from IT department to Test if he was right to hypothesize the mean and standard deviation as last year. How IT department will work? Answer: Random variable is amount of the bill. Null hypothesis H0: Average bill amount = Rs 1400 and Standard deviation =980 Alternative Hypothesis Ha: Average bill amount ≠ Rs 1400 Random sample of the 100 was drawn. Sample mean= 1181.98 Z statistic was the appropriate statistic. Z= -2.2246 Sample Mean \| 1181.98 \| sample size \| 100 \| Hypothesized Mean \| 1400 \| Known standard deviation \| 980 \| z statistic \| -2.2246 \| Conclusion: Z statistic is negative means that sample mean is smaller than hypothesized mean. -2.2246< -1.96 and thus it falls into rejection region Reject hypothesis that Average bill amount is not equal to 1400. Using p value method: Alternative way to reach conclusion of rejecting the hypothesis is compare the p value with desirable significance level α. p value is the observed significance level. Value of p indicates probability at the right or left tail from the actual sample statistics. Observed significance level is compared to theoretical (desired) significance level to decide to accept or reject the hypothesis. Most of the software including excel provide p value. Let us understand the use of p value with the example. Let us consider again the same example1 we have discussed before. H0:m= 74914 V/S Ha: m ≠ 74914 Population variance is known, s=1453 Appropriate statistic is P(Type I error) =a =.05 and α/2=.025 Because it is two tailed test, we need to consider α/2=.025 As we have calculated earlier, z=2.75. p value = p(z>2.75) = 1-0.99702=0.00298 p(z>2.75)=0.00298 \| 2.75 \| α/2=0.025 \| 1.96 \| Red colored area indicates p value and green colored area indicates the desired probability area. 0.00298 <0.025 means p value less than desired value. Conclusion is z statistic falls in the rejection region. Null hypothesis is rejected. Average annual income of the farmers is more than what is hypothesized. \| t test for comparing the means For comparing the means of two populations, t test is very common. When population standard deviation is not known and estimated by sample variance, t test is used because t test is function of sample variance. Use of t test can be thought of in following two situations. - population mean and sample mean - Two population means We will understand the procedure of t test through few examples of each situation. Example1: Comparing population mean and sample mean. Local vendor who provide repairing service for AC, claims that technician will attend the customer within 6 hours during the day. Sample of 12 customers were asked if the time period within technician attended them. Data is given in the following table. 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 \| 11 \| 12 \| 3.03 \| 6.33 \| 6.5 \| 5.22 \| 3.56 \| 6.76 \| 7.98 \| 4.82 \| 7.96 \| 4.54 \| 5.09 \| 6.46 \| Is there sufficient evidential support for claim made by courier service? In this example, time period taken by technician is random variable. Sample size small and population standard deviation is not known. If we consider 6 hours’ time as population mean, then we are comparing population mean with sample mean in order to check if the claim made is true. Degrees of freedom =11. And α=0.05, For 11 d.f and α=0.05, value of t critical =1.796. H0 : µ<=6 hours Ha : µ>6 hours Sample findings are as given in the following table. Mean \| 5.6875 \| Std Deviation \| 1.580 \| t actual < t critical, accept hypothesis Claim made by courier service is right they take time <=6 hours Considering, P value=prob ( t>-.68499)=.746 p value> .05 Claim made by courier service is right. Example 2: Independent Samples t test (unequal variance) Profit per employee in public sector and private sector is to be compared. Because population std is unknown, t test is the appropriate statistic to be used. A sample of 22 banks from public sector and sample of 23 banks from private sector is drawn. Data is shown in the excel sheet. H0: Average Profit per employee in public sector banks = Average Profit per employee in Private sector banks Ha: Average Profit per employee in public sector banks ≠ Average Profit per employee in Private sector banks This can be done on data analysis feature of excel. Steps to follow. - Add data analysis from add in - Click on data analysis - Choose t test independent samples with unequal variance. - Select the arrays from the data sheet - Click on label. Output is shown in the following table. t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal Variances \| \|\| \| Public Sector Profit Per Employee ( Rs lakh) \| Private Profit Per Employee ( Rs lakh) \| Mean \| 6.876666667 \| 5.851363636 \| Variance \| 8.623343333 \| 6.033631385 \| Observations \| 21 \| 22 \| Hypothesized Mean Difference \| 0 \| \| df \| 39 \| \| t Stat \| 1.238914667 \| \| P(T<=t) one-tail \| 0.111390942 \| \| t Critical one-tail \| 1.684875122 \| \| P(T<=t) two-tail \| 0.222781883 \| \| t Critical two-tail \| 2.02269092 \| \| How to interpret the output? Statistic t=1.2389 is the calculated value. t critical is calculated for both one tail and two tailed tests. Because t distribution is symmetric distribution, t critical on one side is enough for the interpretation. - For one tailed test, t critical =1.6848 and corresponding p value =0.11139. p value is much larger than desirable confidence level=0.05. Thus, Hypothesis is not accepted. - For two tailed, p value=0.2227 and critical value =2.02269. If desirable confidence level is 0.05, then p value is much larger than calculated p value. Thus null hypothesis is not accepted. Conclusion: Both one tailed and two tailed tests reveal that null hypothesis is not true. This means that there is significant difference between mean profit per employee in public and mean profit per employee in private sector. This implies that Private banks make more profit per employee. Example 3. Independent Samples t test (equal variance) : Let us consider the road accidents in 34 states in 2010 and 2011. We want to compare these two data sets. We do not the population variance. For comparing data sets by comparing the means, we need to consider the t test with equal variance. We assume that both tears, variance of accidents is equal. Data is as in the following excel sheet. Data can be done on data analysis feature of excel. Steps to follow. - Add data analysis from add in - Click on data analysis - Choose t test independent samples and equal variance - Select the arrays from the data sheet - Click on label. Out put of the analysis t-Test: Two-Sample Assuming Equal Variances \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Year 2010 \| Year 2011 \| Mean \| 14694.82353 \| 14637.82353 \| Variance \| 396775432.4 \| 384203820.1 \| Observations \| 34 \| 34 \| Pooled Variance \| 390489626.2 \| \| Hypothesized Mean Difference \| 0 \| \| df \| 66 \| \| t Stat \| 0.011893086 \| \| P(T<=t) one-tail \| 0.495273396 \| \| t Critical one-tail \| 1.668270514 \| \| P(T<=t) two-tail \| 0.990546791 \| \| t Critical two-tail \| 1.996564419 \| \| Both one tail and two tail tests indicate that p value is much greater than desirable confidence level0.05. Thus, hypothesis is true. Governments can claim that across the states number of road accidents is same at 5 % confidence level. Example 4: Paired samples t test. When samples can be paired and researcher wants to compare the means of two samples. Consider the data on GDP for the years 1951-52 to 2011-12. Data is separately for manufacturing and service sectors. Researcher is interested to know if manufacturing and service sector contribute equally in a gross GDP. This can be considered paired sample. Out Put of the Analysis t-Test: Paired Two Sample for Means \| \|\| \| Manufacturing (in Rs. Cr.) at 2004-05 Prices \| Services (in Rs. Cr.) at 2004-05 Prices \| Mean \| 217444.5669 \| 701209.1751 \| Variance \| 47826222871 \| 6.47348E+11 \| Observations \| 62 \| 62 \| Pearson Correlation \| 0.996239103 \| \| Hypothesized Mean Difference \| 0 \| \| df \| 61 \| \| t Stat \| -6.48903806 \| \| P(T<=t) one-tail \| 8.68236E-09 \| \| t Critical one-tail \| 1.670219484 \| \| P(T<=t) two-tail \| 1.73647E-08 \| \| t Critical two-tail \| 1.999623585 \| \| For both one tail and two tailed tests, p value is very very small than 0.05 desired confidence level. Thus, null hypothesis is that contribution is the same is not true. There is significant difference in contribution by Manufacturing and Service sectors. Service sector significantly contributes more compared to manufacturing sector. Chi-Square Test Chi-square is about testing Hypothesis about variance and Test of Independence. As discussed earlier, whenever we want to test if population variance and sample variance, chi-square statistic is used because chi-square is the ratio of sum of squares. >0 We have discussed the chi-square distribution. In this section we discuss the three different application of chi-square statistic. - Chi-square test for testing the hypothesis for population variance and comparing the variance of two populations. Example 1: Government of Andhra Pradesh wanted to have insight on population in Urban Agglomeration. Town Planners thought average variance across the urban agglomeration and outgrowth should be 50000000000 Random Sample of 25 agglomeration and outgrowth was drawn and Population was recorded as shown in the following sheet. Given the data, confirm if planners desired average growth is right. In this case, null hypothesis is H0: σ2=50000000000 Ha: σ2≠50000000000 Sample size=25 Sample Variance =47423218481.2267 =(2447423218481.2267)/ 50000000000 =22.76 c2.05,24 = 13.84 c2.95,24 =36.415 Chi-square calculated from the sample falls between these two values. Chi square falls into acceptance region and so accept the hypothesis. This implies that variation in population across the Urban agglomeration is true. - Chi-square test for Goodness of fit This test is done for discrete data. Chi-square test is used for testing the equality of actual and expected frequency. Formula for calculating Chi-square is; In this case null hypothesis; H0: observed frequency = expected frequency. Ha: observed frequency ≠ expected frequency Let us understand how to perform this test. Consider the major online vegetables and fruit stores. In a survey conducted by market research company, individuals prefer buying from the stores was recorded as given in table. Store \| Number of buyers (fi ) \| Amazon Fresh \| 200 \| Big Basket \| 200 \| Jio Mart \| 300 \| More \| 250 \| Reliance fresh \| 150 \| Total \| 1100 \| Actual number of buyers is observed frequency. For this we calculate the expected frequency. Totally 1100 individuals have responded the survey. We do expect that 1100 individuals are distributed among the five stores in a observed proportion. Store \| Number of buyers - (fi ) \| Proportion number of buyers /1100=p \| ei=Expected Number of buyers =1100p \| (fi-ei)^2/ei =Chi-square \| Amazon Fresh \| 200 \| 0.18 \| 198 \| 0.02020202 \| Big Basket \| 200 \| 0.18 \| 198 \| 0.02020202 \| Jio Mart \| 300 \| 0.27 \| 297 \| 0.03030303 \| More \| 250 \| 0.23 \| 253 \| 0.03557312 \| Reliance fresh \| 150 \| 0.14 \| 154 \| 0.1038961 \| Total \| 1100 \| 1 \| 1100 \| 0.2101763 \| Calculated chi-square=0.21 Chi-square critical is to found from the table with the df=4 at significance level=0.05. Chi-square critical= 9.49 Comparing chi-square calculated with Chi-square critical; chi-square calculated< Chi-square critical. Conclusion is accept the null hypothesis that observed and actual number of buyers from these stores are equal and can be concluded that all the five stores are equally popular among the consumers. \| Steps for finding the expected frequency. 1.Calculate the proportion of the buyers in each store. - Calculate the expected number of buyers in proportion of the total buyers. - Then apply the formula given above 3. Chi square Test for independence of Two Attributes Chi-square test is also used for testing the association between two attributes. Whenever attributes are measured in terms of number of individuals or objects and researcher/analyser wants to understand the association between the two attributes, chi-square test is used. Thus it is also classified as non-parametric test. Here also observed frequency and actual frequency are compared and chi-square statistic is calculated with the same formula we used earlier. Example: Placement agency conducted survey among 601 industries of different type. Wanted to know board member’s discipline in the organization. Thus, degree of the board members was recorded in Auto, Banking, FMCG, IT and Pharma industries. Data was recorded in the following table. \| Type of Industry \| \| \|\|\|\| Degree of the board member \| Auto \| Banking \| FMCG \| IT \| Pharma \| Total \| Masters \| 28 \| 26 \| 30 \| 18 \| 29 \| 131 \| CA/PCA \| 10 \| 23 \| 5 \| 5 \| 14 \| 57 \| Engg \| 30 \| 27 \| 23 \| 20 \| 20 \| 120 \| MBA \| 28 \| 26 \| 34 \| 25 \| 22 \| 135 \| Economics \| 16 \| 11 \| 13 \| 13 \| 14 \| 67 \| Ph.D \| 10 \| 9 \| 7 \| 13 \| 10 \| 49 \| Law \| 13 \| 8 \| 7 \| 8 \| 6 \| 42 \| Total \| 135 \| 130 \| 119 \| 102 \| 115 \| 601 \| Each cell indicates the number of board members with their degree. Of 601 members, maximum number of the members have MBA degree. Minimum number of board members have law degree. Research question is that industries are looking for board members with specific discipline. In other words, is there association between type of industry and degree. Let us do the chi-square test. Null hypothesis, H0: There is no association between the two attributes; degree and industry type. Ha: There is association between the two attributes; degree and industry type. We follow the same steps as mentioned earlier. Calculation of expected frequencies for each cell are done using the formula, Expected Frequencies \| Type of Industry \| \| \|\|\|\| Degree of the board member \| Auto \| Banking \| FMCG \| IT \| Pharma \| Total \| Masters \| 29.4 \| 28.4 \| 26 \| 22.2 \| 25 \| 131 \| CA/PCA \| 12.9 \| 12.4 \| 11 \| 9.7 \| 11 \| 57 \| Engg \| 27 \| 26 \| 23.8 \| 20.2 \| 23 \| 120 \| MBA \| 30 \| 29.3 \| 26.8 \| 23 \| 25.9 \| 135 \| Economics \| 15 \| 14.5 \| 13.2 \| 11.4 \| 12.9 \| 67 \| Ph.D \| 11 \| 10.6 \| 9.8 \| 8.2 \| 9.4 \| 49 \| Law \| 9.5 \| 9.1 \| 8.4 \| 7 \| 8 \| 42 \| Total \| 134.8 \| 130.3 \| 119 \| 101.7 \| 115.2 \| 601 \| Chi-square for each cell is calculated using the same formula; Values of chi-square for each cell is as given the table. Chi-Square Values \| Type of Industry \| \| \|\|\|\| Degree of the board member \| Auto \| Banking \| FMCG \| IT \| Pharma \| Total \| Masters \| 0.07 \| 0.22 \| 0.53 \| 0.98 \| 0.55 \| 2.36 \| CA/PCA \| 0.84 \| 4.89 \| 7.2 \| 4.42 \| 0.64 \| 17.99 \| Engg \| 0.3 \| 0.04 \| 0.03 \| 0 \| 0.45 \| 0.82 \| MBA \| 0.14 \| 0.42 \| 1.52 \| 0.16 \| 0.69 \| 2.94 \| Economics \| 0.06 \| 1.11 \| 0 \| 0.2 \| 0.09 \| 1.46 \| Ph.D \| 0.1 \| 0.28 \| 1.12 \| 1.77 \| 0.04 \| 3.31 \| Law \| 0.94 \| 0.15 \| 0.28 \| 0.13 \| 0.67 \| 2.17 \| Total \| 2.46 \| 7.11 \| 10.69 \| 7.65 \| 3.13 \| 31.04 \| Total 31.04 is the value of Chi-square for the entire data. And is to be compared with critical value of Chi-square. In this table there are 7 rows and 5 columns. Degrees of freedom is calculated as {number of rows-1}x {number of columns-1} =64=24 Chi-square for 24 degrees of freedom and α=0.05 is looked into the table. This is two sided test and thus probability area on both the tails =0.025 if `significance level is 0.05 Chi square on left side =12.40 and Chi-square on right side=39.36. Chi-square value obtained from the sample=31.04 lies between 12.40 and 39,36. Means it lies in the acceptance region. Accept the hypothesis that there is association between type of industry and discipline of the board member. Placement agencies can use this information when they recommend for board member in the industry. Alternative method for Chi-square test. Organize the actual and expected frequencies in two columns; Observed Frequency \| Expected Frequency \| 28 \| 29.4 \| 10 \| 12.9 \| 30 \| 27 \| 28 \| 30 \| 16 \| 15 \| 10 \| 11 \| 13 \| 9.5 \| 26 \| 28.4 \| 23 \| 12.4 \| 27 \| 26 \| 26 \| 29.3 \| 11 \| 14.5 \| 9 \| 10.6 \| 8 \| 9.1 \| 30 \| 26 \| 5 \| 11 \| 23 \| 23.8 \| 34 \| 26.8 \| 13 \| 13.2 \| 7 \| 9.8 \| 7 \| 8.4 \| 18 \| 22.2 \| 5 \| 9.7 \| 20 \| 20.2 \| 25 \| 23 \| 13 \| 11.4 \| 13 \| 8.2 \| 8 \| 7 \| 29 \| 25 \| 14 \| 11 \| 20 \| 23 \| 22 \| 25.9 \| 14 \| 12.9 \| 10 \| 9.4 \| 6 \| 8 \| Now choose from f(x) chi-square test. Select the two arrays of observed and expected frequencies as instructed in the pope up dialogue box. Result is the p value for the test. P value in this example is =0.71 >0.05. Conclude that null hypothesis is true. There is association between degree of board member and type of industry. F test for Testing for Variance Comparing the variances of two populations based on sample evidences, F test is used as F statistic is function of two variances. Let us consider the same data we used for testing the difference in means of two samples in example 4 in paired t test. Now we want to compare the variances of two populations based on sample data. H0 : variances of two populations are equal and Ha: variances of two populations are not equal If you choose data analysis module in excel, there is option F test. Click on F test and required data. Out put is available. F-Test Two-Sample for Variances \| \|\| \| \| \| \| 8.36 \| 5.42 \| Mean \| 6.8025 \| 5.871904762 \| Variance \| 8.955609211 \| 6.32556619 \| Observations \| 20 \| 21 \| df \| 19 \| 20 \| F \| 1.415779859 \| \| P(F<=f) one-tail \| 0.223396401 \| \| F Critical one-tail \| 2.137008959 \| \| In the output table, p value =0.2233 >0.05. Thus F falls in acceptance region and so null hypothesis that population variances are equal is true. Analysis of Variance In practice, very often we need to compare performance of groups of individuals or machines. For example, crop production in in different districts of the state, sale of a product in different regions or unemployment in different regions. In short, it is very often, we need to compare two or more number of groups. When we want to compare two groups, we use t test for testing the equality of means. When we want to compare more than two groups, analysis of variance (ANOVA) is the method of testing equality of the means. Let us try to understand the method through the following examples. There are two methods of analysis of variance. One-way analysis of variance (One way ANOVA) and Two way analysis of variance (Two way ANOVA). One Way Analysis of Variance Market researcher believes that younger generation prefer most advanced mobile phones which are more expensive and ready to spend more. So, researcher collects the data on spend on mobile phones by different age groups. Age groups under consideration are 16-20, 21-30, 31-40 and 40-50. Data is collected for 40 respondents from each of the age group on cost of mobile phones these age group individuals are using. Data is as given the table below. Sr.no/ Age group \| 16-20 \| 21-30 \| 31-40 \| 40-50 \| Sr.no/ Age group \| 16-20 \| 21-30 \| 31-40 \| 40-50 \| 1 \| 10029 \| 21061 \| 34131 \| 25231 \| 21 \| 8289 \| 15823 \| 43343 \| 39419 \| 2 \| 14871 \| 24226 \| 30049 \| 39144 \| 22 \| 7805 \| 44274 \| 26178 \| 7792 \| 3 \| 5552 \| 59768 \| 30159 \| 35104 \| 23 \| 9596 \| 17014 \| 48815 \| 16942 \| 4 \| 14668 \| 36978 \| 58888 \| 39823 \| 24 \| 10484 \| 51891 \| 14578 \| 23130 \| 5 \| 13192 \| 46594 \| 18015 \| 37369 \| 25 \| 10350 \| 43778 \| 60123 \| 28788 \| 6 \| 10790 \| 38861 \| 36512 \| 8766 \| 26 \| 8407 \| 15759 \| 52377 \| 38987 \| 7 \| 9076 \| 31702 \| 61608 \| 36317 \| 27 \| 14242 \| 45618 \| 44623 \| 19174 \| 8 \| 10359 \| 43651 \| 28413 \| 27826 \| 28 \| 13089 \| 33616 \| 58875 \| 28255 \| 9 \| 13114 \| 31676 \| 20480 \| 13686 \| 29 \| 10197 \| 39769 \| 49616 \| 13417 \| 10 \| 5758 \| 8765 \| 58454 \| 6808 \| 30 \| 13724 \| 44874 \| 54397 \| 26905 \| 11 \| 12073 \| 36594 \| 58887 \| 31737 \| 31 \| 11014 \| 15827 \| 12797 \| 6746 \| 12 \| 12854 \| 19554 \| 52357 \| 11203 \| 32 \| 6385 \| 50806 \| 59277 \| 24836 \| 13 \| 10586 \| 45275 \| 25330 \| 31474 \| 33 \| 12739 \| 12703 \| 32472 \| 17083 \| 14 \| 13800 \| 28757 \| 37847 \| 14007 \| 34 \| 14056 \| 18818 \| 28285 \| 29356 \| 15 \| 8830 \| 16548 \| 42494 \| 21521 \| 35 \| 11233 \| 29416 \| 29284 \| 26204 \| 16 \| 12333 \| 52554 \| 18490 \| 31930 \| 36 \| 10547 \| 9083 \| 30513 \| 10386 \| 17 \| 11466 \| 44530 \| 63743 \| 30982 \| 37 \| 10278 \| 14810 \| 35463 \| 16124 \| 18 \| 13536 \| 32244 \| 19195 \| 25005 \| 38 \| 11630 \| 46518 \| 49377 \| 14262 \| 19 \| 5235 \| 31936 \| 37077 \| 14349 \| 39 \| 12433 \| 17761 \| 51157 \| 19174 \| 20 \| 12283 \| 24408 \| 36143 \| 39374 \| 40 \| 11697 \| 25351 \| 44936 \| 15885 \| First respondent in the age group, 16-20 spends INR.10029. Similarly, other values can be interpreted. This data can also be interpreted as cost of the mobile phones for 40 respondents is grouped according to the four age groups or cost of the mobile phones for 40 respondents is classified according age group of the respondent. Thus this is also called as one way classification of data. Researcher’s objective is to know if cost of the mobile phone they are using depends on age group of the respondent. Research hypothesis is that all age groups spend the equal amount on mobile phone. Hypothesis to be tested should always be unbiased. Unbiased hypothesis means that researcher does not have any biasedness for any age group. This research hypothesis is to be converted into statistical hypothesis. Hypothesis to be tested is known as null hypothesis. Null hypothesis in this case is; H0: Means spend on mobile phones for all the age groups is equal. If we denote mean of age group 16-20 as µ1, mean of age group 21-30 as µ2, mean of age group 31-40 as µ3, and mean of age group 41-50 as µ4, H0: µ1= µ2= µ3= µ4 If analysis reveals that null hypothesis is not true, in that case we need to have an alternative which is true. We call this as alternative hypothesis denoted by H1. Alternative to equality of means is at least two means are not equal. H1: µi ≠ µj for i ≠ j. where i, j=1,2,3,4 Statistical problem is to test the hypothesis; H0: µ1= µ2= µ3= µ4 v/s H1: µi ≠ µj for i ≠ j. where i, j=1,2,3,4 Testing the null hypothesis: Let us denote each of the values in the data by Xik where i=1,2,3 ,,, c and k=1,,, N . We assume that each of the values in data has an impact of age group in addition of overall average. N is size of the population and c is the number of categories. \| In order to test this hypothesis, we consider the mathematical model as given below. The model implies that each value is an addition of overall mean and impact of age group and the error term. This is unique regression equation where the impact of categorical variable is measured. Deriving the estimates for and Based on the sample data, least square estimates are derived. Objective of the least square method is to estimate the parameters so that sum of squares of the errors is minimum. Errors are measured as difference between actual values and estimated values. Estimation of the parameters and is based on sample data. Error, eik = ∑∑(eik)2 = 2 Sum of squares of errors is to be minimized with respect to and Least square estimates are derived by solving the differential equations given as below. ∑∑(eik)2 = 2 =0 Estimates for and are Substituting these estimates in equation; eik = OR ∑∑(eik)2 = OR This implies that Total Sum of squares = Sum of squares due to states + Sum of squares due to Type of crime + error sum of squares Using these formulas, total sum of squares (TSS), sum of squares for States (SSG) and Sum of squares due type of crime(SSC) are calculated and error sum of squares is a difference TSS-SSG - SSC. Computation in excel: Anova: Single Factor \| \|\|\|\| SUMMARY \| \|\|\|\| Groups \| Count \| Sum \| Average \| Variance \| 16-20 \| 40 \| 438600 \| 10965 \| 6353782 \| 21-30 \| 40 \| 1269191 \| 31729.78 \| 1.91E+08 \| 31-40 \| 40 \| 1594758 \| 39868.95 \| 2.19E+08 \| 40-50 \| 40 \| 944521 \| 23613.03 \| 1.07E+08 \| These are the basic statistics; mean and variance for the groups. Second table exhibits the results for analysis of variance. ANOVA \| \|\|\|\|\|\| Source of Variation \| SS \| df \| MS \| F \| P-value \| F crit \| Between Groups \| 18229696406.525 \| 3.00 \| 6076565468.84 \| 0.00000 \| 2.66257 \| \| Within Groups \| 20420047227.850 \| 156.00 \| 130897738.64 \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| Total \| 38649743634 \| 159 \| \| \| \| \| Understanding the table: Total Sum of Squares(SS) and SS for groups is calculated according the formulas we discussed before. SS within the groups is error SS and is a difference of two. Degrees of freedom are equal to total terms -1. There are four groups and thus df for Between groups SS =4-1=3. Total terms in the data is 160=4*40. Df for total SS=159. Df for error SS=159-3=156. Mean sum of squares (MS) for groups =SS Between groups /3 Mean sum of squares (MS) for within groups =SS within groups /156 F= MS Between Groups / MS within groups Tabulated value of F for df 3, 156 at 5% level is =F critical. P value is the actual probability F>46.42223 Conclusion: - Based on F values: 46.42223>2.66257 means that Hypothesis of equality of means is not true. This implies that there is significant difference between the means of four age groups. This can be interpreted as, spend on mobile phones is significantly different among the age groups. Based on P value: We have fixed the significance level at 0.05 or 5 % level. This is our desirable probability of rejection. P value for this data=0.000 implies that hypothesis of equality is not true. If P values is >0.05, then Hypothesis of equality of means is true. Having realized that there is significant difference between average spend on mobile phones, we need to know which group spends most or least. - We examine the averages for four groups. Graphical presentation of the averages indicate that Age group 31-41 years spend maximum on mobile phones. Where as age group 16-20 spends minimum. Average of age groups 21-30 and 31-40 are closed to each other. Thus to conclude that average for age group 31-40 is significantly more than average for age group 21-30, we need to check by t test. P value for t test is 0.018<.05. Thus, there is significant difference between two averages. Conclusion is Average spend for age group 31-40 is maximum. Note: Detailed results of ANOVA can be obtained in advanced statistical software such as SPSS, SAS, R , Tableau……….. Practice Problem: Crime against schedule cast committed in various districts for the six major states is given in the following table. Examine if there is significant difference in average number of crimes across the states. Data is provided in the following sheet. Two Way Analysis of variance In some of the data sets, values of the variable are organized or can be organized with respect to two criteria. In such cases, values of the variable could have impact of both the criteria. One needs to check impact of both the criteria on values. For example; Revenue generated by a company is to be compared according to products and region. Two test criteria are; revenue generated by different products and in different regions. Second example; Salary of employees can be classified according to category of the employees and type of organization. Test criteria are; category of employees and different types of organizations. This is an extension of one-way ANOVA. In two-way ANOVA, total variance is decomposed in to three components. Total SS= SS due to criteria1 +SS due to criteria 2. For the sample data, Total SS= SS due to criteria1 +SS due to criteria 2 +error. To understand the method of two-way ANOVA, consider the example of number of crimes across the states; Bihar, Delhi, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, West Bengal. We consider the three types of crimes; Rape, Attempt to Commit Rape and Kidnapping & Abduction. Examine if there is significant difference in average number of crimes of committed across the seven states. It is also of interest to check if there is significant difference between types of crimes. Data is as given in the table. Rape \| Attempt to commit Rape \| Kidnapping & Abduction \| \| Bihar \| 1041 \| 403 \| 5158 \| Delhi \| 2199 \| 46 \| 4301 \| Gujarat \| 503 \| 3 \| 1569 \| Maharashtra \| 4144 \| 13 \| 5096 \| Tamilnadu \| 421 \| 29 \| 1335 \| West Bengal \| 1199 \| 1551 \| 3938 \| Uttar Pradesh \| 3025 \| 422 \| 10135 \| Hypothesis to be tested is there is equal number of crimes in all the states and of all the types. Statistical Hypothesis: For testing this hypothesis statistically, we need to frame two statistical hypotheses. Let us assume that µi is the average number of crimes in state i. i=1,2,3,4,5,6,7. And βj is the average number of crimes of type. J=1,2,3,4. H01: µ1= µ2= µ3= µ4= µ5= µ6= µ7 H11: At least for two states, average number of crimes is not equal H02: β1=β2=β3=β4 H12: At least for two types of average number of crimes are not equal Testing the null hypothesis: Let us denote each of the values in the data by Xij where i=1,2,3 ,,, 7 and j=1,,, 4 . We assume that each of the values in data has an impact of state and type of crime in addition of overall average. Total number of observations N=28. In order to test this hypothesis, we consider the mathematical model as given below. \| The model implies that each value is an addition of overall mean and impact of state, type of crime. This is an extension of one way ANOVA. Deriving the estimates for and and Based on the sample data, least square estimates are derived. Objective of the least square method is to estimate the parameters so that sum of squares of the errors is minimum. Errors are measured as difference between actual values and estimated values. Estimation of the parameters and and is based on sample data. Error, eij = ∑∑(eik)2 = 2 Sum of squares of errors is to be minimized with respect to and and . Computations in Excel SUMMARY \| Count \| Sum \| Average \| Variance \| Bihar \| 4 \| 7756 \| 1939 \| 4714629 \| Delhi \| 4 \| 6668 \| 1667 \| 4078549 \| Gujarat \| 4 \| 2087 \| 521.75 \| 542010.3 \| Maharashtra \| 4 \| 9521 \| 2380.25 \| 6850528 \| Tamilnadu \| 4 \| 1850 \| 462.5 \| 369635.7 \| West Bengal \| 4 \| 7186 \| 1796.5 \| 2229800 \| Uttar Pradesh \| 4 \| 15917 \| 3979.25 \| 18053812 \| Rape \| 7 \| 12532 \| 1790.286 \| 1945772 \| Attempt to commit Rape \| 7 \| 2467 \| 352.4286 \| 313298 \| Kidnapping & Abduction \| 7 \| 31532 \| 4504.571 \| 8584115 \| Dowry Deaths \| 7 \| 4454 \| 636.2857 \| 714834.2 \| These are the basic statistics; mean and variance for the states and type of crimes. ANOVA \| \|\|\|\|\|\| Source of Variation \| SS \| df \| MS \| F \| P-value \| F crit \| Rows \| 34170466.43 \| 6 \| 5695077.73 \| 2.914105 \| 0.03638 \| 2.661305 \| Columns \| 75339242.39 \| 3 \| 25113080.8 \| 12.85075 \| 0.0001 \| 3.159908 \| Error \| 35177649.86 \| 18 \| 1954313.88 \| \|\|\| Total \| 144687358.68 \| 27 \| \| \| \| \| Understanding the ANOVA table: Total Sum of Squares(SS) and SS for groups is calculated according the formulas we discussed before. Error SS is a difference of total SS and RowSS +Column SS. Degrees of freedoms are equal to total terms -1. There are 7 states and thus df for Row SS =7-1=6. Types of crimes are 4 and so df=4-1=3.Total terms in the data is 28. Df for total SS=27. Df for error SS=27-6-3=18 Mean sum of squares (MS) for Rows = RowSS /6 Mean sum of squares (MS) for Columns =SS Columns /3 F= MS for states / MS error SS Tabulated value of F for df 6, 18 at 5% level is =F critical=2.661305 Tabulated value of F for df 3, 18 at 5% level is =F critical=3.159908 P value is the actual probability F>2.914105for Rows=0.03638 P value is the actual probability F>12.85075for Columns=0.0001 Conclusion: - Based on Critical F value: For Rows; 2.914105>2.661305 means that Hypothesis of equality of means is not true. This implies that there is significant difference between the means of seven states. This can be interpreted as, average number of crimes in seven states are significantly different. Based on P value: We have fixed the significance level at 0.05 or 5 % level. This is our desirable probability of rejection. P value for rows =0.03638<.05 implies that hypothesis of equality is not true. - Based on Critical F value: Critical F for Columns; 12.85075>3.159908 means that Hypothesis of equality of means is not true. This implies that there is significant difference between the means of types of crimes are significantly different. Based on P value: We have fixed the significance level at 0.05 or 5 % level. This is our desirable probability of rejection. P value for columns =0.0001<.05 implies that hypothesis of equality is not true. - Having realized that there is significant difference between average number of crimes committed across the seven states and types of crimes, we need to know which state has minimum number of crimes and what type of the crime maximum or minimum. - We examine the averages for four groups. Graphical presentation of the averages for states indicate that overall crimes committed in Gujarat and Tamilnadu are minimum. Using t test, we need to check if there is significant difference in average number of crimes committed in these two states. P values for t test=0.905422. Thus there is no significant difference between the average number of crimes committed in two states. Equality hols for these two states. Graphical presentation of average number of crimes exhibit that Maximum number of the crime committed across the states is of kidnapping and abduction. Difference between maximum number of crimes and other numbers is very large and thus we can conclude that kidnapping and abduction is the crime committed maximum number of times across these seven states. Minimum number of crime committed is of attempt to commit rape. This number is closed to Dowry Deaths and thus before we conclude, we need to perform t test. P value for t test=0.475265925>0.05. Reveals that there is no significant difference between the average number of these two types of crimes. Bothe crimes committed almost equal number of times. Equality of means holds true for these two types. Practice problem: In following file, sale of tractors of different types in four regions is given. Write your hypothesis to be tested. Analyse the data and write you conclusion based on findings. Regression Analysis In real life, predictions are essential for planning the business / government policies, events or just to understand what needs to be done to achieve goal based on the past data/facts. To make it possible, it is essential to model the relationship between the relevant variables. For example, Government wants to estimate the total food production of the country, OR, wants to know what quantity of fertilizers should be imported in a year. For this purpose, government should develop the prediction model of fertilizer. To develop the prediction model, it is essential to understand relationship between crop production and other agricultural predictors such as cropped area, irrigated area and fertilizer consumption. As it is understood that food production depends upon cropped area, irrigated area for the food grains, and fertilizer consumption. Required data for the period of 1967-68 to 2010-11 is given in the following table 1. Second example we shall consider for the industrial output. Government of India conducts annual survey. Relevant data is collected from the report on annual of Industrial survey for the year of 2013-14. To estimate the industrial output, data for 4digit industries are considered. 4 digits stand for Section, Division, Group and Class. Code for this are decided by National Industrial Classification (NIC-2008). For example, Section A -Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing. Division is 01-Crop, animal production, hunting and related service activities. 011- Growing non-perennial crops. 0111-Growing cereals leguminous crops and oil seeds. Coding is done for all the various industries based on their activities. Following data considered to estimate industrial output for 143 4-digit industries. Data includes, Number of Factories, Working Capital, Materials Consumed and Total Output as given in table2. To predict the crop production or Industrial output, we need to develop mathematical model. Relevant variables are identified as given in the tables. Predictions can be done in the following six steps. - Check the relations between the variables visually. - Check the relations between the variables mathematically. - Decide on tentative model. - Estimate the parameters of the model. - Do diagnostic check (fitness of the model) - Use the model for predictions. Example 1. Fertilizer Consumption Step 1. Understanding Relationship Between Variables Visually Scatter diagram indicates relationship between two variables. We will plot scattered diagram to understand the relationship of fertilizer consumption with all other variables. Scattered diagrams; (Fig1), Area Irrigated for food grains v/s Fertilizer Consumption (Fig 2) Food Grain Production v/s Fertilizer Consumption, and (Fig3) Cropped area for food grains v/s Fertilizer Consumption are plotted in Excel. Figure 1. Graph in figure reveals that fertilizer consumption is increasing with the increase in area irrigated for food grains. More fertilizer is need if more area is irrigated for food grains. Fertilizer consumption can be predicted if one knows area irrigated for food grains. This is known as increasing linear relationship between Fertilizer consumption and irrigated area for food grains. Figure 2 This indicates that food grain production increases with the increase in fertilizer consumption. Thus, for more food grain production, more fertilizer is needed. Figure 3 This reveals that fertilizer consumption is not related to cropped area for food grains. Thus, cropped area does not determine the fertilizer consumption or have no relation. Figures, 1,2 and 3 indicate that Fertilizer consumption or requirement of fertilizer is related to area irrigated and food production will be more if fertilizer consumption is more. In conclusion, Government should decide on requirement of the fertilizer depending on area irrigated by farmers. At the same time, fertilizer consumption by the farmers will determine food grain production for the year. Step 2, Mathematical relationship between the variables: Having observed that fertilizer consumption is related with the area irrigated for food grains and production of food grains, we need to check these relationships mathematically by calculating the correlation coefficient between these variables. (Correlation coefficient is discussed in earlier chapters.) Table 1. Correlation Coefficient Matrix between the variables \| Total Consumption of Fertilizer (000,tonnes) \| Area irrigated -food grains (000,hectares) \| Total food grains production (000, tonnes) \| Total Consumption of Fertilizer (000,tonnes) \| 1 \| \|\| Area irrigated -food grains (000,hectares) \| 0.97 \| 1 \| \| Total food grains production (000, tonnes) \| 0.967 \| 0.98 \| 1 \| Table 1. Indicates that Fertilizer consumption is highly correlated with Area irrigated for food grains and food production with the coefficient of 0.97 and 0.967. Also, food production and irrigation are highly correlated with coefficient of 0.98. If government of India wants to increase the food production, irrigation facilities in the country needs to improved and fertilizer should be made available to the farmers. Tentative Mathematical Model: Having understood the relationship between the variables, now the question is how to measure the exact relationship between the variables so that requirement of the fertilizer can be predicted OR production of food grains can be predicted for the season / year. This is done by developing the mathematical model for the relationship of the variables. Process of developing the model is known as regression analysis. This is a causal model as this model helps to predict the value of the variable for given values of the other variable/s. For example, requirement of fertilizer consumption can be predicted for the given area irrigated for food grains. Correlation ship between the two variables is 0.97. Thus if we know the total area irrigated in the country, then mathematical model will help to predict the requirement of fertilizer. OR Area irrigated for food grains predicts the fertilizer consumption. Area irrigated is known as independent variable and fertilizer consumption is dependent variable. Scattered diagram in figure 1, indicates that Area irrigated and fertilizer consumption have linear relationship. So hypothetical model indicating their relationship can be written as; Fertilizer consumption= β0 + β1(Area irrigated) β 0 is constant and β 1 is increase in o fertilizer consumption for one unit increase in area irrigated. This is called as simple regression model as there is only one independent variable; Area irrigated. Estimated model Using the given data, we can estimate the predicted value of Fertilizer consumption. Estimated model is written as; Fertilizer consumption= b0 +b 1 (Area irrigated) +error. Predicted values will always have some error and so error term is very essential. Estimation of the model is nothing but deriving the values of constant and coefficient b1 from the data. b0 and b1 are estimated by least square method. Mathematically, error function can be expressed as; Sum(Error)^2=Sum[ constant+b1 (Area irrigated)- Fertilizer consumption]^2 Formulas for calculation of b0and b1 are as below. Using these values we calculate predicted values and compare with the actual values. Now we shall discuss how to do using excel software. Following files contains the data and output of the simple regression model. Steps for performing regression analysis: - Open the data sheet. And check if add-in Data Analysis is added. If not then add. - Open the data analysis command and click on regression. - Choose appropriate options for entering the data. - Select Ok and output will be available. Interpretation of output: Regression Statistics \| \| Multiple R \| 0.969788737 \| R Square \| 0.940490195 \| Adjusted R Square \| 0.939106246 \| Standard Error \| 1810.608672 \| Observations \| 45 \| Multiple R =0.969788737 indicates the correlation between actual and predicted values of Fertilizer consumption. In the simple regression, Multiple R is coefficient between Fertilizer consumption and Area irrigated. R square explains the proportion of variance explained by the model. In this example, R square=0.94 means 94% of the variance is explained by the model. ANOVA table gives overall fitness of the model. Significance F is very very small and so model fit is good. Model coefficients are given in the table below. \| Coefficients \| Standard Error \| t Stat \| P-value \| Intercept \| -19437.9011 \| 1202.695 \| -16.1619 \| 7.01E-20 \| Area irrigated for food grains (000,hectares) \| 0.685476491 \| 0.026295 \| 26.06856 \| 5.61E-28 \| P value for Area irrigated for food grains is very small mean that Area Irrigated is a significant variable in the model. OR Area Irrigated contributes significantly in determining the total required consumption of fertilizer. Regression model can be written as; Fertilizer consumption=-19437.9+0.685Area Irrigated. Negative value of Intercept can be interpreted as; if area is not irrigated at all then fertilizer consumption zero. Coefficient of Area irrigated = 0.685 means that for one unit (1000 hectors) fertilizer consumption will be more by 0.685 times. Calculation of predicted values: Using the model above, calculate the estimated values of Fertilizer consumption. These estimated values are compared with actual values. For given value of area irrigated, fertilizer consumption can be calculated with the help of model. Predicted values are given in the output. When we plot both actual and predicted values on the same graph as shown in the figure below, it is clear that visually both the values are close for most of the years. Model Fitness: Having developed the model, it is essential to check how good the model is. Goodness of fit will be deciding factor to know with what accuracy predictions are made. Model fitness is measured in following three ways. - Predictions made using regression equation are compared with the actual values. We have already seen in the figure above that visually, actual fertilizer consumption and estimated fertilizer consumption are almost similar. So visually we can say that model fit is good. - Overall model fit Overall fitness of the model can be checked based on ANOVA table. Sum of squares due to regression model is 2.23E+09. Significance of F is very small and thus model is significant. Model is accepted. ANOVA \| \|\|\|\|\| \| df \| SS \| MS \| F \| Significance F \| Regression \| 1 \| 2.23E+09 \| 2.23E+09 \| 679.57 \| 5.61E-28 \| Residual \| 43 \| 1.41E+08 \| 3278304 \| \|\| Total \| 44 \| 2.37E+09 \| \| \| \| - Errors in predictions: Errors are measured as difference between actual value and predicted value of fertilizer consumption. It is desirable that errors are random. Errors do not exhibit the pattern of model. Secondly, sum of squares of errors are minimum. Above graph of errors does not exhibit any pattern of the original data and thus model developed captures variations in the data. Minimum error is =-2450.6 and maximum error=5326.5. Model is very good and can be used for forecasting fertilizer consumption. Time Series analysis Introduction It is very usual phenomena that every citizen of India including Government anxiously keep waiting for the monsoon forecast from India Meteorological Department (IMD) to plan their various activities. Thus to forecast the future is a very natural part of our routine life. Forecast of the events or incidents is essential for planning of the future activities. How forecast reports are prepared? Studying the existing patterns in past data, forecasts are made. When past data is recorded at equal time interval, we call it time series data. For example, monthly rainfall in the region, daily sale in retail shop, weekly travelers in the train/bus, yearly profit of the company, yearly demand of the product, hourly usage of internet data are exhibiting time series at different time intervals. Few examples of different time series data are given in the following figures. Most commonly observed patterns in time series data are as shown in the following figures, figure1 to figure 5. Figure 1 : Quarterly Agricultural GDP of India for the period of 2004-5 to 2014-15. Source: RBI Figure 2 Quarterly GDP for Finance, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services Source: RBI Figure 3 Nifty open index. Source: NSE Figure 4 Index of Industrial Production for Basic Good Source: RBI Figure 5. Total no of cars sold during 1963 to 2016. Source: Society of Automotive Manufactures An exploring/Understanding pattern in time series and predicting values of the variable for the next period or periods is what TIME SERIES ANALYSIS. Time series analysis In all the examples above, values of variable in a time series fluctuate and exhibit the patterns. We need to identify them. Fluctuations in a time series are either short term fluctuations OR long term fluctuations. Fluctuations within a period less than year are known as Seasonal fluctuations. Fluctuations occurring over more than year are mainly Cyclical and Trend Thus value of the variable in time series is resulting impact of components namely, Trend (T), Seasonal (S), Cyclical (C),Irregular (I). Impact of these components can be additive or multiplicative. Time series analysis is a method of identifying presence of these components and to develop a mathematical model which can be used to forecast the value of the variable. Forecasting by analyzing time series involves the following major steps; (1) Exploring patterns (2) Developing appropriate model (3) Evaluation of forecasting model (4) Use the model to forecast the values for required time period. I Exploring Patterns in Time Series Data Before we consider time series data for modeling, it is essential to know existing patterns of variation in time series data. Most commonly used methods are; visual examination, Autocorrelation function (ACF), Partial Autocorrelation function (PACF). Visually we identify the presence of major components such as trend, seasonal or cyclical. Auto correlation and partial auto correlation helps to decide the model. ACF and PACF indicates if what time lag in the series impacts the present value. We shall discuss all three methods to explore the patterns of time series. Visual examination: Figure 1: Examining time series plot for quarterly agricultural GDP of India for the period of 2004-5 to 2014-15 in figure1, it can be observed that every quarter Q3 of year, GDP is highest and minimum in Q2. This pattern is the same every year though values are different. Thus fluctuations in a series exhibit seasonal variations. Secondly GDO for Q3 and Q2 both are increasing over a period. The series has presence of seasonal and trend variation (S+T). Figure 2: Time series for GDP for Finance, Insurance, Real Estate & Business Services increasing over the years with minor ups and down in values. This exhibits increasing trend in series. Thus series has a presence of Trend (T) and irregular(I) variations. Figure3: Time series plot for the Nifty Index, initially index is increasing during 2007 to 2008 and then falls during 2008-9 and again increasing and falling during 2011-12. Nifty index has impact of cyclical, trend and irregular fluctuations ( C+T+I). Figure 4: Time series of monthly Index of Industrial Production for Basic Good has seasonal variations and increasing over the years. Series has presence of seasonal, trend and irregular variations (S+T+I). Figure 5: Monthly time series of no cars sold exhibits cyclical and irregular variations as there is no repetition of specific pattern within a year, there is no clear increasing or decreasing trend. We can say that series has impact of cyclical and irregular variations. Remember: Reoccurrence of pattern within a year are called as seasonal variations in series. Trend in a series is long term fluctuations Cyclical patterns reoccur rover period of more than a year and period of cycle is not same. Irregular variations in a series are random by nature and do exhibit any kind of regularity. Auto correlation function (ACF) and Partial auto correlation function (PACF): Visual check gives understanding that which components impact on values of the variable in a series. To develop mathematical model of time series data, we need to explore the patterns mathematically to decide the parameters of the model. Now we shall understand the characteristics of the time series data mathematically using ACF and PACF. ACF: In a time series data, we believe that value of the variable at any specific time has impact of the past value. And so auto correlation is appropriate measure to know the impact of the past data. Auto correlation is correlation measures the correlation between two sets of observations of the series separated by some time lag. Let us define Yt = value of variable at time t. We expect that Yt and Yt-2 are correlated. For example, in a series of weekly sale, it expected that current weeks sale is correlated with last week. Or current month’s sale is correlated with last month. In general, autocorrelation measures the relation between present value of the variable and past value. When autocorrelation for various time lags is calculated, it called as auto correlation function (ACF). Co relational dependency of order k between each j th element of series and the (j-k)th element k is time lag is calculated by using the formula; PACF: In time series analysis, partial auto correlations are used to measure the degree of association between Yt and Yt-k when other time lags; 1,2,….k-1 are removed. For example, consider k=2. If we want to measure the association between, Yt & Yt-1 and Yt & Yt-2. Since Yt-1 and Yt-2 are just at one time lag, it is most likely that Yt-1 &Yt-2 are also significantly correlated. Thus, it is essential to know association of Yt and Yt-1 by removing Yt-2. Partial autocorrelation is partial correlation between Yt and Yt-1 when effect of Yt-2 is removed. When partial auto correlation is calculated for various time lags, it is known as partial auto correlation function (PACF). Formula for Partial auto correlation = We shall discuss here ACF and PACF for the above series Calculation of ACF and PACF, Consider the time series in figure 1 and in table 1. Table 1 Year \| Quarter \| GDP for Agriculture & allied activities ( Yt) \| Yt-1 \| 2004-05 \| Q1 \| 1357.45 \| \| \| Q2 \| 1088.79 \| 1357.45 \| \| Q3 \| 1724.01 \| 1088.79 \| \| Q4 \| 1484.01 \| 1724.01 \| 2005-06 \| Q1 \| 1394.04 \| 1484.01 \| \| Q2 \| 1130.23 \| 1394.04 \| \| Q3 \| 1857.5 \| 1130.23 \| \| Q4 \| 1563.09 \| 1857.5 \| 2006-07 \| Q1 \| 1447.89 \| 1563.09 \| \| Q2 \| 1169.47 \| 1447.89 \| \| Q3 \| 1932.09 \| 1169.47 \| \| Q4 \| 1642.44 \| 1932.09 \| 2007-08 \| Q1 \| 1513.36 \| 1642.44 \| \| Q2 \| 1224.18 \| 1513.36 \| \| Q3 \| 2116.49 \| 1224.18 \| \| Q4 \| 1696.77 \| 2116.49 \| 2008-09 \| Q1 \| 1557.34 \| 1696.77 \| \| Q2 \| 1237.8 \| 1557.34 \| \| Q3 \| 2038.1 \| 1237.8 \| \| Q4 \| 1723.64 \| 2038.1 \| 2009-10 \| Q1 \| 1566.735459 \| 1723.64 \| \| Q2 \| 1262.746229 \| 1566.735 \| \| Q3 \| 2010.850211 \| 1262.746 \| \| Q4 \| 1769.540952 \| 2010.85 \| 2010-11 \| Q1 \| 1640.460497 \| 1769.541 \| \| Q2 \| 1356.164349 \| 1640.46 \| \| Q3 \| 2264.437226 \| 1356.164 \| \| Q4 \| 1917.074505 \| 2264.437 \| 2011-12 \| Q1 \| 1747.63 \| 1917.075 \| \| Q2 \| 1410.96 \| 1747.63 \| \| Q3 \| 2397.2 \| 1410.96 \| \| Q4 \| 1982.52 \| 2397.2 \| 2012-13 \| Q1 \| 1779.47 \| 1982.52 \| \| Q2 \| 1435.96 \| 1779.47 \| \| Q3 \| 2415.56 \| 1435.96 \| \| Q4 \| 2014.1 \| 2415.56 \| 2013-14 \| Q1 \| 1850.84 \| 2014.1 \| \| Q2 \| 1508.22 \| 1850.84 \| \| Q3 \| 2504.77 \| 1508.22 \| \| Q4 \| 2141.65 \| 2504.77 \| 2014-15 \| Q1 \| 1921.15 \| 2141.65 \| \| Q2 \| 1557.12 \| 1921.15 \| Using the formula given above, auto correlation is calculated. Auto correlation for time lag 1 is =.07 Similarly Auto correlation with time lag 2, 3….. can be calculated as shown in table 2. Autocorrelations \| \|\| Lag \| Autocorrelation \| \| 1 \| .070 \| \| 2 \| -.027 \| \| 3 \| -.003 \| \| 4 \| .836 \| \| 5 \| -.003 \| \| 6 \| -.090 \| \| 7 \| -.060 \| \| 8 \| .685 \| \| 9 \| -.056 \| \| 10 \| -.135 \| \| 11 \| -.108 \| \| 12 \| .537 \| \| 13 \| -.107 \| \| 14 \| -.176 \| \| 15 \| -.145 \| \| 16 \| .404 \| Graph for the auto correlations in Table 2. It can be seen that at every fourth time lag 4, 8, 12 and 16, auto correlation is significantly high and is declining gradually as time lag increases. Every fourth auto correlation is significant means seasonality is present. This means that current values do not have high correlation with too past. Values of 2012-13 have higher correlation with values in 2011-12 compared to 2015-16. This indicates the trend in series. This concludes that series has seasonal pattern and also trend. While modeling data, both seasonal and trend parameters should be included. Figure 2 Quarterly GDP for Finance, Insurance, and Real Estate & Business Services Auto correlation of this series is decreasing with increase in time lag. This indicates that series has trend. For series with increasing trend, ACF is decreasing whereas for a series with decreasing trend, ACF is increasing with the increase in time lag. While modeling data one should know that nearer time lag has significant impact in values of series. Each of the present value is function of the immediate past. This is visible in series with trend. Lag \| Autocorrelation \| 1 \| .927 \| 2 \| .847 \| 3 \| .772 \| 4 \| .699 \| 5 \| .626 \| 6 \| .549 \| 7 \| .481 \| 8 \| .420 \| 9 \| .356 \| 10 \| .290 \| 11 \| .231 \| 12 \| .177 \| 13 \| .121 \| 14 \| .066 \| 15 \| .015 \| 16 \| -.030 \| Figure 3 Nifty open index Lag \| Autocorrelation \| 1 \| .998 \| 2 \| .995 \| 3 \| .993 \| 4 \| .991 \| 5 \| .988 \| 6 \| .986 \| 7 \| .984 \| 8 \| .982 \| 9 \| .980 \| 10 \| .978 \| 11 \| .976 \| 12 \| .974 \| 13 \| .971 \| 14 \| .969 \| 15 \| .967 \| 16 \| .965 \| ACF for Nifty open index indicates that all auto correlations are significant at all time lags considered. Values of all auto correlations are almost similar. This implies that each of the indexes are significantly correlated with past value for a larger time lag. Series does not have trend or seasonal or cyclical fluctuations. Figure 5. Total no of cars sold during 1963 to 2016 Lag \| Autocorrelation \| 1 \| .545 \| 2 \| .337 \| 3 \| .104 \| 4 \| -.084 \| 5 \| -.341 \| 6 \| -.349 \| 7 \| -.324 \| 8 \| -.100 \| 9 \| -.077 \| 10 \| .116 \| 11 \| .199 \| 12 \| .310 \| 13 \| .065 \| 14 \| -.096 \| 15 \| -.235 \| 16 \| -.217 \| ACF for this series exhibits cyclical patterns. Period of the cycle is not same. In this series seasonal fluctuations absent and trend is very marginal. II Developing Appropriate Model Tentative model/method is decided for the time series based on what we explored in earlier section. Basic methods of time series analysis are as shown in the chart in figure 5 Smoothing Methods Smoothing methods are based on smoothing the variations over the past time periods. Smoothed value for the last time periods is used to forecast the value of time series. Various methods of smoothing are suggested by the different researchers. These methods are about different schemes of assigning weights to the past values for smoothing variations. Most widely used smoothing methods are; - Simple moving average method - Simple exponential method - Holt’s exponential method - Winter’s exponential method Simple Moving Average Method Is simplest method of forecasting in which fluctuations are smoothed out over most recent past values. What needs to be decided is what should be the recent past period for smoothing. Let Yt be the value of the variable for time t and k be the time lag for smoothing. Moving average for period t+1, Yt+1=(Yt+Yt-1+……..Yt-k+1)/k . Each new data point is included in average and earliest one is discarded. Yt+2= = (Yt+1+Yt+…….Yt-k+2)/k Concept of moving average can be explained through the example of time series data on annual domestic power consumption in Gujarat state given in table. Sl No \| Year \| Domestic Consumption (MUS) Yt \| Moving average \| 1 \| 1988-89 \| 1393 \| #N/A \| 2 \| 1989-90 \| 1595 \| #N/A \| 3 \| 1990-91 \| 1756 \| 1581.333 \| 4 \| 1991-92 \| 1942 \| 1764.333 \| 5 \| 1992-93 \| 2086 \| 1928 \| 6 \| 1993-94 \| 2315 \| 2114.333 \| 7 \| 1994-95 \| 2521 \| 2307.333 \| 8 \| 1995-96 \| 2838 \| 2558 \| 9 \| 1996-97 \| 2968 \| 2775.667 \| 10 \| 1997-98 \| 3171 \| 2992.333 \| 11 \| 1998-99 \| 3486 \| 3208.333 \| 12 \| 1999-00 \| 3699 \| 3452 \| 13 \| 2000-01 \| 3981 \| 3722 \| 14 \| 2001-02 \| 3922 \| 3867.333 \| 15 \| 2002-03 \| 4136 \| 4013 \| 16 \| 2003-04 \| 4613 \| 4223.667 \| 17 \| 2004-05 \| 5026 \| 4591.667 \| 18 \| 2005-06 \| 5490 \| 5043 \| 19 \| 2006-07 \| 6097 \| 5537.667 \| Consider k=3 as first 3 auto correlations are significant. Forecast for 1991-92, = (1393+1595+1756)/3=1581.3 Forecast for 1992-93= (1595+1756+1942)/3 =1764 Continuing this till all the data points are considered. Forecast for 2007-8 =5537.7 Key question while using moving average for forecasting is what should be the time period for smoothing. There is no mathematical formula for this but one can get clue from ACF. Time lag for significant auto correlations can be considered for smoothing variation over time period. Steps to use excel for simple moving average: - Click on data analysis and choose moving average - Select the input data series - Enter the desirable value of k in interval box - Select the output range Output is as shown in the table. Note: In simple moving average method, we have given equal weights to past values used for smoothing. It may not always be appropriate always. Thus, moving averages are not preferred when series has seasonal influences or trend. Exponential Smoothing Exponential smoothing is an improvement over moving average method we discussed before. Forecasts made using these methods are weighted averages of past values with the weights decaying exponentially as time period increases. Exponential methods produce quick and reliable forecasts for time series. Fore short-term forecast, these methods are preferred. Three researchers have contributed in developing exponential methods. Simple exponential method was developed by Brown for time series which does not have seasonal or trend variations. Holt developed the exponential method for the series with trend and Winter’s method is for seasonal and trend variations in the data. We shall discuss all three methods. Simple Exponential Method This is the simplest exponential method as its name. This method is also referred as single exponential method by some authors. This method is appropriate for forecasting when time series does not display any specific pattern of trend or seasonal variations. Simple exponential method can be considered for time series data in example 3 and 4. In simple exponential method, forecasts are made using the formula, Current forecast=a(Current value) +(1- a)old forecast Mathematical equation is to derive forecast is as follow. It can be observed that forecasts are made based on past value with weight α and weight assigned to past forecast is 1- α. α=1 implies that forecast is equal to old value and c=0 implies that current forecast = old forecast. α=1 implies that forecast is equal to old value and α=0 or closed to zero implies that current forecast = old forecast. Thus 0<α<1 and key point is to find the optimum value of α. Alpha can be decided after iterating for various values and choose the one for which mean squared error is minimum. Most of the software provides the solution for optimum α. Example 3. Nifty open index. To illustrate simple exponential model, we shall consider the time series for Nifty open index we discussed in example 3. Series does not have trend or seasonal variations and so this is the appropriate model to forecast. Exponential model can be developed in excel in following steps. 1.Go to data analysis 2. Select Exponential Smoothing 3.Select the input range (series to be used for forecasting) 4.Select the Output range 5.Enter the desirable value of alpha. OR try different values of alpha and choose the best one. 6.Output forecast is obtained Note: Double and Triple exponential smoothing can be done by repeated smoothing of the series. Alternative way of exponential smoothing is using f(x). Click on f(x) and choose FORECAST.ETS. Enter the required data and obtain the required forecast values.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.327329	07/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106640/overview", "title": "Statistics/Data Analytics", "author": "Vina Vani" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105058/overview	Let's Stand to Save the World! Environmental Literacy Lesson Plan Overview The lesson includes vocabulary introduction, a reading activity, vocabulary practice, speaking activities for opinion exchange, and a wrap-up discussion. Students are encouraged to actively participate, while the teacher provides guidance and monitors language use throughout the lesson. The Lesson Overview The lesson includes a climate change story, vocabulary introduction, a reading activity, vocabulary practice, speaking activities for opinion exchange, and a wrap-up discussion. Students are encouraged to actively participate, while the teacher provides guidance and monitors language use throughout the lesson.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.353515	06/11/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105058/overview", "title": "Let's Stand to Save the World! Environmental Literacy Lesson Plan", "author": "Arif Amsoh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70132/overview	Education Standards Discussion Day Rubrics Online Discussion Rubric Small Group Rubric Timeline Rubric Of Mice and Men End of the Novel Project Overview Activity Description: This activity is actually four different discussion-based activities to be used in a station rotation discussion day format. It does require some prework with the double journal note-taking graphic organizer included in the resources. Time needed for activity: 45-60 minutes Resources needed for activity: student notes using the double journal note-taking graphic organizer; paper, sticky notes, and markers for timelines, and internet access to LMS. Assessment: Rubrics "Of Mice and Men End of the Novel Project" by Raeanna Carlson is licensed under CC BY-NC 4.0 / A derivative from the original work Pre-Discussion Notes Prior to the discussion day, have students fill out the double journal note chart attached to the student resources. This double journal note-taking graphic organizer asks students to record textual evidence in the first column. Students are also prompted to “Write down a short summary of or the direct quotation from the part of the text…” in order to get the evidence out of the text. The organizer also reminds them to “Try to include page numbers...” in order to make finding evidence during discussion easier. In the second column, students are prompted to explain their thoughts. They should think about how or why something mattered to them or the text and the effect it could have on the rest of the novel. This is the most important part of the activity since this is the part where students have to think metacognitively. They have to think beyond the straightforward and consider all the ramifications and implications of what they have just read. Essentially, they have to decompress all of their thoughts and consider why they had them and what it all means. They have to look at the big picture. Taking notes ... I know, not the most fun, but this is a necessary part of the learning process. Use the double journal linked below to record both your textual evidence (notes of quotations or paraphrases of events from Of Mice and Men ) and your reaction to that evidence. You will need ALL of these notes to accomplish the various activities on discussion day! Connections Students will: - Post one connection they had or made to the text. This could be a text-to-text, text-to-self, or text-to-world connection. - They will need textual evidence. - Respond to at least one (1) other post with an explanation of how the first student's connection could change the way we think about the characters or Steinbeck's overall message. Go to the discussion board labeled "Connections" and complete the following tasks: - Post one connection you had or made to the text. This could be a text-to-text, text-to-self, or text-to-world connection. - Respond to at least one (1) other post with an explanation of how your classmate's connection could change the way we think about the characters or Steinbeck's overall message. - See the attached rubric for how your online discussion post will be assessed. For BOTH posts, you need to cite specific textual evidence (a.k.a quotations or at least page numbers of conversations). You also need to give more than the generic "I agree!/No way!" response. Be thoughtful! Concerns Students will: - Post one concerns they had or made to the text. - They will need textual evidence. - Respond to at least one (1) other post with an explanation of how the first student's connection could change the way we think about the characters or Steinbeck's overall message. Go to the discussion board labeled "Concerns" and complete the following tasks: - Write a discussion post about the "red flag" moments you had while reading. - Use your note sheet to help you write your discussion post. - Reference specific textual evidence by quoting directly from the text. - Explain how that concern could change the way you think about the characters or Steinbeck's overall message. - Reply to at least one (1) classmate - See the attached rubric for how your post will be assessed. Concepts & Craft On discussion day, one station will be a collaborative workstation. Students will work together to create a timeline of important events and conversations within each chapter or chapter grouping. Students may do this "old school" by hand on butcher paper or extra large sticky notes, online via https://time.graphics/ or another online timeline maker. Students will: - Outline/summarize 5-10 important events or conversations that happen within the chapter. - Attribute important examples of craft (figurative language, mood, irony, symbolism, etc) to the event or conversation they describe or impact. As a group, - Create a timeline with 5-10 important events or conversations that happen within the chapter. Be sure to include page numbers for easier reference! - After establishing your baseline of events and conversations, find examples of craft (figurative language, mood, imagery, symbolism, irony, etc) that describe or impact those events or conversations. - In a different color or direction, add quotations that demonstrate those craft items to the timeline. - See the attached rubric for how you will be assessed. Group Discussion Project NOTES FOR THE DISCUSSION - Review discussion expectations - Review the rubric in detail the day before - Monitor the discussion - Assign the students their roles - Vet the submitted questions for repeated or inappropriate material Please review the following questions in preparation for the group discussion: Why would some people say Lenny best represents innocence and George best represents morality? What evidence can you pull from the text to support your answer? What would you do if you were the deciding factor regarding who lives and who dies? How would you make your decision? How would a situation similar to George killing Lenny be received by the current climate in American society? What has changed from the 1930s to today to explain the reception of the murder? Identify a metaphor in the novel and explain its impact on the plot progression and character development. Who has the authority to decide what is considered right and what is considered wrong? Photo Credit: Ricinator, pixabay.com Students are to submit a minimum of one (1) quesiton (not listed above) to the teacher to add to the pool of questions for group discussion the day before the discussion. Each person in the group will have a specific role in addition to discussing with peers. - Questioner: this person is in charge of the questions. They are to ask the questions and clarify the questions when necessary. - Notetaker: this person is to document what is said in the discussion. They are to write as much as possible. - Summarizer: this person is to use the notetaker's document to create a full summary of the discussion. They are to ask for clarification from group members. - Presenter: this person is to present the summarizer's document to the rest of the class to show the findings of the group.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.406228	Reading Literature	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/70132/overview", "title": "Of Mice and Men End of the Novel Project", "author": "Literature" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80172/overview	Education Standards Internet Location of Photograph Used in OER Japanese American Internment During World War II "Japanese - American Internment During WW II / History" Kids Meet a Survivor of the Japanese-American Internment – Kids Meet – HiHo Kids "Ugly History: Japanese American Incarceration Camps – Densho" Japanese American Internment - World War II Overview This resource includes primary sources which examine and investigate the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II. The original author of this resource (Franky Abbott) utilized some of the Digital Public Library of America Primary Source Sets. These Source Sets can be used to help students further develop their critical thinking skills. These sets may include an overview, primary sources, links to other relevant resources, and a teaching guide for instructors. According to the original author, these sets were both created and then reviewed by the teachers on the DPLA's Education Advisory Committee. I have added four YouTube videos to this resource. I want students to have the opportunity to listen to survivors of the Japanese American Internment Camps. I also want students to better understand the historical events that led to the incarceration of Japanese Americans. Japanese American Internment Utilize this URL from OER Commons to see a Lesson Plan about Japanese Internment During World War II "This teaching guide helps instructors use a specific primary source set, , in the classroom. It offers discussion questions, classroom activities, and primary source analysis tools. It is intended to spark pedagogical creativity by giving a sample approach to the material. Please feel free to share, reuse, and adapt the resources in this guide for your teaching purposes." Franky Abbott is the author of the lessonplan. The provider of this resource is the Digital Public Library of America. Title: "Japanese - American Internment During WW II / History" YouTube Description: “After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States Government issued executive order 9066, which empowered the military to round up anyone of Japanese ancestry and place them in internment camps.” View the YouTube video linked below to get a clearer picture of the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Japanese American Internment "This collection uses primary sources to explore Japanese American internment during World War II. Digital Public Library of America Primary Source Sets are designed to help students develop their critical thinking skills and draw diverse material from libraries, archives, and museums across the United States. Each set includes an overview, ten to fifteen primary sources, links to related resources, and a teaching guide. These sets were created and reviewed by the teachers on the DPLA's Education Advisory Committee." Franky Abbott, Digital Public Library of America "This teaching guide helps instructors use a specific primary source set in the classroom. It offers discussion questions, classroom activities, and primary source analysis tools. It is intended to spark pedagogical creativity by giving a sample approach to the material. Please feel free to share, reuse, and adapt the resources in this guide for your teaching purposes." Franky Abbott, Digital Public Library of America Title:"Ugly History: Japanese American Incarceration Camps – Densho" YouTube Description: Dig into the historic injustice of Japanese American incarceration camps, also known as internment camps, during World War II. View the YouTube video linked below to hear some firsthand descriptions of the treatment of Japanese Americans during World War II. Title: “Diary Reveals Reality of Living in a WWII Japanese Internment Camp \| NowThis” YouTube Description: This woman was born in a Japanese internment camp during World War II — and she says history is repeating itself today with immigrant detention centers View the YouTube video linked below to hear what a Japanese American woman’s diary reveals about life in a Japanese American Internment Camp during World War II. Also, hear her daughter discuss current events that mirror the events in the 1940’s in the United States. Title: “Kids Meet a Survivor of the Japanese-American Internment – Kids Meet – HiHo Kids” Description: This man was incarcerated in a Japanese Internment Camp during World War II. View the YouTube video linked below to watch students interview a Japanese American who was detained in a Japanese American Internment Camp during World War II Link For Photograph Used in Title of OER See the link below for location of the photograph used to introduce the OER.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.442373	Linda Norman	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80172/overview", "title": "Japanese American Internment - World War II", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18190/overview	Matrix of NGSS Crosscutting Concepts Science Flowchart (Dynamic) Science Flowchart (Static) Survey 2 NGSS Module #1 - Phenomena & Equity Topic 3: How Science Works Overview The Oregon Science Project Module #1 is designed for K-12 and nonformal educators who want to learn more about NGSS, with an emphasis on how the shift to sense-making around phenomena is at the heart of the NGSS. How Science Works How Science Works "Before one can discuss the teaching and learning of science, consensus is needed about what science is." - Taking Science to School Components: individual video reflection, small group discussions, survey response Tips for Success: Print Flowchart (static) Print or Download both the NGSS Practices and Matrix of Crosscutting Concepts Individual Instructions: Watch the video below at least once and listen for: - How these scientists - and science educators - discuss how science works - Ways that scientists use evidence to craft arguments - How scientists reason with evidence Open "Science Flowchart (Dynamic)" - Slowly mouse over the different parts of the flowchart. - Reflect on the different parts of the flowchart ensuring that you have seen all of the different spheres. - Connect evidence from the video to the different spheres of the flowchart. Be prepared to share your findings in our group PLC. Group Work: Each participant opens "Appendix F: NGSS Practices" - It may be helpful to minimize your screens so you can easily switch between the different resources on your own during your discussion. - As a group, discuss where each practice could fit on the flowchart and why, or why not. - Refer back to the video (or even watch it again) to help you think about this overlap. Each participant opens "Matrix of NGSS Crosscutting Concepts" - As a group, discuss where each NGSS Crosscutting Concept could fit on the flowchart and why, or why not. - Refer back to the video (or even watch it again) to help you think about this overlap or lack of overlap. "Survey #2" on their own device - In your group, discuss each prompt on the survey using the science flowchart to guide your discussion about how science works. - Include material from the video (quotes, ideas, stories, claims, etc.) in your responses. - Each participant completes and submits their own survey.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.465954	Kathy Clunes	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/18190/overview", "title": "NGSS Module #1 - Phenomena & Equity Topic 3: How Science Works", "author": "Nicole Duncan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116117/overview	Slides: Resume and Cover Letter Workshop Overview Slides that can be used and/or adapted to teach students about cover letters and resumes. Slides See attachment for PowerPoint slides	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.482962	05/16/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116117/overview", "title": "Slides: Resume and Cover Letter Workshop", "author": "Aujalee Moore" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73014/overview	ALITA ROTA Overview cuento ALITA ROTA CUENTOS Cuentan que un lugar de la tierra cotabambina , cayó un angelito del cielo. Todos los campesinos y pastores corrieron a mirarlo. El angelito estaba muy triste porque un ala se le había roto y no podía volar. La gente del lugar quería ayudarlo pero no sabían que hacer. De pronto llegó una abuelita y le cosió el ala rota. Entonces el angelito subió nuevamente al cielo y desde ese día cuida a la gente cotabambina, en especial a la abuelita que lo ayudó.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.495168	09/29/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73014/overview", "title": "ALITA ROTA", "author": "NICOLAS LOAIZA PIMACCAHUA" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121255/overview	Web Accessibility Timeline Web Accessibility 101 Overview This gives users an introduction to web accessibility. It defines the term, describes the history of it, and provides examples and non-examples of accessibility. There is a short self-quiz at the end to test comprehension. What is Web Accessibility? Websites and digital tools are designed inclusively so that people with disabilities can navigate, understand, interact with, and contribute to the Web. History of Web Accessibility \| 1973 \| Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (includes Section 508) \| \| 1990 \| Americans with Disabilities Act \| \| 1998 \| Section 508 amedned to include digital content \| \| 2018 \| Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG 2.1) released \| Rehabilitation Act of 1973: outlaws employee discrimination on the basis of ability/disability Americans with Disabilities Act: wider protection for people with disabilities (ex: voting, employment, transportation, communication, and access to government resources/programs) Section 508 ameded: now inclusive of digital content WCAG 2.1 released: revised guidelines for ensuring web content is accessible Examples of Web Accessibility Below are some examples of accessible vs. inaccessible web features. There are many more, so be sure to check guidelines. \| Accessible \| Inaccessible \| \| All images have alt-text to textually describe what they depict \| Images are stand-alone with no textual descriptions \| \| All videos have closed captions \| Viewers are expected to listen or simply read lips while watching videos \| \| Text and background have significant color contrast \| Text color is yellow and background color is green \| \| Web page has a zoom feature to allow viewers to adjust size \| Web page has one size only \| Quiz your Knowledge! Consider the following scenarios and whether they exhibit web accessibility or web inaccessibility. - A photograph of a dog on a web page has the description: "Image of a small grey dog sitting on the patio of a house." - A page that does not allow users to zoom in, but does allow them to scroll up and down. - A web page with white background color and dark blue text color. - A video that has text captions that align with the interviewer speaking. - An entire webpage has scripted cursive font. Jot down your answers for 1-5 on a piece of paper or digital document. How Well Do You Know Web Accessibility? Check your answers to questions 1-5. - Accessible :) Alt-text is necessary on all images, so that screen readers can relay visual elements. - Inaccessible :( Pages must have zoom ability to allow users to increase text and image size. - Accessible :) Light background, dark text is acceptable color contrast. - Accessible :) Closed-captions are necessary for users hard of hearing to be able to read what is spoken in videos. - Inaccessible :( Fonts should be legible and body text especially should be in a straight-forward, clear font. :) If you have 4 or 5 questions correct, great job! You can recognize acceptable and poor examples of web accessibility and carry that knowledge into your future work. :( If you only have 1, 2, or 3 questions correct, good try. You may want to consider future research to deepen your understanding.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.519451	10/23/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/121255/overview", "title": "Web Accessibility 101", "author": "Emma Ostovar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109809/overview	Emotional Thermostat Objectives Tracker Practice Discipline Introduction to Kindergarten Classroom Management Overview Introduction to Kindergarten Classroom Management is a accessible and free Open Educational Resource (OER) that is designed for inexperienced kindergarten teachers or education majors. This course will equip you with valuable resources and strategies to create an equitable and nurturing classroom for young children. With a primary focus on the unique needs of kindergarteners, participants of this course will explore diverse resources to improve the development of students and manage their classroom well. This course is an invaluable resource for those embarking on a career in teaching. By the end, you will be prepared to manage the classroom with confidence and competence. History of Classroom Management Classroom management has changed and evolved significantly, especially when considering early childhood education. Historically, classroom management was heavily reliant on strict discipline and control. Today, educators acknowledge the importance of a more student-centered approach, as discussed in this course. This shift in management emphasizes nurturing development, proactive strategies, and fosters a positive learning enviornment to meet the diverse and unique needs of young leanrers. This represents a pivitol transformation in classroom management strategies from history. Below is a resource that can allow students to rate the emotional well being. This is age-appropriate for young children because they are not equiped to understand how feelings can be transcribed to words and thoughts. This can be printed as a poster or kept in the classroom for students to reference. Student Learning Objectives By the end of this course, students will be able to.. 1. Identify and explain key developmental milestones in young children, allowing educators to tailor strategies used for classroom management based on diverse student backgrounds. 2. Acquire skills to design and implement age-appropriate classroom routines and procedures that promote structure and foster independence. 3. Learn proactive behavior management tools that prevent challenging behaviors or actions, ultimately creating a more harmonious learning environment. 4. Gain knowledge and techniques needed to support the emotional development of young children, promoting a nurturing environment. 5. Identify and access valuable educational resources such as OERs. videos, and books to continue professional development after the course is completed. Attached is an objectives tracker. As you gain knowledge of an objective, move the check mark to indicate you have mastered that specific objective. This allows you to quickly track your understanding of this classroom. Rules and Regulations Rules and regulations are especcialy important in a kindergarten classroom for several reasons. Firstly, they establish a predictable, therefore safe, learning environment where young children can thrive with no fear of harm. This will allow students to thrive emotionally and academically. Rules reducing anxiety and help children understand boundaries and expectations in any enviornment. Further, rules can help foster social skills, teach young children to interact respectfully with their peers and teachers. In order to create rules based off of your own diverse student needs, involve students and their parents in the rule-making decision process. Gain an understanding of cultural backgrounds your students and their families pocess, as well as learning styles, and individual requirements (IEP, or other actions plans) for your students. Striving for inclusivity and accessibility is pertinent for rule making. After your rules are established in your classroom, revisit them frequently to reinforce their importance and adapt them as necessary. Below is an example of a poster you can use or create that set clear expectations and rules for a kindergarten classroom. Discipline and Consequences Disciplining young children/kindergarten students requires a balanced and nurturing approach that focuses on celebrating good behaviors rather than penalizing students. Here are some examples of fair discipline strategies: 1. Use positive reinforcement by acknowledging and rewarding desired behaviors with praise. Praise can look like verbal approval, stickers, or small prizes that are attractive to young children. 2. Redirect and distract students from inappropriate behaviors by guiding them away to a more suitable task or activity. 3. Reinforce rules and expectations that have already been established in your learning enviornment, refer to the rules poster we reviewed earlier. 4. Use time-outs sparingly and as a moment for relection rather than a punishment. It can provide students with time to calm down and regain self-control. 5. Teach conflict-resolution and problem-solving skills so students can express their own feelings and negotiate conflicts as they arise. Rememeber, every student is different and situations vary dramatically. Consistency, patience, and a nurturing enviornment are key to creating a fair classroom. Trust your professional opinion, and even gain a second one if needed. Below is an exercise that allows you to chose the best strategy to implement based off of the scenario.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.546582	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109809/overview", "title": "Introduction to Kindergarten Classroom Management", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109259/overview	Education Standards Assignment: Designing a Classroom Activity with Machine Translation - Submissions Best Paractices and Limitations Case Study: The School Announcement Designing a Classroom Activity with Machine Translation Discussion Padlet Google Translate Chrome Extension Google Translate Full Site Google Translate Mobile Microsoft Immersive Reader Microsoft Translator Quiz Translating using Generative AI Learning How to Use Translation Software Overview This beginner-level training course allows staff to learn how to use Machine Translation Software. This course is designed to introduce staff to what machine translation is and what it does and give the training to get started using it with students! About this course About this Course This beginner-level training course allows staff to learn how to use Machine Translation Software. This course is designed to introduce staff to what machine translation is and what it does and give the training to be able to get started using it with students! Course Goals - Build skills to begin using machine translation in your school - Increase confidence in using translation software in a variety of applications Expectations for course completion - Learners need to view and watch all videos in this course. - Unless otherwise noted, learners will need to complete all assignments by uploading a screenshot. Important: How to Upload a Screenshot for this Course Course Outline Course Outline Module 1: Introduction to Machine Translation - Content: - History and evolution of machine translation. - Overview of popular machine translation tools (e.g., Google Translate, DeepL, Microsoft Translator). - Benefits and limitations of machine translation in education. - Assessment: - Quiz on the history and basic principles of machine translation. - Discussion: - How have you or your colleagues used machine translation in the past? What were the outcomes? Module 2: Ethical and Cultural Considerations - Content: - The importance of cultural sensitivity and awareness. - Potential pitfalls and biases in machine translation. - Strategies for addressing and mitigating biases. - Assessment: - Case study analysis: Review a translated text and identify potential cultural or ethical issues. - Discussion: - Share an experience where cultural sensitivity was crucial in your teaching. How can machine translation impact this? - Share an experience where cultural sensitivity was crucial in your teaching. How can machine translation impact this? Module 3: Practical Applications in the Classroom - Content: - Using machine translation for communication with non-English speaking parents. - Assisting English Language Learners (ELLs) in understanding content. - Encouraging bilingualism and multilingualism among students. - Assessment: - Create a lesson plan incorporating machine translation tools to support ELLs. - Discussion: - What are some potential challenges when using machine translation with ELLs? How can these be overcome? - What are some potential challenges when using machine translation with ELLs? How can these be overcome? Module 4: Best Practices and Limitations - Content: - When to use and when not to use machine translation. - Strategies for verifying the accuracy of translations. - Combining human judgment with machine translation. - Assessment: - Scenario-based questions: Decide whether to use machine translation in various classroom situations and justify your decision. - Discussion: - Discuss a time when a translation tool made an error. How did you handle it? What did you learn? - Discuss a time when a translation tool made an error. How did you handle it? What did you learn? Module 5: Translating Languages with Generative AI - Content: - Understanding Generative AI (ChatGPT) - Generative AI in Language Translation - Challenges & Considerations - Practical Applications in the Classroom - Assessment: - Use a generative AI-based translation tool (e.g., DeepL, Google's Neural Machine Translation, etc.) to translate your chosen material into at least three different languages. - Reflection: - Write a reflection on your experience. Module 6: Integrating Technology and Pedagogy - Content: - Aligning machine translation use with curriculum goals. - Incorporating machine translation in project-based learning. - Evaluating student progress and understanding when using translation tools. - Assessment: - Design a classroom activity that integrates machine translation and aligns with specific curriculum standards. - Discussion: - How can machine translation tools be used to promote collaborative learning among students? Module 1: Introduction to Machine Translation 0 Image source: Hutchins W.J. (2004) The Georgetown-IBM Experiment Demonstrated in January 1954. In: Frederking R.E., Taylor K.B. (eds) Machine Translation: From Real Users to Research. AMTA 2004. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 3265. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Introduction Machine translation (MT) uses software to translate text or speech from one language to another. While it might seem like a recent phenomenon, the journey of MT dates back several decades. A brief and untold history of machine translation Early Beginnings: 1940s - 1960s The idea of using machines for translation was born in the 1940s. The earliest attempts were rule-based, meaning they followed a set of manually crafted rules. These systems were limited, often translating word-for-word, which led to inaccurate and sometimes comical results. In the 1950s, the Georgetown-IBM experiment marked a significant milestone. The experiment successfully translated over 60 Russian sentences into English, sparking considerable interest in MT. Statistical Models: Late 1980s - 2000s By the late 1980s and into the 2000s, the focus shifted to statistical models. These models used large amounts of bilingual text (like English-French or English-Spanish pairs) to predict translations. The more data they had, the better they became. This approach was revolutionary and powered many early versions of online translation tools. Neural Machine Translation: 2010s The 2010s saw another significant shift with the introduction of neural machine translation (NMT). Instead of relying solely on statistics, NMT uses neural networks, a type of artificial intelligence, to understand and generate translations. This method, introduced around 2015, improved the fluency and accuracy of translations, making them more context-aware. Benefits and Limitations Benefits: - Accessibility: MT breaks down language barriers, aiding communication across different languages. - Education: It assists in understanding content, especially for English Language Learners. - Speed: MT can provide instant translations faster than human translators. Limitations: - Cultural Nuances: MT may not always perfectly capture cultural references or idiomatic expressions. - Homonyms: Words with multiple meanings can be a challenge. - Context: While NMT has improved context understanding, it's not always perfect. Popular Machine Translation Tools - Google Translate: Launched in 2006, it's one of the most widely used MT tools today, supporting over 100 languages. - DeepL: Known for its high-quality translations, DeepL uses deep learning, a subset of AI, to improve its results. - Microsoft Translator: Integrated into various Microsoft products, this tool supports text and speech translations. Conclusion Machine translation has come a long way from its early rule-based systems to the advanced neural networks of today. While it's a powerful tool, it's essential to be aware of its limitations. As technology continues to evolve, we can expect even more accurate and context-aware translations in the future. Benefits of Machine Translation Machine translation (MT) is a powerful tool that uses software to translate text or speech from one language to another. As with any technology, MT comes with its own set of advantages and challenges. Benefits of Machine Translation Accessibility and Communication: - Overview: MT breaks down language barriers, allowing people from different linguistic backgrounds to communicate. - In Education: Teachers can use MT to communicate with non-English speaking parents, ensuring everyone stays informed about a student's progress. Instantaneous Results: - Overview: MT provides almost immediate translations, which is especially useful in real-time communication scenarios. - In Education: Students can quickly understand content in foreign languages, aiding their learning process. Cost-Effective: - Overview: While professional human translators are invaluable, MT offers a more economical solution for large-scale or less critical translations. - In Education: Schools with limited resources can still provide multilingual content to students and parents. Support for Multiple Languages: - Overview: Tools like Google Translate support over 100 languages, from widely spoken ones to regional dialects. - In Education: This broad language support ensures inclusivity, catering to students from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Limitations of Machine Translation Lack of Cultural Nuances: - Overview: MT might not always capture cultural references, idiomatic expressions, or the emotional tone of the original text. - In Education: This can lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations, especially in literature or social studies classes. Homonyms and Ambiguity: - Overview: Words with multiple meanings can pose a challenge. For instance, the word "bat" can refer to an animal or sports equipment. - In Education: Students might receive a translation that doesn't fit the context, leading to confusion. Dependence on Data: - Overview: Statistical MT models rely heavily on existing bilingual text. The translation quality might suffer if there's limited data for a language pair. - In Education: Rare languages or dialects might not be translated as accurately. Lack of Context Awareness: - Overview: While neural machine translation has improved context understanding, it's not infallible. MT might not always grasp the broader context or intent behind a text. - In Education: This can be problematic in subjects where context is crucial, like history or literature. Conclusion Machine translation is undeniably transformative, bridging linguistic gaps and making global communication more accessible. However, while it's a valuable aid, it's essential to approach it with an understanding of its limitations. As MT evolves, we can anticipate improvements that further reduce these challenges. Module 2: Ethical and Cultural Considerations Introduction Machine translation (MT) is a transformative tool that bridges linguistic divides and fosters global communication. However, its capabilities come with challenges, especially when navigating the intricate landscape of cultural nuances and ethical implications. - Depth of Meaning: Every culture has idioms, proverbs, and phrases steeped in its history and experiences. These references carry deep meanings, often tied to historical events, cultural practices, or shared community experiences. - Challenges in MT: Direct translations of these references can lead to misunderstandings. For instance, an idiom like "kick the bucket" might be translated literally in another language, losing its actual meaning of "to die." - Implications in Education: Misunderstandings can lead to confusion or even offense. Educators need to be aware of these nuances to ensure that content remains relevant and respectful to all students. The Importance of Cultural Sensitivity Cultural References: Potential Biases: - Origin of Biases: MT tools are trained on vast amounts of data. If this data contains biases, the MT tool can inadvertently perpetuate them. - Challenges in MT: A translation might unintentionally favor a particular gender, stereotype, or cultural perspective, leading to skewed or offensive outputs. - Implications in Education: Biased translations can perpetuate stereotypes, misinform students, or alienate certain groups, undermining the inclusive environment schools aim to create. Loss of Nuance: - The Subtleties of Language: Beyond words, languages convey emotions, tones, and subtleties. A statement can be polite in one culture and neutral in another, or a gesture can be complimentary in one context and rude in another. - Challenges in MT: These nuances might get lost or misinterpreted in translation. For instance, a polite request in Japanese might sound overly formal or distant when translated directly into English. - Implications in Education: Loss of nuance can lead to content that feels sterile, misrepresents original intent, or fails to engage students at an emotional level. Strategies for Educators - Supplement MT with Human Review: Whenever possible, have translations reviewed by someone familiar with the target culture to ensure accuracy and cultural sensitivity. - Stay Updated: Machine translation tools are continually evolving. Regularly update your knowledge to leverage the latest advancements and best practices. - Encourage Feedback: Create an environment where students and parents feel comfortable providing feedback on translated materials. Their insights can be invaluable in refining content. Three Key Unlearnings for Translanguaging Conclusion Machine translation, while powerful, requires careful navigation when it comes to cultural and ethical considerations. Educators can harness MT's benefits while fostering a respectful and inclusive learning environment by understanding its limitations and proactively addressing potential pitfalls. Module 3: Practical Applications in the Classroom Introduction Machine translation (MT) isn't just a tool for global businesses or travelers. In today's diverse classrooms, MT can bridge languages, cultures, and experiences, enhancing the learning environment for both students and educators. Communication with Non-English Speaking Parents Building Bridges: - Many parents might not be fluent in English, which can create barriers to understanding their child's academic progress, school events, or requirements. - MT tools can help translate newsletters, report cards, and other essential communication, ensuring all parents are informed and engaged. Parent-Teacher Meetings: - Real-time translation tools can assist in parent-teacher conferences, ensuring clear communication and understanding. Challenges & Solutions: - While MT can be a great aid, it's essential to be aware of potential inaccuracies. Schools should encourage bilingual staff or community volunteers to assist in crucial communications whenever possible. Assisting English Language Learners (ELLs) Supporting Comprehension: - ELLs can use MT tools to translate unfamiliar words or phrases, aiding their understanding of lessons, assignments, or readings. Encouraging Independence: - Instead of relying solely on teachers or peers, ELLs can use MT to navigate and understand content, fostering confidence and self-reliance independently. Challenges & Solutions: - Over-reliance on MT can hinder genuine language acquisition. Teachers should encourage ELLs to use MT as a supplementary tool, not a primary crutch. Promoting Bilingualism and Multilingualism How teachers can promote bilingualism in the classroom Language Exploration: - Students can use MT to explore new languages, understand foreign texts, or practice language skills. Cultural Appreciation: - By translating and understanding content from various cultures, students can gain a broader perspective and appreciation for global diversity. Challenges & Solutions: - MT isn't a replacement for structured language learning. While it's a great tool for exploration, traditional teaching methods are essential for genuine language proficiency. Best Practices for Educators - Set Clear Guidelines: Educate students on the benefits and limitations of MT, ensuring they use it responsibly. - Stay Updated: With the rapid advancements in MT, educators must stay updated on the latest tools and best practices. - Feedback Loop: Encourage students to share their experiences with MT, providing insights that can shape future teaching strategies. Conclusion Machine translation can be a valuable asset in the modern classroom when used effectively. Educators can create a more inclusive, engaging, and dynamic learning environment by understanding its potential applications and being aware of its limitations. Module 4: Best Practices and Limitations Introduction Machine translation (MT) has revolutionized the way we communicate across languages. However, while it offers numerous advantages, it's essential to be aware of its limitations, especially in educational settings. Best Practices for Using Machine Translation Supplementary, Not Primary: - MT should be a supplementary tool, not the primary translation. Especially in educational settings, human judgment is crucial to ensure accuracy and context. Review and Edit: - Always review machine-translated content. If possible, have someone familiar with the source and target languages check it. Stay Updated: - Machine translation tools are continually evolving. Regularly update your knowledge and the tools you use to benefit from the latest advancements. Set Clear Guidelines for Students: - If students are using MT for assignments or projects, set clear guidelines. This ensures they use the tool responsibly and understand its limitations. Limitations of Machine Translation Loss of Nuance: - MT might not capture the original content's emotional tone, cultural nuances, or subtleties. This is especially evident in literature, poetry, or content rich in cultural references. Potential for Misinterpretation: - Direct translations can sometimes lead to technically correct content but contextually inappropriate or misleading. Dependence on Source Quality: - The accuracy of MT largely depends on the quality of the source content. Poorly written or overly complex content can result in inaccurate translations. Cultural Sensitivity: - MT might not always be culturally sensitive. Direct translations can sometimes miss or misinterpret cultural references, leading to potential misunderstandings or offense. Scenarios to Consider Translating Literature: - While MT can provide a general understanding, it might not capture literary works' depth, emotion, or cultural context. Communicating with Diverse Populations: - In schools with diverse student and parent populations, relying solely on MT for communications can lead to misunderstandings. It's essential to combine MT with human review. Student Assignments: - Students might be tempted to use MT extensively for language assignments. Educators should set clear guidelines and encourage genuine language learning. Conclusion Machine translation is a powerful tool, but it's not infallible. Educators can harness its benefits by understanding its best practices and limitations while ensuring effective communication and learning. As technology advances, we can anticipate improvements in MT, but human judgment and intervention will always remain invaluable. Module 5: Translating Languages with Generative AI (ChatGPT) Introduction Generative AI, a subset of artificial intelligence, can generate content, whether text, images or even music. In language translation, generative AI models can produce translations that are not just based on direct mapping but can understand and generate contextually appropriate content. Understanding Generative AI Basics of Generative AI: - Generative AI models, like GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks), are designed to create new, original content. For instance, they can generate images, music, or text that wasn't previously existent, mimicking the style and pattern of their training data. Neural Networks & Deep Learning: - These AI models are built on neural networks, especially deep learning networks, inspired by the human brain's structure and function. For example, Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) are excellent for image-related tasks, while Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs) are often used for sequential data like text. From GPT to BERT: - GPT-3 and GPT-4, developed by OpenAI, can generate human-like text, making it useful for creating content, answering questions, and even translating text. On the other hand, BERT, by Google, reads text bidirectionally (considering both the left and the right context in all layers), enabling the model to understand the context and meaning of words. Generative AI in Language Translation Beyond Direct Mapping: - Traditional machine translation systems, like phrase-based models, often translate text by mapping words or phrases from the source to the target language. In contrast, generative AI, such as Neural Machine Translation (NMT), considers the entire sentence's context, leading to more fluent and accurate translations. For instance, Google Translate now employs NMT for more natural translations. Handling Nuances: - Generative AI can interpret and translate idiomatic expressions, slang, and cultural references more effectively. For example, while a direct translation might render nonsensical or overly literal translations of idioms, generative AI can provide equivalents that convey the intended meaning in the target language. Real-time & Dynamic Translations: - With advancements in processing speed and efficiency, generative AI can offer real-time translations, essential for live events or international communications. For instance, tools like DeepL can provide instant translations considering context and idiomatic expressions. Challenges & Considerations Navigating The Biases In LLM Generative AI: A Guide To Responsible Implementation Training Data is Crucial: - The quality and diversity of the training data significantly impact the AI's performance. For instance, if the AI is trained predominantly in formal text, it might struggle with slang or colloquial expressions. Ethical Implications: - The ability of generative AI to create content raises ethical issues, including the potential for misuse in generating misleading or harmful content. In translation, there’s a risk of misrepresentation if the AI doesn’t accurately convey the original text’s meaning. Over-reliance: - Relying too heavily on AI for translation can lead to a loss of language learning opportunities for students. Balancing AI with traditional language learning methods is essential to holistically develop students' language skills. Practical Applications in the Classroom Interactive Language Learning: - Imagine a classroom where students can write a sentence in their native language, and a generative AI tool instantly translates it, allowing peers and teachers to understand and respond. It fosters an interactive and inclusive learning environment. Cultural Exploration: - Generative AI can translate foreign books, articles, and websites, giving students access to knowledge and perspectives. For example, a class studying global cultures could read articles written by people from those cultures translated into the student’s native language. Assisting ELLs: - For English Language Learners, generative AI can be a game-changer. Tools like Google's Neural Machine Translation can provide real-time translation, helping ELLs understand lessons, instructions, and assignments, thus bridging the language gap in real time. Conclusion Generative AI is reshaping the landscape of machine translation, offering dynamic, context-aware translations. As educators, understanding its capabilities, benefits, and challenges ensures that it's used effectively to enrich the learning experience while maintaining ethical and educational standards. Module 6: Integrating Technology and Pedagogy Introduction Machine translation (MT) is more than just a tool for global communication; it's a potential asset in the classroom. By aligning MT with curriculum goals, incorporating it into project-based learning, and evaluating its impact on student progress, educators can harness its benefits for a dynamic learning experience. Aligning Machine Translation Use with Curriculum Goals Understanding the Synergy: - MT isn't just about translating languages; it's about bridging cultural gaps, fostering global understanding, and enhancing linguistic skills. Integration in Language Learning: - While MT shouldn't replace traditional language learning, it can be a supplementary tool. For instance, in advanced language classes, students can compare MT results with human translations to understand nuances. Promoting Cultural Awareness: - Use MT to translate articles, stories, or news from various cultures. This not only improves language skills but also broadens students' horizons, aligning with global citizenship goals. Tech-Savviness: - Familiarity with MT tools aligns with curriculum goals of technological proficiency, preparing students for a globalized digital world. Incorporating Machine Translation in Project-Based Learning Global Collaborative Projects: - Students can collaborate on projects with peers from other countries. MT can aid in communication, allowing students to focus on collaborative problem-solving. Research Across Borders: - Students can access sources in different languages for research projects, using MT to translate and gather diverse perspectives. Cultural Exchange Projects: - Students can create content about their local culture, translate it, and share it with partner schools abroad, fostering a mutual knowledge exchange. Challenges & Solutions: - While MT offers many advantages, guiding students on its limitations is essential. Encourage them to cross-check critical information and be aware of potential cultural misinterpretations. Evaluating Student Progress and Understanding When Using Translation Tools Setting Clear Metrics: - Define what you aim to achieve with MT. Is it improved communication, better understanding of foreign content, or enhanced cultural awareness? Regular Check-ins: - Periodically assess students' comprehension. Just because they're using MT doesn't mean they're fully grasping the content. Feedback Mechanism: - Encourage students to share their experiences with MT. What challenges did they face? What did they find most beneficial? Assessing Beyond Translation: - When evaluating projects or assignments, look beyond the translation. Assess students' analytical skills, their ability to gather diverse perspectives, and their understanding of the content. Ethical Use of MT: - Ensure students understand the importance of original work. Using MT to understand is one thing; using it to bypass learning is another. Set clear guidelines on ethical use. Conclusion When integrated thoughtfully, machine translation can be a significant asset in modern education. It's not just about translating words but about fostering a global mindset, promoting cultural understanding, and equipping students with tools for a connected world. By aligning MT with curriculum goals, weaving it into project-based learning, and evaluating its impact, educators can create a rich, dynamic, and inclusive learning environment. Reference: Location of translation settings in popular software ElevenLabs AI - Create voiceovers in a variety of languages and then download the clip. Learn more Lexia Core5 & PowerUp - The Language Support Button in PowerUp provides additional support for English language learners and allows them to hear task directions in their native language.Learn more Newsela - Click on the browse button and select "En Espanol." Note: Newsela's materials are translated by native Spanish speakers, not machine voices. Outlook - Translator for Outlook is an add-in that translates email text on the fly. The immediate translation is displayed next to the reading pane in your mailbox.Learn more Zoom Users that would like to include interpreters in their meetings or webinars now have the ability to enable Language Interpretation. This allows the host to designate up to 20 participants as interpreters on the web portal or during a Zoom session. More information Videos on how to use Machine Translation Products References Blyth, C. (2018). Immersive technologies and language learning. Foreign Language Annals 51: pp. 225–232. Davison, K. (2022, April 27). “It can create a lot of happiness”: FCPS students send cards to Ukrainian refugees. WJLA; WJLA. Fabio Nascimbeni, Alonso, J., Sanz, O., & Burgos, D. (2019, September 18). Read, Watch, Do: Developing Digital Competence for University Educators. ResearchGate; unknown. Freemire, L. (2021, October 15). How States Allocate Funding for English Language Learners. Ecs.org. Ghenghea, V. A., PhD. (2020). Machine Translation In The Foreign Language Class. Bucharest: "Carol I" National Defence University. Klekovkina, V., & Denié-Higney, L. (2022). Machine Translation: Friend or Foe in the Language Classroom? L2 Journal, 14(1). Language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 26(1), 1–19. Lochner K, Kawachi I, Kennedy BP. Social capital: a guide to its measurement. Health Place. 1999 Dec;5(4):259-70. DOI: 10.1016/s1353-8292(99)00016–7. PMID: 10984580. Mitchell, C. (2018, January 17). Rising Number of ESL Students Poses Challenges for U.S. Schools. Education Week. Najarro, I. (2023, February 21). The English Learner Population Is Growing. Is Teacher Training Keeping Pace? Education Week. Neumann, M., The Advantages of Existing English-Medium Models in Meeting the Linguistic Needs of Elementary ELL Students (2021). School of Education and Leadership Student Capstone Projects. 641. Number of English Language Learner students in U.S. public schools 2019 \| Statista. (2019). Statista; Statista. Quinn, S. (2020, June 15). Online Translators in Language Classes: Pedagogical and Practical Considerations - The FLTMAG. The FLAG. Pardo‐Ballester, C. (2022). A case study: A technological insight on teaching translation. Foreign Language Annals, 55(3), 894–913. Raji Ayinla. (2020, June 6). The Linguistic Segregation of Racial and Ethnic Groups. Medium; Medium. Ross, K. (2014). Professional development for practicing mathematics teachers: a critical connection to English Language learner students in mainstream U.S.A classrooms. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 17(1), 85–100. Sun YC, Yang FY, Liu HJ. Exploring Google Translate-friendly strategies for optimizing the quality of Google Translate in academic writing contexts. SN Soc Sci. 2022;2(8):147. doi: 10.1007/s43545-022-00455-z. Epub 2022 August 1. PMID: 35936920; PMCID: PMC9341150. van Lieshout, C., & Cardoso, W. (2022). Google Translate as a tool for self-directed Wiggers, K. (2020, June 3). How Google is using emerging AI techniques to improve language translation quality. VentureBeat; VentureBeat. Wu, Y., Schuster, M., Chen, Z., Le, Q. V., Norouzi, M., Macherey, W., Krikun, M., Cao, Y., Gao, Q., Macherey, K., Klingner, J., Shah, A., Johnson, M., Liu, X., Kaiser, Ł., Gouws, S., Kato, Y., Kudo, T., Kazawa, H., & Stevens, K. (2016). Google’s Neural Machine Translation System: Bridging the Gap between Human and Machine Translation. ArXiv.org. Articles for further reading How Working Memory Powers English Learning Writers - Neuroscience News Ukrainian Refugees Receive Messages Of Hope From Vienna Students The manifold costs of being a non-native English speaker in science AI writing tools will not fix academia’s language discrimination problem Idaho Students fluent in English put in ESL Classes Supporting Intermediate English Learners in Every Subject Un dispositivo ayuda a los estudiantes que no hablan inglés con traducciones simultáneas Groundbreaking AI project translates 5,000-year-old cuneiform at push of a button What Is Translanguaging and How Is It Used in the Classroom? Translanguaging to Support Students’ Bilingual and Multilingual Development Evidence-Based, Culturally Affirming Spanish AAC	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.639025	10/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109259/overview", "title": "Learning How to Use Translation Software", "author": "Pam Doran" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115819/overview	Python for Beginners Overview Next Steps If you are done with the above tutorials, we can read the below tutorials. Introduction An Introduction to Python This section will help you get started with Python Programming language by installing it and running your first program. Also, it will walk you through the basic concepts and fundamentals of Python. 5 RESOURCES - Get Started With Python: Learn how to use IDLE to run Python code interactively. Also, understand syntax and indentation in Python. - Python Statements: A statement is an instruction that a Python interpreter can execute. Learn simple statements and compound statements. - Python Comments: Comments are descriptions that help programmers to understand the functionality of the program. Learn how to add comments to your Python code. Use inline comments, block comments, and multi-line comments. - Python Keywords: Python keywords are reserved words that have a special meaning associated with them and can’t be used for anything but those specific purposes. - Python Operators: Python has several operators that we can use to perform different mathematical, logical, and boolean operations on data. - Python XOR Operator: Python has a special XOR operator (^) that compares two binary numbers. It returns true if their bits are different, often used for cryptography and checking data differences. Practice: - Basic Python Exercise for Beginners - Basic Python Quiz For Beginners - Python Operators and Expressions Quiz Variables and Data Types Learn how to create, modify, and delete variables of different types. Learn to use some basic numeric (int, float, and complex), string, and Boolean types that are built into Python. For example, we can create a variable with a specific name. Once you create a variable, you can later call up its value by typing the variable name. 5 RESOURCES - Python Variables: A variable is a reserved memory area (memory address) to store value. - Python Data Types: Data types specify the different sizes and values that can be stored in the variable. - Python Casting (type conversion): Learn type conversion and typecasting. Convert variable declared in specific data type to different data types. - Python Number: Learn to work with numerical data in Python. Learn numerical data types. Also learn the Math module, Decimal, and Fraction modules. Practice: Control Flow and Loops In Python, flow control is the order in which statements or blocks of code are executed at runtime based on a condition. The loop statement repeats a code block several times. Learn to use loops, conditional statements, iterative statements, and transfer statements. 5 RESOURCES - Control flow statements: Use the if-else statements in Python for conditional decision-making - Python for loop: To iterate over a sequence of elements such as a list, or string. - Python functions: Python functions are like mini-programs within your code, allowing you to break down tasks into smaller, manageable parts. - Python range() function: Using a for loop with range(), we can repeat an action a specific number of times - Python while loop: To repeat a block of code repeatedly, as long as the condition is true. - Break and Continue: To alter the loop’s execution in a certain manner. - Nested loop: To loop inside a loop is known as a nested loop. - Print pattern in Python: Learn to use loops to print numbers and pyramid patterns. Practice: Python Input and Output This section lets you know the input and output in Python. Learn to get input from the user, files, and display output on the screen or console. Also, learn output formatting. 5 RESOURCES - Python Input and Output: Use the input() function, to take input from a user, and theprint() function, we display output on the screen. - How to check if user input is a number or string - Take a list as input from a user Practice: Basic Data Structures In Python, Data structures are the fundamental constructs that we can use to store multiple values. Data structure provides a way to organize and access data efficiently. Python comes with an extensive set of data structures in its standard library. In this section, we'll learn basic data structures such as list, dict, set, and tuple. 5 RESOURCES - Python Lists: In Python, a list is an ordered sequence of items. Learn to create, iterate, and access a list. Also, learn list operations and methods. - Nested list in Python: Nested lists in Python are lists that contain other lists. They help structure and manage data more efficiently. - Python Tuples: Tuples are ordered collections of heterogeneous data that are unchangeable. Learn how to use a tuple data structure in Python. Also, learn how to create, access, and modify a tuple. - Python Sets: In Python, a Set is an unordered collection of data items that are unique. Learn to create a set and add, update, and remove items from a set. Also, learn the different set methods and operations such as union, intersection, difference, and many more. - Python Dictionaries: Dictionary are unordered collections of unique values stored in (Key-Value) pairs. Learn how to create, access, and modify a dict in Python and all other operations we can perform on a dictionary Python Functions and Modules Python Functions and Modules In Python, the function is a block of code defined with a name. We use functions whenever we need to perform the same task multiple times without writing the same code again. It can take arguments and returns the value. In Python, modules refer to the Python file, which contains Python code like Python statements, classes, functions, variables, etc. A file with Python code is defined with py extension. 5 RESOURCES Practice:	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.669208	05/07/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115819/overview", "title": "Python for Beginners", "author": "Soumya Agarwal" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115612/overview	CSCP School Practitioner Alignment and Planning Tool Flashlight Template for Tier 1 or Tier 2 (2022) OSPI SSB 5030 Guidance Bulletin SSB 5030 (2021) WA OSPI - 3_24_22_Getting Started with SSB 5030 Slide Deck Washington SEL Implementation Brief: Focus on Culturally Responsive Practices YouTube Video: CSCP Webinar #1: SSB5030 + ASCA 101 Webinar #1 Recording, Getting Started with SSB 5030 Alignment Overview The first in a series of statewide webinars, in this session participants will gain an understanding of the requirements and opportunities related to SSB 5030. This includes insights into the legislation’s goals and implications. The webinar will explore how SSB 5030 aligns with the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) National Model. Participants will learn how the legislation supports and complements existing counseling frameworks snd discover practical ways to utilize the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI)’s CSCP District Self-Assessment and Template Tool to support districts in evaluating their implementation of SSB 5030 and planning for effective student support services. Washington Statewide CSCP Webinar #1 2022 By the end of this webinar, we will be able to: - Explain SSB 5030 requirements and opportunities - Conceptualize SSB 5030 alignment to the ASCA National Model - Learn how to utilize OSPI’s CSCP District - Self-Assessment and Template Tool Topics: - The Power of School Counseling & 5030 - What are CSCPs and SS 5030? - Aligning CSCPs to MTSS - Equity & CSCPs - Use of Data in CSCP - 80/20 + Use of Time Tracking - Program Results Data - Stakeholder Communication Data - Prioritizing CSCP Work - District Self-Assessment + Template Tool Walkthrough - Q&A	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.694143	Whitney Triplett	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/115612/overview", "title": "Webinar #1 Recording, Getting Started with SSB 5030 Alignment", "author": "Maria Muto" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65295/overview	Social Studies Overview Daily social studies assignments. Group A parents- students may need assistance with Wednesday and Thursday readings. If you feel the reading is too dense, you may have them read another book about North Carolina. Be sure to click 'Text to Speech' for read aloud. There are also plenty NC books on Epic! Social Studies \| Monday \| Login Information username: julie@stepaheadacademy.org password: Swim1234! \| \| Tuesday \| Login information username: trueflix48 password: green \| \| Wednesday \| Login information username: trueflix48 password: green \| \| Thursday \| username: trueflix48 password: green \| \| Friday \| \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.710090	04/15/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65295/overview", "title": "Social Studies", "author": "Julie Cronin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73652/overview	Education Standards Branches of the Government Graphic Organizer Congress Example of completed graphic organizer Executive Branch Graphic Organizer Fascinating Facts about the Constitution Federal Judicial Center House Graphic Organizer Interactive Constitution (National Constitution Center) Judicial Branch Graphic Organizer Lesson Reflection Worksheet POWER Library Rubric for Student Reflection Senate Graphic Organizer State Government Graphic Organizer Supreme Court History Supreme Court of the United States The Constitution of the United States (National Archives) The Constitution of the United States Transcript (National Archives) The Legislative Process: Overview (Video from Congress.gov) The Legislative Process Videos The White House United States Courts United States House of Representatives United States Senate What is the Executive Branch of the U.S. Government (History) What is the Judicial Branch of the U.S. Government (History) What is the Legislative Branch of the U.S. Government Video (History) The Branches of Power Overview The students will learn that the Constitution provides the guidance for the branches of the government. They will analyze the first three articles and then research the duties and requirements of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of the U.S. Government. Students will then examine the branches of the state government. Lesson Objectives Students will know / be able to..... - Understand the Constitution provides the guidance for the branches of the government. - Summarize the duties, organization and requirements of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of the US Government. - Explain the branches of the government of any state. Warm Up / Introduction - The Constitution Instructor Notes: - Have the students download or provide them with a copy of the Constitution for Examination. The URLs that are provided take you to the National Archives. One will allow you to view an image of the actual document and the other provides a link to the transcript. - A nice summary of the US Constitution can also be found on the PBS site (PDF File) - Provide the students with a brief history of the United States Constitution. - On September 17, 1787, the final draft of the Constitution was signed by 39 of the 55 delegates that were in attendance at the Constitutional Convention. - Once the Constitution was signed, it needed to be ratified by the people of at least nine of thirteen states in order to be valid. The Constitution was finally ratified in 1788 when New Hampshire become the 9th state to ratify it. - The United States Constitution's main purpose is to provide a plan for the government and is considered the basic law of the United States. The powers of the three branches of federal government come from this document. - The Constitution has three main parts: - The Preamble - goals and purposes of the government - The Articles - These 7 items are the goals and purposes that describe the way the government is set up. - The Amendments - These are additions and changes to the original Constitution. There are currently 27. - Discuss with the students why they think the Founding Fathers believed that the rules of the government should be written down. Ask them if they agree with that decision or not. - Ask the students if they know who signed the Constitution? What do they know about them? (Names should be listed at the bottom of the transcript of the Constitution) - The students will read and examine the first three (3) articles of the Constitution and write a paragraph about what they are about. Points to reiterate include: - The articles of the Constitution begin with Roman numerals I through VII. - The first three state the powers and responsibilities of each branch of the government. These are the three we will be focusing on: - Article I: Legislative Branch - Article II: Executive Branch - Article III: Judicial Branch - Entertain the students with these Fascinating Facts about the US Constitution. - Students should learn more about the Constitution by researching it using the POWER Library resources or additional resources you have provided. (Some suggested websites are below) - Students should complete the Branches of the Government Graphic Organizer with the information they already have learned. Extended Activities: - Who were the founding fathers that signed the Constitution? Students can learn about each of them in an extended activity. Information on each is available from the Constitution Center website. - Examine the Preamble of the Constitution. - Examine the first 10 Amendments which are the Bill of Rights. POWER Library resources: POWER Library resources that can be used for research on the Constitution includes: - POWER Library Gale In Context Middle School - POWER Library Gale OneFile High School Edition - POWER Library General OneFile - POWER Library Gale EBooks (History and Law categories) - POWER Library Gale Topic Collections - Gale OneFile U.S. History - POWER Library Gale In Context Elementary - POWER Library EBSCO E-Books - POWER Library TrueFLIX Other websites: Other websites that you can use to research the Constitution: Activity Directions: \| Research / Explore Activity - Article I: The Legislative Branch Instructor Notes: - Have the students watch the videos about the Legislative branch. - Students should research the legislative branch using the POWER Library resources and other materials you provide. - Students should complete the following graphic organizers: - House Graphic Organizer - Senate Graphic Organizer - Students can also watch the Legislative Process videos (7 videos) for a better understanding of this branch. POWER Library resources: - POWER Library resources that can be used to research the legislative branch: - POWER Library Gale In Context Middle School - POWER Library Gale OneFile High School Edition - POWER Library General OneFile - POWER Library Gale EBooks (History and Law categories) - POWER Library Gale Topic Collections - Gale OneFile U.S. History - POWER Library Gale In Context Elementary - POWER Library EBSCO E-Books - POWER Library TrueFLIX Other websites: Other websites that can be used to research the legislative branch: USA Gov - The official web portal of the U.S. Government Extended Activities: - How a bill becomes a law. Activity Directions: \| Research / Explore Activity - Article II: The Executive Branch Instructor Notes: - Have the students watch the videos about the executive branch. - Students should research the executive branch using the POWER Library resources and other materials you provide. As they research the branch, they should complete the graphic organizer. POWER Library resources: - POWER Library resources that can be used to research the executive branch includes: - POWER Library Gale In Context Middle School - POWER Library Gale OneFile High School Edition - POWER Library General OneFile - POWER Library Gale EBooks (History and Law categories) - POWER Library Gale Topic Collections - Gale OneFile U.S. History - POWER Library Gale In Context Elementary - POWER Library EBSCO E-Books - POWER Library TrueFLIX Other websites: Other websites that can be used to research the executive branch Includes: USA Gov - The official web portal of the U.S. Government Activity Directions: \| Research / Explore Activity - Article III: The Judicial Branch Instructor Notes: - Have the students watch the videos about the judicial branch. - Students should research the judicial branch using the POWER Library resources and other materials you provide. As they research the branch, they should complete the graphic organizer. POWER Library resources: - POWER Library resources that can be used to research the judicial branch include: - POWER Library Gale In Context Middle School - POWER Library Gale OneFile High School Edition - POWER Library General OneFile - POWER Library Gale EBooks (History and Law categories) - POWER Library Gale Topic Collections - Gale OneFile U.S. History - POWER Library Gale In Context Elementary - POWER Library EBSCO E-Books - POWER Library TrueFLIX Other websites: Other websites that can be used to research the judicial branch Include: USA Gov - The official web portal of the U.S. Government Extended Activities: - Learn about some of the historic Supreme Court cases in history. Activity Directions: \| Reinforcement / Creation Activity Instructor Notes: - Have the students play the Branches of Power game to reinforce their understanding of each branch of government. - Now that they know what it takes to run the federal government, have them research the state government from Pennsylvania (or other states if desired). - Students should complete the State Government Graphic Organizer with the findings from their research. - If the students research different states, they can present their information to their peers in the form of a presentation or brochure. Websites for researching Pennsylvania: - Below is a list of websites that can be used if the students as researching the state of Pennsylvania. All other states have similar sites. Notes: - An example of a completed graphic organizer is attached in the Resource Library. Activity Directions: \| Reflection Instructor Reflection: Reflect on the lesson plan and document what worked for you, what did not work for you, and what you would change for the next time you utilize this lesson. Directions:Using the Lesson Reflection Worksheet, reflect on the following questions: \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.778515	Lynn Ann Wiscount	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73652/overview", "title": "The Branches of Power", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75021/overview	Education Standards 332nd Fighter Group Veteran Oral History Collection Black Freedom Struggle in the United States Journal Rubric Journal Worksheet - First Day of Training Journal Worksheet - First Flight Mission Lesson Reflection Worksheet Library of Congress - The African American Odyssey: A Quest for Full Citizenship Library of Congress - Tuskegee Airmen Image Set Marking the 75th Anniversary of the first deployment of the Tuskegee Airmen (Video from the American Veterans Center) National Museum of the United States Air Force - Tuskegee Airmen National Park Service - Tuskegee Airmen POWER Library Remembering the Tuskegee Airmen (Video from the Department of the Interior) Rubric for Student Reflection Tuskegee Airmen 75th Anniversary from C-Span and American History TV Tuskegee Airmen National Museum Tuskegee Airmen Veteran Oral History Collection Tuskegee Article (NASA) Tuskegee Comprehension Questions (NASA) Wings For This Man - Tuskegee Airmen (1945) (Video by the U.S. Army Air Forces First Motion Picture Unit) Written Document Analysis Worksheet (National Archives) Tuskegee Airmen's Role in History Overview The Tuskegee Airmen played a pivotal role in World War II while battling prejudice and segregation to African Americans. This lesson will allow students to research and examine various primary source documents to learn what contributions the Tuskegee Airmen made to American society. Students will listen and read about the Tuskegee Airmen through research and videos while providing evidence to various guided questions. The students will then create journal entries as to what it might have been like to be a member of this famous group on their first day of training and on their first flight mission. Lesson Objectives Students will know / be able to: - Analyze primary source documents to learn what role they play in history. - Provide evidence to the role the Tuskegee Airmen played in history. - Journal what it would have been like to be a member of this important group on the first day of training and on the first flight mission. - Describe who the Tuskegee Airmen were and why they were important. - Listen and read about the Tuskegee Airmen through research and videos. Note: This lesson can also be adapted for middle and high school students. Warm Up / Introduction Instructor Notes: To introduce this topic, select one of the following activities. If time allows, you can have the students complete both. Activity 1 - The Tuskegee Airmen played a pivotal role in World War II while battling prejudice and segregation. Introduce this topic to the students by showing one of the following videos. As the students watch the video, they should complete the 3-2-1 graphic organizer by writing 3 things they learned from the video, 2 things they found interesting and one question they have that they want to further research. Activity 2 - Students can be introduced to the pivotal role the Tuskegee Airmen played in World War II by reading the attached article. As they read the article, students will answer comprehension questions. Additional research can be completed in the next activity on any question they were not able to answer. Directions:To introduce this topic, your instructor will assign one or both activities below. Activity 1: Activity 2: \| Research / Explore Activity Instructor Notes: Activity 1: - Have the students use the POWER Library resources and other websites to research the Tuskegee Airmen. Have them research answers to the following guiding questions: - What contributions did the Tuskegee Airmen make during World War II? - Were black fighter pilots held to a higher standard than white fighter pilots? Are there other situations where this occurs? Is this still happening today? - Were the Tuskegee Airmen treated as heroes when they returned from war? - How did the Tuskegee Airmen influence or contribute to the budding Civil Rights Movement in the United States? - What obstacles did the participants in this program face? - What were the differences between the two experiments? - In researching the policies of segregation toward African Americans during World War II how do they compare or differ to today’s policies? - What were the names of some of the Tuskegee Airmen? What accomplishments are they famous for? - In researching the Tuskegee Airmen, what characteristics or traits made them successful? Do you share any of the same traits? - They should research answers to any questions they were not able to complete in the previous activity. - Remind the students that they will need to include evidence and also need to cite their sources. Activity 2: - After the students complete their research, they should use primary source documents to see how they play an important role in history. Students should use the Written Documents Analysis Worksheet, from the National Archives, to examine items from the Black Freedom Struggle in the United States: A Selection of Primary Sources collection which is provided as part of the POWER Library or directly from the link in the resource library. POWER Library eResources that can be used for this activity includes: - POWER Library - e-Books (EBSCO) - POWER Library - AP Newsroom - POWER Library - Gale InContext: Elementary - POWER Library - Gale Topic Collections - Criminal Justice - Diversity Studies - Military and Intelligence - Popular Magazines - U.S. History - War & Terrorism - World History - POWER Library - Gale General OneFile - POWER Library - Gale OneFile: High School - POWER Library - Gale In Context: Middle School Notes: - Additional websites are also included in the Resource Library for activity 1. - The Library of Congress and the National Archives will also have some additional primary source material that you can use for activity 2. Directions:Activity 1: Activity 2: \| Reinforcement / Creation Activity Instructor Notes: - After the students had a chance to research the Tuskegee Airmen, they should now be provided an opportunity to hear directly from the airmen. Students can use the Veteran's Oral History Project Collections to get first person accounts as well as viewing the video from the Tuskegee Airmen 75th Anniversary. Resources you can use for this activity include: - The students will take on the role of a Tuskegee pilot and create journal / diary entries for their creation project. - In the first project, the student should write about what a pilot would have experienced on the first day of training. They should use the Journal Worksheet - First Day of Training for this writing assignment. - For the second project, students should write about what a pilot would have experienced on their first flight mission. They should use the Journal Worksheet - First Flight Mission for this writing assignment. - Each writing assignment will be assessed by using the Journal Rubric included in the attachments. Extended Activities: - Students can read their journal writings to the whole class. - Students can also create a timeline of the important events and accomplishments of the Tuskegee Airmen. Directions: \| Reflection Instructor Reflection: - Reflect on the lesson plan and document what worked for you, what did not work for you, and what you would change for the next time you utilize this lesson. Directions:Using the Lesson Reflection Worksheet, reflect on the following questions: \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.843073	World History	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/75021/overview", "title": "Tuskegee Airmen's Role in History", "author": "U.S. History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122284/overview	https://www.incharge.org/financial-literacy/resources-for-teachers/financial-literacy-for-kids/ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0iRbD5rM5qc https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1el4U_cve40 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3I81-P_lwvw Mastering Personal Finance Online financial literacy course for kids Quizlet "Financial Literacy" Finance for the smallest Overview Discover a resource that makes financial education exciting and easy for kids! 🎉 Through interactive games like Kahoot and matching puzzles, plus a vibrant glossary of simple money terms, kids will have fun while building essential life skills. With hands-on activities like budgeting for a dream trip or running a pretend business, your little ones will feel like financial superheroes! 🦸♀️💰 Engaging, educational, and unforgettable—this is the ultimate way to teach kids the value of money. Introduction Welcome to "Financial for the Small"! At "Financial for the Small," we believe it’s never too early to start learning about money. Understanding financial basics from a young age helps children develop essential life skills, such as budgeting, saving, and making smart financial decisions. By building this foundation early, kids gain the confidence to navigate their financial future with ease and responsibility. Through our interactive course, children will explore the world of finance in a fun and engaging way. They'll learn fundamental concepts like budgeting, saving, and spending through interactive games, educational videos, and simple yet impactful terms. These tools not only make learning enjoyable but also help children grasp real-world applications of financial principles. We’re thrilled to provide this exciting opportunity for young learners to begin their journey toward financial literacy. Together, let’s empower the next generation to take control of their financial futures with knowledge and confidence! Glossary Welcome to the Glossary! Hey there! Ready to dive into the world of money and discover some awesome financial terms? Our glossary isn’t just about reading and memorizing—it’s all about having fun while learning! With Quizlet, you’ll not only find lots of useful terms explained in simple, kid-friendly language, but you’ll also get to play exciting games and take quizzes to test your knowledge. Learning about money has never been this much fun! So, jump in and start exploring. We’re here to make learning easy, exciting, and full of discovery! Internet resources Welcome to "Internet resources" A fun and interactive course designed to teach young learners the basics of money management in an engaging way. In today’s digital world, children can explore financial literacy through various online resources that make learning both educational and entertaining. In this section, "Internet Resources", we will introduce you to a variety of tools, including: - Online Courses with Games: interactive platforms where children can learn through play. - Printable Lessons: ready-to-use worksheets that help reinforce key financial concepts. - Educational Videos: engaging stories and tutorials that explain money management in simple terms. By using these online resources, children will develop essential financial skills such as budgeting, saving, and making smart spending choices—all while having fun! Let’s dive into the digital world of financial education and explore how technology can support learning in creative and exciting ways. Interactive games Welcome to the Interactive Games Now, it's time for playing a games and at the same time revise all information that you've just learnt. Clink on the links below and immerce yourself into interactive, fun and educational game! Conclusion Great job exploring the world of finance! 🎉 You’ve watched videos, played interactive games — all while learning essential financial skills. These activities aren’t just fun; they’ve helped you understand money and how to use it wisely. Remember, every game and quiz you complete is another step toward becoming a financial whiz. Keep practicing, keep exploring, and keep discovering! We’re so proud of your progress and excited to see all the amazing things you’ll achieve with your new knowledge. See you next time for even more financial adventures! 💡✨	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.872581	11/29/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122284/overview", "title": "Finance for the smallest", "author": "Katerina Kysil" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122771/overview	Exploring Self-Identity and Understanding Ableism Overview In this lesson, students will come to understand the challenges and benefits of inclusion and accessibility. Curricular Connections Designed and Created by: Jugpreet Bajwa, Artist and Jesse Costello, Teacher, Elsie Roy Elementary, Vancouver School District, British Columbia. Province/Grade/Subject British Columbia/Grade 4/Social Studies / Health and Career Education Big Ideas - Social Studies: People’s needs and wants are met in a variety of ways - Health and Career Education: Healthy choices influence our physical, emotional, and mental well-being. Curricular Competencies - Social Studies: Use Social Studies inquiry processes and skills to ask questions; gather, interpret, and analyze ideas; and communicate findings and decisions. o Explain why people, events, or places are significant to various individuals and groups. - Health and Career Education: Identify and describe factors that contribute to positive mental health. Describe and assess strategies for responding to discrimination, stereotyping, and bullying. Wingspan Artist Profile: Jugpreet Bajwa Jugpreet Bajwa, an alumnus of Seaquam Secondary (grad class of 2013), is an internationally acclaimed musician and performer, with three albums to his credit, and multiple successes across a platform of high-profile singing competitions spanning the globe. His musical journey began at the age of five which evolved into a lifelong passion despite facing the adversity of Eye Cancer to which he lost both his eyes. With a degree in Indian Classical Music and a Diploma in Western Classical Music, he received guidance from renowned mentors. His life’s mission is that of spreading love and peace through music globally. Lesson Outline Learning Objectives - Students will understand the concept of ableism and its impact on people with disabilities. - Students will develop empathy and strategies to support inclusivity. Materials Needed - Markers, crayons, and colored pencils - Sticky notes - Examples of assistive devices (if available) Lesson Activities Introduction (10 minutes): Begin with a discussion on self-identity. Ask students what makes them unique and what they value about themselves. o Introduce the concept of ableism and discuss how it affects people with disabilities. Activity: Tracing and Identifying (30 minutes): Have each student lie down on a large sheet of paper while a partner traces their outline. o Inside the outline, students will draw or write things that are important to their self-identity (e.g., hobbies, family, cultural background, personal strengths). Group Discussion: Understanding Ableism (20 minutes): In small groups, have students discuss examples of ableism they might have seen or experienced. o Each group will share their examples with the class and discuss how these situations could be improved to be more inclusive. Reflection and Sharing (20 minutes): Have students reflect on what they learned about themselves and others. o Encourage students to share one thing they can do to help make their school or community more inclusive. Conclusion (10 minutes): Summarize the key points of the lesson. Assign a short reflective writing task where students describe what they learned about self-identity and ableism. Assessment and Extensions Assessment - Participation in group activities and discussions. - Creativity and thoughtfulness in the tracing and identifying activity. - Reflective writing task. Extensions - Create a class mural that combines all the traced outlines and highlights the diversity and strengths of each student. - Plan a school-wide campaign to raise awareness about ableism and promote inclusivity.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.911443	Jo-Anne Naslund	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122771/overview", "title": "Exploring Self-Identity and Understanding Ableism", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122868/overview	Corgi Kinetic and Potential Energy Overview In this unit, students will explore kinetic and potential energy. They will understand the relationship between kinetic energy, mass, and velocity, as well as the relationship between potential energy, mass, and height. Corgi Co-organize your learning CorgiCo-organize your learning \| Unit & Lesson Plans Kinetic and Potential Energy Subject: Science Grade level: Middle School (Grades 6-8) Guides: Question Exploration, Cause & Effect, Comparison Standards: NGSS, Common Core - ELA Introduction Thank you for your interest in Unit & Lesson Plans for the Corgi application! The units and lessons that follow are intended to be used in conjunction with Corgi, a free, digital tool developed with the principles of Universal Design for Learning. Each unit is aligned to national and/or state standards such as the Next Generation Science Standards or the Common Core Standards. Each lesson utilizes the 5E Instructional Model to guide implementation. Table of Contents Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Design Questions Lesson 1: Potential Energy and Mass or Height Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Lesson 2A: Kinetic Energy and Mass or Velocity Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Lesson 2B: Kinetic Energy and Mass or Velocity Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Lesson 3: Kinetic & Potential Energy Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Unit Plan Unit Synopsis In this unit, students will explore kinetic and potential energy. They will understand the relationship between kinetic energy, mass, and velocity, as well as the relationship between potential energy, mass, and height. Learning Goal Students will understand the relationship between an object’s potential energy and its mass or height, between kinetic energy and an object’s mass or velocity, and between kinetic energy and potential energy. Main Ideas - Potential and kinetic energy are both forms of energy, but differ in how energy is used in an object. - Potential energy of an object is related to the object’s mass and height. - Kinetic energy is related to an object’s mass and velocity. Standards Next Generation Science Standards: MS-PS3. Students who demonstrate understanding can describe kinetic and potential energy in relation to the mass, velocity, or height of an object in motion or at rest through interpreting graphical displays and modeling. Disciplinary Core Ideas: Motion energy is properly called kinetic energy; it is proportional to the mass of the moving object and grows with the square of its speed. (MS-PS3-1) A system of objects may also contain stored (potential) energy, depending on their relative positions. (MS-PS3-2) Common Core State Standards: ELA/Literacy - SL.8.5. Integrate multimedia and visual displays into presentations to clarify information, strengthen claims and evidence, and add interest. Lesson Plans \| Lesson 1 \| Potential Energy and Mass or Height \| Question Exploration Guide \| \| Lesson 2A \| Kinetic Energy and Mass or Velocity \| Cause & Effect Guide \| \| Lesson 2B \| Kinetic Energy and Mass or Velocity \| Question Exploration Guide \| \| Lesson 3 \| Kinetic & Potential Energy \| Comparison Guide \| Methods of Assessment Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Design Questions Below is an overview of anticipated potential barriers and learner variability design questions for the entire unit. Each lesson may contain specific design challenges that will be addressed at the end of the lesson. Anticipate Potential Barriers Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Possible overall barriers in this lesson may include: Access to technology, non-interactive PDF, relevance to learners’ lives, mathematical and scientific notation, complex mathematical relationships. Are there barriers to engagement? (connection to students’ lives, location, grouping, noise level, etc.) The nature of potential and kinetic energy may be challenging concepts for students to grasp and relate to their everyday lives. In order to generate relevance for learners consider using one of the examples below: - A bouncing ball is an interesting way to demonstrate a rapid conversion from potential to kinetic energy and back, as affected by gravity. Allow students to hold a ball outward, then to remove their hands (let go) and let it bounce off the floor. Allow it to continue bouncing. Explain that gravity is the force that pulls the ball downward (toward Earth’s center), converting the ball’s potential energy to kinetic energy. When the ball strikes the floor, it possesses potential energy for the instant that it hits, then the force of the ground pushes it up again, converting potential to kinetic energy as it bounces upward. - Show an animated toy or other object that requires one or more batteries. Unused batteries are an example of potential (or stored) energy. When a battery is placed in a toy, and the switch turned on, the potential energy in the battery is converted to kinetic energy as the toy begins to move. Are there barriers to presentation? (oral, written, etc.) - These lessons consist of multimedia presentations with text, graphics, videos, and infographics. Some videos may need captions. The videos may also need a written transcript so students can follow along for key ideas, vocabulary, and note-taking. Are there barriers to activities? (writing, speaking, planning, etc.) - The Corgi guide allows for students to add pictures and text to each entry. It is also built to work well with TextHelp to allow for dictation and screen reading. Address Learner Variability Here we brainstorm ways to address the potential barriers described above. Again, please note that these approaches to reducing barriers and increasing access are just examples to get you thinking. We know that every context is unique. How will you address barriers to engagement? - Do these options address the anticipated barriers? - Are there options for choice, relevancy, and minimizing distractions? - Options for balancing perceived demands and resources? - Options for mastery-oriented feedback? Barriers to learners’ engagement and multiple pathways to engage students will be addressed through the supplementary resources, survey questions, and videos throughout each lesson. Classroom discussions and student examples from their own lives will also be useful in addressing relevance and engagement. How will you address barriers to representation? - Do these options address the anticipated barriers? - Are there options for audio/visual/display of info? - Are there options to access language, math, and symbols? - Are there options to build background knowledge and highlight key patterns? The supplementary resources and videos have been constructed to offer multiple ways of representing information as well as the mixed media within each lesson/activity. How will you address barriers to action and expression? - Do these options address the anticipated barriers? - Are there options for physical action? - Are there options for multiple communication tools? - Are there options for varying levels of support? - Are there options for goal setting, strategy development, and self-monitoring? Teachers should design entry points and reflective points that allow learners varying types of communication and support. This lesson is designed to be a remote learning experience; it does not address barriers surrounding physical action or physical space. However, instructors should encourage learners to find space that offers reduced outside distraction and room to move or stand, in order to interact with the virtual lesson. For a complete interactive overview of the UDL Guidelines. Lesson 1: Potential Energy and Mass or Height Essential Question What is the relationship between an object’s potential energy and its mass or its height? Key Terms[a] Potential energy [b] Mass[c] Proportional relationship[d] Resources Handout:[e] ‘KWL Chart’ https://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/chart-0 Video:[f] Impact Crater Demo Video: ‘Falling Water’ https://www.teachengineering.org/activities/view/cub_energy2_lesson08_activity1 Website:[g] ‘Potential Energy on Shelves Gizmo’ https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&ResourceID=399 Video: Potential Energy- BrainPop Handout:[h] Potential Energy - Mass and Height Sample Corgi Guide: Question Exploration - Potential Energy Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Question Exploration Guide to each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Question Exploration Guide steps together. The instructor introduces to the class the essential question and key terms (not their definitions) and directs each student to complete Step 1 and 2 in their guides with that information. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the prompts (use a KWL chart): - What do you know about potential energy? - How does the mass of an object affect its potential energy? - How does the height of an object affect its potential energy? The instructor shares the video Impact Crater Demo from the beginning to minute 1:40 on different masses with the class. The instructor asks: - How does the mass of the object affect its impact on the surface? - What evidence did you see in the video? The instructor shares another video 'Falling Water' from minute 1:18 to 1:27 on different heights with the class. The instructor asks: - How would you expect the height of the water to affect the splash as it falls?[i] - What evidence would you look for to test your idea? The instructor divides the class into groups of 3-4 students. In small groups, the students complete Step 3 of the guide by applying their understanding from the videos. Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Use supplemental articles, online simulations or experiments, jigsaw routines, visual thinking routines, etc. to explore. The instructor invites students to interact with 'Potential Energy on Shelves Gizmo' that helps students to build their own understanding through common experiences and build vocabulary for whole group discussion.[j] Explain: To develop an understanding of the relationship between potential energy of an object and its mass or height, the instructor has the students review handout Potential Energy - Mass and Height, and posts the following inquiries for students to independently explore: - What is the relationship between potential energy and mass of an object? - What is the relationship between potential energy and height of an object? To further explain, the teacher shares a video, Potential Energy- BrainPop. - How might scientists Define [k]potential energy? - Think of an example of objects you could use to show the relationship between two objects’ potential energy and their mass. - Think of an example of two objects you could use to show the relationship between potential energy and the objects’ height. To check for understanding, the teacher revisits vocabulary and addresses misconceptions. The teacher directs them to either independently or in small groups of 2-3 complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Question Exploration’ (Step 4-6) with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their ideas related to the Essential Question. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Exit slip questions: 1. As the mass of an object increases, its potential energy ________________________. 2. As the height of an object decreases, its potential energy ______________________. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. - Students could have trouble accessing the 'Potential Energy on Shelves Gizmo' activity either due to technology barriers or screen navigation tools. A similar or alternative lesson should be considered. The Gizmo does have PDF, Word, and Google Doc worksheet options available for offline use. - The lesson makes use of video. Students should be made aware of how to use and turn on/off the closed caption option. Also, transcripts of the videos should be made available for students. - Because the lesson utilizes video so heavily, instructors should be cognizant of how much of each video is used. Below are some general suggestions for key points to videos. These are merely suggestions and instructors should review all materials before use. - 'Impact Crater Demo'- 0:00 - 1:45 - 'Falling Water' - 0:00- 1:30 Lesson 2A: Kinetic Energy, Mass and Velocity Essential Question What is the relationship between the kinetic energy, mass, or velocity of an object? Key Terms Kinetic energy Mass Velocity Resources Handout: ‘KWL Chart’ https://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/chart-0 Video[l]:Kinetic Energy Website: ‘Air Track Gizmo’ https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&ResourceID=12 Video:[m] Ever Wonder? l Take a Trip to a Bowling Alley! l Highlights Sample[n] Corgi Guide[o]: Cause & Effect - Kinetic Energy Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Cause & Effect Guide to each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Cause & Effect Guide steps together. The instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class and directs each student to complete Step 1 and 2 in their guides. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the following prompts (use a KWL chart): - What do you know about kinetic energy? - How does the mass of an object affect its kinetic energy? - How does velocity of an object affect its kinetic energy? - Predict: Which will knock down bowling pins better, a golf ball or a bowling ball? Explain your idea. - Predict: Which will knock down bowling pins better, a bowling ball moving slowly, or a bowling ball moving fast? Explain your idea. The instructor shares the video, ‘Kinetic Energy’ with the class and asks students to form small groups and: - Compare what happened when a golf ball and bowling ball hit the bowling pins. - Compare what happened when a slow bowling ball and fast bowling ball hit the bowling pins. The instructor invites students to share what they discussed in their small groups with the larger group. After students share their thoughts. They are invited to complete steps 3-5 of the Corgi Cause and Effect guide. [p][q] Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Use supplemental articles, online simulations or experiments, jigsaw routines, visual thinking routines, etc. to explore. The instructor invites students to playfully interact with 'Air Track Gizmo' that helps students to build their own understanding through common experiences and build vocabulary for whole group discussion. The instructor should let the students know that they will be revisiting Air Track Gizmo in the next lesson. After the activity, the instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their findings. Explain: The instructor bridges the Air Track Gizmo activity with the bowling example and invites students to consider how the bowling ball may impact the bowling pins. The instructor may prompt students by asking: - How did exploring the Air Track Gizmo affect your understanding of our main event? [r]Explain why. - What happens when something with kinetic energy interacts with something without kinetic energy? Students are invited to discuss in small groups and complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Cause & Effect’ steps 6-8. Elaborate: The instructor may invite students to use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. The instructor may now also revisit the KWL chart and address what learners have learned and what they are still curious about. Additionally, the instructor may invite students to explore step 8 of the Corgi guide. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. The instructor should refer to Option B above and may use the presentation as a form of assessment or create an exit slip for students to complete. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. - Students may not be familiar with bowling. If this is the case in your classroom, you could either choose a different example (such as playing catch or dropping rocks in sand) or show this 30 second video clip that provides basic information about bowling and some bowling clips (from 0:00-0:35). - Students could have trouble accessing the 'Air Track Gizmo' activity either due to technology barriers or screen navigation tools. A similar or alternative lesson should be considered. The Gizmo does have PDF, Word, and Google Doc worksheet options available for offline use. - Students may be unfamiliar with terms used in the simulation such as m1, v1, kg, or m/s in Air Track Gizmo. The instructor may address this possible barrier by presenting a legend or prompting a group discussion regarding these terms before students use the simulation. - The lesson makes use of video. Students should be made aware of how to use and turn on/off the closed caption option. Also, transcripts of the videos should be made available for students. - This lesson makes use of different sets of tables and variables. Learners may need these to be made more clear and the language/symbols to be explicit. Lesson 2B: Kinetic Energy, Mass, and Velocity Essential Question What is the relationship between kinetic energy and the mass or the velocity of an object? Key Terms[s][t][u] Kinetic energy Mass Speed Velocity Constant Proportional Relationship Joule Resources Handout: ‘KWL Chart’ https://www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/printouts/chart-0 Video: BrainPop, Kinetic Energy Video Website:[v][w] ‘Air Track Gizmo’ https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&ResourceID=12 Handout: Kinetic Energy and Velocity Table and Kinetic Energy and Mass Table Sample Corgi Guide: Question Exploration - Kinetic Energy Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Question Exploration Guide to each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Question Exploration Guide steps together. The instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class (without defining terms), and directs each student to complete Step 1 and 2 in their guides with this information. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the following prompts (use a KWL chart): - What did we learn in the last lesson about the relationship between kinetic energy and mass? - What did we learn in the last lesson about the relationship between kinetic energy and velocity? The instructor divides the class into groups of 3-4 students. In small groups, the students complete step 3 of Corgi Question Exploration Guide. Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Use supplemental articles, online simulations or experiments, jigsaw routines, visual thinking routines, etc. to explore. The instructor invites students to revisit and interact again with 'Air Track Gizmo,' this time encouraging students to pay close attention to the relationship between kinetic energy and mass and kinetic energy and velocity. The instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their observations or findings. Explain: To develop an understanding of the causes of kinetic energy as well as mass and velocity the teacher shares a video on BrainPop, Kinetic Energy Video. - How might scientists define kinetic energy? - Think of an example of objects you could use to show the relationship between kinetic energy and mass. - Think of an example of objects you could use to show the relationship between kinetic energy and velocity? After a brief discussion, the instructor directs each student to the review handout, Kinetic Energy and Velocity Table and Kinetic Energy and Mass Table and posts the following inquiries for students to independently explore: - What is the relationship between kinetic energy and mass? - What is the relationship between kinetic energy and velocity? The instructor invites students back to the large group to share their thoughts and introduces the concept of linear, exponentialand proportional relationships. The instructor asks students to characterize the two graphs using the terms linear and exponential. To check for understanding, the teacher revisits vocabulary and addresses misconceptions. The teacher invites students to either independently or in small groups of 2-3 complete steps 4-7 of the Corgi Question Exploration Guide with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Revisit the KWL chart in a large group discussion. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Exit slip questions. - As the mass of an object decreases, its kinetic energy _______________________. - As the velocity of an object increases, kinetic energy ________________________. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. - This lesson makes use of different sets of tables, graphs, and variables. Learners may need these to be made more clear and the language/symbols to be explicit. There are many suggestions found within the UDL guidelines. - Students could have trouble accessing the 'Air Track Gizmo' activity either due to technology barriers or screen navigation tools. A similar or alternative lesson should be considered. The Gizmo does have PDF, Word, and Google Doc worksheet options available for offline use. - The lesson makes use of video. Students should be made aware of how to use and turn on/off the closed caption option. Also, transcripts of the videos should be made available for students. Lesson 3: Kinetic & Potential Energy Essential Question What is the relationship between kinetic and potential energy? Key Terms Kinetic energy Potential energy Resources Video: ‘Energy in a Roller Coaster Ride’ https://ca.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/hew06.sci.phys.maf.rollercoaster/energy-in-a-roller-coaster-ride/ Website:[x] ‘Inclined Plane - Sliding Objects Gizmo’ https://www.explorelearning.com/index.cfm?method=cResource.dspDetail&ResourceID=27 Sample Corgi Guide: Comparison - Kinetic and Potential Energy Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Comparison Guide to each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Comparison Guide steps together. The instructor introduces to the class the essential question and key terms (without definitions) and directs each student to complete Step 1 and 2 in their guides with this information. The instructor shares 'Energy in a Roller Coaster Ride' interactive video with students and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the prompts: - What happens to potential energy as the roller coaster goes down the hill? - What happens to potential energy as the roller coaster goes up the hill? - What happens to kinetic energy as the roller coaster goes down the hill? - What happens to kinetic energy as the roller coaster goes up the hill? The instructor divides the class into groups of 3-4 students. In small groups, the students complete the Corgi Guide by applying their understanding from the resource.[y][z] Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Each student visits the 'Inclined Plane - Sliding Objects Gizmo' website [aa]and explores the energy and motion of a block sliding down an inclined plane, with or without friction. Have students run the two experiments and compare the results about kinetic and potential energy[ab]. Explain: To check for understanding, the teacher revisits vocabulary and addresses misconceptions. The teacher helps students communicate what they have learned so far and what it means. To further enhance students’ understanding of the relationship between kinetic and potential energy, have students make a thrill ride using an infographic and labeling kinetic energy (KE) and potential aenergy (PE), and direct them to either independently or in small groups of 2-3 complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Comparison’ with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment accommodated to consider learner variability. Option B: Use a polling platform such as Kahoot that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. - Students could have trouble accessing the 'Inclined Plane - Sliding Objects Gizmo' activity either due to technology barriers or screen navigation tools. A similar or alternative lesson should be considered. The Gizmo does have PDF, Word, and Google Doc worksheet options available for offline use. - The lesson makes use of video. Students should be made aware of how to use and turn on/off the closed caption option. Also, transcripts of the videos should be made available for students. - As an extension learners are asked to make an infographic based on thrill rides. Students may be unfamiliar with the components of an infographic and educators may want to scaffold building an infographic with what information to include and how to place important information on the page. Educators should also offer several template types as choices for ordering information. Resources for infographic makers include: Easel.ly, Creately, Stat Planet, and Canva. Venngage also offers templates for offline download for a non technology option. [a]Everything we know about vocab learning points to the fact that front-loading vocab words is not the way children learn vocab. So, I really dislike defining key terms at the beginning of a lesson unless Ss need the language to be able to engage. In this particular lesson, "proportional relationship" means nothing until they've experienced it in the lesson---I would advice Ts to have Ss leave the definition blank until they have data (Step 3 instructions) and can conclude what they need to about the concept. Otherwise, writing out a definition like that--w/o context--doesn't make any sense for learners. [b]I would add 4 words to the definition Corgi has: "Stored energy an object has due to its position" ... relative to the Earth. [c]"A measure of the amount of matter in an object." Change "in an object" to "that makes up an object." The matter is not "in" something--it IS the thing. [d]I'm not sure about having this as a key word ... but ... another possible proportional relationship is that if one increases, the other decreases by the same amount. [e]KWL is best used when Ss "know" something to begin. They are unlikely to know anything to write in a KWL chart to begin this lesson. [f]How to get Ss from "the greater the mass, the more the flour flies around the room" to the point of the lesson? I'll be watching for this in the lesson. Note: This video has no voiceover--just a demo. [g]Well ... I guess I couldn't figure out how the simulation works, as I didn't see data that enabled me to compare the 3 objects. They all fall to the floor from the shelf (or fall to a second shelf), but I'm unable to see what Ss are to learn in the simulation. [h]Table 1: The question of the data (for Ss) should be, "What do you notice/can you conclude about the relationship between the mass of objects and its PE?" Ans--The greater the mass, the greater the PE. (When the objects are all held/dropped from the same height? Table 2: Similar only observation is of the rel bw PE and height (When object is higher/lower, but has the same mass.) [i]The Ss can hypothesize, but this video sets up an investigation for Ss to do, it doesn't show the investigation. Without doing it, Ss are only guessing. [j]I was unable to interact with the simulation in a useful way. My particular browser? Can people at CAST make it work beyond being able to move the objects and drop them? [k]This seems late in the game. NOTE TO SELF: Look back through the lesson to determine if this is the right place for this. Also ... @bdean@cast.org remember to add instruction somewhere that the Corgi guides are not to be completed in such a manner that vocab definitions are frontloaded. The words could be written in (still not my choice, but okay), but the definitions should NOT be written in as Ss are told to "complete step 2 of the Corgi guide." I tried to fix this in the lessons--see what you think. [l]Video indicates to "click here" for PE videos or other science videos, but it doesn't work from this link. That's okay, but T needs to know ahead of time that it won't work. Velocity is not defined, but it seems that Ss will come away thinking "speed" and "velocity" are synonyms. [m]This has zero application to the learning goals, and instead focuses on the mechanics of the machinery behind the scenes. The KE video above addresses bowling, but no bowling knowledge is needed, as the graphics work well for Ss who know nothing about bowling. [n]I don't understand how Ss get from what they've seen so far to completing the steps (the causes) in small-group discussion. This guide also feels a little awkward, because typically a CAUSE is on the left, and the EFFECT is on the right. (As is the case with chemical reactions--the reactants/stuff doing something is first, and the products/stuff that results follows.) I find the vertical format more challenging. Questions 4 and 6 in the Corgi guide are really a challenge, if I think of a group of middle schoolers sitting around a table trying to figure out what to write. [o]I find the questions in the guide to be a challenge. Another example in addition to my comment above is this: "What is the Summary?" I understand "How can you summarize...." or "Summarize what you've learned." But "What is the Summary?" seems very awkward. [p]When the mass or velocity OF AN OBJECT increases ... [q]need to change on corgi [r]To what does this refer? Bowling? [s]I see "linear" and "exponential" in the Explain section of the lesson. I have not seen "constant" or "proportional relationship" in the lesson. I do think that "speed" (and the difference bw speed and velocity) should be addressed, as the video Ss watch (with the cartoon characters) only uses "speed"; speed is more common understanding, but the NGSS use "velocity." [t]Note: Velocity is essentially "speed" plus "direction." [u]why not add these to the key terms/frontload? [v]I didn't understand this simulation at all! It also introduces "momentum," which is not in the standards and, to me, adds a layer of confusion--let alone "vectors," and some of the other language in this. [w]need to replace. Students will not understand [x]Again... I just don't get the simulation and what Ss are supposed to learn from it. (Plus it introduces friction and other variables they haven't studied.) [y]It seems like their responses would be related to the roller coaster example. Is the point that Ss should come up with other examples? If so, the lesson should indicate that. [z]ambiguous phrasing. See LeeAnn's comments. This question seems focused on RC and not other examples [aa]revisit this resource. does it work here? Does it fit the lesson? It also introduces the concept of friction. [ab]I must be missing something big, as I do not see what they would compare about PE and KE in this simulation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:38:59.996243	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/122868/overview", "title": "Corgi Kinetic and Potential Energy", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120215/overview		oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.014351	Julianna Patterson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120215/overview", "title": "WA Student Climate Assembly, Front Matter", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11288/overview	The "After Number the Stars Holocaust Research" Lesson Plan After Number the Stars Holocaust Research Overview This is an activity that can be done after the reading of Number the Stars. It's a lesson plan that will allow them to research what actually happened during the Holocaust to the Jews that were caught, luckily, unlike Annemarie's friend. I have also included the website to the LiveBinders binder that I made to go alongside with the lesson plan. It has websites about the Holocaust if you want to have the students all visiting the same sites. There are also a varying amount of questions that go along with each website in the binder. Preparation - Review the lesson plan and attached sheets. - Decide whether you want to use pre-decided on websites or find their own websites of research. - Prepare the students to be ready for the information they will find in their research. The Holocaust was a difficult time and the students should have a warning as to what they are researching and what they will find. - If you plan to use the Livebinders website on a tablet of any kind, I suggest testing it to see if it works. I have only personally tested Livebinders on a computer and am unsure how well it will work on tablets of any kind. Section 1 This is an activity that can be done after the reading of Number the Stars. It's a lesson plan that will allow them to research what actually happened during the Holocaust to the Jews that were caught, luckily, unlike Annemarie's friend. I have also included the website to the LiveBinders binder that I made to go alongside with the lesson plan. It has websites about the Holocaust if you want to have the students all visiting the same sites. There are also a varying amount of questions that go along with each website in the binder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.032584	Lindsey McClain	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/11288/overview", "title": "After Number the Stars Holocaust Research", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123123/overview	Different Search Mechanism Overview Search mechanism are fundamental technologies that enable user to retrive relevent information from vast data set efficiently.Search mechanism have evolved to address the growing complexity of data and user need. Different Search Mechanism DIFFERENT SEARCH MECHANISM In an Information Retrieval (IR) framework, various searching methods are employed to locate pertinent information in a swift and efficient manner. These methods are tailored to address user requirements based on the character of the inquiry and the category of data being fetched. Here are the primary searching methods utilized in IR frameworks: 1. Boolean Search Definition: Employs logical connectors such as AND, OR, and NOT to identify documents designated keywords. Mechanism: AND: Fetches documents that include all designated terms. OR: Fetches documents that comprise any of the designated terms. NOT: Omits documents that include certain terms. Example: Query: “machine learning AND deep learning NOT statistics”. Result: Documents must contain both "machine learning" and "deep learning" but exclude "statistics." 2. Keyword-based Search Definition:Looks for precise or incomplete correspondence of terms within the documents. Mechanism: Keywords are aligned with a reverse index of phrases within the document set. Example: Searching for "information retrieval" will yield all files where "information" and "retrieval" are present. 3. Vector Space Search Definition:Considers documents and inquiries as points in a multi-dimensional framework and calculates their likeness (e.g., cosine likeness) in relation to one another. Mechanism : The significance of words is evaluated through TF-IDF (Term Frequency-Inverse Document Frequency). Documents receive a rank according to how closely the query's similarity score. Example: Searching for 'machine learning' will prioritize documents according to their proximity to the query vector. 4. Fuzzy Search Definition: Aligns with similar terminology or expressions, accommodating spelling errors or differences. Mechanism: Employs algorithms such as Levenshtein distance (edit distance) to align terms with minor discrepancies. Example: Searching for "retrieval" may also retrieve documents containing "retriveal" or "retrievel". 5. Proximity Search Definition: Locates files in which terms appear within a defined proximity of one another. Mechanism: The framework gauges the separation of words among terms within texts. Example: Yields entries where the terms "data" and "retrieval" are found in proximity to one another. 6.Semantic Search Definition:Surpasses simple alignment keyword and comprehends the significance of the search terms. Mechanism: Utilizes Artificial Language Processing (ALP), advanced learning algorithms, and knowledge frameworks to deduce purpose. Example: Searching for “What is the capital of France?” retrieves documents with the answer “Paris” even if the keyword "capital" isn’t explicitly present. 7.Faceted Search Definition:Enables individuals to enhance their queries through filters (facets) derived from metadata. Mechanism: Information is classified into dimensions such as date, creator, place, etc. Example: Inquiry: "data analysis" Filters: Year = 2024, Creator = "John Doe". 8.Hybrid Search Definition:Integrates multiple search methods (for instance, term search + meaning-based search) to improve outcomes. Mechanism: Weighted or blended results from different approaches. Example:Combining keyword-based search with semantic ranking to improve accuracy. 9. Navigational Search Definition: Helps users navigate to a specific document or website. Mechanism:Aims to pinpoint the most recognized source for a specific inquiry. Example: Entering 'Google Scholar' will lead directly to its main page. 10.Multimedia Search Definition: Acquires pictures, films, or sound recordings rather than written content. Mechanism: Search driven by content: Utilizes characteristics of images or sounds (such as hue, texture, or frequency). Search through metadata: Relies on titles, descriptions, or notes. Example: Searching for an image of a "red car" can involve visual feature analysis.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.050630	12/17/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123123/overview", "title": "Different Search Mechanism", "author": "Moumita Saha" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123153/overview	Diabetes Poster Overview Type 1 Diabetes is caused by the body’s immune system attacking and destroying the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Type 1 occurs mostly in children and young people. Children who have Type 1 diabetes need to often check the sugar in their blood and need insulin to keep their bodies working well. • Who is the poster for? Educators of many kinds, parents & children aged 10-14. • Where might it be used? Schools, at home, health clinics, children’s clubs, religious groups, etc. • Is it enough for children to learn the messages? The messages are designed as ‘doorways’ to children’s discussion & action. They are to understand & use, not just to memorize.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.068493	Clare Hanbury	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123153/overview", "title": "Diabetes Poster", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123151/overview	HIV & AIDS Poster Overview Who is the poster for? Educators of many kinds, parents & children aged 10-14.• Where might it be used? Schools, at home, health clinics, children’s clubs, religious groups etc.• Is it enough for children to learn the messages? The messages are designed to be ‘doorways’ to discussion & action. They are for children to understand & use, not just to memorise.• Why are the faces of the people on the poster multi-ethnic? Children for Health has a global audience, so we use multi-ethnic faces on our posters.• How do I use the messages? Be creative! Focus on one topic for a week, month or term!• What is the Rainbow Stick? When a child learns & shares a message & returns with a story about how they shared that message, a teacher or other adult rewards the child with a strip of coloured fabric to tie to their stick. Children for Health has 100 messages & every child can leave primary school holding their Rainbow Stick with 100 coloured ‘ribbons’ tied on it showing everyone that they know 100 health messages. • Who is the poster for? Educators of many kinds, parents & children aged 10-14. • Where might it be used? Schools, at home, health clinics, children’s clubs, religious groups, etc. Is it enough for children to learn the messages? The messages are designed as ‘doorways’ to children’s discussion & action. They are to understand & use, not just to memorize. • Why are the faces of the people on the poster multi-ethnic? Children for Health has a global audience, so we use multi-ethnic faces on our posters. • How do I use the messages? Be creative! Focus on one topic for a week, month or term!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.086242	Clare Hanbury	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123151/overview", "title": "HIV & AIDS Poster", "author": "Teaching/Learning Strategy" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123134/overview	Corgi Structure and Properties of Matter and its Interactions Overview In this unit, students will explore and understand the fundamental principles governing the composition, structure, and behavior of matter, and how matter interacts with other substances and energy. Corgi Co-organize your learning CorgiCo-organize your learning \| Unit & Lesson Plans Structure and Properties of Matter and its Interactions Subject: Science Grade level: Middle School (Grade 6-8) Guides: Cause & Effect, Comparison, Question Exploration Standards: NGSS, Common Core - ELA Introduction Thank you for your interest in Unit & Lesson Plans for the Corgi application! The units and lessons that follow are intended to be used in conjunction with Corgi, a free, digital tool developed with the principles of Universal Design for Learning. Each unit is aligned to national and/or state standards such as the Next Generation Science Standards or the Common Core Standards. Each lesson utilizes the 5E Instructional Model to guide implementation. Table of Contents What is included in this Unit? Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Lesson 1: How Atoms Combine To Create Pure Substance? Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Lesson 2: How Pressure or Temperature Affect a Substance’s States of Matter Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Lesson 3: Crystalline & Amorphous Solids Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Lesson 4: Physical & Chemical Properties Used To Identify Pure Substances Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Unit Plan Unit Synopsis In this 4-lesson unit, students will explore and understand the fundamental principles governing the composition, structure, and behavior of matter, and how matter interacts with other substances and energy. Learning Goal Students will understand the structure and properties of matter. Students will develop a solid understanding of the particle nature of matter and the relationship of temperature and pressure with states of matter. Each pure substance has its own characteristic physical and chemical properties. Main Ideas - All matter is composed of small particles called atoms and molecules. - A substance’s state of matter depends on the energy of its particles (temperature) and space (pressure) between them. - A crystalline solid and an amorphous solid both have the properties of a substance in the solid state of matter, but are different because of their structure. - Pure substances can be described by their characteristic properties. Physical properties include color, density, melting point, etc. and chemical properties include reactivity and flammability. Standards Next Generation Science Standards: MS-PS1-1. Students who demonstrate understanding can develop models to describe the atomic composition of simple molecules and extended structures. Disciplinary Core Ideas PS1.A: Structures and Properties of Matter Substances are made from different types of atoms, which combine with one another in various ways. Atoms form molecules that range in size from two to thousands of atoms. Solids may be formed from molecules, or they may be extended structures with repeating subunits (e.g., crystals). Common Core State Standards: ELA/Literacy - SL.8.5. Integrate multimedia and visual displays into presentations to clarify information, strengthen claims and evidence, and add interest. What is included in this Unit? Several key pieces are included to help you build your own unit or support a unit you have already created. Each lesson in this unit contains: - Essential question for students - Key Terms - Resources - Lesson narrative that follows the 5E model of science instruction - Corgi guide - Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions This unit includes a step by step scaffolding that follows the 5E model of science instruction. Please note that we do our best to maintain correct links to resources and materials. If a specific link is no longer working, please don't hesitate to contact us at corgi@cast.org. Lesson Plans \| Lesson 1 \| How Atoms Combine To Create Pure Substance \| Cause & Effect Guide \| \| Lesson 2 \| How Pressure and Temperature Affect States of Matter \| Cause & Effect Guide \| \| Lesson 3 \| Crystalline & Amorphous Solids \| Comparison Guide \| \| Lesson 4 \| Physical & Chemical Properties Of Pure Substances \| Question Exploration Guide \| Methods of Assessment Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework for teaching and learning that guides the design of inclusive, accessible, and challenging learning environments. The framework is grounded in three principles: - Design multiple means of engagement - Design multiple means of representation - Design multiple means of action and expression CAST’s UDL Guidelines were developed to support practitioners to apply these three principles to practice. While this unit was not explicitly designed through a UDL lens, UDL can be used as a tool to reduce existing barriers and increase access to the unit learning goal as well as to individual lesson goals. Below is an overview of how UDL might be applied to this unit. We’ll also offer more specific ideas for applying UDL at the end of each of the lessons associated with this unit. Anticipate Potential Barriers The UDL framework can support educators to reframe their understanding of barriers: from locating barriers within individual students to locating barriers within the design of the learning environment. Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the unit. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Are there barriers to engagement? (connection to students’ lives, location, grouping, noise level, etc.) The design of the unit/lessons may need to do more to spark students’ curiosity based on their unique interests, goals, and contexts. The design may need to better emphasize why the topics are meaningful and important to explore. The design may also need to more fully support students to make connections to their own lives, communities, and questions they care about. Are there barriers to the representation of content? (oral, written, etc.) These lessons consist of multimedia presentations with text, graphics, videos, and infographics. Some videos may need captions, or some captions don’t turn on automatically. The videos may also need a written transcript so students can follow along for key ideas, vocabulary, and note-taking. Finally, several of the lessons contain non-interactive PDFs that do not allow students to highlight or make comments. Are there barriers to action and expression? (writing, speaking, planning, etc.) While the Corgi guides embed multiple options for students to share their ideas (text, images, and speech-to-text), it is important to anticipate barriers to students being able to express their ideas in other associated activities. Address Learner Variability Here we brainstorm ways to address the potential barriers described above. Again, please note that these approaches to reducing barriers and increasing access to the learning goals are just examples to get you thinking. We know that every context is unique. How will you address barriers to engagement? The Engagement Guidelines prompt us to consider the following questions when addressing barriers to engagement: - Are there options for choice, relevancy, and minimizing distractions? - Are there options for sustaining effort and persistence? - Are there options for supporting and developing self-regulation and self-assessment? Barriers to learners’ engagement and multiple pathways to engage students will be addressed through the supplementary resources, survey questions, and videos throughout each lesson. With regard to the anticipated barriers around supporting students to find meaning and relevance, consider creating spaces for students to make connections to their own lives, their communities, and issues that they care about. For example, the instructor could take a common material (such as steel) and observe the density, color, hardness, and color of the object to discuss physical properties. The instructor could also use the same object to talk about how the object oxidizes, reacts to heat, solubility, and flammability to show that matter contains both sets of properties. We encourage you to collaborate with your students and co-design ways to address other barriers to engagement that may emerge throughout this unit. How will you address barriers to representation? The Representation Guidelines prompt us to consider the following questions when addressing barriers to representation: - Are there options for audio/visual/display of info? - Are there options to access language, math, and symbols? - Are there options to build background knowledge, construct meaning, and generate new understandings? The supplementary resources and videos have been constructed to offer multiple ways of representing information as well as the mixed media within each lesson/activity. With regard to captions that don’t turn on automatically, support students to learn how to use and turn on/off the closed caption option. Also, transcripts of the videos should be made available for students. With regard to the anticipated barriers around the lack of captions and transcripts, consider transcribing tools like Otter.ai, rev, and Express Scribe. Further, free screen readers such as TextHelp Read & Write, ChromeVox, or NVDA can assist students with online articles. Finally, to reduce the barriers associated with non-interactive PDFs, consider free PDF tools such as Bit.ai and Jotform. We encourage you to collaborate with your students and co-design ways to address other barriers to representation that may emerge throughout this unit. How will you address barriers to action and expression? The Action and Expression Guidelines prompt us to consider the following questions when addressing barriers to representation: - Are there options for physical action? - Are there options for multiple communication tools? - Are there options for varying levels of support? - Are there options for goal setting, strategy development, and self-monitoring? The Action and Expression Guidelines can offer ideas for embedding varied ways for learners to communicate ideas, share understandings, and work toward goals in the associated activities throughout this unit. With regard to the anticipated barriers around physical action and physical space, consider encouraging learners to find learning spaces that work best for them (e.g. a quiet space, a space with natural lighting, etc.) and spaces that offer room to move or stand. We encourage you to collaborate with your students and co-design ways to address other barriers to action and expression that may emerge throughout this unit. Review the following link for a complete interactive overview of the UDL Guidelines. Lesson 1: How Atoms Combine To Create Pure Substance? Essential Question How do different types of atoms combine to make pure substances? Key Terms Atoms Chemical bond Compound Elements Molecule Ionic Bond Substance Resources Video: Atoms, Elements, and Molecules Website: ’Elements of a SmartPhone’ Video: Pure Substance \| Atoms & Compounds \| GCSE Chemistry (9-1) \| kayscience.com Infographic: ‘Substance Activity Chart’ Website: ‘3D Periodic Table’ or ‘Elements Wlonk’ Website: ‘Definition of a Compound’ Sample Corgi Guide: How Atoms Combine To Create Pure Substance (To be able to view the guide you must be logged in to Corgi) Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Cause and Effect Guide with each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Cause and Effect Guide steps together. The instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class and directs each student to complete Steps 1 and 2 in their guides. The instructor shares the video, Atoms, Elements, and Molecules with the class. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and new knowledge acquired from the video. The questions below can be used to start or guide the conversation: - What makes a substance a pure substance? - What do we know about how atoms combine? - How do atoms stick together? - Any other interesting points that students want to share. The instructor divides the class into groups of 3 to 4 students. In small groups, the students complete Step 3 of the guide by applying their understanding from the video and discussion. Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities designed to consider learner variability. Option B: The instructor uses the ’Elements of a SmartPhone’ website and its corresponding materials to engage students in an exploration of the substances that make a common smartphone. This lesson helps students to build their own understanding through a well known, commonly used product and build vocabulary for whole group discussion. The instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their findings. Explain: The instructor introduces the video, Pure Substance \| Atoms & Compounds \| GCSE Chemistry (9-1) \| kayscience.com. The video is divided into sections with questions at the end of each section for students to discuss. Make sure to pause the video at the section questions to check for understanding. Then allow time for students to think-pair-share their answers and reasoning with a partner or small group. For each of the pure substances found in the ‘Substance Activity Chart’ have students: - Identify what type of atoms combine to make a molecule of the sample. - Determine if the sample is an element or a compound. - Have students reference: - Either ‘3D Periodic Table’ or ‘Elements Wlonk’ for element identification or - The ‘Definition of a Compound’ for part B The teacher directs them to either independently or in small groups of 2 to 3 complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Cause & Effect’ with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Potential barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The graphic of ’Elements of a SmartPhone’ is very good and may be of interest to students. The text of the article may be difficult for students to get through. - Addressing the barrier: Have students review the graphic and record points of interest to share with a partner or the whole class. Have the instructor read the article and have students make connections to the graphic. Potential barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The video Atoms, Elements, and Molecules and Pure Substance \| Atoms & Compounds \| GCSE Chemistry (9-1) \| kayscience.com contain a lot of information at a fast pace. - Addressing the barrier: To address the pace and amount of information that is delivered to students consider stopping and/or replaying key information for students. Alternatively, teachers could have students watch and record key points in the video and share out with the class. Lesson 2: How Pressure or Temperature Affect a Substance’s States of Matter Essential Question How do variations in temperature or pressure affect a substance’s state of matter? Key Terms Condensation Evaporation Pressure States of matter/phases of matter Sublimation Temperature Resources Video: Phase Change Demonstrations \| Chemistry Matters Website: ‘Molecular Workbench: States of Matter’ Video: Changes of State \| Matter \| Physics \| FuseSchool Simulation: ‘States of Matter: Basics’ Sample Corgi Guide: How Pressure and Temperature Affect States of Matter (To be able to view the guide you must be logged in to Corgi) Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Cause & Effect Guide with each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Cause & Effect Guide steps together. The instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class and directs each student to complete Steps 1 and 2 in their guides. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the prompts: - What are common examples of a solid, a liquid, or a gas? - What happens when an object reaches its freezing point? - What happens when an object reaches its boiling/melting point? The instructor shares, Phase Change Demonstrations \| Chemistry Matters with the class. The instructor divides the class into groups of 3 to 4 students. In small groups, the students complete Step 3 of the guide by applying their understanding from the video. Explore: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested activities designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Use supplemental articles, online simulations or experiments, jigsaw routines, visual thinking routines, etc. to explore. The instructor invites students to interact with ''Molecular Workbench: States of Matter’ that helps students to build their own understanding through common experiences and build vocabulary for whole group discussion. The instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their findings. Explain: To develop an understanding of how temperature and pressure affect states of matter the instructor shows, Changes of State \| Matter \| Physics \| FuseSchool. The instructor should pause the video when prompted to check for understanding, allow students to answer the video’s questions, and discuss their answers with members in their group. To further enhance students’ understanding, have students visit the ‘States of Matter: Basics’ simulation. Once they have downloaded the simulation, have them select the ‘Phase Changes’ option. While students are engaging with the simulation, have them focus on this question, “How heat and temperature affect the state of matter, what can be observed about the motion of the particles and the distances between them as the state of matter (also called phase of matter) changes?” The teacher directs them to either independently or in small groups of 2 to 3 complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Cause & Effect’ with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Potential barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The simulation States of Matter: Basics’ may pose a barrier because it requires students to download the simulation, students may not have access to downloads, be using devices that aren’t their own, or have limited time to access the simulation. - Addressing the barrier: If there are barriers to engaging in the simulation States of Matter: Basics’, there is a pdf/print copy that students can utilize. Lesson 3: Crystalline & Amorphous Solids Essential Question What are similarities and differences of crystalline solids and amorphous solids? Key Terms Amorphous Crystalline Endothermic Exothermic Resources Video:What Is A Solid? Video: amorphous and crystalline solids Handout: Crystalline vs Amorphous Video: Crystals for Kids Know more about it! Animation Learning Lesson Kids Video: Underground Cave of the Crystals Sample Corgi Guide: Crystalline & Amorphous Solids (To be able to view the guide you must be logged in to Corgi) Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Comparison Guide to each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Comparison Guide steps together. The instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class (without defining them) and directs each student to complete Steps 1 and 2 in their guides with the information. The instructor shares, What Is A Solid? with the class. The instructor divides the class into groups of 3 to 4 students. In small groups, the students complete Step 3 of the guide by applying their understanding from the resource. Explore: The instructor invites students to explore the web to find characteristics of crystalline and amorphous solids to help students to build their own understanding through common experiences and build vocabulary for whole group discussion. The instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their findings. Explain: To develop an understanding of the differences between crystalline and amorphous solids, the instructor asks the students to watch a video, amorphous and crystalline solids. To further enhance students’ understanding of the differences between crystalline and amorphous solids, have students review the handout, Crystalline vs Amorphous. If additional help is needed, check out Crystals for Kids Know more about it! Animation Learning Lesson Kids and Underground Cave of the Crystals . The instructor directs students to either independently or in small groups of 2-3 complete the Corgi Guide, ‘Comparison’ with their new understandings. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Potential Barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The web search in the ‘Explore’ step is open ended and does not have clear expectations for students. This ambiguity can lead to anxiety and frustration because there is a lack of a clear goal. - Addressing the barrier: Consider adding a specific number of characteristics that students are to find and report on. Also, consider turning the open ended assignment into a web scavenger hunt or webquest. Webquests provide an excellent way to involve students in authentic learning activities. The inquiry-based webquest format encourages students to utilize higher level thinking skills as they complete assignments using information gleaned from the internet. The webquest can be differentiated for students who need less guidance and students who need more direct and focused clues/guidance. If you need help building a webquest this webinar by Cloe Digital is a good resource. Lesson 4: Physical & Chemical Properties Used To Identify Pure Substances Essential Question What are the physical and chemical properties of matter that can be used to identify a pure substance? Key Terms Chemical properties Physical Properties Pure substances Resources Video: Physical and Chemical Changes: Chemistry for Kids - FreeSchool Website: ‘Physical or Chemical Change?’ Website: ‘Dissolve This: Interactive Lesson’ Video: Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter Website: ‘FlexBooks: Physical Properties of Matter’ Website: ‘FlexBooks: Chemical Properties of Matter’ Website: ‘ Jeopardy: Physical & Chemical Properties of Matter’ Sample Corgi Guide: “Physical & Chemical Properties Of Pure Substances” (To be able to view the guide you must be logged in to Corgi) Lesson Narrative Engage: The instructor shares the agenda, learning goal, and assessment criteria with the class. The instructor shares a link to a blank Corgi Question Exploration Guide with each student via email or Google Classroom. The class reviews the Question Exploration Guide steps together. For the lesson, the instructor introduces the essential question and key terms to the class and directs each student to complete Steps 1 and 2 in their guides. The instructor shares the video, Physical and Chemical Changes: Chemistry for Kids - FreeSchool with the class. The instructor invites students to share their background knowledge and facilitates a whole-class discussion using the prompts: - Generally, what observations did you make about physical and chemical changes? - How are these changes similar to and different from each other? - What common physical changes have you experienced? (you can refer to the video for inspiration) - What common chemical changes have you experienced? (you can refer to the video for inspiration) After students have shared their observations in the whole group discussion, have the students, either individually or in groups, take the ‘Physical Or Chemical Change?’ quiz to solidify concepts with everyday examples of physical and chemical changes. The instructor divides the class into groups of 3 to 4 students. In small groups, the students complete Step 3 of the guide by applying their understanding from the video. Explore: The instructor invites students to interact with ‘Dissolve This: Interactive Lesson’ that helps students to build their own understanding through common experiences and build vocabulary for whole group discussion. The instructor reconvenes the class to recap the exploration and invites students to share their findings. Explain: First, have students watch Physical and Chemical Properties of Matterand have the students take note of the primary characteristics of physical chemical properties. Then, students will expand and build upon their learning by visiting ‘FlexBooks: Physical Properties of Matter’ and ‘FlexBooks: Chemical Properties of Matter’ to review the study questions found at the end of each mini article. Lastly, the class will review the information they know by participating in the “Jeopardy: Physical & Chemical Properties of Matter’ review before completing their Corgi Question Exploration guide. Elaborate: Use the Corgi presentation feature to create a slide deck and have learners present their thinking. Evaluate: Option A: Use your district’s current curriculum and suggested assessment designed to consider learner variability. Option B: Select self-assessments, peer assessments, writing assignments, exams, etc. that allow students to reflect on their learning and demonstrate their understanding. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) Suggestions Here we brainstorm potential barriers that learners may encounter in the design of the lesson. Please note that these are just examples to get you thinking about the potential barriers in your own unique context. Potential barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The activity ‘Dissolve This: Interactive Lesson’ may have elements that do not work optimally with tab navigation. - Addressing the barrier: This site provides a transcript and resource list that can be downloaded and used. Potential barrier: - Anticipating the barrier: The review activity: “Jeopardy: Physical & Chemical Properties of Matter’ is designed to be a group activity. Some students feel uncomfortable with public speaking in front of their peers. - Addressing the barrier: To address the anxiety some students may feel the “Jeopardy: Physical & Chemical Properties of Matter’ review can be customized to small teams and can also be done individually.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.163079	Lesson Plan	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123134/overview", "title": "Corgi Structure and Properties of Matter and its Interactions", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120223/overview	2. P1, L1: SCA Unit Description 3. P1, L2: King County Climate Change Infographic 4. P1, L5 & 6: ALL WebQuest Materials Student Climate Assembly Phase 1: Climate Assemblies, Climate Change and Civics Overview Phase 1: Learning Sessions In Phase 1, students explore how various levels of government address climate change, meeting C2.11-12.1 (analyzing citizens’ and institutions’ effectiveness in addressing social and political problems). They also critically examine how governments take climate actions at local, state, tribal, and national levels. More specifically, students start by exploring the structure and purpose of student climate assemblies, reviewing the current science and status of climate change, potential solutions, and the role of government at the local, state, tribal, national, and international levels. This foundational phase provides students with the necessary background knowledge and motivation to analyze their local government’s or tribe’s climate action plan and participate in a climate assembly, including: - The purpose and process of climate assemblies - A review of the science of climate change, including its major causes and impacts - The role, structure, and powers of government, especially local governments - The major agreements and policies addressing climate change at the international, national, tribal, and state levels - The five major emissions categories and related solutions Overview of Phase 1 Lesson Plans \| Introduction and Engagement This lesson provides students with an overview of the whole unit and of climate assemblies in general, as well as a high-level review of the causes and impacts of climate change and its solutions. The purpose of this lesson is to provide a springboard for students to engage with the rest of the unit. Students will spend the first half of the lesson exploring their current thinking about climate change and learning about the purpose of climate assemblies, as they spend the next three to four weeks participating in one. Then, students will use a variety of resources to put together a synthesis statement on the causes and impacts of climate change through a collaborative jigsaw. \| \|---\| \| Impacts of Climate Change This lesson focuses on helping students understand and differentiate between the direct and indirect impacts of climate change, with a particular emphasis on how these impacts manifest at the local level in Washington State. Students will review the roles of different levels of government, particularly local governments, in responding to these impacts. The purpose of this lesson is to set the stage for students to explore actionable solutions that can be implemented by their local government in response to the specific challenges posed by climate change in their community. \| \|---\| \| The Five Grand Challenges This lesson focuses on helping students understand the concept of the “Grand Challenges” in climate action and how government policy plays a critical role in addressing these challenges. Students will explore the sources of carbon emissions, understand the difference between mitigation and adaptation,and evaluate the importance of government policies in driving climate solutions. Students begin by analyzing personal climate impact profiles and how climate change impacts those individuals. Students then look at the five Grand Challenges that humans will have to figure out to deal with climate change. As the lesson progresses, students will work through resources such as infographics, videos and readings to further understand the role government policy takes in resolving these challenges.By the end of the lesson, students will have a foundational understanding of how government policy can shape climate action at multiple levels, and they will engage in meaningful discussions on the role of local and state governments in driving solutions to the Grand Challenges. \| \|---\| \| Government Policies and Solutions This lesson explores how different levels of government — local, tribal, state, national, and international— collaborate to address climate change. First, students will look at climate actions taken at different levels of government, stretching from local to international. After that, students will engage in a case study of proposed coal terminals in Washington state to examine how local actions, supported by tribes and citizen activism, can influence broader government decisions. Through this case study, students will gain insights into the complexity of climate governance and the critical role of public involvement in shaping environmental policy. \| \|---\| \| Investigating Solutions - Day 1 In this lesson, students will begin investigating climate solutions that address the Grand Challenges. They will categorize potential solutions into the different Grand Challenges and use a WebQuest to gather evidence about specific solutions. Through group discussions, students will reflect on which solutions might be most feasible for local governments to implement. This initial investigation will prepare them for future lessons where they will analyze and assess the impact of these solutions in more detail. \| \|---\| \| Investigating Solutions - Day 1 In this lesson, students will continue their investigation of a set of climate solutions from Lesson 5, focusing on transportation, heating and cooling of buildings and renewable energy solutions that local governments could implement. Students will finalize their research by drafting and answering a research question and evaluating the credibility of their sources. Through group discussions, students will reflect on the feasibility and challenges of implementing the solutions they researched. By the end of the lesson, students will complete their WebQuest and write a summary of their findings, with an emphasis on solutions that are most viable for local government action. \| \|---\| Attribution and License Attribution This resource was developed by Pacific Education Institute for the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction Deliberative Democratic Climate Change Education Program. Project Leads: Lisa Eschenbach, David Ketter Instructional Materials Author: Fernando Reyes, Ryan Hauck Thank you to the following educators who contributed to planning, development, and material review: Steven Ayers, Ryan Hauck, Christie Ryba-Johnson and Eric Wickwire The Washington Social Studies Learning Standards by the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Graphic design by Julianna Patterson. This work was funded by the Washington State Legislature and administered by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. License Except where otherwise noted, Washington Student Climate Assembly: Climate Change in the Civics Classroom, copyright Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction, is available under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos, trademarks, and video are property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring by OSPI. If lessons in this work are adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction logos.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.203068	Julianna Patterson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/120223/overview", "title": "Student Climate Assembly Phase 1: Climate Assemblies, Climate Change and Civics", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85067/overview	Education Standards Awesome Animal Actions (3-5) Standards Alignment Resources Awesome Animal Actions (3-5) Overview This sequence of instruction was developed in the Growing Elementary Science Prjoject to help elementary teachers who were working remotely. We developed a short storyline that ties together a few sessions to help explore a specific concept. We tried to include some activities that honored and included the student’s family and experience, and some that included the potential for ELA learning goals. In this Unit of Instruction, students observe animal behaviors - both in video format and in their own neighborhoods - then create a model to explain how these behaviors help the animals meet their needs. It is part of ClimeTime - a collaboration among all nine Educational Service Districts (ESDs) in Washington and many Community Partners to provide programs for science teacher training around Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) and climate science, thanks to grant money made available to the Office of the Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI) by Governor Inslee. Storyline ( pdf version: https://bit.ly/3jg6cUs ) The unit of instruction is centered on answering the questions: - Growing Elementary Science Distance Learning Storyline –How do different animals use their unique parts to survive and thrive? \| \|\|\|\| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| Ask and ExploreIntroduce Phenomena or Problem \| Carrying Out an InvestigationInvestigation – discussion questions- support student use of three-dimensions \| Read, Write, Make SenseDiscuss Results- Read to gather information- Make Sense of our Ideas \| Putting the Pieces TogetherBring together evidence from activities-synthesize- extending the learning based on student interest \| Engaging Students in Practices \| Teacher acts out an animal - no words or sounds allowed! Teacher/students act out other animals, with probing questions after each one. (See slide notes for probing questions.) Some prerecorded animal charades (no sound): https: \| Introduce the recording sheet, and explain options for using it: Observation Recording Sheet: Use a video clip to demonstrate filling in the recording sheet. Example videos: Collection of animal actions – pause after each for discussion. NOT LABELLED: https: Examples grouped by action: Observation AnalysisConsider discussions among Students who observed similar animals, students who observed VERY different animals. \| Students create a model of their thinking. Templates in various forms: (Note: Google Doc and Jamboard versions will force you to save a copy to your own google workspace.) We’ve created a list of articles on NewsELA (Grade 2) and some suggested read-aloud books that can be used to further explore animal actions: \| CHOICE BOARDSelect which choice or choices to offer students for demonstrating their understanding of structure and function. Draw an ActionAnimal Charades and ExplanationCompare and ContrastMaking New Book PagesUpdating Book PagesAnimal PuppetsEach of these are described in the document: \| Family and Community Connections \| AWESOME ANIMAL ACTION CHARADES See instruction sheet and action slips her: https: \| ANIMAL OBSERVATIONS Students have a choice to observe domestic animals or wild animals they have near their homes. Observation and recording can be done as a family. Observation Recording Sheet: Example Sheet for Hummingbird: https: Example Sheet for Bear: https: \| \| This will depend on the options on the choice board chosen by teachers and by students. \| Technology Considerations \| \| If students do not have the ability to observe animals in “real life,” access to video clips and/or webcams is required. List of highlight videos and live webcams for a variety of animals: https: \| \| This will depend on the options on the choice board chosen by teachers and by students. \| Storyline Launch → → → → → Investigating → → → → → Sensemaking \| Materials Awesome Animal Actions (3-5) Storyline (PDF): https://bit.ly/3jg6cUs Awesome Animal Actions (3-5) Standards alignment: https://bit.ly/3ysalct Some prerecorded animal charades (no sound): https://bit.ly/383Xxy6 Animal Charades Instructions: https://bit.ly/3Di1PAg Observation Recording Sheet: https://bit.ly/3zcZap3 - Example Sheet for Hummingbird: https://bit.ly/3yerhmp - Example Sheet for Bear: https://bit.ly/3zoCu5u Example Animal Behavior Videos - Collection of animal actions – pause after each for discussion. NOT LABELLED: https://bit.ly/2UFHPpF - Examples grouped by action: https://bit.ly/3sEl0PU List of highlight videos and live webcams for a variety of animals: https://bit.ly/3jgzYsh System Models - PDF Version: https://bit.ly/2WmLw4i - Google Doc Version (Forces you to save a copy to your own google space): https://bit.ly/2Wr2qhV - Jamboard Version (Forces you to save a copy to your own google space): https://bit.ly/3zjHQyP - Example System Model (Hummingbird): https://bit.ly/3yid34b - Example System Model (Bear): https://bit.ly/3sKdZwM Reading and Read-Aloud Suggestions: https://bit.ly/3sLcDlz Sensemaking Activities Choice Board: https://bit.ly/2Wohtci Google Folder with most of these resources: https://bit.ly/2WtcQhm Standards Alignment This document lists the Science AND ELA standards that are/can be addressed with these materials - at the Third, Fourth and Fifth Grade levels.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.263531	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85067/overview", "title": "Awesome Animal Actions (3-5)", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68304/overview	Education Standards Grade 3 Science Framework (pdf) Resource 1: Puzzling Phenomena for Plant Growth Resource 2: Integration Point – Speaking and Listening Resource 3: Observation Table Resource 4: Growth Chart Resource 5: Background Reading Resource 6: Sentence Starters Resource 7: Fruit and Vegetable Pictures Resource 8: Comparing Plants Resource 9: Bee Jobs Video 1: From Seed to Plant Read Aloud Video 2: Janet Stevens Tops and Bottoms Video 3 alternate: World's Weirdest Honeybee Dance Moves Video 3: Silence of the Bees Video 4: Amazing Time-Lapse: Bees Hatch Before Your Eyes Video 5a: Honeybees in Trouble Video 5b: Growing Melons Grade 3 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: How Do Plants Grow and Survive Overview Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects is a statewide Clime Time collaboration among ESD 123, ESD 105, and the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Development of the resources is in response to a need for research- based science lessons for elementary teachers that are integrated with English language arts, mathematics and other subjects such as social studies. The template for Elementary integration can serve as an organized, coherent and research-based roadmap for teachers in the development of their own NGSS aligned science lessons. Lessons can also be useful for classrooms that have no adopted curriculum as well as to serve as enhancements for current science curriculum. The EFSIS project brings together grade level teams of teachers to develop lessons or suites of lessons that are 1) focused on grade level Performance Expectations, and 2) leverage ELA and Mathematics Washington State Learning Standards. Introduction: Integrated Content Standards Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects are designed to be an example of how to develop a coherent lesson or suite of lessons that integrate other subjects such as English Language Arts, Mathematics and other subjects into science learning for students. The examples provide teachers with ways to think about all standards, identify anchoring phenomena, and plan for coherence in science and integrated subjects learning Washington Learning Standards Washington State Science and Learning Standards For LS1, LS3, LS4 students are expected to develop an understanding of: - the similarities and differences of organisms’ life cycles, - understanding that organisms have different inherited traits, - that the environment can also affect the traits that an organism develops - constructing an explanation using evidence for how the variations in characteristics among individuals of the same species may provide advantages in surviving, finding mates, and reproducing. - the idea that when the environment changes some organisms survive and reproduce, some move to new locations, some move into the transformed environment, and some die. Crosscutting Concepts: - Systems and Systems Models (to describe plant life cycle and bee/insect life cycle) - Patterns (patterns of growth, types of insects attracted to specific plants) - Cause and Effect (amount of water to plant growth, types of plants to bees attracted) Science and Engineering Practices: - Develop and Use Models (to describe plant life cycle and bee/insect life cycle) - Analyze and Interpret Data (measure and record plant growth observing water, temperature, spacing, soils quality; observe and record numbers of types of insects/organisms) - Constructing Explanations (Use data on plant growth over time to explain the impact of a chosen condition on height of plants or number of leaves or flowers, number of fruits) - Argue from Evidence (effect controlling temperature or water, etc. on speed or height, leaf numbers, blossoms, fruit of plant growth; effect of planting different plant types on attracting bees, butterflies, pollinators) Performance Expectations 3-LS1-1. Develop models to describe that organisms have unique and diverse life cycles, but all have in common birth, growth, reproduction, and death. Clarification Statement: Changes organisms go through during their life form a pattern.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment of plant life cycles is limited to those of flowering plants. Assessment does not include details of human reproduction. 3-LS3-2. Use evidence to support the explanation that traits can be influenced by the environment. Clarification Statement: Examples of the environment affecting a trait could include normally tall plants grown with insufficient water are stunted; and, a pet dog that is given too much food and little exercise may become overweight. 3-LS4-3 Construct an argument with evidence that in a particular habitat some organisms can survive well, some survive less well, and some cannot survive at all. Clarification Statement: Examples of evidence could include needs and characteristics of the organisms and habitats involved. The organisms and their habitat make up a system in which the parts depend on each other. 3-LS4-4. Make a claim about the merit of a solution to a problem caused when the environment changes and the types of plants and animals that live there may change.* Clarification Statement: Examples of environmental changes could include changes in land characteristics, water distribution, temperature, food, and other organisms.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to a single environmental change. Assessment does not include the greenhouse effect or climate change. Partial performance expectation. English Language Arts K-12 Learning Standards - Reading Informational Text.3.7 Use information gained from illustrations (e.g., maps, photographs) and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text (e.g., where, when, why, and how key events occur). (3-LS1- - Reading Informational Text.3.2 Determine the main idea of a text; recount the key details and explain how they support the main idea. (3-LS4-1), (3-LS4-2), (3-LS4-3), (3-LS4-4) - Reading Informational Text.3.3 Describe the relationship between a series of historical events, scientific ideas or concepts, or steps in technical procedures in a text, using language that pertains to time, sequence, and cause/effect. (3-LS4-1), (3-LS4-2), (3-LS4-3), (3-LS4-4) Reading Literature.3.1 Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding of text, referring explicitly to the text as the basis for the answers. - Reading Literature. 3.3 Describe characters in a story and explain how their actions contribute to the sequence of events - Writing.3.1 Write opinion pieces on topics or texts, supporting a point of view with reasons. (3-LS4-1), (3-LS4-3), (3-LS4-4) - Writing.3.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and information clearly. (3-LS3-1), (3-LS3-2) - Writing.3.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences. - Speaking and Listening 3.1 Prepare for and participate effectively in a range of conversations and collaborations with diverse partners, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly and persuasively. - Speaking and Listening.3.4 Report on a topic or text, tell a story, or recount an experience with appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details, speaking clearly at an understandable pace. Mathematics K-12 Learning Standards - Math Practices.2 Reason abstractly and quantitatively. (3-LS3-1), (3-LS3-2) - Math Practices.4 Model with mathematics. (3-LS1-1) - Math Practices.5 Use appropriate tools strategically. (3-LS4-1) - 3.NBT Number and Operations in Base Ten (3-LS1-1) - 3.NF Number and Operations—Fractions (3-LS1-1) - 3.RID Represent and interpret data - Draw a scaled picture graph and a scaled bar graph to represent a data set with several categories. Solve one- and two-step “how many more” and “how many less” problems using information presented in scaled bar graphs. For example, draw a bar graph in which each square in the bar graph might represent 5 pets. - Generate measurement data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and fourths of an inch. Show the data by making a line plot, where the horizontal scale is marked off in appropriate units— whole numbers, halves, or quarters. Phenomena and Routines Phenomena From Seed to Flower \| PBS Learning Media Note: start at 4 seconds - don’t want kids to see the words, just watch the video to do notice and wondering. Big Ideas How do organisms start, grow, change as they grow and what do they need to grow, survive, and reproduce successfully? - organisms have life cycles and different structures in each phase of the life cycle can improve the organism’s ability to grow, survive, and reproduce. - plant life cycle and structures and function - bee life cycle and structures and function What can be done to improve a habitat for organism growth and health? - studying the effects on plants, of different water, temperature, light conditions pollinator availability to discover what has positive impacts. - propose solutions to increase plant growth - study the effects on pollinating insects/bees of various conditions, types of plants, temperature, light - propose solutions to increase plant growth Why do organisms of the same species have different traits? - different individuals of the same type of plant may have different traits that may be impacted by conditions OpenSciEd Routines Routine \| Description of Routine \| Anchoring Phenomenon Routine \| Develop curiosity to drive learning throughout the suite of lessons or unit based on a common experience of a phenomenon \| Navigation Routine \| Establish and reinforce the connections between what we have previously done in a unit, what we are about to do, what we will do in the future, and what our driving purpose is in the contexts of the suite of lessons or unit. \| Investigation Routine \| Use scientific practices to investigate and make sense of a phenomenon. \| Putting Pieces Together Routine \| Take the pieces of ideas we have developed across multiple lessons and figure out how they can be connected to account for the phenomenon we have been working on. \| Problematizing Routine \| Evaluate the adequacy of our scientific ideas to explain and phenomenon in order to identify what we still need to understand. \| Lesson 1: What's Going on with My Plant? Anchoring Phenomena Routine Note: In this lesson students will be introduced to a puzzling phenomenon about a plant, will pose questions for investigation and will develop an initial model. Materials - Science Notebook (manila, 20 page, KCDA, Composition style, spiral type notebook, etc.) - Plant Growth Puzzling Phenomena sheet - Chart paper or whiteboard for recording student questions and ideas - Resource 1: Puzzling Phenomena for Plant Growth - What Happened to My Squash? - Resource 2: Integration Point – Speaking and Listening Preparation - Make a copy of Resource 1 “What Happened to My Squash?” - Create a T chart on chart on butcher paper or whiteboard with the columns: - Record the final 4-6 common class questions for reference throughout the lessons Vocabulary - seed, squash, soil Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Before you begin to elicit what students think they know about plants and how they grow, present students with the short Puzzling Phenomena scenario “What Happened to My Squash?” - Resource 1 - Give students time to read the problem, brainstorm ideas, questions and ways they might investigate this puzzle. You may choose to use Resource 2: Integration Point: Speaking and Listening as a handout to guide student discussion or simply guide the discussion by posing each question. 3.1 effective conversations and collaborations with partners Procedure 2 - In whole class discussion or with another person, ask students what questions they have about the squash plant or plants in general. Pose the question, “What questions do we need to know to figure out what happened to the squash and why no squash formed?” - Guide students toward the investigative questions 1) what is a plant?, 2) what happens to make a seed a plant?, 3) what do plants need to grow?, 4) how do various conditions affect plant growth?, 5) what makes the fruits and vegetables (seed pods) form or not?, by asking probing questions, grouping and revoicing questions as needed to narrow the focus to questions about plants. Write their questions and ideas on a T-Chart on chart paper. Write the final questions for the class to investigate on a “Driving Questions Board” that remains posted in the classroom for continued reference throughout the lessons. Procedure 3 - On a clean page in the science notebook have students write a paragraph about what they think they know about plants already. (Tip-consider using a left side page for this. A possible practice is to have students’ brainstorming, questions, first thinking on left side pages and observations, charts, graphs, explanations and arguments from evidence on right side pages) Integration Point: Writing 3.10 writing for a range of purposes - Students can share their ideas with their partner or team. Students should make a LINE OF LEARNING under their initial ideas and add those from their classmates that they think are useful below that LINE OF LEARNING. Integration Point: Speaking and Listening 3.1 effective conversations and collaborations with partners Procedure 4 (may be day two if time is not sufficient in one class period): - Students draw a model of what a plant is and what it needs to grow and produce fruit. Encourage them to use words, labels, indicator arrows (pointing to the part of the drawing they are talking about). Lesson 2: How Do /seeds Work? Navigation Routine Investigation Routine Notes: In this lesson students will make observations of a dry and soaked lima bean to understand the parts of a seed. Materials - Science Notebook (manila, 20 page, KCDA, Composition style, spiral type notebook, etc.) for recording ideas, questions, brainstorms, observations, data about seeds - 1 dry lima bean for partner pairs - 1 lima bean soaked overnight for each partner pair - Hand lens for each student - Centimeter ruler for each pair of students - Resource 3: Observation Table (alternately students can construct the table quickly on the right-side page of their science notebook) - Video 1: From Seed to Plant Read Aloud Preparation - Soak enough lima bean seeds in water the night before for each partner pair - Copy enough Seed Observation Tables for each student or draw one on chart paper, whiteboard, or project one you have drawn in your science notebook as an example for students to construct in their own notebooks Vocabulary - seed coat, embryo, cotyledon, germinate, sprout Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students revisit the Driving Question Board and note that we are going to engage in several investigations that may help us discover the answers to the questions and the phenomena. Ask students how a plant starts and establish the fact that plants start from seeds. Procedure 2 - Tell students that in a moment they will get a chance to look at some lima bean seeds. Explain that we are looking at these seeds because they are big enough for us to see what the seed looks like inside and out and that very small seeds are similar inside and have similar parts. - Get science notebooks ready and open to the next clean page. Glue Observation table into science notebook or quickly create an Observation table such as that in Resource 3: Observation Table Procedure 3 - Have each partner pair get one dry lima bean seed for the pair and a hand lens for each partner from the distribution area (or hand them out). - Ask students to examine the lima bean seed using hand lenses and record their observations in the first column on an Observation Table such as Resource 3 which can be copied for students, or which they can create and record right on a science notebook page. Integration Point: Writing 3.10 writing for a range of purposes - Students should also draw dry bean seed on the top half of their next science notebook page. Procedure 4 (could be the next day if time is limited): - Read Aloud or read individually or in partners/teams From Seed to Plant by Gail Gibbons from the first page through the page that shows the inside of the seed and its parts (Lexile score 560L). Stop reading the book at that point to be finished later. Integration Point: Reading Informational Text.3.7 Use information gained from illustrations and the words in a text to demonstrate understanding of the text. If you don’t have access to the book or to a class set, you can find a video of the book on You Tube, there are several. Video 1: From Seed to Plant – Read Aloud Procedure 5 - Have each partner pair get one soaked lima bean seed for the pair and a hand lens for each partner from the distribution area (or hand them out). - Ask students to examine the soaked lima bean seed using hand lenses. They should examine both the inside and outside of the seed and record their observations in an Observation Table such as Resource 3 which can be copied for students or which they can create and record right on a science notebook page. Integration Point: Writing 3.10 writing for a range of purposes - Be sure that students measure the length and width of the soaked lima bean using an inch ruler and measuring to the nearest ¼ inch. Integration Point: Math Practices.5 Use appropriate tools strategically, and 3.RID Represent and interpret data Generate measurement data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and fourths of an inch. Procedure 6 - As students work, help them to observe, as needed, that there is a tiny plant like structure and use the word embryo. - Talk with students. - Students should also draw soaked lima bean seed on the bottom half of their next science notebook page under their dry lima bean picture. They should label all parts. Give students the scientific names that correspond to the labeling in the Gail Gibbons book. - Seed Coat-seed coat - Food-cotyledon - Beginning of a plant-embryo Lesson 3: How Can We Investigate Plant Growth and Development Patterns? Investigation Routine Notes: In this lesson students will choose one or more of 3 investigations to do with radish plants either in the garden or in seed pots in the classroom. These could be sunlight/dark, amount of water. Materials - Garden plot to plant various types of vegetable plants, or this could also be done in clear plastic cups or liter bottles bottoms in the classroom. - A light source will be needed if planting in the classroom or indoors - radish seeds (20-30 days) - snap pea seeds (21-30 days) - Note: It is important to plant radish & snap pea seeds as they have a short and similar life cycle and growth can be observed within a span up to 21-30 days. It may be useful to plant other types of seeds as well for comparison purposes. If you want...Squash and cucumber plants can provide a fairly good-sized blossom if you want students to observe the parts of the flower which is difficult in radishes and peas. - Soil - 6 clear plastic 3 to 8 oz. cups, Dixie cups, or one-liter bottles with tops cut off planting cups for each group of 6 students unless plants are planted in a garden plot. - sealable plastic bag - index cards, sticky notes, tape and markers to label plants, or stakes for a garden plot - Science Notebook (manila, 20 page, KCDA, Composition style, spiral type notebook, etc.) - Resource 4: Growth Chart Preparation - Cut 6-liter bottles in half to leave the bottom as a planting cup or use clear 4 or 8 oz. plastic cups - Gather small rocks for the bottom of planter cup for drainage (students could do this) - Obtain enough potting soil for about half of the liter bottle cup with potting soil on top of the rocks (students could do this) - Moisten soil prior to planting (helps in the watering process). - Pre count 3 radish seeds and 3 snap pea seeds to each planting cup (saves time and is recommended because not every seed will germinate). - Plan student observation groups of 6 students each. Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Group students into groups of 6. Each student will get to plant one plant in the investigation group. - Have students observe the seeds of snap pea and radish with a magnifying glass and draw sketches of each in their science notebook. - Document color, texture, size and general weight (this seed is heavier than that seed, etc.) - Which will be ready to eat first? - Will have more leaves? - Taller or shorter? - How many vegetables will grow? - Does the size of the seed predict the size of the vegetable? Procedure 2 - Pass out planting cups or designate areas in the garden. - Have students place a several small rocks across the bottom of each planting cup for drainage (not necessary in the garden) - Fill about half of the planting cups with potting soil on top of the rocks. - There should be 4 cups or garden spots for radish seeds (2 cups for radishes with sun and water, 1 cup for radish in sun with no water, 1 cup for radish with water but no light in the “biome baggie” and 2 other cups for two snap pea plants (sun and water) or one snap pea and on other type of plant such as cucumber and sunflower or bean and cucumber. - In each of 4 cups plant two or three radish seeds right next to the side of the cup (so that roots can be observed through the clear plastic side of the cup) until the seed is just covered by soil. This may be easier to accomplish using a toothpick create a hole in the soil by the side of the cup and then gently pushing the seed just below the soil surface. - Plant two or three snap pea seeds at the same depth, and the same way in one cup and repeat with another snap pea seed or other seed type in the last cup. - Water seeds very gently until soil is moist but not muddy. Procedure 3 - Place all 6 seed cups in a warm place. A windowsill with sunlight will work if it is not too cold. Under a lamp with a regular incandescent light bulb can also work. - Water each seed cup every day as needed to keep them moist, not muddy, until plants begin to sprout above the soil. Procedure 4 - Once sprouts appear you will want to thin the plants by plucking all but one plant from the cup. If plants are far enough apart that you prefer not to thin, then put an X on the side of the cup directly next to the plant that you will observe and measure for data collection purposes. Procedure 5 - Use a post-it, index card, tape and sharpie marker or other way to label the following: - No water, light only for one of the radish planting cups - No light, water only for one of the radish planting cups - Water and light for two of the radish planting cups and for two of the snap pea planting cups - Do your best to get each planter cup watered to moist using the same amount of water. Procedure 6 - Place radish planting cup labeled light only in sunlight, be sure it is watered until moist and then do not water it again, let it dry out. Be sure you can easily observe the plant you have chosen to observe if you did not thin. In the garden water this plant initially but be sure it does not get any further water. - Place another radish plant in the cup into a baggie, be sure it is watered until moist and seal the baggie. Place this “biome baggie” in a totally dark place such as a cupboard. Be sure to check it each day to see if the soil is still moist. It should self-water in this “biome in a bag”. Keep the plant in the dark except for observing it each day. Be sure it is correctly labeled no light. in the garden fix a baggie over this plant and anchor the baggie in the soil. Cover with dark paper or a black trash bag all around to prevent light from getting to the plant. - Place the third and fourth radish plants in sunlight and water them the same amount until soil is moist (not muddy). These two radish plants will be watered as needed until moist each day. Be sure they are correctly labeled sunlight and water-radish. - Place the 2 snap pea plants or other types of plants that were planted in sunlight and water as needed until soil is moist but not muddy. Be sure to check and water each day. Be sure they are correctly labeled sunlight and water-snap pea (or alternate plant name). Procedure 7 - Use the Resource 4: Growth Chart to record plant growth of the radish plants under each condition, to fourths of inches, every 2 or three days for up to two weeks. Students should notice that plants start out with a similar height but over time the no water and no light plants will not keep growing or will have a different quality of growth: color, number of leaves, strength of stem, etc. Integration Point: Math Practices.5 Use appropriate tools strategically, and 3.RID Represent and interpret data with a scaled bar graph and multiple categories; Generate measurement data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and fourths of an inch. - Continue to water and provide sunlight for any alternate plants as well. They will be used in the next lesson for comparisons. Alternate Lesson 3: How Can We Investigate Plant Growth and Development Patterns? Notes: Biomes in a Baggie. These could be temperature, sunlight/dark, amount of water, etc. Purpose of this investigation is to see ‘what plants need to survive’ where in lesson 3 you’re watching a life cycle of two types of plants grow from seed to seed. Materials - bottom of 2-liter bottles (4) (any size bottle will work. 1 L will just be a smaller Biome) - chia seeds - rocks/pebbles - potting soil - gallon Ziplock bags (4) - water - Resource 5: Background Reading - Biomes Preparation - Gather needed supplies. - Read “Background Reading” in Resource 5 - Watch PBS Learning Media video to SEE the idea of Biome in a Baggie (though it’s modified a bit below for the experiment) Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1: (suggestion to plant Biomes on Monday of a 5-day week) - Planting Biomes: - Take some pebbles and put them in the bottom of the soda bottle ½ in deep. - Now put some potting soil in, approx. 1 inch. - To plant your seeds, you make a trench across the potting soil about 2 cm deep. Just need a pinch! - Cover the trench with soil. - Label the bags 1, 2, 3, and 4. - Label the soda bottles 1, 2, 3, & 4. - Water the soil in #1 and #2 until the water starts to gather in the rocks below. #3 and #4 get no water. - Put the Biomes in their matching labeled plastic bag and seal them up. Now you have created an environment for your plants. You will not have to water it again as it will recycle the water. The roots in the plant collect the water from the soil and pebbles. They take the water up to the stem and then it’s dispersed to all the parts of the plant. Once it’s in the leaves it will evaporate out into the bag. Some water evaporates from the soil too. Once it’s done evaporating, the water travels up the bag and forms tiny water droplets, that's called condensation. Then it falls down like rain, called precipitation. Now that’s the water cycle: Evaporation, Condensation, Precipitation. - Decide as a class where you are going to place your bags. Ex: Bags #1 and #3 on the counter in full sun. Bags #2 and #4 in a dark cupboard. - Leave them in their location for 3-4 days. In that time you will see that your Biome in a Bag has everything it needs: water, nutrients from the soil, air in the bag, and makes its own food from the sun (except the two in the cupboard). - Decide as a class where you are going to place your bags. Procedure 2: (the next 4 consecutive days) - Plan time on the next few days to check on your plants! (Choose a type of graph that you can collect data on such as a bar graph to track the height of each Biome’s Chia seeds. Label the bottom #1, #2, #3, #4. Label the side in cm.) Each day you graph could be a different color. Ex: day 1-red day 2-green day 3-blue day 4-orange 3.RID Represent and interpret data Procedure 3 - As a class, using the graph of collected data from the four Biomes, make a class claim on what plants need. (Ex claim: In order to survive plants needs air, water, and food (sunlight). Some may say soil. This concept of not needing soil is further addressed in the 5th grades EFSIS). Lesson 4: What Patterns Exist as Plants Grow and Develop? Investigation Routine Notes: As the class waits for radish, snap pea plants to grow this lesson focuses on patterns in the parts of plants that we eat. It helps them to understand the various parts of a plant. Materials - chart paper for KWL or GLAD chart - Resource 6: Sentence Starters - Resource 7: Fruit and Vegetable Pictures Preparation - prepare a KWL or GLAD (Guided Language Acquisition Design) Inquiry chart for use in front of students - definition of fruit and definition of vegetable written on board, sentence strips or chart - an “Is it a vegetable?”, “Is it a fruit?” chart that has one column for “Is it a fruit?” and another column for “Is it a vegetable?” to tape fruit or vegetable pictures to - copy and cut pictures of fruits and vegetables from Resource 7 or others you source that are free for reuse. - view this video “Is it a Fruit or a Veggie?” from 2 Minute Classroom (skip the super long advertisement), about 3 minutes before class to clarify your own thinking about fruits and vegetables. (it might be useful to show students but goes more in depth than needed for this lesson). Vocabulary - fruit-the part of a plant that develops from the ovary of a flowering plant and contains the seed(s) This includes such botanical fruits as eggplants, bell peppers and tomatoes, - vegetable-are all other plant parts, such as roots, leaves and stems. Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Provide students with sentence starters from Resource 6 about vegetables and have table groups share their answers verbally to the group.. Give them about 5 minutes to activate their thinking. Procedure 2 - Begin a discussion amongst the class about fruits and vegetables by creating a KWL or Glad Inquiry chart. - Post the definitions of Fruit and Vegetable and read through it with students. Focus their attention on the fact that almost every plant has flowers but for some of them we eat/use the fruit, the part that matures from the flower of the plant, and for others we eat/use the leaves, stems or roots, those are vegetables. We do call many technically “fruits”, such as beans and peas, vegetables which is fine, but these are the scientific differences between the two. - To home in on the pattern in what we eat from plants, pose the question “Is it a vegetable or is it a fruit?”. Put up the “Is it a vegetable? Is it a fruit?” chart, Resource 7, includes pictures of each. Allow students to add to the chart throughout the unit as they think about fruits and vegetables at home. - As well as different sizes of seeds) Misinterpretation that a fruit has to be sweet. Procedure 3 - Read “Tops and Bottoms” by Janet Stevens. Video 2 (Quiz No. #11397 Fiction BL: 3.2 - AR Pts: 0.5) This story is a kid friendly approach to help explain how every plant grows a little differently and that certain parts of the plant are edible. Ask students to answer questions such as What were the parts of plants that were edible? What motivates the rabbit to make his deals with the bear? Which animal was the smartest about plants in the story that we eat? Integration Point Reading Literature 3.1 Ask and answer questions to demonstrate understanding and Reading Literature 3.3 Describe characters in a story and explain their actions. Procedure 4 - Have students monitor growth and sketch detailed diagrams of the radish plants at different stages. This will be a long process of about a month. Provide sketches when new changes are observed or at least once a week. Continue to document growth, at least twice a week. Use the graph Resource 4 to record plant growth of the radish plants under each condition, to fourths of inches, every 2 or three days for up to two weeks. Students should notice that plants start out with a similar height but over time the no water and no light plants will not keep growing or will have a different quality of growth: color, number of leaves, strength of stem, etc. Integration Point: Math Practices.5 Use appropriate tools strategically, and 3.RID Represent and interpret data with a scaled bar graph and multiple categories; Generate measurement data by measuring lengths using rulers marked with halves and fourths of an inch. Lesson 5: Parts of Plants - What is Common and What Can Vary? Note: This may be a two-day lesson Investigation Routine Materials - Two radish plants grown in water and sunlight - Two alternate seeds (cucumber, squash, bean, peas, etc.) - Resource 8: Comparing Plants (two Box T-charts) Preparation - Provide Resource 8: Comparing Plants Box T-charts or have students draw their own on a notebook page. - Assemble the 4 plants that have been growing with water and light Vocabulary - characteristics Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Compare the two radish plants by observing height, number and shape of leaves, any flowers or seed pods, etc. - On the first Resource 8 Box T chart, record what is similar between the two radish plants and what is different (students will see some differences in plant growth but should see more similarities. Procedure 2 - Now choose one of the radish plants to compare with one a non-radish plant. - On the second Resource 8 Box T Chart, record the similarities and differences between the two different plants. Students should note similarities such as they have leaves, they have stems, they have roots, etc. but should see differences such as leaf size or shape, thickness of stem, length of roots, etc. - When recording differences on the Box T chart students should make comparative statements such as: the radish leaves have jagged edges- the squash leaves have smoother edges, or the radish plant stands up straight-the squash stem …. Procedure 3 - Use the information from the Box T charts to write an informative text explaining the findings. Explain how the two radish plants were similar and different and explain how the radish plant is similar and different from the alternate plant. Students should draw a conclusion about what is common generally about plants and what is different. - Sentence starters might be: - Radish plants are similar but even the same kind of plant can have some differences…. - All plants have many things that are similar... - Sentence starters might be: - Different kinds of plants have different characteristics W3.2 Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and information clearly Lesson 6: How Plants Grow....The Life Cycle Navigation Routine Putting it All Together Routine Materials - all plants that have been growing during the lessons - science notebooks - From Plant to Seed by Gail Gibbons - Chart paper and markers for class consensus model - Video 1: From Seed to Plant Read Aloud Preparation - Label chart paper: Life Cycle of a Plant Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Check on Snap Peas and Radishes you planted in Lesson 2. - Measure and graph any change. 3.RID Represent and interpret data Procedure 2 - Ask students to think back to the first lessons about plants. Ask them to draw a model of each step of the plants growth using the evidence of the plants the class. Tell them they should have 4 or 5 stages or steps in their life cycle model. To get them started remind them about how we started our plants. Prompt them with “then what did they look like?” questions to get them rolling with the life cycle model. - Students should recall that they started with seeds. Students are likely to draw a linear model initially which is fine. The cyclical nature of the life cycle will be highlighted in the class model. Procedure 3 - Have students share their models with a partner and discuss the similarities and differences in the models. They should also look for details that they may have forgotten or that they disagree with. Procedure 4 - Bring the class together in a “Scientist Circle” and have them bring their notebooks with the model. Ask students to share out what they started their models with. The answer should be seed. Ask them if that would be a good place to start the class consensus model. - Ask, “what happened next?” many students should volunteer something about a seedling or sprout as it just emerged from soil. Label and describe each stage synthesizing class descriptions. - Continue to probe for next stages. These should include a growing plant, a plant with flowers, a plant with seeds and seeds leaving the plant to start new plants. This last stage may require probing questions to elicit the idea. These questions could be “what happens to the seeds in those seed pods?” or, “If we don’t eat the seeds what will happen to them?” Procedure 5 - Remind students of the pages that were read in From Seed to Plant by Gail Gibbons. Remember the book was read to the page where the inside of the bean seed is shown. - Start at that page and read the rest of the book to students or have them read it themselves if a class set is available. Another option is to play the video from that point. Video 1: From Seed to Plant Read Aloud - Ask students to compare the life cycle shown in the book with their class consensus model. It is likely that the class consensus model will have more detail. Lesson 7: Pollinators and Pollination (Day 1) Navigation Routine Investigation Routine Putting Pieces Together Routine Problematizing Routine Materials - Video 3: Bees (Silence of the Bees and/or World’s Weirdest Honeybee Dance Moves) - Resource 9: Bee Jobs - Video 4: More Bees (Amazing Time Lapse: Bees Hatch Before Your Eyes - optional but interesting) Preparation - Upload and review each video resource to determine which choice you prefer for the Bee communication video and to be sure videos will play or whether you need to sign up. - Copy or display Resource 9: Bee Jobs Vocabulary - colony, worker, queen, drone, egg, larva, pupa, adult Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students retrieve their water/no light and light no water plants. let them compare the plants. They should observe the color of plants, comparative heights with the radish plant that has had both water and light. Students should record their observations in their science notebooks. Procedure 2 - Have students discuss what they have learned so far about plant needs regarding water and light. Ask them to look at their models from lesson one and cite evidence about light and water then add to their models about what the squash plant might need to grow and bear squash. - Have students discuss with their table group what they learned about how plants have many similarities but that they also have differences. Procedure 3 - Reread the phenomena scenario and elicit the points that the squash plant had light and water and that the plant grew well but did not produce fruit. - Ask students what else the plants might need to produce the squash to eat. Is there something else such as an animal that plants might need to produce squash? Allow them to discuss in table groups for a few minutes. - Let students know that we are going to do a bit of research that may give us some answers. Procedure 4 - Have them create a Noticings and Wonderings T chart in their science notebook. - Show one or both of the Video 3: Bees options. Students will see information about the jobs in the hive and also get to hear a bit about pollination. - Have students record their noticings and wonderings after watching the video. Engage students in a discussion, with either a partner or teacher regarding what they noticed and what they wonder about in the video. They may add to their T chart if the hear new ideas that they haven’t recorded yet but agree with. Procedure 5 - Have students place a horizontal Line of Learning below their last entries on the Noticing and Wondering T chart. Pass out or project Resource 9: Bee Jobs. Ask students to think about the different bee jobs they may have seen in the video as they read about the various Bee Jobs. Procedure 6 - OPTIONAL - Show Video 4: More Bees (Amazing Time Lapse: Bees Hatch Before Your Eyes - optional but interesting) This video is optional but is very interesting and speaks to the life cycle of the bee. It is not a comprehensive study of this life cycle but gives students information about that. Discuss the stages of the life cycle that students observe. You may have to watch it more than once. Students should be able to see egg, larvae, pupae and adult stages. The narration is helpful. Lesson 7: Pollinators and Pollination (Day 2) Navigation Routine Investigation Routine Putting Pieces Together Routine Problematizing Routine Materials - Video 5: Even More Bees (Honeybees in Trouble or Growing Melons) Preparation - Upload and review the video resource to be sure videos will play or whether you need to sign up. - Copy or display the reading that is most useful given your students’ reading needs. Teachers could use both readings with students of different reading abilities and then synthesize the common points about what pollination is. You will need to sign up for free at Readworks to access copies. Vocabulary - Pollination, pollinate, pollinator Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Ask students to discuss what would happen if any of the bee colony members were not there to do their job. - Answers might include, the bees wouldn’t survive, honey wouldn’t get made and perhaps that flowers wouldn’t be pollinated. Procedure 2 - Give copies of or display a reading from Readworks. While either of the two readings will give students information about pollination, they are two different Lexile scores and it could be useful to use both with different students depending on their reading level. Employ teacher oral reading or guided reading as needed so that all students have the information from the articles. Reading Informational text 3.2 Determine the main idea of a text. Procedure 3 - Have students read through the article once for coherence and then reread paragraph by paragraph and highlight or underline any evidence in text about the importance of bees for pollinating plants. Reading Informational Text 3.2 Determine the main idea of a text. Procedure 4 - Ask students to revisit their model from lesson 1. They should modify and add to the model using a third color. They should add to any explanations on the model. Present students with this text dependent question, “What does the squash plant need to produce squash?” Discuss the findings from the articles as a class and then ask students to write their answer with evidence to the text dependent question., W3.1 Writing opinion pieces on topics and text. Attribution and License Attribution NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press \| Public License Common Core State Standards © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved \| Public License Cover image by congerdesign from Pixabay License Except where otherwise noted, this work developed for ClimeTime is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring. If this work is adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any ClimeTime logos. Provide the following attribution: This resource was adapted from How do Plants Grow and Survive? by ClimeTime and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Access the original work for free in the ClimeTime group on the OER Commons Washington Hub. This resource was made possible by funding from the ClimeTime initiative, a state-led network for climate science learning that helps teachers and their students understand climate science issues affecting Washington communities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:00.518789	Life Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68304/overview", "title": "Grade 3 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: How Do Plants Grow and Survive", "author": "English Language Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71494/overview	Education Standards 1 Seed to Tree Full Unit Lessons 1-10 1 Unit Purpose and Planning Ahead for Success 2 Unit Overview, Integration Map, and Anchoring Phenomenon 3 Unit Standards for All Content Areas 4- Methods to Provide for Synchronous and Asynchronous Class Response and Discourse 5A Lesson 1- Synchronous LESSON PLAN 5B Lesson 1- Synchronous GOOGLE SLIDE DECK 5 Fillable pdf Avocado See-Think-Wonder Seed to Tree Lesson 1 5 Lesson 1- Face to Face See-Think-Wonder to print 5 Lesson 1- Synchronous "Maybe It's" Initial Model to Explain 5 Lesson 1- Synchronous NEARPOD SLIDE DECK 5 Lesson 1- Synchronous Rubric for "Maybe It’s" Model 5 Lesson 1- Synchronous See-Think-Wonder for Zoom 5 Maybe Its- Initial Explanatory Model- fillable pdf 5 Synchronous Lesson 1- Learning Catcher Digital Interactive Notebook Lesson 1- Asynchronous LESSON PLAN for Print Only Access Lesson 1- Asynchronous Nearpod SLIDE DECK Lesson 1- Asynchronous Print Only Student Workbook Lesson 2- Data Noticings and Thoughts Form Lesson 2- Family Discussion Response Form Lesson 2- Family Field Science Directions Sheet Lesson 2- Family Walk #2 Data Collection as a fillable pdf Lesson 2- Family Walk #2 Data Collection Sheet Lesson 2- Learning Catcher Student Interactive Notebook for All Lessons Lesson 2- Lesson Plan Lesson 2- SLIDE DECK Lesson 2- Supplemental Slide Deck of Tree/Seed Specimens Lesson 3- Choice Board Lesson 3- Learning Catcher Student Interactive Notebook for All Lessons Lesson 3- Lesson Plan Lesson 3- SLIDE DECK Lesson 3-Supplemental SLIDE DECK -seed/tree specimen images and sizes Lesson 4- Choice Board Lesson 4- Learning Catcher Student Interactive Notebook for All Lessons Lesson 4- LESSON PLAN Lesson 4-Part 1 SLIDE DECK Lesson 4-Part 2 SLIDE DECK Lesson 5- Choice Board Lesson 5- Learning Catcher Student Interactive Notebook for All Lessons Lesson 5-LESSON PLAN Lesson 5- SLIDE DECK Lesson 6-Learning Catcher Student Interactive Notebook for All Lessons Lesson 6- LESSON PLAN Lesson 6- SLIDE DECK Part 1 Lesson 6- SLIDE DECK Part 2 Lesson 7- Informational Choice Board Lesson 7- LESSON PLAN Lesson 7- "Now We Think It's" Model- fillable pd format Lesson 7- "Now We Think It's" Model (Google) Lesson 7- "Now We Think It's" Model- pdf form Lesson 7- Rubric for "Now We Think It's " Model Lesson 7- SLIDE DECK Lesson 8- Informational Choice Board Lesson 8- Interactive Slide Deck- Data from Gretchen Brinza's Investigation Lesson 8- LESSON PLAN Lesson 8- SLIDE DECK Lesson 8- Teacher Example- Interactive Slide Deck- Gretchen Brinza Data Tables Lesson 9- Final Project Scoring Rubric Lesson 9- Final Project Student Checklist Lesson 9- LESSON PLAN Lesson Ten- Final Project Scoring Sheet with Rubric Lesson Ten- LESSON PLAN Seed to Tree Unit: Grade 5 Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects Overview This 5th grade unit iterates an earlier version and is designed to maximize the integration of science with the other content areas, especially English Language Arts and Math. It is designed so it can be used with in-person or remotely and includes learning activities that can be delivered via Zoom or another similar platform, as well as activities students can complete in-class, independently, or with their families. You are free to adapt this OER unit as needed. Please note that this unit is a first draft beta version, so please communicate any questions, errors or omissions, feedback and suggestions for improvement to kimberley.astle@k12.wa.us. Seed to Tree- 2020 Integrated Learning from Home Unit Planning Ahead for Success: It will be important to plan ahead to ensure students have needed materials and learning in time to apply/practice them in their targeted unit lessons. - Lima Bean Seeds/Paper Ruler: Students will need at least 15 lima beans before Lesson 4. If students are not able to obtain these at home (readily available at the grocery store in the bulk section or bagged dry beans section), mail some to each student in an envelope so they will arrive in time. If they do not have access to a mm/cm ruler at home you can include a paper ruler in the seed envelope as they will want one for multiple lessons. If you are able to laminate, they will hold up if they become wet during use. - Plan ahead for Math Integration: Students will apply multiple math skills in this unit. Preview the lessons and plan accordingly for mini-lessons so that students can apply them to authentic tasks in the lessons, or just embed them within the science lessons - Plan ahead for ELA Integration: Schedule mini lessons and practice to occur coherently before or during unit application. - Reading: Students will engage in informational reading. Preview materials and plan ahead if you want to introduce specific skills beyond summarizing so students can practice application during the daily reading at home task. - Writing: Students will engage in informational writing. While they are not writing a full informational essay, they will practice and apply many informational writing skills. Plan for mini-lessons to introduce needed skills before Lesson 9 - Speaking and Listening: Prepare to facilitate class discussions by reading the Talk Moves Checklist. Elementary Framework for Science and Integrated Subjects Learning From Home: Fifth Grade Integrated Unit Life Science, Physical Science, and Earth Science Seed to Tree How can a tiny seed become a giant tree? Development Team: Kimberley Astle, Learning and Teaching Science -OSPI Unit Overview, Integration Map, and Anchoring Phenomenon Unit Overview 5-10 weeks Lesson Time Lesson 1: Zoom 60 min Introduce the phenomenon with See-Think-Wonder, KLEWS Chart, initial explanatory modeling. Lesson 2: Home varies Family nature walks to discover, observe, and map local plants and trees and to collect and/or document plant/tree seed specimens. Lesson 3: Zoom 60 min Debrief Family Discovery walk. Share specimen discoveries and maps and use class data to think about scale and proportion in growth. At home reading of informational text with summarizing. Lesson 4: Zoom 45, 60 min Part 1: Introduce matter and inputs, measure dimensions of lima beans, soak beans in water overnight. Part 2: Record and compare seed dimensions pre and post and make sense of data. At home reading of informational text with summarizing or other focused reading skill practice. Lesson 5: Zoom 75 min Plan and set up an investigation to see if plants need soil to grow (in soil and in moist paper towels. Math application of measurement. At home reading of informational text-summarize or other skill. Lesson 6: Zoom 60, 60 min Part 1: Collect investigation data over time and analyze looking for patterns in speed of plant growth. Use data to predict future growth. Part 2: Analyze data. Math application of volume. Lesson 7: Zoom 30, 40 min Part 1: Collect final data for Lesson 5 investigation. Part 2: Analyze data to determine what matter inputs plants need to grow larger. Make a claim. At home reading of informational text, summarize. Lesson 8: Zoom 45-60 min Parts 1 and 2: Analyze data to decide if plants also need light(energy) along with matter input to grow. At home reading of informational text, summarize or other targeted skill. Lesson 9: Home varies Research plant or tree of choice and create a presentation showing student learning and modeling of phenomenon explanation. Confer with family/peers and revise to improve. Lesson 10: Zoom varies Share presentations with family and peers. Peer, family, and self-evaluate using rubrics. Description of Content Area Integration by Lesson Lesson Content Areas Lesson 1: Science, ELA, Art Students use academic language to write and draw explanatory ideas about a science phenomenon. Lesson 2: Science, SS, Art Students draw realistic labeled drawings of plants/seeds showing scale and create a map showing locations of the neighborhood specimens they observed. Lesson 3: Science, ELA, SS Students discuss connections between people and the environment. They read informational texts about the biosphere, write to explain new thinking, and break the word biosphere into affix and root to understand its meaning. They independently summarize informational text and videos. Lesson 4: Science, ELA, Math Students learn about the 3 dimensions of measurement and apply this to a seed while measuring in mm and cm. They use equations to express and find differences of seeds before and after soaking and compare using inequalities. Students read about the hydrosphere and break the word hydrosphere into affix and root to understand its meaning. They independently summarize informational text and videos. Lesson 5: Science, ELA, Math Students measure and record seedlings over time in 3 dimensions. They read about the geosphere and break the word geosphere into affix and root to understand its meaning. They independently summarize informational text and videos. Lesson 6: Science, ELA, Math Students measure, record, and graph plant growth (using ordered pairs) over time and analyze the data from their tables/graphs for patterns. They use patterns to predict future growth. They develop and solve word problems to find the volume of seedling boxes as they grow and write to explain their learning. Lesson 7: Sci, ELA, Math, SS Students use equations to express differences in growth, then solve using the standard algorithm. They write to construct a claim using data evidence. They read to learn about the atmosphere and write to show new learning. Students break the word atmosphere into affix and root to understand its meaning. They independently summarize informational text and videos. Lesson 8: Science, ELA, SS Students write to make a claim and support it using qualitative and quantitative data evidence. They write to show new learning. They read about energy and plants and independently summarize informational text and videos. Students break the word photosynthesis into affix and root to understand its meaning. Lesson 9: Sci, ELA, SS, Art Students conduct research and create a mixed media presentation to explain the phenomenon and more using writing, drawing, and recording. They confer with family members and peer to improve and revise. Lesson 10: Science, ELA, SS Students present their mixed media explanation to family and peers and answer questions. Phenomena An avocado seed is observed to grow larger over time as it develops additional structures and greatly increases in mass. What is an actual, observable local event, set of events or puzzling question that students can come to a deep understanding of over a period of days? Explain why students will find this puzzling and not just an exercise found in a textbook. The performance expectations should guide the formulation of phenomena and beg questions. Examples of regional place-based questions teachers might consider: - Where does the extra “stuff” come from for a tiny seed to turn into a big plant or tree? - What plants and trees grow in our area and how did they come to be where they are? - What plants and trees grown in our area and what are the natural resources that support them in their growth? - Do plants and trees follow a pattern of growth, how fast can they get larger? Phenomena Resources: Avocado tree from see 43 days- time lapse\| YouTube Communicating in Scientific Ways \| OpenSciEd Unit Standards for All Content Areas Fifth Grade Seed to Tree: How Can a Tiny Seed Grow to Become a Huge Tree? Frameworks for Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects are designed to be an example of how to develop a coherent lesson or suite of lessons that integrate other content areas such as English Language Arts, Mathematics and other subjects into science learning for students. The examples provide teachers with ways to think about all standards, identify anchoring phenomena, and plan for coherence in science and integrated subjects learning Fifth Grade Disciplinary Core Ideas include LS1-1, PS3-1, ESS2-1 For LS1-1, PS3-1, ESS2-1, students are expected to develop an understanding of: - the concept that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. - the concept that energy in food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that form plant matter (from are and water). - the concept that the Earth consists of four major systems and that they interact with each other in multiple ways. The Crosscutting Concepts are called out as organizing concepts for these disciplinary core ideas. Crosscutting Concepts: - energy and matter - systems and system models - patterns - cause and effect - scale, proportion, and quantity - stability and change Students are expected to use the practices to demonstrate understanding of the core ideas. Science and Engineering Practices: - engaging in argument from evidence - developing and using models - obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information - constructing explanations and designing solutions - analyzing and interpreting data - planning and carrying out investigations - using mathematics and computational thinking Performance Expectation(s) Identify Performance Expectation(s) from Next Generation Science Standards that will be your focus (Climate Science related PEs preferred but not mandatory). Copy and paste below all the possible disciplinary core ideas and performance expectations that relate to your topic. 5-LS1-1. Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. [Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil.] 5-PS3-1. Use models to describe that that energy in animals’ food (used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth) was once energy from the sun. (partially addressed) [Clarification Statement: Examples of models could include diagrams, and flow charts]. 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. [Clarification Statement: Examples could include the influence of the ocean on ecosystems, landform shape, and climate; the influence of the atmosphere on landforms and ecosystems through weather and climate; and the influence of mountain ranges on winds and clouds in the atmosphere. The geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are each a system. Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to the interactions of two systems at a time.] (partial: addressed at a smaller scale level to build on later through an Earth Science lens) Science and Engineering Practices Which SEPs will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? Developing and Using Models (spans all three PEs) - Develop a model to describe phenomena. (5-LS2-1) - Use models to describe phenomena. (5-PS3-1) - Develop a model using an example to describe a scientific principle. (5-ESS2-1) Engaging in Argument from Evidence - Construct and/or support an argument with evidence, data, and/or a model. Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information - Read and comprehend grade-appropriate complex texts and/or other reliable media to summarize and obtain scientific and technical ideas and describe how they are supported by evidence. - Obtain and combine information from books and/or other reliable media to explain phenomena or solutions to a design problem. - Communicate scientific and/or technical information orally and/or in written formats, including various forms of media and may include tables, diagrams, and charts. Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions - Use evidence (e.g., measurements, observations, patterns) to construct or support an explanation or design a solution to a problem. Analyzing and Interpreting Data - Represent data in tables and/or graphical displays (bar graphs, pictographs, pie charts) to reveal patterns that indicate relationships. - Analyze and interpret data to make sense of phenomena, using logical reasoning, mathematics, and/or computation. Planning and Carrying Out Investigations - Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon or test a design solution. Using Mathematics and Computational - Describe, measure, estimate, and/or graph quantities such as area, volume, weight, and time to address scientific and engineering questions and problems. Crosscutting Concepts Which Crosscutting Concepts will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? Systems and System Models: - A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (5-LS2-1) Energy and Matter: - Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. (5-PS3-1) - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) - Matter is made of particles. EM-E1 - Matter flows and cycles can be tracked in terms of the weight of the substances before and after a process occurs. The total weight of the substances does not change. This is what is meant by conservation of matter. Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. EM-E2 Systems and System Models: - A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (5-LS2-1) Patterns: - Similarities and differences in patterns can be used to sort, classify, communicate, and analyze simple rates of change for natural phenomena and designed products. PAT-E1 Cause and Effect: - Patterns of change can be used to make predictions. CE-E1 Scale, Proportion, and Quantity: - Natural objects and/or observable phenomena exist from the very small to the immensely large or from very short to very long time periods. SPQ-E1 - Standard units are used to measure and describe physical quantities such as weight, time, temperature, and volume. SPQ-E2 Stability and Change: - Change is measured in terms of differences over time and may occur at different rates. SC-E2 Disciplinary Core Ideas Which Disciplinary Core Ideas will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? PS3.D: Energy in Chemical Processes and Everyday Life The energy released [from] food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). (5-PS3-1) LS1.C: Organization for Matter and Energy Flow in Organisms Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) ESS2.A: Earth Materials and Systems Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans)...(5-ESS2-1) (partial) Environment and Sustainability Standards ESE Standard 2: The Natural and Built Environment Students engage in inquiry and systems thinking and use information gained through learning experiences in, about, and for the environment to understand the structure, components, and processes of natural and human-built environments. English Language Arts (ELA) Standards How will I Integrate ELA Standards (which standard, what strategy…?) Informational Reading (RI.5.2) Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. (RI.5.4) Determine the meaning of general academic/domain-specific words and phrases in text relevant to a grade 5 topic or subject area. (RI.5.7) Draw on information from multiple print or digital sources, demonstrating the ability to locate an answer to a question quickly or to solve a problem efficiently (RI.5.9) Integrate information from several texts on the same topic in order to write or speak about the subject knowledgeably. (RI.5.10) By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Teachers may extend to other reading standards by assigning a practice element other than summarizing for the Choice Board readings. For example: RI.5.5 Compare and contrast the overall structure (e.g., chronology, comparison, cause/effect, problem/solution) of events, ideas, concepts, or information in two or more texts. Informational Writing (W.5.2) Write informative/explanatory texts to examine a topic and convey ideas and information clearly. (W.5.4) Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. (W.5.5) With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. (W.5.7) Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic. (W.5.8) Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information from print and digital sources; summarize or paraphrase information in notes and finished work and provide a list of sources. (W.5.9) Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. (W.5.10) Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences. Speaking and Listening (SL.5.1. A) Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. (SL.5.1. B) Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles (SL.5.1.B) Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others (SL.5.1. D) Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. (SL.5.2) Summarize a written text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats (visually, quantitatively, and orally.) (SL.5.4) Report on a topic or text or present an opinion, sequencing ideas logically and using appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details to support main ideas or themes; speak clearly at an understandable pace. (SL.5.5) Include multimedia components (e.g., graphics, sound) and visual displays in presentations when appropriate to enhance the development of main ideas or themes. (SL.5.6) Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, using formal English when appropriate to task and situation. How will I Integrate Mathematics Standards? Fourth Grade Math Standards (reteach or review) (4.NBT.A.2) Read and write multi-digit whole numbers using base-ten numerals, number names, and expanded form. Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. (4.NBT.A.3) Use place value understanding to round multi-digit whole numbers to any place. (4.NBT.B.4) Fluently add and subtract multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. (4.OA.A.3) Solve multistep word problems posed with whole numbers and having whole-number answers using the four operations, including problems in which remainders must be interpreted. Represent these problems using equations with a letter standing for the unknown quantity. Assess the reasonableness of answers using mental computation and estimation strategies including rounding. (4.MD.A.1) Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m, cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec... Fifth Grade Math Standards (5.OA.A.1) Use parentheses, brackets, or braces in numerical expressions, and evaluate expressions with these symbols. (5.OA.B.3) ...Identify apparent relationships between corresponding terms. Form ordered pairs consisting of corresponding terms from the two patterns and graph the ordered pairs on a coordinate plane. (5.NBT.B.5) Fluently multiply multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. (5.MD.A.1) Convert among different-sized standard measurement units within a given measurement system and use these conversions in solving multi-step, real world problems. (5.MD.C.5.B) Apply the formulas V = l × w × h and V = b × h for rectangular prisms to find volumes of right rectangular prisms with whole-number edge lengths in the context of solving real world and mathematical problems. Art Standards How will I Integrate Visual and Media Arts? Visual Arts (VA:Cr2.1.5) Experiment and develop skills in multiple art-making techniques and approaches through practice. (VA:Cr2.3.5) Identify, describe, and visually document places and/or objects of personal significance. (VA:Cr2.3.4) Document, describe, and represent regional constructed environments. (VA:Cn10.1.5) Apply formal and conceptual vocabularies of art and design to view surroundings in new ways through art-making. Media Arts (MA:Pr5.1.5) Enact various roles to practice fundamental ability in artistic, design, technical, and soft skills, such as formal technique, production, and collaboration in media arts productions. (MA:Pr5.1.5) Examine how tools and techniques could be used in standard and experimental ways in constructing media artworks. (MA:Pr6.1.5) Compare qualities and purposes of presentation formats, and fulfill a role and associated processes in presentation and/or distribution of media artworks. Social Studies Standards How will I Integrate Social Studies Standards? (SSS1.5.2) Construct arguments using claims and evidence from multiple sources. (SSS1.5.3) Construct explanations using reasoning, correct sequence, examples, and details with relevant information and data. (SSS2.5.3) Critique arguments. (SSS2.5.4) Critique explanations. (SSS4.5.3) Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. (SSS4.5.4) Present a summary of arguments and explanations to others outside the classroom using print and oral technologies (e.g., posters, essays, letters, debates, speeches, and reports) and digital technologies (e.g., Internet, social media, and digital documentary). (SSS4.5.2) Prepare a works cited page that connects with in-text attributions that are aligned to a style of citation (i.e. MLA, APA, etc.) with more publication detail. (SSS4.5.3) Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. (G1.5.3) Construct maps and other graphic representations of both familiar and unfamiliar places (G2) Understands human interaction with the environment. Knows that the human-environment interactions are essential aspects of human life in all societies and they occur at local-to-regional scale. Human actions modify the physical environment and, in turn, the physical environment limits or promotes human activities. (G2.5.2) Explain how culture influences the way people modify and adapt to their environments. Learning from Home: Methods to Provide for Synchronous and Asynchronous Class Response and Discourse Synchronous Discourse Facilitation Strategies Using Zoom and Devices Partners or Trios: - Fishbowl- call on 2-3 students to engage in a conversation on a given question, point, topic etc... while the class listens in. Students can model to support discourse using the white board in Zoom. The class might then layer on, question, or respond to the partner talk. - Google Doc Visual Chat- provide a google doc with 2-3 colored columns. Each student types in their own column to hold a visual chat with 2-3 students. - Google Slides Visual Chat- Create a Google Slide deck with a slide for each partner or trio. Students have a “Visual Chat” with each other by typing on the slide. Students can also draw using the “line” the “scribble” option. View the slideshow using the “View” then “Grid View” option and you can monitor all “chat rooms” at the same time as well as interacting with each group. Small Groups: - Breakout Rooms- Assign students to breakout rooms monitored by aides, other teachers. Provide a specific discourse task, roles, and a time limit. Rotate among the breakout rooms frequently to monitor, probe, and scaffold as needed. - Provide a Google slide deck, Google doc, or Jamboard with a slide for each group to work from/on and record ideas. Each group’s slide should include an image of the phenomenon (if applicable) or challenge, the task broken down into a checklist, a description of the roles and a place to record names of those filling each role. - If breakout rooms are not possible, students can work in a group on a shared document using the comment feature live which the teacher can easily monitor. - Fishbowl- call on 4-5 students to engage in a conversation on a given question, point, topic etc... while the class listens in. Students can model to support discourse using the white board in Zoom. The class might then layer on, question, or respond to the group talk. - YoTeach- This is a free private backchannel class (set to “avoid search”). Students do not use an account, just a nickname. Both teacher and students can add an image to the page and can annotate on the image. Teachers and students can also draw and post their drawing to the chat (great opportunity to model thinking and share ideas) or collaborate on one whiteboard. Students can post ideas and questions and reply to each other. The teacher can also create a Yo Teach class for each small group to work within. Text to speech is supported. Teacher can mute students and remove messages, students can vote, teacher can download transcript. - Google Doc Visual Chat Version 1- provide a google doc with a colored column for each group. Each student types in their own column to hold a visual chat with 4-5 students. - Google Doc Visual Chat Version 2- provide a google doc with a colored column for each student to text in. - Group Consensus Slides- Each person records thinking on their own slide, the group comes to consensus and creates a group agreement on the last slide. Students can text each other in the slides by using the comments option (click on comment icon at top). - Whiteboard.fi This is a free online whiteboard tool that gives all students their own whiteboard. The teacher can see all student whiteboards at once. There is no log-in or registration needed, just open a session, and give students the link or room code. Students can work from a black whiteboards or you can create a template or insert an image on your teacher whiteboard and push it to all students to work on. Students can’t see each other’s whiteboards, but you can share your screen so students can see each other’s. You can launch student talk around the models and thinking on the whiteboards and can give feedback to students as they are working in real time. Teacher can download each session’s student work as a pdf. Whole Class: - Student Facilitators- Assign students to facilitate or moderate class talk. - Socratic Seminar Model- Use a Socratic Seminar model with an “inner” and “outer” circle. Outer circle students must be muted during the inner circle talking time. You can assign each outer circle student to monitor an inner circle student and track their participation in the circle using a google doc. - Fishbowl- call on 4-5 students to engage in a conversation on a given question, point, topic etc... while the class listens in. Students can model to support discourse using the white board in Zoom. The class then layers on, questions and responds. - 4 Corners- Ask a question and assign an answer choice to each corner of the Zoom participant photo. Students all point to the corner that represents their answer. Facilitate talk among students in each common group and across answer groups. This can also be done by assigning numbers or letters to an answer, having students make a paper with the same numbers or letters, students can hold up their paper and point to their answer. - Whiteboard.fi This is a free online whiteboard tool that gives all students their own whiteboard. The teacher can see all student whiteboards at once. There is no log-in or registration needed, just open a session and give students the link or room code. Students can work from a black whiteboards or you can create a template or insert an image on your teacher whiteboard and push it to all students to work on. Students can’t see each other’s whiteboards, but you can share your screen so students can see each other’s. You can launch student talk around the models and thinking on the whiteboards and can give feedback to students as they are working in real time. - YoTeach- This is a free private backchannel class (set to “avoid search”). Students do not use an account, just a nickname. Both teacher and students can add an image to the page and can annotate on the image. Teachers and students can also draw and post their drawing to the chat (great opportunity to model thinking and share ideas) or collaborate on one whiteboard. Students can post ideas and questions and reply to each other. The teacher can also create a Yo Teach class for each small group to work within. Text to speech is supported. Teacher can mute students and remove messages, students can vote, teacher can download transcript. - Whole Class Response Sheet- students can all respond with their ideas at once in their own row (you can change the headers on the columns). The teacher can monitor all students at once and students can access everyone’s ideas easily which can then prompt class talk. Asynchronous Discourse Facilitation Strategies Using Devices Partners or Trios: - Google Doc or Google slide deck- students use the comments feature to converse. - Flipgrid- students record their question, comment, thinking, or response as a video which is posted to an accessible place. Peers listen and create videos responding to the video and so on.... - Padlet- students can have sticky note conversations Small Groups: - Provide a Google slide deck, Google doc, or Jamboard with a slide for each group to work from/on and record ideas. Each group’s slide should include an image of the phenomenon (if applicable), the task broken down into a checklist, a description of the roles and a place to record names of those filling each role. Students can talk to each other using the comment feature asynchronously which the teacher can easily monitor. - Padlet- students can have sticky note conversations without deleting each other’s posts which can happen in Jamboard. - YoTeach- This is a private backchannel class (set to “avoid search”). Students do not use an account, just a nickname. Both teacher and students can add an image to the page and can annotate on the image. Teachers and students can also draw and post their drawing to the chat (great opportunity to model thinking and share ideas). The teacher can create a YoTeach class for each small group to work within. Not sure how long a session will stay open, so may need testing. - Flipgrid- students record their question, comment, thinking, or response as a video which is posted to an accessible place. Peers listen and create videos responding to the video and so on.... Whole Class: - Padlet- students can have sticky note conversations without deleting each other’s posts which can happen in Jamboard. - YoTeach- This is a private backchannel class (set to “avoid search”). Students do not use an account, just a nickname. Both teacher and students can add an image to the page and can annotate on the image. Teachers and students can also draw and post their drawing to the chat (great opportunity to model thinking and share ideas). The teacher can create a YoTeach class for each small group to work within. Not sure how long a session will stay open, so may need testing. - Flipgrid- students record their question, comment, thinking, or response as a video which is posted to an accessible place. Peers listen and create videos responding to the video and so on.... Asynchronous Discourse Facilitation Strategies Print Only Partners or Trios: - Pen Pals-shared sense-making booklet. Create a booklet with a phenomenon image(s) a question(s), and response pages behind (or engineering task). The shared booklet goes back and forth between students as they layer shared thinking, figuring out and questions into the booklet over time, with the teacher adding comments and questions in between. Small Groups: - Assign response sheets to students and compile into one document. Print the combined document and send back to group members with a new response document. - Create a group interactive notebook with a phenomenon image(s) a question(s), and response pages behind (or engineering task or other tasks). The shared booklet goes around to all students as they layer shared thinking, figuring out and questions into the booklet over time, with the teacher adding comments and questions in between. Whole Class: - Assign response sheets to students and compile into one document. Print the combined document and send back to class with a new response document. Lesson 1- SYNCHRONOUS This section holds Lesson 1 resources developed for Synchronous delivery of learning using a face-to-face digital classroom (Zoom, Google Meet etc...) and devices. Lesson 1 provides the learning resources in a variety of formats as an example for how one might adapt for use with different devices and situations. In Lesson 1, through time-lapse video, students are introduced to the Anchoring Phenomenon of an Avocado seed growing to a tree. They engage with the phenomenon through a See-Think-Wonder activity and class discourse and develop an initial explanatory model for where the extra material comes from as a small seed grows into a larger tree. Synchronous Lesson 1: How do small seeds grow into larger plants and trees? Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: 60 minutes Anchoring Phenomenon: An avocado seed in water sprouts, develops new structures, and grows to become a plant much larger than the original seed. Driving Question: How can small seeds grow into larger plants and trees? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. Lesson Focus SEP: Use models to describe phenomena. (5-PS3-1) Lesson Focus CCC: Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) Lesson Focus DCI: PS3.D Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will develop an initial model to show and explain where the extra “stuff” (matter) comes from that allows a plant or tree to grow larger. Art Standards Integration: - VA:Cr2.1.5 a. Experiment and develop skills in multiple art-making techniques and approaches through practice. Writing Standards Integration: - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. Speaking and Listening Standards Integration: - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Social Studies Standards Integration: - SSS1.5.3 Construct explanations using reasoning, correct sequence, examples, and details with relevant information and data. Prepare to Teach: Teacher Support: Background Science Content and NGSS Pedagogy Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - A New Vision for Science Education- Read this quick NSTA one-pager to center yourself on the essential key shifts in instruction for NGSS. - Checklist: Goals for Productive Discussions and Nine Talk Moves - Use this one page checklist to support you in facilitating productive and respectful classroom talk. - Using Phenomena in NGSS -Designed Lessons and Units STEM Teaching Tool #42 - This resource explains phenomena and how/why we use them to drive instruction in the NGSS classroom. Science Content Background for Teacher: - Where do trees get their mass from? Michigan State University - Ask a Biologist- Are Plants Made From Thin Air? - Video: Are Plants Made From Thin Air? - Example investigation with data CA State Univ Materials and Preparation: - If doing lesson Synchronously- Instructional Google slide deck or Nearpod slide deck - If doing lesson part or all Asynchronously- Nearpod slide deck (Before use, read the first slide for directions on how to copy and make your own Nearpod account. Open the lesson before use with the class- stays live for 30 days) - Add student names to the class See-Think-Wonder sheet (if using the Google slide deck). - Provide access to the “Maybe It’s” initial explanatory model page - 3D scoring rubric for “Maybe It’s” initial explanatory model Lesson 1- ASYNCHRONOUS Materials This section holds additional Lesson 1 resources adapted for Asynchronous delivery of learning. An Asynchronous Nearpod slide deck is included so that students can engage with Lesson 1 activities on their own if needed. In addition, the lesson plan adapted for situations where students have no access to devices is included along with the materials built into an asynchronous printable student workbook. Asynchronous resources are provided for Lesson 1 only as an example of how one might adapt the remaining unit lessons. Lesson 2 Resources In Lesson 2, students engage in environmental Family Field Science as they take two family walks to discover the plants and trees growing in their neighborhoods. Students map the man-made and natural elements in their neighborhood and label the places where they find plants and trees with seeds. They document their findings with sketches, photos, and video and measure or estimate to collect size data of plants and their seeds. Students collect seed speciments if possible for later investigation. Lesson 2: Family Field Science- What plants and trees are growing in my neighborhood and what are their seeds like? Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: at least 2 walks, time will vary Lesson Phenomenon: Plants and trees are always much larger than their seeds. Where does all that extra “stuff” come from? Lesson Driving Question: What plants and trees are growing in my neighborhood and what are their seeds like? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. Lesson Focus SEP: Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon or test a design solution. INV-E3 Lesson Focus CCC: - Similarities and differences in patterns can be used to sort, classify, communicate and analyze simple rates of change for natural phenomena and designed products. PAT E-1 - Natural objects and/or observable phenomena exist from the very small to the immensely large or from very short to very long time periods.SPQ-E1 Lesson Focus DCI: Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students make and record observations on patterns of scale between plants/ trees to their seeds and consider where the extra “stuff” came from. ELA Standards: - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: - 4.MD.A.1 Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units ... Social Studies Standards: - G1.5.3 Construct maps and other graphic representations of both familiar and unfamiliar places (if students choose to map the plants/trees in their neighborhood) Art Standards: - VA: Cr2.3.5 a. Identify, describe, and visually document places and/or objects of personal significance. - VA: Cr2.3.4 a. Document, describe, and represent regional constructed environments. Prepare to Teach Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - ACESSE Resource C: Making Science Instruction Compelling for All Students: Using Cultural Formative Assessment to Build on Learner Interest and Experience - ClimeTime Professional Learning Session: How to Support Home-Based Science Learning During School Closures - How place-based science education strategies can support equity for students, teachers, and communities - Learning in Places: LE 1.A Sharing Places: Neighborhood Walk Materials: - Asynchronous Google Slide Deck with directions and support for students. Student/Family Directions Sheet - Paper and drawing materials to sketch on walk, device to take photographs or recordings on walk - Learning Catcher Interactive notebook OR printed Family Field Science Walk Data observation sheet - Google Forms (be sure to make your own copy of these to share with students): Family Discussion Form, Data Noticings Form - Make a copy of the Learning Catcher digital notebook for each student, and make sure you can access them. Preparation: If desired, provide print Family Field Science Walk #2 data recording sheet to students. Lesson 3 Resources In Lesson 3, students share and analyze the student maps and data collected on the Family Field Science walks. They sense-make around the size of trees compated to theirs seeds and about why the growing things in their neighborhood are where they are. They independently engage with informational sources and summarize what they learn. Lesson 3: Analyzing Family Data on Local Plants and Trees and Their Seeds (biosphere) Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: 60 minutes Lesson Phenomenon: Plants and trees observed on the Family Field Science walk are always much larger than their seeds. Lesson Driving Question(s): - What plants/trees grow in our area and how do they compare to their seeds? - If plants and trees are always larger than their seeds, where does all that extra “stuff” come from? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. Lesson Focus SEP: - Communicate scientific and/or technical information orally and/or in written formats, including various forms of media and may include tables, diagrams, and charts. INFO-E5 - Construct and/or support an argument with evidence, data, and/or a model. ARG-E4 Lesson Focus CCC: - Similarities and differences in patterns can be used to sort, classify, communicate and analyze simple rates of change for natural phenomena and designed products. PAT E-1 Lesson Focus DCI(s): - PS3.D Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) - ESS2.A Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. (5-ESS2-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students share and analyze observations on patterns of scale between trees to their seeds and make supported claims about where the extra “stuff” might have come from. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. Language - L.5.4.B Use common, grade-appropriate Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues to the meaning of a word (e.g., photograph, photosynthesis). Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. Speaking and Listening - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - L.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: N/A Social Studies Standards: G2.5.2 Explain how culture influences the way people modify and adapt to their environments. Art Standards: N/A Materials: - Class KLEWS chart - Choice board of texts/videos for student home reading tasks. Preparation: - Check and personalize the choice board of texts/videos for student home reading tasks if needed. - Make and share digital copies of the Learning Catcher Google Doc Notebook for each student and for yourself. Lesson 4 Resources In Lesson 4, students learn about matter as an input, They measure Lima beans in 3 dimensions before and after planning and conducting an investigation to see which forms of matter are inputs for dry seeds. Students convert between mm and cm, use inequality statements to compare dimensions before and after exposure to matter forms and use the standard algorithm to find differences. They independently engage with informational sources and summarize what they learn. Lesson 4: Water and Lima Bean Seeds Investigation (interaction between the biosphere and hydrosphere) Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: 2 sessions of 30+ minutes each Conduct this lesson when you can have live access to students 2 days in a row for Parts A and B. If needed, Part B could be 2 days later. Lesson Phenomenon: Lima bean seeds become much larger when soaked in water then return to their original size when dry. Lesson Driving Question: Where does the extra matter come from as a seed starts to grow? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: - 5-LS1-1 Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. Lesson Focus SEP(s): - Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon or test a design solution. INV-E3 - Analyze and interpret data to make sense of phenomena, using logical reasoning, mathematics, and/or computation. DATA E2 - Plan and conduct an investigation collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, using fair tests in which variables are controlled and the number of trials considered. Lesson Focus CCC(s): - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) Lesson Focus DCI(s): - PS3.D Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) - ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways… (5-ESS2-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will observe and measure changes in bean seeds as they react to inputs of matter (water) and explain what causes the seeds to increase and decrease in size. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. Language - L.5.4.B Use common, grade-appropriate Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues to the meaning of a word (e.g., photograph, photosynthesis). Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Speaking and Listening - SL.5.1.A Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: 4th Grade Review - 4.NBT.B.4 Fluently add and subtract multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm - 4.MD.A.1 Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m, cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec…. - 4.NBT.A.2 ...Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. 5th Grade - Building towards CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.5.MD.C.5.B Apply the formulas V = l × w × h - CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.5.MD.A.1 Convert among different-sized standard measurement units within a given measurement system (e.g., convert 5 cm to 0.05 m), and use these conversions in solving multi-step, real world problems. Social Studies Standards: - SSS1.5.3 Construct explanations using reasoning, correct sequence, examples, and details with relevant information and data. - SSS4.5.3 Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. Art Standards: N/A Materials: - Instructional Synchronous Google slide deck for Part 1, and Google Slide deck for Part 2, and student Learning Catcher notebook - At least 3 lima bean seeds for each student and for the teacher - 3 cups or containers for seeds to be in overnight - water for the one seed to soak in - dry soil for one seed to sit in (soil must be dry with no water to test if soil alone can cause seeds to start growing) - mm/cm ruler for each student and for the teacher - gram scale for teacher if available - ½ cup measuring cup - Informational Choice Board Preparation: - Gather materials and ensure students have access to their materials. Let students know to have their materials ready. - Prepare the informational reading choice board. - Prepare a location to conduct the investigation so students can observe, consider joining the meeting with a second device to use as a document camera. Lesson 5 Resources In Lesson 5, students think about matter as inputs for growing plants. They plan and conduct a 2 week investigation to find which forms of matter are inputs for plants and might be where the extra material comes from as they grow larger. Students measure their beginning seeds in 3 dimensions and record for comparison. They daily measure and record height changes in mm and record in preparation for Lesson 6. They independently engage with informational sources and summarize what they learn. Lesson 5: Soil/No Soil Seed Investigation (interaction between biosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere) Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: 75 min Lesson Phenomenon: A small seed becomes a larger plant or tree. Lesson Driving Question: Do plants eat soil for their food to grow? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. Lesson Focus SEP(s): - Represent data in tables and/or various graphical displays (bar graphs, pictographs, and/or pie charts) to reveal patterns that indicate relationships. DATA-E1 - Describe, measure, estimate, and/or graph quantities such as area, volume, weight, and time to address scientific and engineering questions and problems. MATH-E3 - Plan and conduct an investigation collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, using fair tests in which variables are controlled and the number of trials considered. Lesson Focus CCC(s): - Matter is made of particles. EM-E1 - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) Lesson Focus DCI(s): - PS3.D: Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) - ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways… (5-ESS2-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will collaboratively plan and conduct an investigation to acquire and analyze data about what matter is an input into plants for growth. Time: 75 minutes ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. Language - L.5.4.B Use common, grade-appropriate Greek and Latin affixes and roots as clues to the meaning of a word (e.g., photograph, photosynthesis). Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Speaking/Listening - SL.5.1.A Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: 4th Grade Review - 4.MD.A.1 Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m, cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec…. Materials: - Instructional Synchronous Google slide deck and student Learning Catcher notebook - Informational Choice Board - At least 9 lima bean seeds for each student and for the teacher - mm/cm ruler for each student and for the teacher - soil - paper towel or napkin - water - plastic Ziploc storage or freezer bag- if students don’t have a heavy Ziploc, they can use 2 thinner sandwich bags or even a plastic grocery bag, anything to help keep the paper towel moist. - ½ cup measuring cup - hard ruler, butter knife, or pencil - gram scale if available - 2 paper, Styrofoam, or plastic cups (for planting seeds in) Preparation: - Gather your materials and prepare to run the investigation yourself as a class model. - Read the teacher background resources listed below to prepare for facilitating an NGSS investigation. Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - Watch Paul Andersen’s 8 minute video-Planning and Conducting Investigations in NGSS. - Read pages 59-61 in the Framework for K-12 Science about planning and conducting investigations. - Read pages 7-8 in Appendix F that explains planning and carrying out investigations Science Background for the Teacher: - Read pages 147-148 in the Framework for K-12 Science LS1.C about matter and energy flow in organisms. Lesson 6 Resources In Lesson 6, students use the height data collected from one of their growing plants to analyze and think about speed of plant growth and how matter is related. They round their data for growing Days 1-6 to the nearest cm and create ordered pairs. They graph days 1-6 looking for any patterns in speed of growth and use their data to predict plant height on Day 10. On Day 10, students round and graph the data for Days 6-10 and compare their prediction to see if any pattern continued. Students consider why humans might care about speed of plant growth and what factors might affect it. They find the volume of 3 dimensional boxes needed to mail their plant at different times in its growth. Students have the option to plan and conduct their own investigation into what affects the speed plants grow or to engineering a box that can meet all of a plant's needs during a one week shipping period. Lesson 6: Growing Speed of Plants (biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, geosphere) Plan on conducting Part 1 of this lesson once 5 days of growth data are gathered in the red table from Lesson 5. Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: Part 1- 60 minutes, Part 2- 60 minutes Lesson Phenomenon: The seeds in both environments (with and without soil) have developed additional structures and have increased in size and weight. Lesson Driving Question(s): Where is the matter coming from for the extra size and weight? How fast can plants gain more matter and grow larger? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. Lesson Focus SEP(s): - Analyze and interpret data to make sense of phenomena, using logical reasoning, mathematics, and/or computation. DATA E2 - Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon or test a design solution. INV-E3 - Plan and conduct an investigation collaboratively to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence, using fair tests in which variables are controlled and the number of trials considered. Lesson Focus CCC(s): - Patterns of change can be used to make predictions. CE-E1 - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) Lesson Focus DCI: - PS3.D: Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will measure, record and analyze data looking for patterns of change in growth of plants and use patterns to predict future growth. ELA Standards: Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Reading - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. Speaking/Listening - SL.5.2 Summarize a written text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally. - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: 4th Grade Review - 4.NBT.B.4 Fluently add and subtract multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm - 4.MD.A.1 Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m, cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec…. - 4.NBT.A.3 Use place value understanding to round multi-digit whole numbers to any place. - 4.NBT.A.2 ... Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. - 4.OA.A.3 Solve multistep word problems posed with whole numbers and having whole number answers using the four operations... Represent these problems using equations with a letter standing for the unknown quantity. Assess the reasonableness of answers using mental computation and estimation strategies including rounding. 5th Grade - 5.MD.C.5.B Apply the formulas V = l × w × h and V = b × h for rectangular prisms to find volumes of right rectangular prisms with whole-number edge lengths in the context of solving real world and mathematical problems. - 5.NBT.B.5 Fluently multiply multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm. - 5.OA.B.3...Identify apparent relationships between corresponding terms. Form ordered pairs consisting of corresponding terms from the two patterns and graph the ordered pairs on a coordinate plane. - CCSS.MATH.CONTENT.5.OA.A.1 Use parentheses, brackets, or braces in numerical expressions, and evaluate expressions with these symbols. Social Studies Standards: - SSS2.5.3 Critique arguments. - SSS2.5.4 Critique explanations. Art Standards: N/A Materials: - Instructional Synchronous Google slide deck Part 1 and Synchronous Google slide deck Part 2 and student Learning Catcher notebook - Student plant growing investigations - mm rulers - gram scale if possible Preparation: - Review the resources below to support you in facilitating student discourse and planning for plant investigations. Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - Review the Science Practices Continuum for a matrix of teacher moves using the practices Science Background for the Teacher: Lesson 7 Resources In Lesson 7, students conclude the investigation they set up in Lesson 5.They collect final data,calculate and analyze results, and write a final claim supported by evidence and reasoning. They revisit their initial explanatory model from Lesson 1 and create a final explanatory model to show their new understanding of where matter comes from as a seed grows into a plant or tree. Students engage with informational reading and videos and summarize their new learning. Conduct this lesson after 2 weeks of (or sufficient) plant growth data is collected to make a final claim. Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: 60 minutes Lesson Phenomenon: The seeds in both environments (with and without soil) are observed to have developed additional structures and increased in size and weight. Lesson Driving Question: Where did the matter come from for the extra size and weight? Does any of the extra matter come from the soil? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. Lesson Focus SEP: - Analyze and interpret data to make sense of phenomena, using logical reasoning, mathematics, and/or computation. DATA E2 Lesson Focus CCC: - Change is measured in terms of differences over time and may occur at different rates. SC-E2 - Matter flows and cycles can be tracked in terms of the weight of the substances before and after a process occurs. The total weight of the substances does not change. This is what is meant by conservation of matter. Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. EM-E2 Lesson Focus DCI: - PS3.D: Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) - ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways… (5-ESS2-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will analyze data looking for patterns of change in growth of plants and draw conclusions about where the additional matter comes from. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. Speaking/Listening - SL.5.1. A Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. - SL.5.2 Summarize a written text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally, - SL.5.1. B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1. D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions. Math Standards: 4th Grade Review - 4.NBT.B.4 Fluently add and subtract multi-digit whole numbers using the standard algorithm - 4.MD.A.1 Know relative sizes of measurement units within one system of units including km, m, cm; kg, g; lb, oz.; l, ml; hr, min, sec…. - 4.NBT.A. 2 ... Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. Social Studies Standards: - SSS1.5.2 Construct arguments using claims and evidence from multiple sources. - SSS4.5.3 Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. - SSS2.5.3 Critique arguments. - SSS2.5.4 Critique explanations Art Standards: - N/A Materials: - Student Learning Catcher Notebook - Lesson 7 Instructional Slide Deck - Lesson 7 Informational Choice Board - “Now We Think It’s” Explanatory Model (Google Doc format) - “Now We Think It’s” Explanatory Model (pdf format) - “Now We Think It’s” Explanatory Model (Fillable pdf format) download to show the fillable forms - “Now We Think It’s” Scoring Rubric Attending to Equitable Access for All Students: - How to avoid possible pitfalls associated with culturally responsive instruction STEM Teaching Tools #53 - Scaffolds for English Language Learners/students reading well below grade level: - Label visuals - Provide a word bank for the lesson with illustrations - Verbally read directions and check for understanding - Scaffolds for vision: - Students dictate their ideas to teacher for input or a family member can input their ideas - Describe the phenomenon for the student - Read the data table information aloud - Scaffolds for hearing: - Turn on closed captioning. Google Meet has a built in live option. In Zoom, someone will need to type it in. - Provide visual directions - Capture student thinking in a Google Doc to make class talk visible - Scaffolds for attention: - Schedule short movement breaks in between See, Think, Wonder tasks - Schedule short breathing breaks in between See, Think, Wonder tasks - Alternate tasks or methods of response: - Students can dictate or record their explanatory ideas if there are barriers. Nearpod provides this feature. - Alternate or additional phenomena for scaffolding or extension: Bean plant time lapse video, Mango time lapse video, Radish time lapse video Preparation: - Read the teacher background resources listed below to prepare for facilitating an NGSS investigation. Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - Read pages 61-63 in the Framework for K-12 Science about analyzing and interpreting data. - Watch Paul Andersen’s 8 minute video that explains Engaging in Argument from Evidence. Science Background for the Teacher: - Read pages 147-148 in the Framework for K-12 Science LS1.C about matter and energy flow in organisms. - Where do trees get their mass from? Michigan State University - Ask a Biologist- Are Plants Made From Thin Air? - Video: Are Plants Made From Thin Air? - Example investigation with data CA State Univ Content Integration Points: - Look for content integration points for English Language Arts, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Art within the procedures below. They will be marked by an asterisk() and labeled. (SS= Social Studies, M = Math, A= Art, ELA = ELA) Procedures Conduct this lesson after 2 weeks of plant growth data (or sufficient to answer the question) is collected to analyze data and make a final claim. Part 1- Model How to Collect and Record Final Data from Lesson 5 time 30+minutes - (ELA) Share learning since last class meeting: time 10 min - Share and discuss any student home engineering from Lesson 6. - * (Math) Model How to Collect and Record Lesson 5 Final Data - Now that our seeds have been growing for a while, we have enough data to help us answer our question from Lesson 5, “Do plants need soil, water, and/or air to grow?” (insert the question your class created in Lesson 5) - It’s time to collect data on the final size of out plants so we can compare them to the beginning size of the seeds and see which matter inputs were needed for them to grow. - Have students open their Learning Catcher notebooks to Lesson 5. - Using one of the class specimens, model for students how to measure the final length, width, and height of the specimen. - Show how to record this in the Learning Catcher notebook in the red text row, “Bean Plant at End”. - Review inequality statements < = >, and model how to write the inequality statements comparing the bean seed at the start to the specimen at the end of the investigation. - Review using the subtraction algorithm and model how to write the subtraction equation, then use the algorithm to subtract the start measurement from the end measurement to find the difference. - Scaffolded Student Collection of Data - Recommend that you give students some time to all complete the measurement and computations for their first table while you are together in Zoom, checking in on student workbooks, re-modeling, answering questions etc… - As students finish for one specimen, they can have you check their work, then leave and complete the other tables asynchronously. - Data Extension if Possible: If weighing was an option, remove the class plant from the soil and weigh to see if any of the soil has disappeared (make sure to remove soil from the roots and return to be measured). Did any of the soil’s matter go into the plant? Part 2 -Analyze Data from Lesson 5 Investigation time 40 minutes - Make Sense of Investigation Data time 5 minutes - What did you observe happening in your investigation? - Which specimen had the most increase of matter? What was the difference? Why do we think this had the most increase? - Which had the least? Why do we think this had the least increase? - Observe the seedlings growing in wet paper towels. - What changes can we observe? - Did they increase in matter? - Are they green and do they have leaves? - * (ELA CER) Claim, Evidence, Reasoning (Formative assessment opportunity) time 15 minutes - Have students go to Lesson 5, Step 6 in their Learning Catcher Notebooks. - Determine useful evidence: - Together, decide which data from their investigation that most helps to answer the question. - All record that data in Step 6a. (example, the seed in air only had 0 increase in size, the seed with air, water and soil had ____ increase in size, the seed with air and water had ____ increase in size. - Discuss to make sense of the data so we can answer the investigation question - What does our data tell us about which matter is needed as an input for seeds to grow? - Did seeds have to take in water (matter as a liquid) to increase their own matter? (yes) - Did seeds have to take in soil (matter as a solid) to increase their own matter? (no soil itself is not an input for plants) - Did seeds have to take in air (matter as a gas) to increase their own matter? (We don’t know yet, because all of the seeds had access to air) This will be addressed in Lesson 8. - Together, develop a claim that answers the question and have students record their claim in their own words in Step 6b. (example: Seeds need water as a matter input so they can grow and get larger. Plants do not need soil as an input to grow and get larger. Seeds may need air.) - Have some students share their claim. - Discuss data reasoning - Ask students to share their thinking about why the data we wrote in Step 6a supports or proves the claim we just wrote in Step 6b. - A useful sentence frame for this is, “ Since we saw _________(in the data), this shows ______________________ because _______________.” - Discuss and have students record their reasoning in Step 6c. - Examples: - Since we saw no increase in both seeds without water, but ___ increase in the seed with water, this shows seeds must need water to grow larger because if they didn’t need it, all the seeds would have grown larger. - Since we saw the seeds without soil but with water increased in height by _____ this shows seeds don’t need soil to grow because if they did, they wouldn’t have grown at all in the bag with no soil. - Have some students share their reasoning. - Model New Learning (You might have students do this Asynchronously) time 15 minutes - If possible, have students review their “Maybe It’s” initial explanatory model from Lesson 1 where they showed where they thought the “stuff” came from as seeds grew into plants or trees. How have their ideas changed and grown? - Provide students with the new explanatory model and have them show all their thinking and understanding now of where the matter comes from as seeds grow into plants or trees. Students should use words, pictures, arrows etc… to show and explain their ideas. - Thinking About Assessment: - Compare student explanatory models from Lesson 1 and Lesson 7. - Look for evidence of change in student thinking about where the matter comes from as seeds grow into plants and trees. - Are students able to clearly show and explain that water and air are entering the plant? - Optional Phenomena Extension: - How does the extra matter actually get into the plant? Students can research to discover more about the structure and function of the plant that supports this process. Students can physically examine their local plant leaves and roots. Support phenomenon resources for this are: - Bean plant time lapse video What pattern do we see of plant growth and adding matter? (roots, stem, leaves, leaves get bigger, more leaver, stem is growing the whole time. - close up image of leaf - Epidermis peel - Guard Cells and Stomates - microscope video of stoma opening and closing (play without sound) - microscopic stomata video - root structures - (ELA) Develop Academic Vocabulary: The Atmosphere 5 minutes - There is a scientific name for all the air on Earth. Does anyone know what prefix means, “air on Earth”? Atmos - What do you think we call the part of Earth’s systems that includes all its air? “Atmosphere”. What does it mean? - Have students add notes on the Atmosphere to Lesson 7’s learning-catcher document, add to the class KLEWS chart. - How does the Atmosphere connect to our lesson today? What other sphere(s) is it interacting with? - Lesson Synthesis: 5 minutes - Debrief the lesson with students: record new ideas, data, photos, and science words on the KLEWS chart. - Which of our KLEWS questions were answered today and what new questions do we now have? - (ELA) Independent Synthesis of Learning: (Opportunity for formative assessment) You might have students complete asynchronously - Students record their Lesson Learning Summary in their notebooks for Lesson 7. - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are summarizing and synthesizing the lesson learning. - Family Connection: - Teach your family what the word atmosphere means and ask for their thoughts and experiences with it. - At Home Assignment (formative assessment opportunity): - Students choose informational reading/videos from the Lesson 7 choice board. - They summarize their new learning in their Learning Catcher notebook. - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are comprehending and summarizing independent learning. Lesson 8 Resources In Lesson 8, students learn about energy and analyze qualitative and quantitative data to make sense about the role light plays in growth of plants. They make final claims about the relationship between light, matter and plants. Students independently engage with informational sources and summarize what they learn. Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: Part 1: 45 minutes, Part 2: 60 min Lesson Phenomena: Plants with different amounts of light have differences in size and leaf/flower color. Plants are observed to move towards light sources. Lesson Driving Question: How do plants get their “food” to grow larger? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation: - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - 5-PS3-1 Use models to describe that energy in animals’ food ( used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth)was once energy from the sun. Lesson Focus SEP(s): - Make observations and/or measurements to produce data to serve as the basis for evidence for an explanation of a phenomenon or test a design solution. INV-E3 - Use evidence (e.g., measurements, observations, patterns) to construct or support an explanation or design a solution to a problem. CEDS-E2 Lesson Focus CCC(s): - A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (5-LS2-1) - Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. (5-PS3-1) Lesson Focus DCI: - PS3.D: The energy released [from] food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). (5-PS3-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will make observations and analyze and interpret data to draw conclusions about how and why light affects plant growth. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.2 Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how they are supported by key details; summarize the text. - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. Writing - W.5.2.D Use precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to inform about or explain the topic. - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. Speaking/Listening - SL.5.1.A Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion. - SL.5.2 Summarize a written text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally. - SL.5.1.B Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles. - SL.5.1.C Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others. - SL.5.1.D Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussion Math Standards: - 4.NBT.A.2 ... Compare two multi-digit numbers based on meanings of the digits in each place, using >, =, and < symbols to record the results of comparisons. Social Studies Standards: - SSS4.5.3 Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. - SSS2.5.3 Critique arguments. - SSS2.5.4 Critique explanations. Art Standards: N/A Materials: - Instructional Slide Deck - Student Learning Catcher notebook for all Lessons - See-Think-Wonder Whole Class response sheet - Group Sense-Making Slide Deck for Gretchen Brinza Data (one slide deck will support 28 students, delete slide 7 if you have 24 or less students in your class) - Lesson 8 Informational Choice Board - Paul Andersen Assessment- What do trees need to grow bigger? Attending to Equitable Access for All Students: - How to avoid possible pitfalls associated with culturally responsive instruction STEM Teaching Tools #53 - Scaffolds for English Language Learners/students reading well below grade level: - Label visuals - Provide a word bank for the lesson with illustrations - Verbally read directions and check for understanding - Provide an investigation template with visual supports - Scaffolds for vision: - Students dictate their ideas to teacher for input or a family member can input their ideas - Describe the phenomenon for the student - Describe the plant data for the student - Scaffolds for hearing: - Turn on closed captioning. Google Meet has a built in live option. In Zoom, someone will need to type it in. - Provide visual directions - Capture student thinking in a Google Doc to make class talk visible - Scaffolds for attention: - Schedule short movement breaks. - Schedule short breathing breaks. - Alternate tasks or methods of response: - Students can dictate or record their explanatory ideas if there are barriers. Nearpod provides this feature. - Alternate or additional phenomena for scaffolding or extension: Preparation: - Review the resources below to support you in facilitating student discourse about plants and light and growing your understanding of three-dimensional teaching and learning. Shift to NGSS Pedagogy: - Scientific Inquiry in Five Steps -Paul Andersen on The Wonder of Science - A New Vision for Science Education Nextgenscience.org Infographic - How Today’s Students Learn Science NGSS.NSTA.org Infographic Science Background for the Teacher: Content Integration Points: - Look for content integration points for English Language Arts, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Art within the procedures below. They will be marked by an asterisk () and labeled. (SS= Social Studies, M = Math, A= Art, ELA = ELA) Procedures Part 1 time 45 minutes - (ELA) Share learning since last class meeting: (opportunity for formative assessment) time 5 min - Debrief student summaries of their learning from choice board readings/videos. - Collect on sticky notes to add to the class KLEWS chart. - What new questions do students have prompted by the readings/videos? Discuss and add to KLEWS chart. Look for ways to leverage student questions to drive the learning. - Review What We Have Figured Out So Far, Connect to Today’s Lesson: time 5 minutes - Refer back to the model from Lesson 5 of the matter that surrounds and is an input for plants. - Is matter input by itself enough for plants to grow or do plants need any other inputs? - Compare to other living things. What do people and animals need to live and grow larger? (food) - What is “food”? How do living things get “food”? - Have we observed plants “eating” anything? What is food for plants that gives them energy to live and grow larger? - * (ELA)Revisit Anchoring Phenomenon: (opportunity for formative assessment) 15 minutes - View the avocado phenomenon video again. - What other input can we see going into the plant that is not matter? (light) - What patterns of light do we see and how does the plant respond to these patterns? - Leaves lean toward light during the day and back at night. - Leaves reach upward at night and relax back down during the day - What do we think is causing the plant to move in these patterns? Why? - Can we see the same behavior in other plants? Watch Time Lapse Video of Plants and Light, Positive Phototropism Demo - What do these plant behaviors tell us? Why do plants do this? (plants must need light for something, as they reach towards it) - View the avocado phenomenon video again. - Mystery Investigation * (ELA) (opportunity for formative assessment) time- synchronous 20 minutes - Follow directions below, students will analyze observational data from an investigation that was conducted by another fifth grade class. - Make Observations of Phenomena: - Show students image 1 of investigation plants and image 2 of investigation plants - What do we see? What do we think? What do we wonder? - Provide the Google See-Think-Wonder sheet for students to record their thinking. Discuss observations and questions. Seek to engage with student wonderings in the lesson. - Alternately, you could push the image out to students using Whiteboard.Fi and ask them to make claims with evidence and reasoning on their image. - What question do we think students were trying to answer in the investigation? - Make Sense of the Observations: - In this case, fifth grade students designed an investigation to answer the question, “How does the amount of light affect plant health and ability to grow?” - The three plants started out being the same size, same color, and same degree of health. For 2 weeks, one plant was grown in no light at all (underneath a bucket), one plant received light during the day only, and one plant received light 24 hours a day. All plants received the same amount of water and were the same temperature in the same classroom. - Which plant in the image do we think received no light, which was daylight only, and which received 24 hours a day light? (Make a claim) - What evidence and reasoning supports your claim? - The plant with no light is yellow and dying (plant on the left), the plant with daylight only is partly yellow (middle plant), the plant with 24 hours of light is dark green and very healthy with vibrantly colored flowers. - Connect Phenomenon Observations to Unit Question: - What do our observations make us think about the relationship between plants and light? - What plant parts seem to be most involved in using light? What makes us think that? - Do plants need light to live and grow? - After discussion, students complete the Mystery Investigation Claims-Evidence-Reasonin statements in their Learning Catcher Notebooks.. - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are analyzing and making sense of data, collaborating, and drawing conclusions about the unit phenomenon. Part 2 time: 60 minutes - * (ELA, Math) Gretchen Brinza’s Class Data: Analyze and Interpret Quantitative Data, testing for Air, Light, and Water (opportunity for formative assessment) - Create context for data - Tell students that they will see the data collected by a different fifth grade class to help us make our final decisions about plant growth. - This other fifth grade class planned and conducted their own investigation to see if plants need air, water, and/or light to grow. - The data tables are accessed from Gretchen Brinza’s Fifth Grade Class site. She and her class gathered this data while helping to develop the OER Lesson “Why Do Dead Things Disappear Over Time?” developed by NextGenStorylines. - Each test environment had 4 plants in it, named by a letter of the alphabet. - For teacher information: - Test Environment 1: Light, air, and water (all plants steadily increase in matter/growth, measured by their weight., Plants/trees need light, air, and water to increase their matter and grow) - Test Environment 2: Light and air, no water (all plants steadily decrease in weight, as the water is leaving their system) - Test Environment 3: Light and water, no air (no increase-all plants stay the same size and weight, plants must have air to grow and add matter) - Create context for data - Predict Using Unit Learning and Reasoning (opportunity for formative assessment) 5 minutes - Ask students to predict what they think the plants will do in each of the test environments and why. - Go over expectations for group digital collaboration. - Group Analysis/Explicitly Support Patterns Thinking (opportunity for formative assessment) 15 minutes - Assign each group of 4 students to their slide in the “Data from Gretchen Brinza’s Investigation” slide deck. (teacher example slide) - Each student will sign up to analyze a plant on their assigned slide by typing their name on one of the green sticky notes. Their sticky note tells them which plant they will analyze. - Each Environment slide has a blank data table with a row for each plant. Students should use the blank data table row to describe the pattern of their plant’s growth as measured by its weight. - Students can use Insert, Line, Scribble to draw on the slide to circle data, make arrows etc… - Students should write an inequality to compare the weight of their plant in Week 0 to Week 12. They can delete the red symbols that don’t apply (< = or >). - Each student should look at the data for each plant in the environment and answer the questions on their green sticky note. - Students should use the comment feature in the top right corner of the slide to “talk” once they have completed their parts and need to make a group decision about that environment data and what it means. - If they need more space, students can add text boxes in the blank space outside of the actual slide. - Students should type their conclusion based on the pattern data in the speaker notes section below the slide. What does the Test Environment data pattern tell us about whether plants need air, water and/or light to grow? - Continually check in on group slide decks as students are working and give feedback/support/ask questions - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are analyzing and making sense of data, comparing with inequality statements, collaborating, and drawing conclusions about plant needs for growth. - Share and Discuss Group Work and Conclusions (opportunity for formative assessment) 10 minutes - Give each group a couple of minutes to screen share their slides and give their interpretation. - Connect to Unit Anchoring Phenomenon 5 minutes - Show a picture of the growing avocado seed. Which of the 3 investigation setups does this match? What does this tell us? - Predict Using Unit Learning and Reasoning (opportunity for formative assessment) 5 minutes - Come to Consensus as a Class 5 minutes - What do we now think about what inputs plants need to live and grow? (plants need air, water, and light to grow larger) - Mini Lesson on Energy and Plants 10 minutes. - Why do plants need both light input and matter inputs to grow? - Show the video, Photosynthesis for Kids (5 min. 30 sec) which explains simply how plants use water, air, and light to grow. Note- this video goes beyond what 5th graders are accountable for in NGSS assessment, but it nicely makes all the connections between air, water, and light for plants and food that students have been figuring out. - Ask students to summarize what they learned from the video. You many want to have them practice taking notes during the video. Type student summaries into slide # 34 as they share to capture their ideas. Alternately, have student type summary statements in the chat. - (ELA) Develop Academic Vocabulary: photosynthesis 5 minutes (this is introduced in the video) - There is a scientific name for plants using light to make food. Does anyone know what prefix means, “light”? Photo - The rest of the word is “synthesis”, which means putting together or making. - So, what does photosynthesis mean? - Have students add notes on photosynthesis to Lesson 8’s learning-catcher document, add to the class KLEWS chart. - How does photosynthesis connect to our lesson today? What sphere(s) is it interacting with? - Lesson Synthesis: 5 minutes - Debrief the lesson with students: record new ideas, data, photos, and science words on the KLEWS chart. - Which of our KLEWS questions were answered today and what new questions do we now have? - (ELA) Independent Synthesis of Learning: (Opportunity for formative assessment) You might have students complete asynchronously - Students record their Lesson Learning Summary in their notebooks for Lesson 8. - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are summarizing and synthesizing the lesson learning. - Family Connection: - Teach your family what the word photosynthesis means and ask for other words they can think of that start with the prefix “photo”. What do those words mean? - At Home Assignment (formative assessment opportunity): - Students choose informational reading/videos from the Lesson 8 choice board. - They summarize their new learning in their Learning Catcher notebook. - Thinking about assessment: This is an opportunity to observe how students are comprehending and summarizing independent learning. - Optional Formal Summative Assessment: - If desired, you can administer the OER assessment, “Where do Trees Get Their Mass?” from Paul Andersen’s site, The Wonder of Science . - Select which elements of the assessment you wish to administer to students. - If you need students to be able to type on the pdfs, use pdfescape to add fillable text paragraph boxes. Lesson 9 Resources In Lesson 9, students conduct research and create a presentation showing how a plant or tree of their choice is able to grow from a seed to an adult. In this project, they include all aspects of learning from earlier lessons and apply informational reading and writing strategies. They use data from their unit Learning Catcher Notebook and information from the Lesson Informational Choice Boards to support them, as well as finding information specific to their own plant or tree. Students create a mixed- media presentation including a scientific model, paragraphing, resource list, and narration that will be shared with family and peers. They confer with family and peers to improve and revise their work. Format: Zoom Classroom and Working at Home Time: Zoom introduction- 15 minutes Lesson Phenomenon: A ________ seed grows to become a much larger tree. (personalize by student choice of plant/tree and its seed) Lesson Driving Questions: Where does all the extra matter come from as a small seed grows to become a much larger plant/tree? What inputs do plants need to grow larger? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation(s): - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. - 5-PS3-1 Use models to describe that energy in animals’ food ( used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth)was once energy from the sun. Lesson Focus SEP: - Construct and/or support an argument with evidence, data, and/or a model. ARG-E4 - Communicate scientific and/or technical information orally and/or in written formats, including various forms of media and may include tables, diagrams, and charts. INFO-E5 - Read and comprehend grade-appropriate complex texts and/or other reliable media to summarize and obtain scientific and technical ideas and describe how they are supported by evidence. INFO E-1 - Obtain and combine information from books and/or other reliable media to explain phenomena or solutions to a design problem. INFO-E4 - Develop a model using an example to describe a scientific principle. (5-ESS2-1) Lesson Focus CCC: - Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. (5-PS3-1) - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) - A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (5-LS2-1) Lesson Focus DCI: - ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways… (5-ESS2-1) - PS3.D: -The energy released [from] food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). (5-PS3-1) -Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will collect information from a variety of sources and synthesize it into claims supported by evidence to explain how matter and energy are inputs plants need for growth. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - .RI.5.1 Quote accurately from a text when explaining what the text says explicitly and when drawing inferences from the text. - RI.5.4 Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 5 topic or subject area. - RI.5.7 Draw on information from multiple print or digital sources, demonstrating the ability to locate an answer to a question quickly or to solve a problem efficiently. - RI.5.9 Integrate information from several texts on the same topic in order to write or speak about the subject knowledgeably. Writing - W.5.2.A Introduce a topic clearly, provide a general observation and focus, and group related information logically; include formatting (e.g., headings), illustrations, and multimedia when useful to aiding comprehension. - W.5.2.B Develop the topic with facts, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples related to the topic. - W.5.10 Write routinely over extended time frames (time for research, reflection, and revision) and shorter time frames (a single sitting or a day or two) for a range of discipline-specific tasks, purposes, and audiences. - W.5.4 Produce clear and coherent writing in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. - W.5.5 With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. - W.5.6 With some guidance and support from adults, use technology, including the Internet, to produce and publish writing as well as to interact and collaborate with others; demonstrate sufficient command of keyboarding skills to type a minimum of two pages in a single sitting. - W.5.7 Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic. - W.5.8 Recall relevant information from experiences or gather relevant information from print and digital sources; summarize or paraphrase information in notes and finished work and provide a list of sources. - W.5.9 Draw evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research. Math Standards: N/A Social Studies Standards: - SSS1.5.2 Construct arguments using claims and evidence from multiple sources. Art Standards: Performance Standard (MA:Pr6.1.5) - a. Compare qualities and purposes of presentation formats, and fulfill a role and associated processes in presentation and/or distribution of media artworks. Performance Standard (MA:Pr5.1.5) - a. Enact various roles to practice fundamental ability in artistic, design, technical, and soft skills, such as formal technique, production, and collaboration in media arts productions. - c. Examine how tools and techniques could be used in standard and experimental ways in constructing media artworks. Materials: - Student Learning Catcher Notebooks - Information Choice Boards from Lessons 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 - Class KLEWS Chart - Research Project Rubric for students, peers, parents, teacher- example that can be revised for your class (also in Learning Catcher) - Research Project Checklist for Students- example that can be revised for your class (this is also in the Learning Catcher Notebooks) Attending to Equitable Access for All Students: - How to avoid possible pitfalls associated with culturally responsive instruction STEM Teaching Tools #53 - Scaffolds for English Language Learners/students reading well below grade level: - Label visuals - Provide a word bank for the lesson with illustrations - Verbally read directions and check for understanding - Scaffolds for vision: - Students dictate their ideas to teacher for input or a family member can input their ideas - Describe the phenomenon for the student - Scaffolds for hearing: - Turn on closed captioning, provide visual directions - Capture student thinking in a Google Doc to make class talk visible - Scaffolds for attention: - Schedule short movement breaks in between class tasks. Go Noodle is one resource for this. - Schedule short breathing breaks in between class tasks. Copingskillsforkids.com is one resource for this. - Alternate tasks or methods of response: - Students can dictate or record their explanatory ideas if there are barriers. Nearpod provides this feature. - Alternate or additional phenomena for scaffolding or extension: Bean plant time lapse video, Mango time lapse video, Radish time lapse video Preparation: - Review the research assignment and revise or adapt to meet the needs of your students. Content Integration Points: - Look for content integration points for English Language Arts, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Art within the procedures below. They will be marked by an asterisk () and labeled. (SS= Social Studies, M = Math, A= Art, ELA = ELA) Procedures - In Lesson 9, students apply everything they have learned in Lessons 1-8 to show what they now know about how plants/trees use matter and energy inputs to grow. - Students will select a specific plant or tree as their explaining lens for this project. In Lesson 3, they selected a local plant or tree to focus on, they can change to a different plant or tree at this point if they wish. - Students will conduct research to find specific information, images, and video of their plant/tree. - They will create an explanatory multimedia presentation that includes developed informational writing passages combined with images, video and possibly narration. - This project will take multiple days as written, as students will create rough drafts, confer with family, teacher, and peers (if possible), revise and improve, then create final drafts to publish their projects. In Lesson 10, students present to family and their class and engage in self-evaluation as well as peer, family, and teacher evaluation using a detailed rubric. - (ELA) Writing Mini-Lessons to Support Students in this Project - Provide learning on the topics below as needed to support your students: - Collecting and organizing research information - Developing an introduction to the topic - Organizing into subtopics - Developing subtopics with supporting details (facts, anecdotes, definitions, concrete details, quotations, or other information and examples) - Developing a conclusion - Revising and editing - In-text citation of sources - Creating a list of sources - Multi-media elements (slide deck, video, animation, images, recording narration etc…) - Provide learning on the topics below as needed to support your students: - * (ELA) Students research their own selected plant or tree (topic) to explain these subtopics in writing: - Plant/Tree Background Information - Appearance of their plant/tree - Location and range of their plant/tree - Specific needs of their plant/tree (amount of light, water, temperature) - Science Explanation for Growth - Where and how the plant/tree acquires matter to grow larger - That the plant/tree uses energy from the Sun to make its own food - Science Explanation for Interaction Between Spheres - How the plant (biosphere) interacts with elements of the local hydrosphere, geosphere, and atmosphere - Plant/Tree Background Information - (ELA, Art) The project should include: - Informational paragraphs on the 3 subtopics with supporting details. - A realistic, labeled scale drawing of their full size plant/tree compared to its seed. - The drawing should be used to explain (model) how their plant/tree uses matter and energy to grow. - The words: matter, energy, biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, growth, system, input - Images showing their plant/tree’s change from a seed to a plant/tree - A time-lapse video if possible, showing their plant/tree’s growth from seed to plant/tree. - At least one in-text citation of a source used - A reference page listing sources used - Text features such as titles, headings, bold/italics, captions, sketches, colored text etc… - (ELA, Art) Potential Project Formats: adapt as needed - Informational essay with images/video embedded and linked. - Slideshow with text, images, video and perhaps voice-over - PowerPoint has a built in screen recorder. - Explain Everything allows for recording of voice-over if your students have access to it. - Google Slides does not have a built in recorder, students would need to use a screen recorder tool such as Screencastify if it is available to them through your district. - Documentary video (in concert with a written script, citation, source page) - Digital Poster with images, video, and informational paragraphs - Informational booklet with images, video, and informational paragraphs - Infographic with images, video, and informational paragraphs - Webpage or Blog with images, video, and informational paragraphs - (ELA)Sources for Project Information: - Students should refer to and use information and learning from: - The choice boards from earlier lessons (Lessons 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8) - Their Learning Catcher Notebook - “Now I Know” final model - Class KLEWS chart - Evidence and observations from class activities - Learning/observations from Family Walks (if applicable) - Students will also need to conduct some Internet research for the specific information, images, video of their selected plant/tree. - Students should refer to and use information and learning from: - (ELA)Set-Up Students for Success - Use the provided rubric to introduce the project or develop a project rubric with students if possible. - Including students in designing the project increases student engagement and buy-in and allows the project to work specifically for your class skills, interests, and access. - Schedule opportunities for students to confer one-on-one with you on their writing and project development. - Partner students strategically to review and comment on peer drafts and give feedback. - Consider offering “webinars” for students who want/need support in their chosen format. For example, offer a half hour training session on creating slide-decks, or screen recording with PowerPoint, or editing video to create their video-documentary. Recruit your district educational technology staff to help provide these sessions as well. - (ELA)Family Connection: Students confer with family members to receive feedback, revise, and improve their project. Lesson 10 Resources In Lesson 10, students present their projects from Lesson 9; first to their family, then to peers. Students self-evaluate using a rubric. Family and peers also evaluate the presentation and give feedback using the rubric. Students may use what they learned in the unit to begin a family garden at home. Lesson 10: Project Presentations/Sharing (interaction between the biosphere and geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere) Format: Zoom Classroom, Digital Classroom, and Family Classroom Time: will vary Lesson Phenomenon: A ________ seed grows to become a much larger tree. (personalized by student choice of seed and plant/tree) Lesson Driving Question: Where does all the extra matter come from as a small seed grows to become a larger plant/tree? What inputs do plants/trees need to grow larger? Lesson Focus Performance Expectation(s): - Support an argument that plants get the materials they need for growth chiefly from air and water. 5-LS1-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that plant matter comes mostly from air and water, not from the soil. - (Building towards) 5-ESS2-1 Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact - 5-PS3-1 Use models to describe that energy in animals’ food ( used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth)was once energy from the sun. Lesson Focus SEP(s): - Construct and/or support an argument with evidence, data, and/or a model. ARG-E4 - Communicate scientific and/or technical information orally and/or in written formats, including various forms of media and may include tables, diagrams, and charts. INFO-E5 Lesson Focus CCC(s): - Energy can be transferred in various ways and between objects. (5-PS3-1) - Matter is transported into, out of, and within systems. (5-LS1-1) - A system can be described in terms of its components and their interactions. (5-LS2-1) Lesson Focus DCI: - ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways… (5-ESS2-1) - PS3.D: - The energy released [from] food was once energy from the sun that was captured by plants in the chemical process that forms plant matter (from air and water). (5-PS3-1) - Plants acquire their material for growth chiefly from air and water. (5-LS1-1) Lesson 3D Learning Objective: Students will present claims supported by evidence to explain how matter and energy are inputs plants need for growth. ELA Standards: Reading - RI.5.10 By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4-5 text complexity band independently and proficiently. - RI.5.4 Determine the meaning of general academic and domain-specific words and phrases in a text relevant to a grade 5 topic or subject area. Speaking/Listening - SL.5.4 Report on a topic or text or present an opinion, sequencing ideas logically and using appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details to support main ideas or themes; speak clearly at an understandable pace. - SL.5.5 Include multimedia components (e.g., graphics, sound) and visual displays in presentations when appropriate to enhance the development of main ideas or themes. - SL.5.6 Adapt speech to a variety of contexts and tasks, using formal English when appropriate to task and situation. Math Standards: N/A Social Studies Standards: - SSS4.5.3 Use evidence to develop claims in response to compelling questions. - SSS4.5.4 Present a summary of arguments and explanations to others outside the classroom using print and oral technologies (e.g., posters, essays, letters, debates, speeches, and reports) and digital technologies (e.g., Internet, social media, and digital documentary). Art Standards: N/A Materials: - Project Rubric- example from Lesson 9 that can be revised for your class - Project Scoring Sheet with Rubric (Students will need multiple copies one for their family, one for a peer or peers, and one for the teacher. A copy for each student to self-assess is included in their Learning Catcher Notebooks in Lesson 10) Attending to Equitable Access for All Students: - How to avoid possible pitfalls associated with culturally responsive instruction STEM Teaching Tools #53 - Scaffolds for English Language Learners/students reading well below grade level: - Consider adapting the task, amount required, and rubric to reflect an appropriate amount of demand - Provide a word bank for the lesson with illustrations - Verbally read directions and check for understanding - Consider providing rubric and checklist in student family languages to support family collaboration - Scaffolds for vision: - Students dictate to a family member - Read all directions, checklist, rubric items aloud - Consider creating documents in a larger font size - Scaffolds for hearing: - Turn on closed captioning - Provide visual directions - Scaffolds for attention: - Schedule short movement breaks in between class tasks. Go Noodle is one resource for this. - Schedule short breathing breaks in between class tasks. Copingskillsforkids.com is one resource for this. - Alternate tasks or methods of response: - Students can dictate or record their work if there are barriers. Nearpod provides this feature. - Multiple project modalities are provided - Alternate or additional phenomena for scaffolding or extension: N/A Preparation: - If you revised the project rubric in lesson 9, revise the scoring sheet to reflect the changes. Content Integration Points: - Look for content integration points for English Language Arts, Mathematics, Social Studies, and Art within the procedures below. They will be marked by an asterisk () and labeled. (SS= Social Studies, M = Math, A= Art, ELA = ELA) Procedures - (* ELA, SS) Family Connection (Asynchronous): Students present projects to family members. (opportunity for formative assessment) - Provide families with a digital copy (copies) of the Scoring Sheet with Rubric. - Students present to one or more family members. - The family member(s) uses the scoring sheet to score the student’s project and gives feedback for each score. - The family member(s) confers with the student and gives feedback for improvement. - The student reviews the feedback and makes any revisions. - (* ELA, SS) Peer Connection (Asynchronous): Students evaluate and score a peer’s project. (opportunity for formative assessment) - Provide each student with a digital copy (copies) of the Scoring Sheet with Rubric. - Assign each student another student’s project to evaluate and score. - The peer reviewer uses the scoring sheet to score the student’s project and gives feedback for each score. - The project student reviews the feedback and makes any revisions. - (* ELA, SS) Class Connection (Synchronous): Students present their project to the class, the teacher evaluates and scores the student projects using the scoring sheet. (opportunity for summative assessment) - Make a digital copy of the Scoring Sheet with Rubric for you to use with each student. - Each student presents their project to the class via Zoom. Students give feedback and compliments and ask questions. - The teacher uses the scoring sheet to score the student’s project and gives feedback for each score. - The project student reviews the feedback and asks any questions. - (* ELA, SS) Student Self-Evaluation (Asynchronous): Each student evaluates their own project and scores it using the scoring sheet. (opportunity for summative assessment) - Each student has a copy of the Scoring Sheet with Rubric in their Learning Catcher Notebooks in Lesson 10. - Each student uses the scoring sheet to self-evaluate and gives reasons for each score. - The teacher reviews the student scores and feedback and asks any questions. - Extend Relevance and Reach: Use any available platforms to share student projects more widely if allowed: with the district, other classes, digital partner classes, class families etc... - Family Extension: Provide resources to support growing plants at home or starting a family or community garden. - A Resource Set from Oxbow with directions on how to grow different food plants is uploaded to Lesson 5 on the OER site in both English and Spanish Next Steps: Coherence Standards to Address Next in the Learning Sequence The logical 5th grade Performance Expectations to immediately follow this unit are: - Develop a model to describe the movement of matter among plants, animals, decomposers, and the environment. 5-LS2-1 Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that matter that is not food (air, water, decomposed materials in soil) is changed by plants into matter that is food. Examples of systems could include organisms, ecosystems, and the Earth. Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include molecular explanations. - Use models to describe that that energy in animals’ food (used for body repair, growth, motion, and to maintain body warmth) was once energy from the sun. 5-PS3-1 (address the part of this PE in parentheses that was not addressed in the Seed to Tree unit)Clarification Statement: Examples of models could include diagrams, and flow charts. The PE 5-ESS2-1 was introduced in this unit to familiarize students with the geosphere, biosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Later, when teaching Earth Science, revisit these ideas in the context of how these spheres interact to affect Earth’s surface. - Develop a model using an example to describe ways the geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and/or atmosphere interact. 5-ESS2-1Clarification Statement: Examples could include the influence of the ocean on ecosystems, landform shape, and climate; the influence of the atmosphere on landforms and ecosystems through weather and climate; and the influence of mountain ranges on winds and clouds in the atmosphere. The geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere are each a system. Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to the interactions of two systems at a time. - Related DCI ESS2.A: Earth’s major systems are the geosphere (solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments), the hydrosphere (water and ice), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (living things, including humans). These systems interact in multiple ways to affect Earth’s surface materials and processes. The ocean supports a variety of ecosystems and organisms, shapes landforms, and influences climate. Winds and clouds in the atmosphere interact with the landforms to determine patterns of weather. (5-ESS2-1)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.104862	Measurement and Data	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71494/overview", "title": "Seed to Tree Unit: Grade 5 Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects", "author": "Life Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82433/overview	Learning Domain: Earth and Human Activity Standard: Obtain and combine information to describe that energy and fuels are derived from natural resources and their uses affect the environment. Learning Domain: Engineering Design Standard: Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. Learning Domain: Engineering, Technology, & Applications of Science Standard: Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. Learning Domain: Earth and Human Activity Standard: Obtain and combine information to describe that energy and fuels are derived from renewable and non-renewable resources and how their uses affect the environment. Science Domain: Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science Topic: Engineering Design Standard: Generate and compare multiple possible solutions to a problem based on how well each is likely to meet the criteria and constraints of the problem. Science Domain: Earth and Space Sciences Topic: Energy Standard: Obtain and combine information to describe that energy and fuels are derived from natural resources and their uses affect the environment. [Clarification Statement: Examples of renewable energy resources could include wind energy, water behind dams, and sunlight; non-renewable energy resources are fossil fuels and fissile materials. Examples of environmental effects could include loss of habitat due to dams, loss of habitat due to surface mining, and air pollution from burning of fossil fuels.]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.140212	Pacific Education Institute	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82433/overview", "title": "PEI SOLS 4th grade Renewable Energy: Solar", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68630/overview	Education Standards 5-Regnerative Agriculture (EW) (PDF) PEI SOLS 5th grade: Regenerative Agriculture (Eastern Washington) Overview Soil quality is an important aspect of growing food. In this storyline, students will discover what soil is made of and how carbon is an important part of soil quality as well as how carbon moves between plants, soil, and air. Students will learn how Indigenous people used practices such as composting. Finally, students will explore what regenerative agriculture practices are and how they can be a solution to how the climate is changing over time.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.163976	Pacific Education Institute	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68630/overview", "title": "PEI SOLS 5th grade: Regenerative Agriculture (Eastern Washington)", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82683/overview	Education Standards 5- Urban Forestry_ Urban Heat Islands (PDF) PEISOLS 5th grade Urban Forestry: Urban Heat Islands Overview Students will learn how trees grow and cycle matter, and trees’ roles in a changing climate. The urban heat island effect is examined and students learn about the many benefits trees offer cities. The storyline culminates with students examining the trees and canopy cover in their or a nearby city and proposing actions to increase the urban forest through a letter to city officials.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.187139	Pacific Education Institute	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82683/overview", "title": "PEISOLS 5th grade Urban Forestry: Urban Heat Islands", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82620/overview	Education Standards 5 Wetland_ Ecosystem Benefits_ (PDF) PEI SOLS 5th grade Wetland: Ecosystem Benefits Overview The goal of the fifth grade Wetland: Ecosystem Benefits storyline is to build on students’ previous knowledge of plant/animal needs, habitats, and protection of Earth’s resources. In this storyline students develop an understanding of wetland ecosystems, photosynthesis, what plants need to grow/gain mass and blue carbon wetlands.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.210240	06/21/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82620/overview", "title": "PEI SOLS 5th grade Wetland: Ecosystem Benefits", "author": "Pacific Education Institute" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82271/overview	Should we remove the Electron Dam? Overview This inquiry unit leads students through the different perspectives behind a decision to have a dam removed. This unit looks at similar Washington state dam removal decisions as well as the complex issue of having the Election dam removed near Puyallup, WA. Students will be introduced to the stories and traditional ways of knowing about salmon that the Puyallup Tribe has built their culture upon. Then they will explore the science behind hydroelectricity and build models to discover how carbon neutral energy is gathered through hydro dams. This inquiry unit ends with students researching different perspectives surrounding the current (2021) decision to remove the Electron dam including: the Tribe’s Fishery department, the ecosystem, the city council, the fishermen and the hydro-electrical company who currently owns the dam. With their research, students will do a socratic seminar to mimic the court case lawsuit that is ongoing against the Electron Dam. A Civics Climate Science Unit about the complex issues surrounding dams, tribes and salmon. ClimeTime Inquiry[a] Should we remove the Electron Dam? "Elwha Dam Removal" by visionshare is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 Supporting Questions - What is the significance of the Puyallup River and salmon to the Puyallup Tribe, both culturally and practically? - Why were hydro dams built and how do they help in the fight against climate change? - How can the removal of the Electron Dam benefit the sovereignty of the Puyallup Tribe and the ecosystem? ClimeTime Inquiry \| Compelling Question \| \| \| Standards \| Social Studies Standards:E1: Understands that people have to make choices between wants and needs and evaluates outcomes of those choices.E1.6-8.2 Evaluate alternative approaches or solutions to current economic issues of Washington state in terms of costs and benefits for different groups.G2: Understands human interaction with the environmentG2.6-8.3 Explain and analyze how the environment has affected people and how human actions modify the physical environment, and in turn, how the physical environment limits or promotes human activities in Washington state in the past or present.NGSS:MS-LS2-4. Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations.MS-LS2-5. Evaluate competing design solutions for maintaining biodiversity and ecosystem services.MS-ETS1-1. Define the criteria and constraints of a design problem with sufficient precision to ensure a successful solution, taking into account relevant scientific principles and potential impacts on people and the natural environment that may limit possible solutions. \| \| Staging the Compelling Question \| What was the impact of damming the Elwha River? https://vimeo.com/40519851Watch video to hear the stories from tribal members about what the stream was like before the dam and now after. \| \| Supporting Question 1 \| Supporting Question 2 \| Supporting Question 3 \| \|\|\|\| \| What is the significance of the Puyallup River and salmon to the Puyallup Tribe culturally and practically? \| Why and how are hydro dams built and how do they help in the fight against climate change? \| How can the removal of the Electron Dam benefit the sovereignty of the Puyallup Tribe and the ecosystem? \| \|\|\|\| \| Formative Performance Task \| FormativePerformance Task \| FormativePerformance Task \| \|\|\|\| \| Participation and Reflection in the First Salmon Ceremony Fall or Spring and present on significance. \| Built a model of a renewable energy source. Present on how renewable energy sources are better for the climate change crisis. \| Roles of Stakeholders Assignment \| \|\|\|\| \| Featured Sources \| Featured Sources \| Featured Sources \| \|\|\|\| \| Source A: First Salmon Ceremony PurposeSource B: Article on Puyallup Tribe’s First Salmon CeremonySource C: Story of why the Puyallup Tribe are called the Salmon People \| Source A: Renewable Energy Kit Source B: Article on Renewable EnergySource C: The Purpose of Hydro dams \| Source A: Example of how the Wynoochee river dam affect nearby tribesSource B: Elwha Dam RemovalSource C: Environmental Benefits to the Removal of the Elwha DamSource D: The downside of Dams Article \| \| Summative Performance Task \| ARGUMENT Socratic Seminar Discussion: Two options for argument, one being yes we should remove the dam and two being no we should not remove the dam. \| \| EXTENSIONStudents create signs to participate in support of the Puyallup Tribe’s case against the Electron Dam.(In spring of 2022 there is a court date for this case that students could potentially be a part of the protest.) \| \| \| Taking Informed Action \| UNDERSTAND ASSESS ACT \| Overview \| Inquiry Description This inquiry unit leads students through the different perspectives behind a decision to have a dam removed. This unit looks at similar Washington state dam removal decisions as well as the complex issue of having the Election dam removed near Puyallup, WA. Students will be introduced to the stories and traditional ways of knowing about salmon that the Puyallup Tribe has built their culture upon. Then they will explore the science behind hydroelectricity and build models to discover how carbon neutral energy is gathered through hydro dams. This inquiry unit ends with students researching different perspectives surrounding the current (2021) decision to remove the Electron dam including: the Tribe’s Fishery department, the ecosystem, the city council, the fishermen and the hydro-electrical company who currently owns the dam. With their research, students will do a socratic seminar to mimic the court case lawsuit that is ongoing against the Electron Dam. This inquiry unit will take up to 20 x 50 minute class periods to teach, including a field trip to the Electron dam and the First Salmon Ceremony (most tribes on the coast hold these ceremonies). Teachers are encouraged to look at their local tribe’s river and local hydro dams to maximize relevant perspective on this issue of dams. Structure of the Inquiry In addressing the compelling question “Should the Electron Dam be Removed?” students work through a series of supporting questions, formative performance tasks, and featured sources in order to construct an argument with evidence while acknowledging competing perspectives. Staging the Compelling Question \| What was the impact of Undamming the Elwha? https://vimeo.com/40519851 Undamming the Elwha tells of the Elwha River being dammed and the eventual removal of the dam. The story reveals the need for electricity in the new community of Port Angeles and the impact on the Klallam People and their dependence on the salmon. The removal of the Elwha Dam and the subsequent effects will help students conclude the pros and cons of the removal of the Electron Dam. Supporting Question 1 \| \| Supporting Question \| What is the significance of the salmon to the Puyallup Tribe culturally and practically? \| \| Formative Performance Task \| Students will first hear the story of why the Puyallup Tribe are called the Salmon People. Students will then participate in the First Salmon Ceremony and reflect on its significance and then they will roleplay the story to retell it. \| \| Featured Sources \| Source A: First Salmon Ceremony PurposeSource B: Article on Puyallup Tribe’s First Salmon CeremonySource C: Story of Why the Puyallup Tribe are Called Salmon People audio file \| Reasoning for this Assignment: The river must remain in good health in order for the Salmon People to survive. The culture, major food source, fishing (financial support, skill being passed down through generations of fisherman), and the ecosystem that is directly connected to the Puyallup River would be threatened if the river continued to be polluted. This assignment links directly to the issues coming down from the Electron Dam including pollution and illegal building practices. Formative Performance Task: Students will use the First Salmon Ceremony information and the Salmon People Story to write a play and role play the story to be videotaped and archived. Using the articles on the environmental impact of the Electron Dam the play could continue through the ages where environmental pollution becomes a threat to a way of life. Supporting Question 2 \| \| Supporting Question \| Why and how are hydro dams built and how do they help in the fight against climate change? \| \| Formative Performance Task \| Students will build a model of a renewable energy source.Then they will present on how renewable energy sources are helping in the fight against climate change. \| \| Featured Sources \| Source A: Renewable Energy Kit Source B: Article on Renewable EnergySource C: The Purpose of Hydro dams \| Reasoning for this Assignment: Students first learned the significance of salmon to the Puyallup Tribe and in this assignment students will learn how hydro dams create electricity and they will do this by reading about the process as well as creating a model of a renewable resource. In order for students to hear why hydro dams create energy that does not create carbon emissions. Students will learn the perspective of the hydro companies and how hydro dams are carbon neutral. Formative Performance Task: Students will build a model of a renewable energy source and present how that model creates electricity. They will also present that energy source’s pros and cons towards the environment. Supporting Question 3 \| \| Supporting Question \| How can the removal of the Electron Dam benefit the sovereignty of the Puyallup Tribe and the ecosystem? \| \| Formative Performance Task \| Prepare to take the role of a stakeholder: Students will take the role of a stakeholder and research evidence to present to the city when debating whether or not the dam should be removed. \| \| Featured Sources \| See Appendix AHow Dams Hurt Rivers Puyallup Tribe Court Battle ArticleExample of how the Wynoochee river dam affect nearby tribesElwha Dam Removal Environmental Benefits to the Removal of the Elwha DamHistory of the Elwha Dam \| Reasoning for this Assignment: The discussion to remove a dam is complex due to the opposing views of the number of people directly involved and affected by a dam. It is important for students to understand the multiple perspectives of the stakeholders in a resource such as a hydrodam and the surrounding river. Formative Performance Task: Students will read articles and gather evidence from the perspective of their stakeholder to prepare for the socratic seminar. While students read the articles they will be marking the text (AVID strategy) as well as taking detailed notes answering the questions including: What does the stakeholder have to gain if the dam is removed and if it is not removed? What is the strongest argument that supports your stakeholder’s views based on evidence from articles? Is there any way your stakeholder could come to an agreement (compromise) and what would your stakeholder require in that agreement? Summative Performance Task \| Students will have done research into one stakeholder assignment in this lawsuit between the Puyallup Tribe and the Electron Hydro Dam. In this performance task they have to be able to enter into a Socratic Seminar with evidence and arguments to support why they think the dam should or should not be removed from the perspective of the stakeholder they researched. To prepare for this socratic seminar, students will have to prepare questions to ask the opposition as well as ways to follow up on anticipated questions from the other stakeholders. Students will be graded on evidence gathered, delivered and communicated. Students’ arguments will likely vary but could include any of the following: Evidence for Removing the Dam Yes- By removing the dam it will restore the ecosystem to allow salmon to be reunited with spawning grounds. This will encourage salmon to not be endangered. Without salmon the community all around (Puyallup tribe and commercial, sport fisherman) would lose a historical natural resource. Dams control the flow of the river which has several repercussions. Perspective of Tribe and/or Elder: The tribal council does not trust the Electron dam company to protect fish as they have proven, based on their response from the artificial turf situation last spring (Crowe, May 21, 2021). Students could interview an elder or Tribal Council person for a first hand perspective. Perspective of the Fishermen: Fishermen rely on a healthy river to provide enough fish to sustain a profitable business as well as feed one's family. Students could interview a fisherman and/or a representative from the Northwest Fisheries Commission for a first hand perspective. Perspective of Fisheries: If the dam is allowed to open the salmonids could be sucked into the diversion dam and be harmed or killed which will cause further damage to the endangered population of steelhead, chinook salmon and bull trout. In addition, the fast flowing waters will cause the vulnerable steelhead redds that were recently found by Puyallup tribes fishery biologists, to be washed away. Also, the fish could consume the black plastic pieces as they are small sizes that look like food and choke or die from toxins in the plastic. If the dam continues to exist then what other disasters will come in the future from the owner who is not following the environmental laws that the hydro company legally agreed to. When the plastic turf and plastic pieces reach the Puget Sound, other animals will be threatened by an increased amount of plastic in the waters. The Puyallup Tribe’s biologists are still finding plastic crumbs and artificial turf as recent as May 2021, a whole year after the disaster happened and the company committed to cleaning the turf out of the river. Despite the Electron Hydro stating that they are taking the concerns of the Puyallup Tribe and general public’s concern “very seriously” they have not once stated that they are interested in protecting salmonid endangered species. Perspective of the Anti-Dam Activists Dams in general gather crucial sediment at the reservoir for the dam instead of dispersing it downstream the meandering channel (Davenport, 2012 ). Downstream a dam, the river is starved of its structural materials and cannot provide habitat for riparian species such as salamanders, amphibians and salmonids. Dams destroy the habitat above and below their stopping of the flow of water. Dams have flooded land areas the size of California, displaced as many people as in Germany, they turn freshwater into the ecosystem most threatened by species extinction (the Guardian). Though dams were built in many countries to provide irrigation systems to support poor or impoverished nations, they have been improperly maintained which has caused damage to agriculture causing even more poverty in those locations (the Guardian). Not only have they caused damage to farms but not properly built dams can break and in 1975 the Banqiao Dam killed an estimated 17100 people and have killed many more due to improper maintenance. Evidence for Not Removing the Dam No- Climate change is getting worse, non-fossil fueled energy is crucial to our future getting to a net zero-carbon use-age. Taking the control of the water away may cause housing developments to flood, farming communities lose their farms, roads will flood and we will lose easy access to parts of Puyallup. Not to mention our school would be flooded. Perspective of Electron Hydro Company The dam is meant to be a renewable resources community partner in the fight against climate change. The dam can power 20,000 homes. When the dam is renovated it will allow the salmon to pass by the dam unharmed. We are spending $15 million dollars to renovate the dam to address the concerns of the tribe and general public. Climate change is getting worse, non-fossil fueled energy is crucial to our future getting to a net zero-carbon use-age. Taking the control of the water away may cause housing developments to flood, farming communities lose their farms, roads will flood and we will lose easy access to parts of Puyallup. Not to mention Chief Leschi Schools would be flooded. Perspective of the City (buyers) If the Electron dam can provide the surrounding communities with green, renewable electricity at an affordable cost then the Electron dam needs to stay. If we put strict enforced boundaries around the Electron Hydro company then we hope to ensure that the company will follow all the concerns of the Puyallup Tribe and public concerns. The hydro dam will save the city money because the electricity coming from this dam will make it so we do not have to outsource our needs of electricity from other dams. This will make it so Washington can continue to build a healthy economy for all of its population. Dams generate one-sixth of the world’s electricity and irrigate 1/7th of our food crops. Supporting Question 1 \| \| \| Featured Source A: \| First Salmon Ceremony Purpose \| The first salmon ceremony celebrated the arrival of the salmon run. The first fish caught was ritually sliced, small pieces of it were distributed among the people and eaten, and the carcass was returned to the water accompanied by prayers and thanks. Tribal members gather each May to celebrate the return of the salmon. Drummers and singers welcomed the first Chinook, one of six caught just upriver that morning, as fishermen carried it up the riverbank on a stretcher-shaped cedar plank covered in sword ferns. Fisherman Steven Dillon carefully filleted the black-and-silver fish, its bright red flesh to be cooked and shared among the community, the rest returned to the river. Source: https://nwifc.org/video-treaty-tribes-honor-first-salmon-bless-fishermen/ Supporting Question 1 \| \| \| Featured Source B: \| Article on Puyallup Tribe’s First Salmon Ceremony \| This article describes that the First Fish Ceremony was to show respect to the salmon. “The respect you have is the respect you show to them, your visitor,” Dobie Tom said. “The visitor (salmon) will go back into the Sound and tell the rest of their family how he was respected.” Another article not included here includes the following quote to be understood with the above article. “We’ve welcomed our first salmon in an honorable way,” Puyallup Tribe cultural director Connie McCloud said as she led the ceremony. “When Mr. Dillon filleted the fish, the head, the back, the tail was kept whole. So this salmon will return to the water and tell the story of what she has witnessed today.” Source: https://www.nwpb.org/2018/05/22/how-the-puyallup-tribe-brings-salmon-home/ Supporting Question 1 \| \| \| Featured Source C: \| Story of the Salmon People \| This is a story about why tribe’s perform a first salmon ceremony and how it is an important ceremony to begin the fishing season. https://omsi.edu/exhibitions/row/docs/ROW-Salmon-Story.pdf Supporting Question 2 \| \| \| Featured Source A: \| Renewable Energy Kit \| Students will learn about the difference between renewable energy types and create a model with these kits. Supporting Question 2 \| \| \| Featured Source B: \| Article on Renewable Energy \| Students will mark the text with this article, and take focussed notes on the different types of renewable energy. This article discusses many different types of renewable energy as well as simple ways that a person can conserve energy. Supporting Question 2 \| \| \| Featured Source C: \| The dam dilemma \| Students will watch this video and take notes on why we need dams and how we can use innovation to avoid the removal of all hydro dams. Students will list the innovations that are already in use from this video and reflect on how those innovations help the issues that dams present. Source: https://youtu.be/BmG5OzIW5_8 Supporting Question 2 \| \| \| Featured Source D: \| A Curriculum to Draw from to teach about Dams \| This resource has many lessons depending on how deep a teacher wants to go into the physics of dams. Bare minimum the teacher needs to teach the first lesson called Why Do we Build Dams? This will teach about the need for water in many communities and the issues that many communities deal with flooding. For teaching more about how hydropower is clean energy, teachers should draw on the lesson called Clean Energy: Hydropower. Source: https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/cub_dams_lesson01 Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source A: \| Elwha Dam Removal Article \| This article is from an environmental perspective. Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source B: \| The Lessons of the Wynoochee River Dam \| While the idea of a dam on the Wynoochee River, at first, sounded like an excellent idea the long term effects were devastating to the salmon and the habitat that relied on the Wynoochee River. Students should understand that rivers serve a purpose and when man attempts to control the natural “flow” of the environment, the consequences can be severe to everything that depends on the river. Source: https://olywip.org/the-lessons-of-the-wynoochee-river-dam/ Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source C: \| Visiting the Wynoochee Dam \| To tame the wild river called Wynoochee, the Wynoochee Dam was built in 1972. The unpredictable river that flooded the valley areas of Montesano and surrounding communities was finally controlled. The dam produces enough electricity to power a small town, but the goal of the dam was flood control and industrial water for nearby pulp mills. Now, the Wynoochee Dam has become a tourist attraction. Camping, hiking and fishing have become synonymous with visiting the dam, as well as scheduled dam tours. Students can further investigate the benefits to the communities that benefit from electricity and flood control vs. the impact of the dam on the natural setting of the river and valley of the Wynoochee. Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source D: \| Puyallup Tribe Court Battle Article \| This article speaks a lot about the perspective of the Tribe and biologists, it does have statements from the Electron Hydro company that states why they want to support their community with green energy. Students who are taking the stakeholder role of either the biologists or the Electron Dam will read this article and glean from it, information to support their socratic seminar. Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source E: \| How much money do dams make? \| This source explains the ins and outs of dams. How much they cost to build, maintain and run. They also go through how much money they gain while the water is being stored in reservoirs. Students will use this when researching a stakeholder like the city who wants to know how much money it will cost to buy electricity from a hydro dam and if it is sustainable to support the city population. Source: https://segmentnext.com/2015/03/16/cities-skylines-hydroelectric-power-plants-dams-guide/ Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source F: \| History of the Elwha Dam \| This source is to support the Appendix assignment for the stakeholder roles of the city council and the tribe. Students will explore the history of the Elwha and how the river being dammed impacted the ecosystem and salmon populations. Source: https://cdn.filestackcontent.com/nKHpR0JHSNqNxI1HmCQ4 Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source G: \| Fisherman’s Perspective + Video on Fisherman’s Perspective \| This source talks about the fishermen on the Columbia River using weirs and how their life was catching fish before the dams were put in place. The video is from the same website but is a video on the same topic. Source: Video: https://www.confluenceproject.org/library-post/salmons-agreement-film/ Supporting Question 3 \| \| \| Featured Source H: \| Return of the River: Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Part 4 \| This resource talks about how the rivers returned after the dam was removed from the Elwha. There are four parts in the documentary and could be used or some parts chosen to understand different perspectives of how a river is impacted after a dam is removed. Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vc5imz0a2qs \| Appendix A \| Preparation for Stakeholder Assignment \| \| Exceeding \| Meeting \| Approaching \| Beginning \| \| Everything in the meeting and…Every other stakeholder’s position is considered and rebuttals are written. \| All bullet points are completely answered with explanations. \| Some bullet points are completely answered with explanations. \| Few bullet points are completely answered with explanations. \| Stakeholder’s Name: Answer the following questions from the perspective of the stakeholder. Pretend you are that person. · Who are you? · How are you connected to the problem? · Your views on the problem (evidence from the reading – not your personal views!) How do you feel about the dam removal? Are you for, against, neutral or other? How would you feel if you were in the same position as your character? · Create an outline of the main points or arguments your character provides to prepare for the presentation to the city council. City Council Members: \| Exceeding \| Meeting \| Approaching \| Beginning \| \| Everything in the meeting and…Questions are created for each stakeholder to ask during the city council meeting. \| A summary of each section is complete and detailed. \| A summary of some sections are complete and detailed. \| A summary of a few sections are complete and detailed AND/OR the summary is weak. \| For each section in the “Historical Background on the Elwha River Dams” write a 3-sentence summary of what was in that section. · Introduction · A place to live · The Elwha River dam · Loss of the salmon and steelhead runs · Dam safety The Tribes 1986 motion before FERC · The relation of the dams to Olympic National Park The Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act Chronology: Elway River Dams Except where otherwise noted, this original work by NCESD is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are property of their respective owners. View license at: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring. [a]Please be sure to add a Footer to each page of your document that includes the licensing information. I sent an email with the appropriate language for this on 5/27/2021	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.389349	Elsie Mitchell	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82271/overview", "title": "Should we remove the Electron Dam?", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68963/overview	Education Standards Grade 4 Science Framework (pdf) Resource 01: Yakima Herald Article-Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble Resource 05: High Desert Museum Icon of the Sagebrush Sea-Legends of the Wasco and Paiute Tribes video Resource 06: Cornell Lab of Ornithology Sage Grouse Male Display (play without sound) Resource 11: Shrub Steppe Species Cards Resource 1: Sage Grouse Pictures Resource 2: Sage Grouse Population Graph Resource 3: Sage Grouse Range Resource 4: Sage Grouse Fact Cards Resource 5: Sage Grouse Observation Resource 6: Shrub Steppe Plant Cards Resource 7: Plant Clues Grade 4 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: Sage Grouse and Sagebrush, Threatened Partners Overview Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects is a statewide Clime Time collaboration among ESD 123, ESD 105, and the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Development of the resources is in response to a need for research- based science lessons for elementary teachers that are integrated with English language arts, mathematics and other subjects such as social studies. The template for Elementary Integration can serve as an organized, coherent and research-based roadmap for teachers in the development of their own NGSS aligned science lessons. Lessons can also be useful for classrooms that have no adopted curriculum as well as to serve as enhancements for current science curriculum. The EFSIS project brings together grade level teams of teachers to develop lessons or suites of lessons that are 1) focused on grade level Performance Expectations, and 2) leverage ELA and Mathematics Washington State Learning Standards. Introduction: Standards, Phenomena, Big Ideas, and Routines Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects resources are designed to be an example of how to develop a coherent lesson or suite of lessons that integrate other subjects such as English Language Arts, Mathematics and other subjects into science learning for students. The examples provide teachers with ways to think about all standards, identify an anchoring phenomena and plan for coherence in science and integrated subjects learning. Washington Learning Standards Fourth Grade Disciplinary Core Ideas include PS3, PS4, LS1, ESS1, ESS2, ESS3, For LS1, students are expected to develop an understanding of: - plants and animals have internal and external structures that function to support survival, growth, behavior, and reproduction. understanding that organisms have different inherited traits, The Crosscutting Concepts are called out as organizing concepts for these disciplinary core ideas. Crosscutting Concepts: - systems and system models Students are expected to use the practices to demonstrate understanding of the core ideas. Science and Engineering Practices: - developing and using models - engaging in argument from evidence Performance Expectation(s) Identify Climate Science related Performance Expectation(s) from Next Generation Science Standards that will be your focus. Copy and paste below all the possible disciplinary core ideas and performance expectations that relate to your topic. 4-LS1-1. Construct an argument that plants and animals have internal and external structures that function to support survival, growth, behavior, and reproduction. Clarification Statement: Examples of structures could include thorns, stems, roots, colored petals, heart, stomach, lung, brain, and skin. Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to macroscopic structures within plant and animal systems 4-LS1-2. U Use a model to describe that animals receive different types of information through their senses, process the information in their brain, and respond to the information in different ways. Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on systems of information transfer. Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include the mechanisms by which the brain stores and recalls information or the mechanisms of how sensory receptors function. Science and Engineering Practices Which SEPs will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? Engaging in Argument from Evidence: Students would develop a model with evidence to argue about the structures of the sage grouse and sagebrush that support their growth, survival, behavior and reproduction and interdependence. Develop a Model to explain the communication and information reception of sage grouse in their mating displays Crosscutting Concepts Which Crosscutting Concepts will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? Systems and Systems Models: using models to explain the sagebrush/sage grouse system and to explore and explain the interdependency of organisms in the shrub steppe English Language Arts (ELA) Standards How will I Integrate ELA Standards (which standard, what strategy…?) Reading Informational Text.4.3: Explain events, procedures, ideas, or concepts in a historical, scientific or technical text including what happened and why based on specific information in the text. Reading Informational Text.4.7: Interpret information presented visually orally, or quantitatively (e.g., in charts, graphs, diagrams, timelines animations or interactive elements and explain how the information contributes to an understanding of the text in which it appears. Writing.4.1: Write opinion piece on topics or texts supporting a point of view with reasons and information - Introduce a topic or text clearly - provide reasons that are supported by facts and details. - link opinion and reasons using words and phrases - provide a concluding statement related to the opinion Speaking and Listening 4.1: Engage effectively in range of collaborative discussions (one on one, groups, and teacher led) with diverse partners on grade 4 topics and texts, building on others’ ideas and expressing their own clearly. Students will write an argument to answer the question “Why are Sage Grouse populations in Washington declining?” Mathematics and Social Studies Standards How will I Integrate other Learning Standards? Math Practices.4 Model with Mathematics: examine two different graphic models to glean information on sage grouse range percentages and acreage Social Studies Standard SSS4.4.1: Draw clear, well-reasoned conclusions with explanations that are supported by print and non-print texts in a paper or presentation. Social Studies Standard SSS4.4.3: Identify relevant evidence that draws information from multiple sources in response to compelling questions. Social Studies Standard SSS2.4.1: Identify disciplinary concepts and ideas associated with a compelling question or supporting questions that are open to different interpretations. Social Studies Standard SSS2.4.2: Identify the main ideas from a variety of print and non-print texts. Social Studies Standard SSS1.4.1: Identify the concepts used in documents and sources. SSS1.4.2 Evaluate primary and secondary sources. Using primary sources including sage grouse range maps, infographics and articles to identify evidence to develop an argument about whether sage grouse populations are dwindling in the West and Washington State in particular. Phenomena I was wondering about why people are so worried when sagebrush in our area is burned or sagebrush areas were dug up for building in our area. Is sagebrush important? I always thought it was just some sort of weed or something. Then I saw this is an article in the Yakima Herald and it made me wonder, what is sagebrush important to and what is important for sagebrush. Anchoring Phenomenon - Article 1: Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble \| Yakima Herald (8-13-18) Introduce the article, Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble. Read up to the subtitle Losing Ground. (This is a higher Lexile score so may be best as a read aloud, read along or guided reading activity). Lesson Phenomena - Resource 1: Grouse Pictures - Video 1: Icon of the Sagebrush Sea-Legends of the Wasco and Paiute Tribes video \| High Desert Museum \| YouTube - Video 2 Sage Grouse Male Display \| Cornell Lab of Ornithology \| YouTube Big Ideas - Animals communicate/process information in unique ways - Plants and animals in the shrub steppe system are interdependent and the success of a species impacts other species - Plants have specific structures that support their survival, growth and reproduction The sage grouse is a keystone species that can show us structure and function and ways of animals sending, receiving and responding to information. This animal also leads to thinking about the interdependence of species in a fragile shrub steppe ecosystem and to think about this system and how the components interact. The structures of various plants in the shrub steppe function to increase their ability to survive, grow and reproduce. A look at sagebrush in particular, a necessary species for sage grouse can give insight into external structures and their function. Lesson 1 (Day 1) Are Sage Grouse at risk in Washington? (phenomena routine) Materials - Article 1: Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble \| Yakima Herald (8-13-18) - Resource 1: Grouse Pictures - Science Notebooks for recording observations for each student - a class t-chart of “Noticings and Wonderings” - Driving Question Board/chart Preparation - Make a copy for each student of Resource 1: Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble article in Yakima Herald 8-13-18 or find it online and project for the class - Make a copy of Resource 2: Photo of Male Sage Grouse Mating Display/Female Sage Grouse in Sagebrush Habitat for each student - Prepare a class t-chart of “Noticings and Wonderings” to record some of what students observe and question in a whole class discussion - Prepare a Driving Question Board/chart for posting student questions Vocabulary - grim worrying - habitat-natural home of a plant or animal - flagship-important - fragmentation-broken into pieces - degradation-wearing down - shrub steppe-a shrub and brush, mostly treeless natural area - display-a performance, show Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Tell students that you recently read an article about sage grouse in the Yakima Herald. - Before reading the article, have students set up a clean notebook page with a “Noticings and Wonderings” t-chart. Stop at intervals in the article as needed to give them time to record on the t-chart. Procedure 2 - Read the Habitat Loss article, stopping at the subtitle Losing Ground. It is in a higher than fourth grade Lexile range so consider various strategies that might be useful in presenting the article such as: - Read to the class: as you display it online or with document camera - Read together: giving student a copy of the article and having them read along with teacher - Guided reading: having students read a paragraph with a partner or individually and then discussing the information in the paragraph and noting it on chart paper - Whatever strategy is used, students should circle or make notes of any vocabulary words that they are unsure of. Provide synonyms or brief definitions for those words as you go. RI4.3, SSS 2.4.1 Procedure 3 - Tell students that we will look at some pictures of Sage Grouse so they can see the animal we are talking about. - Give each student a picture from Resource 1: Grouse Pictures to glue into their science notebook on a clean page. - Ask them to draw a line below their previous “Noticings and Wonderings” and add additional observations to the t-chart based on what they see in the pictures. Formative Assessment opportunity Procedure 4 - Ask students to share with a partner what they noticed and wondered from the article and the pictures. - Ask them to record questions that they have on sticky notes or strips of paper to be posted on a Driving Questions Board for the class. - Remind them that questions should be focused on the article, sage grouse and their habitat for this investigation. - They should record one question on each slip. Procedure 5 - Convene students in a scientist circle to have them share round robin style or by volunteers one question that they have. Every partner pair should share at least one question. Formative Assessment opportunity - Group questions by similar themes together. - Questions that we need to surface are those about the sage grouse: where it lives, what it eats, why does it look the way it does, how it mates - Questions that we need to surface about the habitat: what plants are there, how does the sage grouse use or need the plants and how do the plants benefit from the sage grouse. Lesson 1 (Day 2) Lesson 1 (Day 2): Are Sage Grouse at risk in Washington? Phenomena Routine Investigation Routine Materials - Article 1: Habitat Loss Means Washington Sage Grouse in Trouble \| Yakima Herald (8-13-18) - Resource 2: Sage Grouse Population Graph - Resource 3: Sage Grouse Range Preparation - copy or project Resource 2 line graph to illustrate the decline in sage grouse population in Washington since 1982 for each student - copy or project Resource 3 sage grouse range map for each student Vocabulary - range-area where they live or lived - population-number of animals Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students find their next clean notebook page. - Pass out the line graph of the sage grouse population in Washington since 1982 and have students glue the line graph into their notebook - Have students work with their partner for a few minutes to look at what the line graph is showing. - This could also be done via projection if copying is not an option. Procedure 2 - Bring class back together, display a copy of the line graph for the class, and ask what they think the line graph is showing them. Guide the discussion by helping students track the points on the line graph back to the y axis which shows the number of sage grouse and to the x axis which shows the years for each population count. Procedure 3 - Be sure that students see the trend in population. Have them take a ruler and draw a light line from the 1982 point to the 2012 point to see a downward trend. Model this on the displayed line graph. Ask them what that trend line shows us. Procedure 4 - Refer back to the first sentence in the subtitle Shrinking Population. “Washington state’s sage grouse population is 710 birds, according to preliminary estimates this spring. That’s up from 510 birds in 2017, by far the lowest ever recorded.” - Think about the population numbers for 2018 and 2017 and have students sketch in the data points on the right side of the existing line graph. Model this on the displayed line graph. - What do these data points show us in relation to the trend? Formative Assessment opportunity Procedure 5 - Hand out the sage grouse range map and explain that this is another way to think about the change in sage grouse populations. point out the map key for students to understand what the map is showing. - Ask partner pairs to look at the map and discuss what it shows them. - Ask them to discuss the questions: Does the map support the line graph data? Do they tell a similar story or a different one? RI4.7, SSS4.4.1, SSS 2.4.2, SSS1.4.2, MP4 Procedure 6 - Convene students in a scientist circle to discuss what these two sources are telling them about the sage grouse population in Washington. - Ask if there are other questions that come to mind that we haven’t asked yet. Have them popcorn out one question that is new and record these for the group to add to the Driving Questions Board - Group questions by similar themes together. - A new question might be: Why has the number of sage grouse decreased? Procedure 7 - Direct students to their science notebooks and ask them to write a paragraph showing their thinking about the question, Are Sage Grouse at risk in Washington? from what they know so far. They should site evidence from the article, line graph and map. W4.1 Lesson 2 Lesson 2: What do Sage Grouse need to survive? Investigation Routine Materials - Video 1: Icon of the Sagebrush Sea-Legends of the Wasco and Paiute Tribes video \| High Desert Museum \| YouTube - Video 2 Sage Grouse Male Display \| Cornell Lab of Ornithology \| YouTube - Resource 4: Greater Sage Grouse Fact Cards - Resource 5: Sage Grouse Observations Recording Sheets Preparation - Group driving questions into categories that might generally include behavior, appearance, what they eat, how they mate, what they look like. - Construct a class chart for observations - Copy enough Sage Grouse Facts Cards for each team’s members that will read the card - stage the videos: Resource 5 with sound, Resource 6 without sound - Copy sage grouse fact sheets for each student - Copy enough Sage Grouse Observation and Facts Recording Sheets Vocabulary - lek-the open area among the sagebrush where sage grouse gather to display during mating Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Now that we have learned a little about sage grouse population risk let’s review the driving question board to see if there are questions that we need to focus on first. - Review your groupings of questions with students and have students talk with an elbow partner about what they think they need to know. - Pose a thought, if it doesn’t surface “I feel like I need to know about this sage grouse and just what its life is like. Does that seem like a plan?” Procedure 2 - As a phenomenon for this lesson tell students that you found a video of indigenous people and one of their stories about the sage grouse. - Show Video 1: Icon of the Sagebrush Sea-Legends of the Wasco and Paiute Tribes and play the sound for narration. - Give students a chance to share with partners what they observed as they watched the video Procedure 3 - Next show them the video of the male sage grouse mating display, Video 2 Cornell Lab of Ornithology Sage Grouse Male Display without sound is best (video is 3 minutes) - Have students discuss with partners how the actual sage grouse display compares and contrasts with the Icon of the Sagebrush Sea-Legends of the Wasco and Paiute Tribes video. RI 4.6 Procedure 4 - Now have students record and discuss their observations of the sage grouse from the videos on the Resource 5 Observation Record Sheet Procedure 5 - Engage in a class discussion of observations that students made from the video and record them on a class chart of the Observation Record Sheet. Pose the questions, “why does the male sage grouse really do this display?” “Are the sage grouse, male and female communicating with each other?” “How is he communicating? How is she communicating 4.1 THIS IS A GOOD PLACE TO BREAK THE LESSON IF NECESSARY Procedure 6 - Place students in groups of four and hand each student in the group one of four different Sage Grouse Facts Cards. Cards are marked with Lexile ranges that can help with giving each student an appropriately leveled reading. - Pass out the Sage Grouse Facts Recording Sheet to every student (alternatively you could have one for the group of four). - Each student in the group of four should read their card and be ready to “teach” their group the information from their card. - Students should record what they learn from their group mates. RI 4.3. Formative assessment opportunity Procedure 7 - Bring the class together and have the students who read the Description card share facts they learned to the class. Repeat the procedure for the Where they Live card, the What they Eat card, and the Behavior card. Have students add to their recording sheet if new information is learned. EXTENSION: - You may want students to use the Sage Grouse Facts Recording Sheet to write an explanatory text about the sage grouse. W 4.2 Lesson 3 Lesson 3: Important Shrub Steppe Plants Investigation Routine Putting Pieces Together Routine Materials - Resource 6: Shrub Steppe Plant Cards - Resource 7: Plant Clues Preparation - prepare copies of Resource 6: Shrub Steppe Plants Cards - prepare copies of Resource 7: Plant Clues Vocabulary - Rhizomes-runners sent out from plants beneath the soil that will start a new plant above surface - Taproot-large root that goes deeper into the soil and doesn’t spread horizontally Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Give each student or small group of students a set of the four shrub steppe plants. - Tell them that these are some of the plants that the sage grouse is dependent on for food and shelter. - Then give the plant riddles to each student or small group of students. Procedure 2 - Ask students to read aloud the plant riddle and try to match the correct plant picture to the riddle. They should work together if they are in groups. RI 4.7. Formative Assessment opportunity Lesson 4 Lesson 4: How are organisms in the Shrub Steppe connected to each other? Materials - Resource 9: Shrub Steppe Species Cards Set 1 with descriptions. - Bag or envelope to store cards in - A handful of notecards or paper slips for students to draw arrows and label them with connections (they may need more so have plenty on hand) Preparation - Copy and cut sets of shrub steppe cards for every group of 4 students - Separate out the sage grouse and sagebrush - Place the rest of cards in a bag or envelop Vocabulary - Organisms-living things Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students work in teams of four. - Hand each group the sage grouse and sage brush cards from their set and ask what we already know about the relationship between these two organisms. - Listen as groups discuss this or have a whole class discussion. Procedure 2 - Give groups the rest of their shrub steppe cards (you may want to pick a subset of the cards if this is too large a number but be sure you have plants and animals and have chosen plants and animals that have a connection such as “ sage grouse nests under sagebrush…. eats sagebrush…. coyote eats sage grouse…etc.” - Give groups time to arrange and rearrange the cards in various models of the interaction between various organisms. Procedure 3 - After 10-15 minutes encourage students to draw directional arrows on paper slips and use them to indicate what eats or depends on another species for survival and put them between pictures. - Students should prepare to share their thinking with other groups. Procedure 4 - Give groups of students a chance to explain their thinking to a neighboring group and then listen to that group explain theirs. - Students should engage in a discussion of the differences in their thinking and what was alike. Formative Assessment opportunity Attribution and License Attribution NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press \| Public License Common Core State Standards © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved \| Public License License Except where otherwise noted, this work developed for ClimeTime is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring. If this work is adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any ClimeTime logos. Provide the following attribution: This resource was adapted from Sage Grouse and Sage Brush: Threatened Partners by ClimeTime and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Access the original work for free in the ClimeTime group on the OER Commons Washington Hub. This resource was made possible by funding from the ClimeTime initiative, a state-led network for climate science learning that helps teachers and their students understand climate science issues affecting Washington communities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.529881	English Language Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68963/overview", "title": "Grade 4 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: Sage Grouse and Sagebrush, Threatened Partners", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68266/overview	Education Standards Grade 1 Science Framework (pdf) Resource 1: Plant Growth Recording Sheet Resource 2: Plant Sorting Cards Resource 4: Lesson 4 Video The Four Parts of a Plant Resource 3: Lesson 4 Video The Bean Time-Lapse - 25 days Grade 1 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: Plants and Their Parts Overview Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects is a statewide Clime Time collaboration among ESD 123, ESD 105, and the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Development of the resources is in response to a need for research- based science lessons for elementary teachers that are integrated with English language arts, mathematics and other subjects such as social studies. The template for Elementary integration can serve as an organized, coherent and research-based roadmap for teachers in the development of their own NGSS aligned science lessons. Lessons can also be useful for classrooms that have no adopted curriculum as well as to serve as enhancements for current science curriculum. The EFSIS project brings together grade level teams of teachers to develop lessons or suites of lessons that are 1) focused on grade level Performance Expectations, and 2) leverage ELA and Mathematics Washington State Learning Standards. Introduction: Standards, Phenomena, Big Ideas, and Routines Washington State Learning Standards First Grade Disciplinary Core Ideas include LS1 and LS3 For LS1 and LS3, students are expected to develop an understanding of: - how plants and animals use their external parts to help them survive, grow, and meet their needs - how behaviors of parents and offspring help the offspring survive - that young plants and animals are like, but not exactly the same as, their parents - availability of light at different times of year The Crosscutting Concepts are called out as organizing concepts for these disciplinary core ideas. Crosscutting Concepts: - patterns - structure and function Students are expected to use the practices to demonstrate understanding of the core ideas. Science and Engineering Practices: - planning and carrying out investigations, - analyzing and interpreting data, - constructing explanations and designing solutions, - obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. Performance Expectation(s) Identify Performance Expectation(s) from Next Generation Science Standards that will be your focus (Climate Science related PEs preferred but not mandatory). Copy and paste below all the possible disciplinary core ideas and performance expectations that relate to your topic. 1-LS1-1. Use materials to design a solution to a human problem by mimicking how plants and/or animals use their external parts to help them survive, grow, and meet their needs. [Clarification Statement: Examples of human problems that can be solved by mimicking plant or animal solutions could include designing clothing or equipment to protect bicyclists by mimicking turtle shells, acorn shells, and animal scales; stabilizing structures by mimicking animal tails and roots on plants; keeping out intruders by mimicking thorns on branches and animal quills; and, detecting intruders by mimicking eyes and ears.] Addresses part of the PE 1-LS3-2. Make observations to construct an evidence-based account that young plants and animals are like, but not exactly like, their parents. Clarification Statement: Examples of patterns could include features plants or animals share. Examples of observations could include leaves from the same kind of plant are the same shape but can differ in size; and, a particular breed of dog looks like its parents but is not exactly the same.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include inheritance or animals that undergo metamorphosis or hybrids.] Science and Engineering Practices Which SEPs will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? Constructing explanations and designing solutions in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to the use of evidence and ideas in constructing evidence-based accounts of natural phenomena and designing solutions. (1-LS1-1) Use materials to design a device that solves a specific problem or a solution to a specific problem. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in K-2 builds on prior experiences and uses observations and texts to communicate new information. (1-LS1-2) Read grade-appropriate texts and use media to obtain scientific information to determine patterns in the natural world. Scientific Knowledge is based on Empirical Evidence (1-LS1-2) Scientists look for patterns and order when making observations about the world. Crosscutting Concepts Which Crosscutting Concepts will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? (1-LS1-2) Patterns - Patterns in the natural world can be observed, used to describe phenomena, and used as evidence. (1-LS1-1) Structures and Functions - The shape and stability of structures of natural and designed objects are related to their function(s). English Language Arts (ELA) Standards How will I Integrate ELA Standards (which standard, what strategy…?) (RI.1.1) Ask and answer questions about key details in a text. (Main idea, key details) (W1.2) Write Informative/explanatory texts with topic, facts and a closure sentence. (SL.1.1) Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about grade 1 topics. (SL.1.2) Ask and answer questions about key details in a text, read aloud or information presented orally or through other media. (SL.!.5) Add drawings or other visual displays to descriptions when appropriate to clarify ideas, thoughts, and feelings. (W.1.7) Participate in shared research and writing projects. (W.1.8) With guidance and support from adults, recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. (L.1.5)-Sort common objects into categories to gain a sense of the concepts the categories represent. Mathematics Standards How will I Integrate Mathematics Standards? (MP.2) Reason abstractly and quantitatively (MP.5) Use appropriate tools strategically Complete a table with plant growth data. (1.MD.2) Express the length of an object as a whole number of length units, by laying multiple copies of a shorter object end to end; understand that the length measurement of an object is the number of same size length units that span it with no gaps or overlaps. Phenomena Plants use their external parts to help them survive, grow, and meet their needs. How do Plants use their parts to survive and grow? Students have most likely seen plants that are big and beautiful as well as plants that are wilted and dying. Why do some plants grow so well here and some die? This can be puzzling to the students because there are things it would be fun to see growing in your area, but they do not. They may want to try growing other things at home and this will help them understand what they need to succeed The performance expectations should guide the formulation of phenomena beg questions such as these Regional Place Based Questions Teachers Might Consider: - Why do some plants grow well in one area and others die? - What is needed for a tiny seed to turn into a big plant? - What are the things needed for this seed to become an adult plant (water, sunlight, heat, soil)? - What would happen if a plant did not get enough of something it needs? - Can the seed get too much of something it needs? - What would happen if a seed gets too much of something it needs? Phenomena Resources: Communicating in Scientific Ways \| OpenSciEd Big Ideas In order to grow, plants need to have all of their parts. If any plant part is taken away it will affect the growth of the plant or their ability to reproduce. Open Sci Ed Routines \| Routine \| Description of Routine \| \|---\|---\| \| Anchoring Phenomenon Routine \| Develop curiosity to drive learning throughout the suite of lessons or unit based on a common experience of a phenomenon \| \| Navigation Routine \| Establish and reinforce the connections between what we have previously done in a unit, what we are about to do, what we will do in the future, and what our driving purpose is in the contexts of the suite of lessons or unit. \| \| Investigation Routine \| Use scientific practices to investigate and make sense of a phenomenon \| \| Putting Pieces Together Routine \| Take the pieces of ideas we have developed across multiple lessons and figure out how they can be connected to account for the phenomenon we have been working on \| \| Problematizing Routine \| Evaluate the adequacy of our scientific ideas to explain and phenomenon in order to identify what we still need to understand. \| Lesson 1: How Dow We Think Plants Grow? Note: Lesson 1 serves as the anchoring phenomena for the learning experiences and can serve as a formative assessment opportunity to determine prior knowledge and partial conceptions. Anchoring Phenomenon Routine Materials: - 8 ½ x 11 “Copier” type paper for each student - A seed and a small plant (not necessarily the same species) for the class - A large chart paper and markers on which the Teacher will draw students’ initial model, folded into 4 sections - A large chart paper that will become the Driving Question Board Preparation: - Fold student papers into 4 sections for students. - Title one chart paper “Our First Model Ideas” - Title the next chart paper “Driving Question Board” Vocabulary: - seed, plant Integration Points: - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students look at the small plant and the seed. Ask students How they think the seed becomes the plant. Ask, “What are the details in between?” Note: Begin sprouting lima bean seeds for observation and dissection during lesson 6. - The students will fold paper in half and again into fourths. Have students write First, Next, Then, and Last at the top of each section. W1.3 recount sequenced events Procedure 2 - Then, have students draw their initial model of how they think a plant grows in 4 progressive steps and including at least 2 labels in each box. W1.3 recount sequenced events Procedure 3 - Gather students in a large group, a “scientist circle” and debrief students’ initial models - As students share their models create an initial group consensus model, drawing it in front of the students. - Encourage discussion of what should be on the consensus model and areas of disagreement. - At this point record those things where the group agrees and indicate with a question mark or written question where the group is unsure. Add labels from students’ thinking. (Save this poster for a later lesson.) Procedure 4 - Ask students to work with a partner and talk about what questions they have about the way plants grow, the parts of a plant, etc. - On sentence strips scribe the questions students have about plants, how they grow, their parts etc. - Ex: What happens to a seed as it becomes a plant? - Post questions on the chart titled “Driving Question Board” arranging them by types of questions. For example: these questions are all about a part of the plant so let’s put them together. These questions are all about what plants need so we will group them over here. - Alternately if students are able, they could write their questions on sentence strips to be posted. RI.1.1-Ask and answer questions about key details in a text. Lesson 2: Planting Plant Seeds Navigation Routine Investigation Routine Note: Students plant (bean) seeds directly behind plastic of a clear cup or in a baggie taped to a window. Seeds can also be planted in the garden. (The purpose is to see the progression of change in a real plant which can be described using the transitional words, first, next, then and last. This is likely to be a two-day lesson. Materials - lima bean seeds (or other fast germinating seeds such as radish) - baggies/clear plastic cups (optional material could be clear plastic tubes or seed planters with clear panel side) - plastic wrap - containers of soil - 3 oz Dixie cup or other measuring cup - spray bottle with water or water with eyedropper - permanent marker - paper and crayons - chart paper for a class measurement chart - copies of plant growth chart for student notebooks - centimeter cubes, paper strips, cm. ruler-a centimeter measuring tool of some kind Preparation - Soak seeds overnight (be sure to soak extra seeds for planting for backups in planter cups or for plants that can be dug up, rinsed off and observed from a garden) - Lay out damp soil, soaked seeds, cups/baggies at table groups, and markers. (may choose to put soil into - cups/baggies in advance) - OR prepare garden soil for planting seeds - fill three cups with soil - one too dry soil, one too wet soil, and one moist for demonstration of watering procedure - Draw a class measurement chart and post it in the room - Copy Resource 1: Plant Growth Chart for each student. Vocabulary - Soil, germination, cm/centimeters, compare, length Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Students remind each other of what is on the initial group consensus model and what questions were surfaced yesterday. - Have student partners write their name and date on baggie or cup or on a label they attach to their container. Procedure 2 - Have student partners write their name and date on baggie or cup or on a label they attach to their container. - Have students measure out one Dixie cup of soil from the soil container into their cup or baggie. (skip step 2 if you pre filled planting containers with soil) Procedure 3 - Have students select their seed and plant it by pushing it down into the soil with a pencil making sure it shows against the plastic. - If planting in a garden space give each student a small plot and have them plant 2 or 3 seeds. - plant seed as directed on package (about ⅛ -¼ inch (less than a cm or the depth of their pinky finger fingernail) below surface of moist garden soil - have students write their names on craft sticks and place them in the dirt near their seed plot Procedure 4 - Seal baggie/cover cup with plastic wrap and tape to/set near window. The plants need heat to germinate, not necessarily sunlight which they will need as they sprout. plastic wrap will keep them moist. Remove that plastic wrap once the plant sprouts. Procedure 5 - Teach a watering technique using a spray bottle (or eye dropper). Remind students too much water will not be good for the seed/plant. Calibrate spraying technique to say something like, “Only 3 sprays every other day.” Maybe use a generic calendar to show what days are watering days and which are not. Set up some examples of soil in baggies/cups that is too dry, just right and too wet. Have students compare their baggy/cup to the examples to determine if their plant really needs water. NOTE: this is a good place to break if the whole lesson cannot be finished in one day. Procedure 6 - Give students another piece of paper and have them fold it into fourths. Label the boxes with first, next, then, and last, as in lesson one. Students should draw in the box labeled ‘first’ a picture of what their seed looks like on the first day of planting. Be sure to include the date. Include at least two labels. Note: additional boxes will be filled during future observations as the plant grows. W1.3 recount sequenced events, SL 1.5 add visual displays Procedure 7 - Tell students that we will measure plants each time we observe them. This is the DAY 1 observation. Right now, the plant is zero centimeters tall. As we measure them, we will record how tall the plant grows using Resource 1: Plant Growth Chart - Choose one partner pair’s plant to represent the class measurement and be sure to measure and record that on the class chart. Students could create their own simple chart in science notebooks or a handout with a chart could be created and given to students to record in. 1.MD.2-Express the length of an object as a whole number of length units, MP.5-Use appropriate tools strategically Complete a table with plant growth data. Plant Growth Day 1 (date) \| Day 2(date) \| Day 3(date) \| Day 4 (date) \| (height in whole cm.) \| (height in whole cm.) \| (height in whole cm.) \| (height in whole cm.) \| Procedure 8 - Continue to make observations of seed/plant in the next few weeks, documenting new growth and periodically drawing changes in the plant. Be sure to include the date of each observation and labels. W1.3 recount sequenced events Lesson 3: Plant Parts Lesson 3: Plant Parts Navigation Routine Investigation Routine Notes: In this lesson students will become familiar with the basic parts of a plant: root, stem, leaf, sprout or seedling, seed, flower. They will begin to think about what the parts of the plant do for the whole plant. Materials: - Resource 2: Picture Packets (1 set per small group or set of partners) Preparation: - Print either the clipart or photo sorting cards and labels (enough sets for your choice of groupings plus one more set for you to use at the end as a display). - Cut apart and bag cards and labels so they are ready for the groups/partners. Vocabulary: sort, seed, root, seedling, sprout, leaf, plant, flower Integration Points: - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1: - Ask students to remind each other of what we did yesterday (planting seeds). - Ask them about what the parts of the plants that will grow might be - Review the rules of working in small groups or with partners (take turns, share the materials, listen to each other and respectfully disagree or agree). Procedure 2: - Explain to the students that they will be given a set of cards that show the different parts of plants. - Read together the label cards and have students spread those out in a line on their desk/table/floor. - Tell students that they will sort plant part picture cards into groups of what they think are roots, seeds, seedlings, plants, and flowers under the label cards. - With their group/partner the students are to look carefully at the cards Resource 2: Picture Packets and discuss why they believe the cards belong in one group and not another. L.1.5-Sort common objects into categories. Procedure 3: - Students work collaboratively to sort the cards with their group/partner. SL1.1 Collaborative Conversations Procedure 4: - When the students have completed sorting, have the groups share with each other how they sorted and why (this could be done with groups sharing to the class or sets of partners sharing with each other). SL1.1 Collaborative Conversations Procedure 5: - As a class come together and discuss their initial thoughts and any ideas that may have changed as a result of the discussions. During this discussion come to a classroom agreement and use one set of cards to make a classroom poster to display for students to use as a reference if needed during future work. - On the classroom poster, tape or glue each label card and then tape the various plant parts up as indicated in discussion. Some pictures could be in several of the categories. It is important to ask students why they would put the picture in that category. A student might say something like, “the wheat picture has seeds but I also see stems and leaves so it is a picture of the plant.”Point out the significant features of each plant part (example: the roots grow below the ground and seem to point downward. The kind of look like they have tiny hairs going off a main part or the seedling is small and only has one or two leaves). SL1.1 Collaborative Conversations Procedure 6: Make observations of seed/plant, documenting new growth drawing changes in the plant.. Be sure to include the date of each observation and labels. This is the DAY 2 observation. W1.3 recount sequenced events Lesson 4: How Do Plants Grow and Use Their Parts Notes: In lesson 4 students will learn more about how a plant grows and about what each part of the plant does. Materials: - Resource 3 video: Bean Time-Lapse - 25 days - Resource 4 Four Parts of a Plant video - Computer with presentation ability so show the classroom a short video. - Sentence Frames on a poster or sentence strips Preparation: - Have the video ready to play after introduction. - Write sentence frames such as these on a poster or sentence strips for visual prompts in discussing plant changes - “At first I thought...now I know…” - “In the beginning I thought, then I saw… in the books we read. Now I see… in the bean I’ve planted” - “When we sorted cards, I noticed...” Vocabulary: - time-lapse photography Integration Points: - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Revisit students’ initial model of how a plant grows from lesson 1. Have them discuss any changes they have made in their thinking as the lessons have progressed and the plant has grown. - Have students discuss new details using sentence frames such as: - “At first I thought...now I know…” - “In the beginning I thought, then I saw… in the books we read. Now I see… in the bean I’ve planted” - “When we sorted cards, I noticed….”SL1.1 Collaborative Conversations Procedure 2 - Explain that today they will see a video using time-lapse photography of a plant growing. Ask them to watch and see if there is anything they have not thought of yet in the process of a plant growing. (If you have time and students are interested you could run through the video more than one time.) - Show Resource 3 VIDEO: Bean Time-Lapse - 25 days Procedure 3 - Ask the students to discuss with partners or table groups what they just saw. - Tell them to try and identify the parts of the plant that grew in the video. Have them use the class poster from the previous lesson with the word cards and picture cards to think about what plant parts they saw and to think about any parts they think the video didn’t show. - Make a comparison with the video they just watched and the steps of growth they have previously illustrated. Make comparison also with the parts of plants they saw in the card sort from the previous lesson. SL1.1 Collaborative Conversations, W.1.8- Recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Procedure 4 - Revisit the Driving Question Board to see if any initial questions have been answered so far. Ask students if they have new questions about how plants grow or the parts of a plant. - Guide the discussion toward the question about what the parts of the plant do. - Add new questions to the Driving Question Board and group the questions that have been answered so far. SL.1.2- Ask and answer questions about key details in a text, read aloud or information presented orally or through other media. Procedure 5 - Share with students that you have one shorter video that may help us figure out what the parts of the plants do and why they are important. - Show the Resource 4 Four Parts of a Plant video, stopping the video after each part to discuss or point out parts of the video. W.1.8- Recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. Procedure 6 - Make observations of seed/plant, documenting new growth drawing changes in the plant. Be sure to include the date of each observation and labels. This is the DAY 3 observation. W1.3 recount sequenced events. Lesson 5: Thinking About Our Observations Notes: This lesson brings together student learning about plants, their growth, parts and why those parts are important. It is likely to need two days for this lesson. Materials: - student initial models - student 4-part paper documenting plant growth with pictures and labels - Plant growth table showing growth in centimeters (cubes, paper strips, cm. ruler) - Class initial consensus model - Driving Question Board Integration Points: - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Have students observe their growing seeds and describe changes, using the scaffolding, “At first I saw___, but now I see___.” Measure and enter DAY 4 height on the data table showing growth in plant length. - How many centimeters longer is the plant on day 4 than day 1? - Compare your plant to a partner’s. Are they the same length? How much shorter? Longer? - Point out that even though they are the very same kind of plant there are differences Procedure 2 - Revisit students’ initial model from lesson 1 and the class Consensus Model. Have them add to their final drawing on the 4-part document of their plant’s growth and add new details and descriptions of the plant parts and what they do. Procedure 3 - Bring the class to the “Scientist Circle” group meeting area along with data and models. - Have students discuss new details using the posted sentence frames such as: “At first I thought...now I know…” “In the beginning I thought, …. then I saw… in the videos we saw. Now I see… in the bean I’ve planted” “When we sorted cards, I noticed….” W1.3 recount sequenced events SL1.4 describe events - With guidance from the class add to the class Consensus Model modifying it to be more accurate and add new thinking and learning with a different color. Students add new details to their Initial Models in their notebooks. Add the function label to each part. leaf/gather food, thorn/protect, stem/hold plant up, blossom/grow fruit, root/absorb water, skin/protect seed, seedling/push above the soil. Example: “the leaves make food for the plant”. Remind them of the video from the previous lesson. Alternatively, draw a new and more complete and accurate consensus model in front of students and with their input reflecting their learning about how plants grow, what plant parts are and why each part is important. Procedure 4 - At this point revisit the Driving Question Board and discuss answers that have been learned to student questions. Procedure 5 - Students will write an Informational piece to answer the question “Do plants use their external parts to survive?”, using the Initial and final Models both individual and class Consensus Model, and Driving Question Board as references for ideas and science vocabulary. - Use the topic sentence, “Plants use their external parts to survive.” - Have students write 3-5 supporting sentences, naming plant parts, and describing what that part does for the plant. - They can use a closing sentence such as, “Yes, plants do use their external parts to survive.” EXTENSION: (this would address the entire Performance Expectation 1LS1-1: - Provide a variety of materials, chenille stems, Q-Tips, paper, straws, string or yarn, tissue, small cups, etc. and ask students to choose one plant part that they could use as an idea to solve human problem. For example: a string could piece of yarn in a cup could soak up water and get it to a different place (like a wick) or a straw could suck up water to get it to a human’s mouth like a stem gets water to the leaves. Appendix There are many read alouds that might be helpful. Those from Epic require a subscription and ask for student information but have a free trial period. Ideally the actual book is available but often a reading of the book can be found on YouTube and might be more accessible for remote, at home learning. Resource Books - National Geographic Readers: Seed to Plant: Kristin Baird Rattini - From Seed to Plant: Allan Fowler Rookie Read About Science - How Seeds Grows: Helene J. Jordan - Plants and Seeds: Cindy Barden Student reading resources PLANT LIFE CYCLE The following titles are available in EPIC Books. Educators can get free access to EPIC Books for themselves and their class– registration is required. - Live Cycle of a Plant: Pam Holden - Max Plants a Seed: Kerry Dinmont - Investigating: Plant Life Cycles: L. J. Amstutz - The Plant Life Cycle: Arnold Ringstad - From Seed to Sunflower: Mari Schuh - From Seed to Strawberry: Mari Schuh - From Acorn to Oak: Mari Schuh - Plant Life Cycles: Julie Lundgren Additional titles - Plants and Seeds (Sunshine Books Science): Colin Walker - Seeds Grow (Sunshine Books Science): Colin Walker - How a Seed Grows: Helene J. Jordan - Seed to Plant: Melvin and Gilda Berger - All About Seeds: Melvin Berger - Grow Seed Grow: Lisa Trumbauer - Seeds Grow!: Angela shelf Medearis - From Seed to Plant: Gail Gibbons - From Seed to Apple: Ruth Mattison - How Plants Grow (TIME for Kids): Dona Herweck Rice PLANT PARTS The following titles are available in EPIC Books. Educators can get free access to EPIC Books for themselves and their class– registration is required. - Exploring Seeds: Kristin Sterling - Exploring Roots: Kristin Sterling - Exploring Stems: Kirstin Sterling - Exploring Leaves: Kirstin Sterling - Exploring Flowers: Kirstin Sterling - Plants Can’t Sit Still: Rebecca E. Hirsch Additional titles - Flip, Float, Fly: Seeds on the Move: JoAnn Early Macken - Seeds, Seeds, Seeds (Sunshine Books Science): Brian and Jillian Cutting UNUSUAL PLANTS The following titles are available in EPIC Books. Educators can get free access to EPIC Books for themselves and their class– registration is required. - Amazing Plant Bodies: Ellen Lawrence - Extreme Trees: Ellen Lawrence - Meat-Eating Plants: Ellen Lawrence - Healing Plants: Ellen Lawrence - How Plants Clean the Air: Ellen Lawrence - Prickly Plants: Ellen Lawrence - Poison Petals: Ellen Lawrence - Freaky Plant Facts: Ellen Lawrence Attribution and License Attribution Cover photo by Umut AVCI from Pixabay NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press \| Public License Common Core State Standards © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved \| Public License License Except where otherwise noted, this work developed for ClimeTime is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring. If this work is adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any ClimeTime logos. Provide the following attribution: This resource was adapted from Plants and Their Parts by ClimeTime and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Access the original work for free in the ClimeTime group on the OER Commons Washington Hub. This resource was made possible by funding from the ClimeTime initiative, a state-led network for climate science learning that helps teachers and their students understand climate science issues affecting Washington communities	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.687587	Life Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68266/overview", "title": "Grade 1 - Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects: Plants and Their Parts", "author": "English Language Arts" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80655/overview	Education Standards B. WA OER First Grade EFSIS Sky Explorers Word Doc C. WA OER First Grade EFSIS Sky Explorers PDF D. Daytime Night Time Model E. Predictable Patterns in the Sky-PBS Video F. KLEWS Chart Explanation G. Student Data Sheet Observations of the Sun H. Sunrise, Sunset Digital Book from Beacon Learning Center I. Sunrise/Sunset Chant from Beacon Learning J.Moon Blackline Master K. Pathway of the Moon Image 2 L. Phases of the Moon Examples Image 1 M. Moon Orbit Demonstration NSTA KIDS N. Orbit of Moon Around Sun Image 3 O. Time Lapse of Moon Phases P. Moonrise Moonset One day Q. Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me by Eric Carle First Grade Elementary Science and Integrates Subjects-Sky Explorers Overview The First Grade Elementary Framework for Science and Integrated Subjects, Sky Explorers uses observation of the sun and moon in the sky as a phenomena for exploring patterns of objects in the sky. It is part of Elementary Framework for Science and Integrated Subjects project, a statewide Clime Time collaboration among ESD 123, ESD 105, North Central ESD, and the Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Development of the resources is in response to a need for research- based science lessons for elementary teachers that are integrated with English language arts, mathematics and other subjects such as social studies. The template for Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects can serve as an organized, coherent and research-based roadmap for teachers in the development of their own NGSS aligned science lessons. Lessons can also be useful for classrooms that have no adopted curriculum as well as to serve as enhancements for current science curriculum. The EFSIS project brings together grade level teams of teachers to develop lessons or suites of lessons that are 1) pnenomena based, focused on grade level Performance Expectations, and 2) leverage ELA and Mathematics Washington State Learning Standards. Introduction: Standards, Phenomena, Big Ideas, Routines First Grade Development Team: Alexis Emerson, Heidi Flake, Julie Fry Sky Explorers Frameworks for Elementary Science and Integrated Subjects are designed to be an example of how to develop a coherent lesson or suite of lessons that integrate other content areas such as English Language Arts, Mathematics and other subjects into science learning for students. The examples provide teachers with ways to think about all standards, identify anchoring phenomena, and plan for coherence in science and integrated subjects learning First Grade Disciplinary Core Ideas include PS4, LS1, LS3, and ESS1 For ESS1 students are expected to develop an understanding of: - Observe, describe and predict some patterns of movement of objects in the sky The Crosscutting Concepts are called out as organizing concepts for these disciplinary core ideas. Crosscutting Concepts: - Patterns Students are expected to use the practices to demonstrate understanding of the core ideas. Science and Engineering Practices: - Planning and carrying out investigations - Analyzing and Interpreting Data Performance Expectation(s) 1-ESS1-1. Use observations of the sun, moon, and stars to describe patterns that can be predicted. [Clarification Statement: Examples of patterns could include that the sun and moon appear to rise in one part of the sky, move across the sky, and set; and stars other than our sun are visible at night but not during the day.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment of star patterns is limited to stars being seen at night and not during the day.] Science and Engineering Practices Planning and carrying out investigations to answer questions or test solutions to problems in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to simple investigations, based on fair tests, which provide data to support explanations or design solutions. (1-ESS1-2) Make observations (firsthand or from media) to collect data that can be used to make comparisons. Analyzing data in K–2 builds on prior experiences and progresses to collecting, recording, and sharing observations. (1-ESS1-1) Use observations (firsthand or from media) to describe patterns in the natural world in order to answer scientific questions. Crosscutting Concepts Which Crosscutting Concepts will be a focus for investigating this topic/phenomenon? (1-ESS1-1) (1-ESS1-2) Patterns - Patterns in the natural world can be observed, used to describe phenomena, and used as evidence. English Language Arts (ELA) Standards How will I Integrate ELA Standards (which standard, what strategy…?) (RL.1.10) With prompting and support, read prose and poetry of appropriate complexity for grade 1. (RI.1.1) Ask and answer questions about key details in a text. (1-ESS1-1). (1-ESS1-2) (KLEWS or KWL chart, GLAD-Learning Log) (W.1.8) With guidance and support from adults, recall information from experiences or gather information from provided sources to answer a question. (1-ESS1-1). (1-ESS1-2) (KLEWS or KWL chart, Science Notebook, GLAD-Learning Log, Shared Writing) (SL.1.1) Participate in collaborative conversations with diverse partners about grade 1 topics and texts with peers and adults in small and larger groups. (Think, Pair, Share, GLAD-10/2, 5/2, Turn & Talk) (SL.1.5) Add drawings or other visual displays to descriptions when appropriate to clarify ideas, thoughts, and feelings. (Graphic Organizers, Science Notebook, GLAD-Learning Logs) (L.1.1) Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking. (Science Notebook, GLAD-Learning Log, Shared Writing) (L.1.2) Demonstrate command of the conventions of Standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing. (Science Notebook, Shared Writing) Mathematics Standards How will I Integrate Mathematics Standards? (MP.2) Reason abstractly and quantitatively (1-ESS1-2) (MP.4) Model with mathematics (1-ESS1-2) (MP.5) Use appropriate tools strategically (1-ESS1-2) (1.MD.2) Express the length of an object as a whole number of length units, by laying multiple copies of a shorter object (the length unit) end to end; understand that the length measurement of an object is the number of same-size length units that span it with no gaps or overlaps. (1.MD.C.4) Organize, represent, and interpret data with up to three categories; ask and answer questions about the total number of data points, how many in each category, and how many more or less are in one category than in another. (1-ESS1-2) (1.NBT.2) Understand that the two digits of a two-digit number represent amounts of tens and ones. (1.NBT.3) Compare two two-digit numbers based on meanings of the tens and ones digits, recording the results of comparisons with the symbols >,=,<. Phenomena The phenomena starts in lesson 1 as students do a field investigation and observe the daytime sky. Students are using their senses to notice, smell, feel, hear and think about the sky. The Teacher poses the questions: What do you see right now? Can we see the same things at night? What do we see at night that might be different? Why do we see different things at different times? Teacher explains how scientists use observations to gather information to learn something new and make connections. How can we know when and where the Sun and Moon will be in the sky? Phenomena Resources: Communicating in Scientific Ways \| OpenSciEd Big Ideas Which one of the ideas from the curriculum and the Standards now seems the most central - meaning they might help explain other ideas you’ve listed and explain a wide range of natural phenomena? You must use more than a name to express your idea, express it as a set of relationships. Explain your choice clearly enough so a colleague could understand why you made the choice you did. How are the Sun and the Moon’s movements patterns in the sky? - Students investigate patterns of the Sun and Moon in order to predict movements Open Sci Ed Routines Lesson 1: What do I notice about Day and Night? Anchoring Phenomenon Routine Materials - Projector/Promethean Board - Video - Sticky notes - pencil/coloring tools - Daytime Night time Model - Organizational charts KLEWS chart (OER Commons, Kate Katz, Carla Zembal-Saul) - Vocabulary words - Student Science Journal - Daytime and Night time model Preparation Make copies of Daytime and Night time Model (1 per student)Prepare a Chart to organize student information and resources to post in the classroom. For an example, use the KLEWS chart labeled - K (What we know), L (What we learned), E (What was our evidence), W (What we wonder), S (Science ideas and vocabulary). . Resources to find out more about KLEWS: KLEWS chart (OER Commons, Kate Katz, Carla Zembal-Saul) How to use the KLEWS chart: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W90hV9qiWyY Vocabulary - Sun - Moon - Scientist - Observation - Data Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Take a quick 5-10 minute field trip to the school yard. Find a safe place for class to sit or lay down next to an elbow buddy. Tell students to take a few quiet moments to watch the sky. As they look, talk about using their senses to learn information. Say “focus on sounds you hear...tell your elbow buddy what you notice.” Repeat with all senses (what do you smell, hear, feel, what do you think?) Tell students “the meaning of observe is to look closely and make connections.”In this activity you were observing.” “What have you been observing?” - The Teacher poses the questions: What do you see right now? Can we see the same things at night? What do we see at night that might be different? Why do we see different things at different times? Teacher explains how scientists use observations to gather information to learn something new and make connections. Students' response might be...clouds, birds, the sky, etc. - Use a gesture to help students remember the meaning of observe (round fingers and thumb to make an eye hole through both hands like a telescope). When we collect information, it’s called data. Use a gesture to help student remember the meaning of data (one hand flat like a piece of paper, other hand pretending to write) - Say, “Today we are starting a new science unit and really think about the sun and moon.. - With an elbow buddy, have students turn and talk about what they already know about the sun and the moon. (SL.1.1) Ask” Did you and your partner know the same information? Ask “why?” Students may say that they've had different experiences. Add on, by saying how each idea is valuable and all ideas are welcome because that’s how we collaborate. Say, “Did you know that scientists have to collaborate? They do, but they also have to do their own thinking and research too.” Procedure 2 - Tell students that the next part is independent seat work to gather pre-knowledge. Say “We’ll start our new learning with our own thinking. Close your eyes and and think for a moment about what you notice in the daytime sky. Put that picture in your head. Now what do you notice in the night time sky?) Open your eyes. You will get a page with a T-chart of Daytime and Night time. (Point to the parts on the page.) Use your drawing tools to draw pictures of what you notice in the daytime sky and Night time sky.” Daytime and Night time Model - Remind students to think of as many things as they can. When 5-7 minutes is up, have students share with their table team or elbow buddy. They will be excited that some students drew the same ideas. Collect models and find patterns in their understanding so far. Student Work Sample Procedure 3 - Say “A Scientist who studies the sun, moon, planets, and stars is called an astronomer. Astronomers make observations and collect data. Today you are going to be astronomers.” - Pass out sticky notes - Say “Let’s focus on the word observation.” Have students repeat the word, clap the syllables in the word. Tell students the root word - Observe. Write down or post the word on the chart under the S. Ask, “What does observe mean? Tell students to write or draw their idea of observe on their sticky note. Gather the sticky note and place them under the word “observe” , and if there's time, students share their ideas to the class. - “Now let’s focus on the word data” Have students repeat the word, clap the syllables in the word. Write down or post the word on the chart under the S. Ask, “What does data mean? Tell students to write or draw their idea of data on their sticky note. Gather the sticky note and place them under the word “data” , and if there's time, students share their ideas to the class. - Add meanings next to the words, Observe and Data - Observe - to look closely and make connections - Data - to gather information Procedure 4 Tell students they will watch a short video clip and observe what they notice. Go to PBS website, Predictable Patterns in the Sky. Use a Promethean board to project the short video to show students the phenomena, Have students quietly watch, provide the sentence stem, I notice...After the short clip ask a few kids to share what they noticed. - Play the film again and prompt students to ask questions, “What do you wonder?” - Add each wondering on a sticky note and place under the W - in the KLEWS chart, put questions into categories as collaborative questions are developed - Review the lesson: “Today we found out we’ll be learning about the sun and moon. You made a model of what you know already, observed the sky and asked questions and this is how a scientist does research. Tomorrow we will do some investigations to find out more information.” Concepts: Students will share pre-knowledge of the sun and moon. They will understand that scientists use observations and collect data to learn. Students are naturally curious and will ask questions to deepen their understanding of new concepts. Formative Assessments: - Observing students share what they know about the sun and moon - Daytime and Night time model - Look for but don’t address right now: - misconceptions about the sun only being in the sky during the day and the moon only being in the sky at night - The sun and moon staying in one place in the sky - the moon making its own light - the sun and or moon moving in the sky as opposed to the Earth rotating and changing position in relation to the sun and moon Lesson 2: The Sun Investigation Routine Materials - Student Data Sheet - Science Notebook - Jumbo unifix cubes (optional) - Red crayon - Blue crayon - Thermometer - chalk - KLEWS chart (OER Commons, Kate Katz, Carla Zembal-Saul) Preparation - Identify a clear, sunny spot on the playground from which observations will be made - Plan to do observations near a pole (ex. flagpole or tetherball pole) - Create the chant (Beacon Learning Center) on chart paper Vocabulary - observe - arc - pattern Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Ask students to think about the sun in the sky. “Is the sun visible right now?” “Is the sun always visible in the sky?” “Is the sun always in the same part of the sky?” “How can we find out the answers to these questions?” - Say, “Today we are going to observe the sun in the sky.” “We want to find out how the position of the sun and the temperature change during the day.” Write the word “observe in the “S” section of the KLEWS chart with the definition. Tell students, “When we make observations, we use our 5 senses to explore the world around us. Today we will use our eyes to observe the sun.” Be sure to warn students about the dangers of looking directly at the sun. Procedure 2 - Take students outside to observe the sun 3 times, morning, mid-day, and afternoon, each time from the same place. Using a non-standard unit, like jumbo unifix cubes or handspans, measure the apparent distance from the ground to the sun each time. Pick a perpendicular horizon line like either a housetop, building roof or a fence if you cannot see the natural horizon from the playground. Students can do this by holding the hand or cubes straight out, at arm’s length, placing one fist straight out and align the bottom of your hand to the chosen horizon line, count upwards, stacking your other fist on top of the first one. Continuing to stack fists until you have reached the bottom of the Moon . Agree on the collected data and show the children through modeling how this can be done. If you have to use a ½ handspan, talk about how you estimated the fraction using half of your four fingers in your fist. (This kind of measuring can be done using Unifix cubes or a ruler, depending on the time of year and your students’ fine motor skills or knowledge of measurement.) - Record measurements each time on a student data sheet or in a Science Notebook. (Students are collecting quantitative data (measured data) and recording the results in a science notebook. This data/evidence will be used to facilitate discussions about students’ observations and discoveries). (1.MD.2) (1.MD.C4) - We want to see how the position of the sun affects shadows. Using chalk, trace the shadow line of a flagpole or tetherball pole during each of the 3 visits. Using “kid feet,” measure the length of the shadow each time and record the length on the student data sheet or in a Science Notebook. (1.MD.2) (1.MD.C4) - Next, we want to see if there is a connection between the position of the sun and the temperature throughout the day. During each observation of the sun, record the temperature outside. (This is an opportunity to compare two two-digit numbers based on the tens and ones digits). (1.NBT.3) - After the mid-day observation of the sun, have students predict where the sun will be in the afternoon sky, based on its movements so far. Formative Assessment: - Note whether students were able to accurately make and record observations? - Were the students able to record data? Look for students who are struggling to record the data. Provide support. Procedure 3 - Students will organize and analyze the data collected during the investigation. Record evidence collected during the investigation under the “E” section of the KLEWS chart. Ask, “How does the sun appear to move in the sky?” Write the pattern of movement under the “E” section of the KLEWS chart. “What time is the sun highest in the sky?” “Did the shadow move?” “Which way did the shadow move?” “Do the shadow lengths change?” “ How do we know?” “What time are the shadow lengths shortest/longest?” Using the data, find the highest temperature for each day and circle it in red. Find the lowest temperature for each day and circle it in blue. Analyze the data, ask, “When was the temperature warmest each day? When was the temperature the coolest?” - As you discuss the data, make a connection to the pattern: Shadows are shorter when the sun is high in the sky and longer when the sun is low in the sky. Write this new understanding in the “L” section of the KLEWS chart. Ask, “What causes shadows to change?” Make a connection that shadows change length and position as the sun changes position in the sky. - Ask, “How did the position of the Sun and the temperature change each day? What connection can we make between the Sun’s position in the sky and the temperature? Is there an observable and predictable pattern?” Procedure 4 - Read the story, “Sunrise, Sunset” with students (http://www.beaconlearningcenter.com/WebLessons/SunriseSunset/rise01.htm). Have students pay attention to the position of the sun in the sky throughout the day and the direction it appears to move. Ask them questions throughout the story about about time of day and position of the sun. (RI.1.1) - Create the chant on chart paper. Recite it with students. Draw a large compass on the chart paper. Add pictures to describe how the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. Label the pictures. (RL1.10) (SL.1.5) - Tell students that one way to describe the shape of the sun’s path in the sky is to call it an arc. Add “arc” and the meaning, “part of a circle” to the “S” section of the KLEWS chart. Procedure 5 - In Science Notebooks, have students draw a model to show the placement of the sun at different times of the day. Divide the page into 3 sections. Label each section, “morning, noon, afternoon.” Students draw to show where the sun is in the sky in relation to the ground. Formative Assessment. - The student drawings should reflect their learning that the Sun appears to move across the sky. - This gives all students an opportunity to explain the phenomena moving from their concrete experience to a visual representation, which will eventually support them in constructing ideas and writing about more abstract concepts. - Ask, “Will the sun appear to move in the same way tomorrow?” “How can we prove or verify your predictions?” - The next day, observe the sun’s position in the sky, the temperature, and the shadows throughout the day. Compare the data with the diagram and data from the day before. - Discuss: “What is the same?” “What is different?” “Do we notice a pattern?” “What pattern in the sky does the diagram show?” Add the word “pattern” and the meaning, “something that repeats and is predictable” to the “S” section of the KLEWS chart. Add new learning about the pattern of movement to the “L” section of the KLEWS chart. - In Student Notebooks, students write using the sentence stems: First, I thought… Now I think… My evidence is ... (W.1.8) Formative Assessment: - this is an opportunity for students to examine and revise their thinking as well as monitor their own learning progress. - Look for students to provide evidence of their learning by using the data collected regarding sun movement, shadow movement/length, and temperature) Were students able to analyze the data and reach a conclusion? Lesson 3: The Moon (Day 1) Investigation Routine *This lesson sequence should be planned at a time when the Moon is visible during the school day. Use the website (http://timeanddate.com/worldclock/moonrise.html) to plan accordingly. Late May/Early June usually experiences Moonrise and Moonset during school hours. Materials Image #1 Image #2 Image #3 - Moon Observation Blackline - Butcher paper for KLEWs chart (OER Commons, Kate Katz, Carla Zembal-Saul) - Student science notebooks “Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me” by Eric Carle https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGqAw7UM6qo Preparation - Make sure you can view the moonrise and moonset during the next few days of school. - Make copies of the Moon Observation Blackline for each student. Vocabulary - observe - pattern - arc - orbit Integration Points - Look for integration points for English Language Arts and Mathematics within the procedures below. They will be noted in italics and dark blue. Procedures Procedure 1 - Ask students to think about what they know about the Moon. Have students do a ‘turn and talk’ with a partner(s), remembering to give each partner time to share. Elicit responses from the children; scribing them verbatim on the ‘K’(Know) section of the KLEWS chart. If the discussion doesn’t get off the ground, probe the students with questions such as: - When can you see the Moon? Does it change in any way? - Can you see the Moon during the day? I heard it was made out of cheese. Do you agree with that statement? Why or why not? Why would someone think that? (We try and make sense of what we see by using explanations. Let’s use evidence we gather to explain our thinking about how the Sun, Earth and Moon all interact together in the sky.) (SL.1.1) - Fold prepared copies of Moon Observation Blackline lengthwise showing the word ‘Moon’ vertically. Have them cut on the end lines and between each section to create 3 flaps that can be lifted up. Have them think about observing the Moon at 3 different consecutive times during the day such as morning, noon and afternoon. Have them use a crayon, marker or pen to draw what they think they would see at the first viewing of the moon under the first flap. For the second flap, think about what the Moon might look like a few hours later and again in the afternoon for the third flap. (The students are creating an initial thinking model that may get revised after their learning experience. It is important to value students’ initial thinking even if it is a clear misconception and scientifically incorrect because the evidence will hopefully change it. Make sure they record it with something that cannot be erased.) Collect their initial thinking models to use again in Procedure 3. Procedure 2 - Say, “Today we are going to go outside and observe the Moon.” Write the word ‘observe’ in the ‘S’ section of the KLEWS chart. Remind students, “When we make observations, we use our 5 senses to explore and gather information in our brains. You can add simple drawings of eyes, ears, nose, mouth and a hand and ask them what senses they think we will use during the observations today. Take students outside where the Moon is visible and observe it 3 times during the day; morning, midday and afternoon. Each time, gather data on where it is, what shape it is and how many handspans (or other unit of measure) high it is in the sky. (By afternoon, the children should be pretty convinced about its shape and begin to notice the arc pathway of its travel across the sky.) When measuring with handspans, pick a perpendicular horizon line like either a housetop, building roof or a fence if you cannot see the natural horizon from the playground. Place one of your fists straight out and align the bottom of your hand to the chosen horizon line. Then, count upwards, stacking your other fist on top of the first one. Continue stacking a fist until you have reached the bottom of the Moon. Agree on the collected data and show the children through modeling how this can be done. If you have to use a ½ handspan, talk about how you estimated the fraction using half of your four fingers in your fist. (This kind of measuring can be done using Unifix cubes or a ruler, depending on the time of year and your students’ fine motor skills or knowledge of measurement.) - After each measuring session which can be coincided with recesses, put the data in the ‘E’ section of the KLEWS chart. Example data is below: After the last measurement, write the data into greater than/less than configuration: 1<3<5 or 5>3>1 in the “E’ column. (1.NBT.3) Ask Students, - How much higher is the third measurement than the first one?(1.NBT.3) - “If you could stay after school and make another observation in 1-2 hours, where do you think the Moon would be?” - “Could you predict where it might be at 7:00 pm based on it’s path in the sky right now?” (SL.1.1) Lesson 3: The Moon (Day 2) Procedure 3 - Help students analyze the data collected during the exploration on the KLEWS chart. Help them see the following patterns: The Moon changes place in the sky during the day. The Moon begins low and moves higher. As the Moon rises, it moves across the sky in an arc. Image #2 Provides teacher background information on the pattern of the moon movement across the sky - Pass out their initial thinking models from Procedure 1. Have students open their first flap and add the gathered evidence from the KLEWS chart into their initial thinking model with another color or a pencil; illustrating a horizon line, the Moon with its proper shape and the handspans up to it. Have them do the same under the next flap, making sure they draw the second observation a little bit over to the right; beginning to show the arc pattern. Repeat with the third set of data. Remind them that if their initial model is different from the actual evidence, it means they are learning something new, not necessarily that they had a“wrong answer” before. Sometimes, learning is about changing our thinking because of new evidence we see. Remind them of when we learned about the Sun and we said, First, I thought… Now I know… Formative Assessment: - Look for students to draw an arc as the horizon line like pattern from the first moon on the left through the middle moon and over to the final moon on the right. Students could also explain, trace with their fingers the pattern of the path of the sun and the moon. (use image #2 as a teacher guide) - When completed, have students open all three flaps and while looking at the data, ask, - “How does the Moon appear to move across the sky?” - “How is this pattern similar to what we discovered about the Sun?” Remind students about the meaning of the word, ‘pattern’, and how we can use patterns we see to make predictions into the future. - “Is it possible to use this data to predict where the Moon might be in a few hours? - Will this happen again tomorrow? Next year? (SL.1.1) - Explain that since the Moon’s lighted side is changing ever so slightly every day, it is hard to see the small change with our eyes so we can view a photograph or a time lapse video showing how the lighted side grows bigger and shrinks smaller during the month. Show students Phases of the Moon image #1 of the phases of the Moon and explain that as it travels around the Earth, only part of it catches the Sun’s light at certain times of each month. Post this vocabulary word and image in the ‘S’ section of the KLEWS chart. - Watch the link to NSTA for Kid’s author of “Next Time You See the Moon”: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz01pTvuMa0 or do a similar activity in the classroom with students. This movement is called an orbit and it is a common pattern of movement in space. Add the vocabulary word, orbit, to the ‘S’ section of the KLEWS chart as well as Example of Moon orbiting Earth, image #3. - For further viewing, watch a time lapse of the Moon’s phases: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzbIlev4Z-4 and a time lapse of moonrise and moonset that happens in one day. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OD7jN2hkTdY - After the videos, ask: - How is the moonrise and sunrise the same? - How are they different? - Do they follow a similar pattern? What is the pattern? - Could Moonrise ever happen at the same time as Sunrise? (Yes, during an eclipse!) - Finally, have students glue their Moon Flapbook into their science notebooks. Ask students to use their Moon evidence and their Sun evidence to respond in writing and/or with drawn models and oral explanations. using one of two sentence stems: “Moonrise and sunrise are the same because…” Or “Moonrise and sunrise are different because…” (W.1.8) Formative Assessment: - Look for students to say that the pattern of rising or lower in the east, being higher up at mid-day, and setting or lower in the west. They could also draw a model of this with the sun and moon lower at the left side of the paper, at the top mid-day and lower at the right side later in the day. - Look for students to respond that the two are different because the moon seems to change shape during a month and the sun does not. Lesson 3: The Moon (Day 3) Procedure 4 Gather in a whole group near the KLEWS chart, focus on the Evidence and ask: - Since we can predict roughly where the Moon will be in the sky in a few hours time, can we predict roughly when we will see a full moon in the sky based on how the lighted side increases or decreases? - How about a half-moon or a new moon? (Refer to image #1 of the phases of the Moon.) Move to the ‘L’ section of the chart and write: - “There are patterns in the Moon’s movement and shape. Patterns help us predict where it will move in the sky and what shape the lighted side will have.” - “The Moon moves in an arc across in the sky, starting low and moving across the sky as it gets higher.” - Add “arc” to the ‘S’ section as well with the definition: The shape of the pattern of low to high across the sky and image #2. - Read or view the story, “Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me” by Eric Carle. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGqAw7UM6qo Talk about how the Moon changed in the story while referring to the phases of the moon (image #1). Note how the story started with a full moon. Then the author painted the waning gibbous moon to gradually get skinnier to the left, disappear in the middle, begin to form a waxing gibbous to the right and then become a full moon again in the end. Discuss why the full Moon made two appearances and what was really going on when, “it disappeared altogether”. Ask students key questions throughout the book to understand if they are getting the details of the book (R1.1.1) Lesson 4: What We Have Learned About the Moon and the Sun Materials: - Student’s Science Notebook - KLEWS Chart Procedures Procedure 1 Finally, ask students to get out their notebooks and while looking at their data and the whole KLEWS chart, use the evidence provided to answer the essential question: “How can we predict where the Moon or the Sun will be in a few hours time?” Use the sentence stem: “I can predict where the Moon/Sun will be in a few hours time because…” Or, “I can predict when there will be a sunset/sunrise/full moon/new moon because…” Summative Assessment: Use the items below as a rubric for assessing student understanding of the patterns of movement of the sun and moon at different times of day. - the sun and moon appear to move across the sky - shadows us figure out the position of the sun - there is a pattern to the apparent movement of the sun and moon that looks something like an arc. - the sun and the moon can be seen in the lower eastern sky in the morning, high in the sky mid-day, and lower in the west near sunset - the moon can often be seen during the day Appendix: Lesson Resources Article 1: KLEWS-science.pdf. https://ctsciencecenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/KLEWS-science.pdf Story 1: Sunrise, Sunset http://www.beaconlearningcenter.com/WebLessons/SunriseSunset/rise01.htm Video 1: KLEWS chart 101. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W90hV9qiWyY Video 2: Demonstration of the phases of the Moon. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wz01pTvuMa0 Video 3:Time lapse of the Moon’s phases: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzbIlev4Z-4 Video 4: Time lapse of moonrise and moonset: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OD7jN2hkTdY Video 5: Story read aloud:“Papa, Please Get the Moon for Me” by Eric Carle. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGqAw7UM6qo Attribution NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For States, By States. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press \| Public License Common Core State Standards © Copyright 2010. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers. All rights reserved \| Public License License Except where otherwise noted, this work developed for ClimeTime is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License. All logos and trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Sections used under fair use doctrine (17 U.S.C. § 107) are marked. This resource may contain links to websites operated by third parties. These links are provided for your convenience only and do not constitute or imply any endorsement or monitoring. If this work is adapted, note the substantive changes and re-title, removing any ClimeTime logos. Provide the following attribution: This resource was adapted from by ClimeTime and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Access the original work for free in the ClimeTime group on the OER Commons Washington Hub.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.860993	English Language Arts	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/80655/overview", "title": "First Grade Elementary Science and Integrates Subjects-Sky Explorers", "author": "Elementary Education" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82434/overview	Learning Domain: Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science Standard: Develop a model for a proposed object, tool or process and then use an iterative process to test the model, collect data, and generate modification ideas trending toward an optimal design. WY.SCI.MS.PS3.3 Wyoming Science Content and Performance Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: Energy Standard: Apply scientific principles to design, construct, and test a device that either minimizes or maximizes thermal energy transfer. WY.SCI.MS.PS4.2 Wyoming Science Content and Performance Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: Waves and their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer Standard: Develop and use a model to describe that waves are reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through various materials. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6–8 texts and topics. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table). Learning Domain: Writing for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects Standard: Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6��8 texts and topics. Learning Domain: Reading for Literacy in Science and Technical Subjects Standard: Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table). Learning Domain: Writing for Literacy in History/Social Studies, Science, and Technical Subjects Standard: Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation. Science Domain: Engineering, Technology, and Applications of Science Topic: Engineering Design Standard: Develop a model to generate data for iterative testing and modification of a proposed object, tool, or process such that an optimal design can be achieved. Science Domain: Physical Sciences Topic: Energy Standard: Apply scientific principles to design, construct, and test a device that either minimizes or maximizes thermal energy transfer.* [Clarification Statement: Examples of devices could include an insulated box, a solar cooker, and a Styrofoam cup.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include calculating the total amount of thermal energy transferred.] Science Domain: Physical Sciences Topic: Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation Standard: Develop and use a model to describe that waves are reflected, absorbed, or transmitted through various materials. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on both light and mechanical waves. Examples of models could include drawings, simulations, and written descriptions.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to qualitative applications pertaining to light and mechanical waves.] Cluster: Key Ideas and Details. Standard: Cite specific textual evidence to support analysis of science and technical texts. Cluster: Craft and Structure. Standard: Determine the meaning of symbols, key terms, and other domain-specific words and phrases as they are used in a specific scientific or technical context relevant to grades 6–8 texts and topics. Cluster: Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. Standard: Integrate quantitative or technical information expressed in words in a text with a version of that information expressed visually (e.g., in a flowchart, diagram, model, graph, or table). Cluster: Research to Build and Present Knowledge. Standard: Gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources, using search terms effectively; assess the credibility and accuracy of each source; and quote or paraphrase the data and conclusions of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.902491	Physical Science	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/82434/overview", "title": "PEI SOLS Middle School Renewable Energy: Solar", "author": "Environmental Science" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68585/overview	Learning Domain: Earth and Human Activity Standard: Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring, evaluating, and managing a human impact on the environment. WY.SCI.MS.LS2.4 Wyoming Science Content and Performance Standards Grades 6-8 Learning Domain: Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics Standard: Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations. Science Domain: Earth and Space Sciences Topic: Human Impacts Standard: Apply scientific principles to design a method for monitoring and minimizing a human impact on the environment.* [Clarification Statement: Examples of the design process include examining human environmental impacts, assessing the kinds of solutions that are feasible, and designing and evaluating solutions that could reduce that impact. Examples of human impacts can include water usage (such as the withdrawal of water from streams and aquifers or the construction of dams and levees), land usage (such as urban development, agriculture, or the removal of wetlands), and pollution (such as of the air, water, or land).] Science Domain: Life Sciences Topic: Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems Standard: Construct an argument supported by empirical evidence that changes to physical or biological components of an ecosystem affect populations. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on recognizing patterns in data and making warranted inferences about changes in populations, and on evaluating empirical evidence supporting arguments about changes to ecosystems.]	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.926328	Hattie Osborne	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68585/overview", "title": "PEI SOLS MS: Regenerative Agriculture (Eastern Washington)", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28822/overview	The National Saving and Investment Identity Overview By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Explain the determinants of trade and current account balance - Identify and calculate supply and demand for financial capital - Explain how a nation's own level of domestic saving and investment determines a nation's balance of trade - Predict the rising and falling of trade deficits based on a nation's saving and investment identity The close connection between trade balances and international flows of savings and investments leads to a macroeconomic analysis. This approach views trade balances—and their associated flows of financial capital—in the context of the overall levels of savings and financial investment in the economy. Understanding the Determinants of the Trade and Current Account Balance The national saving and investment identity provides a useful way to understand the determinants of the trade and current account balance. In a nation’s financial capital market, the quantity of financial capital supplied at any given time must equal the quantity of financial capital demanded for purposes of making investments. What is on the supply and demand sides of financial capital? See the following Clear It Up feature for the answer to this question. What comprises the supply and demand of financial capital? A country’s national savings is the total of its domestic savings by household and companies (private savings) as well as the government (public savings). If a country is running a trade deficit, it means money from abroad is entering the country and the government considers it part of the supply of financial capital. The demand for financial capital (money) represents groups that are borrowing the money. Businesses need to borrow to finance their investments in factories, materials, and personnel. When the federal government runs a budget deficit, it is also borrowing money from investors by selling Treasury bonds. Therefore, both business investment and the federal government can demand (or borrow) the supply of savings. There are two main sources for the supply of financial capital in the U.S. economy: saving by individuals and firms, called S, and the inflow of financial capital from foreign investors, which is equal to the trade deficit (M – X), or imports minus exports. There are also two main sources of demand for financial capital in the U.S. economy: private sector investment, I, and government borrowing, where the government needs to borrow when government spending, G, is higher than the taxes collected, T. We can express this national savings and investment identity in algebraic terms: Again, in this equation, S is private savings, T is taxes, G is government spending, M is imports, X is exports, and I is investment. This relationship is true as a matter of definition because, for the macro economy, the quantity supplied of financial capital must be equal to the quantity demanded. However, certain components of the national savings and investment identity can switch between the supply side and the demand side. Some countries, like the United States in most years since the 1970s, have budget deficits, which mean the government is spending more than it collects in taxes, and so the government needs to borrow funds. In this case, the government term would be G – T > 0, showing that spending is larger than taxes, and the government would be a demander of financial capital on the left-hand side of the equation (that is, a borrower), not a supplier of financial capital on the right-hand side. However, if the government runs a budget surplus so that the taxes exceed spending, as the U.S. government did from 1998 to 2001, then the government in that year was contributing to the supply of financial capital (T – G > 0), and would appear on the left (saving) side of the national savings and investment identity. Similarly, if a national economy runs a trade surplus, the trade sector will involve an outflow of financial capital to other countries. A trade surplus means that the domestic financial capital is in surplus within a country and can be invested in other countries. The fundamental notion that total quantity of financial capital demanded equals total quantity of financial capital supplied must always remain true. Domestic savings will always appear as part of the supply of financial capital and domestic investment will always appear as part of the demand for financial capital. However, the government and trade balance elements of the equation can move back and forth as either suppliers or demanders of financial capital, depending on whether government budgets and the trade balance are in surplus or deficit. Domestic Saving and Investment Determine the Trade Balance One insight from the national saving and investment identity is that a nation's own levels of domestic saving and investment determine a nation’s balance of trade. To understand this point, rearrange the identity to put the balance of trade all by itself on one side of the equation. Consider first the situation with a trade deficit, and then the situation with a trade surplus. In the case of a trade deficit, the national saving and investment identity can be rewritten as: In this case, domestic investment is higher than domestic saving, including both private and government saving. The only way that domestic investment can exceed domestic saving is if capital is flowing into a country from abroad. After all, that extra financial capital for investment has to come from someplace. Now consider a trade surplus from the standpoint of the national saving and investment identity: In this case, domestic savings (both private and public) is higher than domestic investment. That extra financial capital will be invested abroad. This connection of domestic saving and investment to the trade balance explains why economists view the balance of trade as a fundamentally macroeconomic phenomenon. As the national saving and investment identity shows, the performance of certain sectors of an economy, like cars or steel, do not determine the trade balance. Further, whether the nation’s trade laws and regulations encourage free trade or protectionism also does not determine the trade balance (see Globalization and Protectionism). Exploring Trade Balances One Factor at a Time The national saving and investment identity also provides a framework for thinking about what will cause trade deficits to rise or fall. Begin with the version of the identity that has domestic savings and investment on the left and the trade deficit on the right: Now, consider the factors on the left-hand side of the equation one at a time, while holding the other factors constant. As a first example, assume that the level of domestic investment in a country rises, while the level of private and public saving remains unchanged. Table shows the result in the first row under the equation. Since the equality of the national savings and investment identity must continue to hold—it is, after all, an identity that must be true by definition—the rise in domestic investment will mean a higher trade deficit. This situation occurred in the U.S. economy in the late 1990s. Because of the surge of new information and communications technologies that became available, business investment increased substantially. A fall in private saving during this time and a rise in government saving more or less offset each other. As a result, the financial capital to fund that business investment came from abroad, which is one reason for the very high U.S. trade deficits of the late 1990s and early 2000s. \| Domestic Investment \| – \| Private Domestic Savings \| – \| Public Domestic Savings \| = \| Trade Deficit \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| I \| – \| S \| – \| (T – G) \| = \| (M – X) \| \| Up \| No change \| No change \| Then M – X must rise \| \|\|\| \| No change \| Up \| No change \| Then M – X must fall \| \|\|\| \| No change \| No change \| Down \| Then M – X must rise \| As a second scenario, assume that the level of domestic savings rises, while the level of domestic investment and public savings remain unchanged. In this case, the trade deficit would decline. As domestic savings rises, there would be less need for foreign financial capital to meet investment needs. For this reason, a policy proposal often made for reducing the U.S. trade deficit is to increase private saving—although exactly how to increase the overall rate of saving has proven controversial. As a third scenario, imagine that the government budget deficit increased dramatically, while domestic investment and private savings remained unchanged. This scenario occurred in the U.S. economy in the mid-1980s. The federal budget deficit increased from $79 billion in 1981 to $221 billion in 1986—an increase in the demand for financial capital of $142 billion. The current account balance collapsed from a surplus of $5 billion in 1981 to a deficit of $147 billion in 1986—an increase in the supply of financial capital from abroad of $152 billion. The connection at that time is clear: a sharp increase in government borrowing increased the U.S. economy’s demand for financial capital, and foreign investors through the trade deficit primarily supplied that increase. The following Work It Out feature walks you through a scenario in which private domestic savings has to rise by a certain amount to reduce a trade deficit. Solving Problems with the Saving and Investment Identity Use the saving and investment identity to answer the following question: Country A has a trade deficit of $200 billion, private domestic savings of $500 billion, a government deficit of $200 billion, and private domestic investment of $500 billion. To reduce the $200 billion trade deficit by $100 billion, by how much does private domestic savings have to increase? Step 1. Write out the savings investment formula solving for the trade deficit or surplus on the left: Step 2. In the formula, put the amount for the trade deficit in as a negative number (X – M). The left side of your formula is now: Step 3. Enter the private domestic savings (S) of $500 in the formula: Step 4. Enter the private domestic investment (I) of $500 into the formula: Step 5. The government budget surplus or balance is represented by (T – G). Enter a budget deficit amount for (T – G) of –200: Step 6. Your formula now is: The question is: To reduce your trade deficit (X – M) of –200 to –100 (in billions of dollars), by how much will savings have to rise? Step 7. Summarize the answer: Private domestic savings needs to rise by $100 billion, to a total of $600 billion, for the two sides of the equation to remain equal (–100 = –100). Short-Term Movements in the Business Cycle and the Trade Balance In the short run, whether an economy is in a recession or on the upswing can affect trade imbalances. A recession tends to make a trade deficit smaller, or a trade surplus larger, while a period of strong economic growth tends to make a trade deficit larger, or a trade surplus smaller. As an example, note in that the U.S. trade deficit declined by almost half from 2006 to 2009. One primary reason for this change is that during the recession, as the U.S. economy slowed down, it purchased fewer of all goods, including fewer imports from abroad. However, buying power abroad fell less, and so U.S. exports did not fall by as much. Conversely, in the mid-2000s, when the U.S. trade deficit became very large, a contributing short-term reason is that the U.S. economy was growing. As a result, there was considerable aggressive buying in the U.S. economy, including the buying of imports. Thus, a trade deficit (or a much lower trade surplus) often accompanies a rapidly growing domestic economy, while a trade surplus (or a much lower trade deficit) accompanies a slowing or recessionary domestic economy. When the trade deficit rises, it necessarily means a greater net inflow of foreign financial capital. The national saving and investment identity teaches that the rest of the economy can absorb this inflow of foreign financial capital in several different ways. For example, reduced private savings could offset the additional inflow of financial capital from abroad, leaving domestic investment and public saving unchanged. Alternatively, the inflow of foreign financial capital could result in higher domestic investment, leaving private and public saving unchanged. Yet another possibility is that greater government borrowing could absorb the inflow of foreign financial capital, leaving domestic saving and investment unchanged. The national saving and investment identity does not specify which of these scenarios, alone or in combination, will occur—only that one of them must occur. Key Concepts and Summary The national saving and investment identity is based on the relationship that the total quantity of financial capital supplied from all sources must equal the total quantity of financial capital demanded from all sources. If S is private saving, T is taxes, G is government spending, M is imports, X is exports, and I is investment, then for an economy with a current account deficit and a budget deficit: A recession tends to increase the trade balance (meaning a higher trade surplus or lower trade deficit), while economic boom will tend to decrease the trade balance (meaning a lower trade surplus or a larger trade deficit). Self-Check Questions Using the national savings and investment identity, explain how each of the following changes (ceteris paribus) will increase or decrease the trade balance: - A lower domestic savings rate - The government changes from running a budget surplus to running a budget deficit - The rate of domestic investment surges Hint: Write out the national savings and investment identity for the situation of the economy implied by this question: If domestic savings increases and nothing else changes, then the trade deficit will fall. In effect, the economy would be relying more on domestic capital and less on foreign capital. If the government starts borrowing instead of saving, then the trade deficit must rise. In effect, the government is no longer providing savings and so, if nothing else is to change, more investment funds must arrive from abroad. If the rate of domestic investment surges, then, ceteris paribus, the trade deficit must also rise, to provide the extra capital. The ceteris paribus—or “other things being equal”—assumption is important here. In all of these situations, there is no reason to expect in the real world that the original change will affect only, or primarily, the trade deficit. The identity only says that something will adjust—it does not specify what. If a country is running a government budget surplus, why is (T – G) on the left side of the saving-investment identity? Hint: The government is saving rather than borrowing. The supply of savings, whether private or public, is on the left side of the identity. What determines the size of a country’s trade deficit? Hint: A trade deficit is determined by a country’s level of private and public savings and the amount of domestic investment. If domestic investment increases, and there is no change in the amount of private and public saving, what must happen to the size of the trade deficit? Hint: The trade deficit must increase. To put it another way, this increase in investment must be financed by an inflow of financial capital from abroad. Why does a recession cause a trade deficit to increase? Hint: Incomes fall during a recession, and consumers buy fewer good, including imports. Both the United States and global economies are booming. Will U.S. imports and/or exports increase? Hint: A booming economy will increase the demand for goods in general, so import sales will increase. If our trading partners’ economies are doing well, they will buy more of our products and so U.S. exports will increase. Review Questions What are the two main sides of the national savings and investment identity? What are the main components of the national savings and investment identity? Critical Thinking Questions Many think that the size of a trade deficit is due to a lack of competitiveness of domestic sectors, such as autos. Explain why this is not true. If you observed a country with a rapidly growing trade surplus over a period of a year or so, would you be more likely to believe that the country's economy was in a period of recession or of rapid growth? Explain. Occasionally, a government official will argue that a country should strive for both a trade surplus and a healthy inflow of capital from abroad. Is this possible? Problems Imagine that the U.S. economy finds itself in the following situation: a government budget deficit of $100 billion, total domestic savings of $1,500 billion, and total domestic physical capital investment of $1,600 billion. According to the national saving and investment identity, what will be the current account balance? What will be the current account balance if investment rises by $50 billion, while the budget deficit and national savings remain the same? Table provides some hypothetical data on macroeconomic accounts for three countries represented by A, B, and C and measured in billions of currency units. In Table, private household saving is SH, tax revenue is T, government spending is G, and investment spending is I. \| A \| B \| C \| \| \|---\|---\|---\|---\| \| SH \| 700 \| 500 \| 600 \| \| T \| 00 \| 500 \| 500 \| \| G \| 600 \| 350 \| 650 \| \| I \| 800 \| 400 \| 450 \| - Calculate the trade balance and the net inflow of foreign saving for each country. - State whether each one has a trade surplus or deficit (or balanced trade). - State whether each is a net lender or borrower internationally and explain. Imagine that the economy of Germany finds itself in the following situation: the government budget has a surplus of 1% of Germany’s GDP; private savings is 20% of GDP; and physical investment is 18% of GDP. - Based on the national saving and investment identity, what is the current account balance? - If the government budget surplus falls to zero, how will this affect the current account balance?	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:01.965696	09/20/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/28822/overview", "title": "Principles of Macroeconomics 2e, The International Trade and Capital Flows, The National Saving and Investment Identity", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123409/overview	. How to search in JSTOR database Overview JSTOR (brief for Journal Storage) may be a advanced library and database that gives get to to scholastic journals, books, and essential source materials. It is broadly utilized by researchers, students, and scholastics to get to academic articles, inquire about papers, and verifiable records over different disciplines. 1. How to search in JSTOR database? Ans: JSTOR (brief for Journal Storage) may be a advanced library and database that gives get to to scholastic journals, books, and essential source materials. It is broadly utilized by researchers, students, and scholastics to get to academic articles, inquire about papers, and verifiable records over different disciplines. Key highlights of JSTOR incorporate: Academic Journals: JSTOR has a endless collection of peer-reviewed journal articles in areas such as humanities, social sciences, common sciences, and more. Books and eBooks: It gives get to to academic books and eBooks, frequently counting those that are out of print or difficult to discover. Essential Sources: This platform includes authentic records, authentic materials, and other primary sources crucial for research. Intrigue Access: It covers a wide cluster of subjects like financial matters, history, political science, writing, and the expressions, making it a comprehensive device for cross-disciplinary inquire about. Searchable Database: JSTOR permits clients to seek for articles and distributions by watchwords, titles, or creators, making a difference clients discover pertinent scholarly substance rapidly. Access to JSTOR is regularly given through regulation memberships (e.g., colleges and libraries), in spite of the fact that it too offers constrained free get to through programs like "Read Online" for certain articles, and clients can regularly get to up to six articles for free each 30 days. JSTOR has become one of the most respected digital archives in the academic world, offering a reliable resource for scholarly research and information. History and Purpose of JSTOR: Established: JSTOR was established in 1995 by a group of researchers and distributers to help solve the issue of rising journal costs and the require for proficient filing of scholastic writing. Mission: Its primary mission is to supply far reaching get to to academic substance and protect academic writing, particularly journal. Content Coverage: JSTOR provides access to a wide range of academic resources across numerous disciplines. Some of the core categories include: Humanities: Philosophy, literature, history, classics, religious studies, and the arts (including visual arts, music, and theater). Social Sciences: Sociology, anthropology, political science, economics, education, law, and gender studies. Natural Sciences: Biology, ecology, environmental science, physics, chemistry, and mathematics. Health Sciences: Medicine, public health, and health policy. Business and Economics: Management, finance, marketing, organizational behavior, and economic theory. Other Areas: JSTOR also covers disciplines such as geography, psychology, communication studies, and more. Content Types: Journals: JSTOR provides access to over 2,000 academic journals, many of which are peer-reviewed. These journals often contain scholarly articles, research reports, and reviews. Books: JSTOR also includes a growing collection of academic books, including both modern works and classic texts in various fields. Primary Sources: The database offers primary source materials like letters, government reports, manuscripts, and other historical documents, which are crucial for historical and interdisciplinary research. Images and Data: Some journals and collections include visual content such as maps, photographs, and charts, adding another layer of research material. Search Mechanism: Searching within the JSTOR database is an critical errand for getting to scholarly articles, research papers, books, and other academic content. The JSTOR search mechanism gives a set of tools and highlights outlined to assist clients discover pertinent academic resources proficiently. Here's an diagram of how the look component in JSTOR works: 1. Basic Search a. place words within the quotation marks to search exact phrases. b. Use Boolean operators to construct better search. 1. AND= “Marxism” AND “Freudism” In this Boolean AND operator, NEAR operator is an improvement. It can be used to find more relevant mention by setting the number between 10 and 15, which is the average length of a sentence. In NEAR 5 , we get the most narrower and specified result and in NEAR 25 we get the broader result. 2.OR= “Machine Learning” OR “Robotics” 3.NOT= “psycholinguistics” NOT “Neurolinguistics” c. Use field codes to search for titles and authors quickly. Eaxample- - Article- ti: “ethics in administration” - Author- au: “Lancaster” Advance Search: Advance search is available from the search drop down in global navigation . It guides through the creation of multi term search. It is useful when we target a search to a type of content to a specific discipline. It can be construct a more complex query by adding more search fields.. It mainly use the drop down boxes to limit search terms to the title, author, abstract or caption text. We user can use ‘narrow by’ options to search any articles, includes book reviews, search for content published during a particular time frame , or in a particular language. There is also check box where we can circle the specific discipline and title. In Advance search , we can search by adding author, item, abstract etc. When we get the result . There is also option for serials. There is also we can arrange those in terms of relevancy, newest or oldest. There is also a browse option for- by subject journals and books, by title journals and books, publishers, collections, Images. Beside this there is a option for workspace, where we user can create folder and inside it we can save images or articles according to our choice or which we want to revisit. We can also export these for presentation, reference list or share a link. Here we can access the document by downloading it. If we just want to save it then we should login by using google, microsofyt etc. Each document is cited here in the form of MLA, Chicago, MLA . If we ant to take any citation , then there is option to export in – Noodle Tools, RefWorks, EasyBib, RIS file(For EndNote, Zotero, Mendeley), Text file (For BibTex). Image search: The one special feature of JSTOR is image retrieval. It allows to look just for images and basic search for getting started with any kind of content, advance search. It guides through the creating of multiterm search. Also we can refine the search by filtering primary source content, Date, Image resolution, classification, collection.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:02.004420	12/26/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/123409/overview", "title": ". How to search in JSTOR database", "author": "RUMKI AKHTAR" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84933/overview	Lesson Plan Matching Activity on Educaplay Piglet Video Rabbit Video Reading Group 1 Reading Group 2 Reading Group 3 Rorschach Test Skribbl website Tiger Video What's Up (Mental Health) Winnie the Pooh video Lesson Plan Interactive Mental Health Overview In this lesson plan, you will find an extensive cover of the topic Mental Health aimed especially to students in the level of High School. To be more specific, it is focused on 10th grade. Moreover, we are really interested in promoting awareness about the importance of Mental disorders, which are more common among young population currently. Lesson Plan Form Teachers names: - Juan David Rojas - Alexander Artunduaga - Juan Diego Alvarez - María José Ospina - Juan Steban Salas - Brayan Steven Alvarez Class / Grade: 10th Grade School / Institution: Public High School Time & length of the class: 2 hours Number of Students: 20 Students Achievement: Students will be able to acknowledge mental health states and their effects. Lesson objectives: - Promote awareness about mental health diseases. - Know more vocabulary related to mental health. By the end of the class, students will be able to: Acknowledge the causes and effects of mental illnesses. Additionally, they will be able to identify if there are classmates who are suffering from mental issues and how to react to and treat these situations. National Standard: BLR (Basic Learning Rights) ICT (Information & Communication Technologies) 1 .To promote comprehensive education and learning of English by boys, girls and adolescentswith whom he shares the classroom and thus promotes intercultural education processes and recognition of differences. 2. A teacher must be capable of choosing the didactic sequences that best adjust to the needs of his students to mediate their learning. 3. Taking the theory to the classroom, so the teacher may increase the curiosity, the desire to learn, the capacity to ask and investigate. Resources and materials: - (App) What’s up a mental health app available on Android - YouTube Videos https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9B-wTp2PZH8 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F16fO8p6Wew https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KHTpVTnHdIQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kpZS0an0o_I https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ytsCnISiCGY https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pz-MbAJ1GPo - Reading material https://www.beyondblue.org.au/who-does-it-affect/personal-stories/story/katrina https://www.beyondblue.org.au/who-does-it-affect/personal-stories/story/bianca---beyond-blue https://www.beyondblue.org.au/who-does-it-affect/personal-stories/story/bob - Social forums - Rorschach pictures - Srkibbl Website: https://skribbl.io Skill focus: Speaking, reading, and listening. Language Focus: - Use of English: Common adjectives and vocabulary of the Mental Health field. In addition, some expressions from some clips that will be shown in class. - Vocabulary: Mental Health diseases - Symptons - Rorschach - Insights - Tendencies. - Grammar: Modal verbs Foreseeable Problems: - Students could be confused about these sorts of topics which are not spoken in the great majority of classes. - Students could get bored and lose interest in what they are seeing in class. - Students could not be used to speak or take a whole class in English. - Some students may feel uncomfortable talking about this topic. - There may be internet connection issues or blackouts. Planned Solutions: - Record the class for both students who cannot attend and those who want to rehearse what they learned during the session. - Explain to the students the importance and necessity of talking openly about this topic as anybody can suffer from mental issues. - Organize as many dynamic activities as possible in order to create an interesting and entertaining educational environment. - Gesticulate and speak in both languages (English and Spanish) to make students understand more deeply the topic and the information provided. - Create alternatives for those students who lack the necessary tools to engage in virtual environments (technological devices, internet connection) PRE ACTIVITY Length: 20 Minutes \| WHILE ACTIVITY Length: 1 hour - Presentation of the application "What's up: a mental health app". Afterwards, an activity will be carried out with the same. - Presentation video: 10 mental illness signs you should not ignore. - Activity video clips Winnie pooh & his friends: An activity in which students will go back to the groups and will watch some video clips from Winnie Pooh. They are supposed to watch those videos and try to guess in each clip which state of mind is hidden. - Matching activity: Matching words with their right definitions through an interactive game on Educaplay - How did the pandemic influence our mental health? (strategies used): Pandemic has also played a huge role. If we talk about mental health, we had never been exposed to such escenario. Students will discuss how the pandemic influenced our mental health and which strategies were used to face it. POST ACTIVITY Length: 30 Minutes - Reading Activity: At last, students will be placed in groups and later in those groups a piece of reading will be given to them; they will read and next they will discuss it answering: Do you feel identified with the text? How would you have acted if you were in the same situation? What advice would you give to the person in the story? - Reflective Activity: Students share insights, opinions or comments about what they have learned or wanted to talk about mental issues.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:02.044193	Lesson	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84933/overview", "title": "Lesson Plan Interactive Mental Health", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109033/overview	https://careersinpsychology.org/become-a-military-psychologist/ https://www.betterhelp.com/advice/psychologists/what-is-a-military-psychologist-and-how-to-become-one/ Military psychologists (presentation) Military psychologists (presentation) Overview This presentation provides an overview of the important aspects of military psychology, highlighting the crucial role these professionals play in supporting the mental health and well-being of military personnel. Military psychologist at wotk As an Instructor you should ensure an effective and engaging session by active involvement of your cadets and having "hot"discussions. The teacher should thoroughly prepare the content and materials for the presentation. This includes researching the topic, creating clear slides or visual aids, and ensuring all technical equipment is in working order. The teacher should present information in a clear and organized manner. Use a logical structure with an introduction, main points, and a conclusion. Maintain eye contact with the audience and exhibit enthusiasm for the topic. Use body language and gestures to convey interest and passion. Encourage audience participation through questions, discussions, or interactive activities. Create opportunities for students to ask questions or share their thoughts. Be flexible and adapt to the needs of the audience. If students have specific questions or interests related to military psychology, be prepared to address them. Use visual aids effectively to enhance understanding. Ensure that slides or visuals are not cluttered and support the key points being discussed. Stay within the allotted time for the presentation. Avoid rushing through material or going over time. Be sensitive to the potential emotional nature of the topic. Military psychology may involve discussions of trauma and mental health issues, so approach these topics with empathy and care. This is a presentation about military psychologists typically covers their role, functions, and requirements within the context of the military.It is created for my cadets of the 3 year who has ESP and it is devoted to their main direction for future occupation. The level of cadets is A2+,but unfortunately. The task is to get aqcuainted with the definition and main issues of psychologist and then to discuss some pints and drill Future Perfect tense. Here's a brief overview of the content: Introduction to Military Psychology: - Definition of military psychology. - Historical context and development. Role of Military Psychologists: - Providing mental health support to military personnel. - Assessing and treating psychological issues, such as PTSD and combat stress. - Enhancing soldier resilience and mental readiness. - Contributing to mission planning and decision-making. Functions of Military Psychologists: - Psychological assessments and evaluations. - Individual and group therapy sessions. - Crisis intervention and debriefing. - Research and development of psychological strategies. Requirements for Military Psychologists: - Educational qualifications (typically a doctoral degree in psychology). - Licensing and certification. - Military training and commissioning. - Ongoing professional development. Challenges and Rewards: - Addressing the unique challenges of working in a military environment. - The satisfaction of helping service members maintain mental well-being. Conclusion : Opportunity for questions and discussions. This presentation provides an overview of the important aspects of military psychology, highlighting the crucial role these professionals play in supporting the mental health and well-being of military personnel.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:02.067834	10/04/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109033/overview", "title": "Military psychologists (presentation)", "author": "Ludmyla Sinna" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106108/overview	A Unique Strategy for Digital Citizenship and Media Literacy Curriculum Implementation. Overview An infographic on a 'early in the school year completion' approach to Digital Citizenship and Media Literacy Curriculum. Introduction This is a strategy infographic for implementing Digital Citizenship and Media Literacy Curriculum with a completion goal near the begining of the school year. The attached PDF shares our experience at the Thorp School District as we went on our implementation adventure!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:02.084661	06/30/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106108/overview", "title": "A Unique Strategy for Digital Citizenship and Media Literacy Curriculum Implementation.", "author": "Garrett Rhodes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100823/overview	1.E!_What_Is_Chemistry!_(Exercises)[1] 1.E!_What_Is_Chemistry!_(Exercises)[1] 2.4!_Significant_Figures[1] Chemistry_as_a_Science Converting_Units Converting_Units Converting_Units Expressing_Numbers Measurements Prelude_to_Chemistry Prelude_to_Measurements What_Is_Chemistry Beginning of Chemistry Overview This course is for beginners in Chemistry that contains definitios, Basics and poroperties. What is Chemistry? 1.1: Prelude to Chemistry If you are reading these words, you are likely starting a chemistry course. Get ready for a fantastic journey through a world of wonder, delight, and knowledge. One of the themes of this book is "chemistry is everywhere," and indeed it is; you would not be alive if it were not for chemistry, because your body is a big chemical machine. 1.2: Basic Definitions The definition of chemistry—the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy—uses some terms that should also be defined. We start the study of chemistry by defining basic terms. Matter Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. A book is matter, a computer is matter, food is matter, and dirt in the ground is matter. Sometimes matter may be difficult to identify. For example, air is matter, but because it is so thin compared to other matter (e.g., a book, a computer, food, and dirt), we sometimes forget that air has mass and takes up space. Things that are not matter include thoughts, ideas, emotions, and hopes. To understand matter and how it changes, we need to be able to describe matter. There are two basic ways to describe matter: physical properties and chemical properties. Physical properties Physical properties are characteristics that describe matter as it exists. Some physical characteristics of matter are shape, color, size, and temperature. An important physical property is the phase (or state) of matter. The three fundamental phases of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Chemical Properties : Chemical properties are characteristics of matter that describe how matter changes form in the presence of other matter. Does a sample of matter burn? Burning is a chemical property. Does it behave violently when put in water? This reaction is a chemical property as well (Figure ). In the following chapters, we will see how descriptions of physical and chemical properties are important aspects of chemistry. Physical Change : A physical change occurs when a sample of matter changes one or more of its physical properties. For example, a solid may melt (Figure ), or alcohol in a thermometer may change volume as the temperature changes. A physical change does not affect the chemical composition of matter. 1.3 Chemistry as science : Chemistry is a branch of science. Although science itself is difficult to define exactly, the following definition can serve as a starting point. Science is the process of knowing about the natural universe through observation and experiment. Science is not the only process of knowing (e.g., the ancient Greeks simply sat and thought), but it has evolved over more than 350 years into the best process that humanity has devised, to date, to learn about the universe around us. The process of science is usually stated as the scientific method, which is rather naively described as follows: 1. state a hypothesis, 2. test the hypothesis, and 3. refine the hypothesis In actuality, the process is not that simple. (For example, a scientist does not go into their lab every day and exclaim, "I am going to state a hypothesis today and spend the day testing it!") The process is not that simple because science and scientists have a body of knowledge that has already been identified as coming from the highest level of understanding, and most scientists build from that body of knowledge. An educated guess about how the natural universe works is called a hypothesis. A scientist who is familiar with how part of the natural universe works—say, a chemist—is interested in furthering that knowledge. That person makes a reasonable guess—a hypothesis—that is designed to see if the universe works in a new way as well. Here's an example of a hypothesis: "if I mix one part of hydrogen with one part of oxygen, I can make a substance that contains both elements." For a hypothesis to be termed a scientific hypothesis, it has to be something that can be supported or refuted through carefully crafted experimentation or observation. Most good hypotheses are grounded in previously understood knowledge and represent a testable extension of that knowledge. The scientist then devises ways to test if that hypothesis is correct or not. That is, the scientist plans experiments. Experiments are tests of the natural universe to see if a guess (hypothesis) is correct. An experiment to test our previous hypothesis would be to actually mix hydrogen and oxygen and see what happens. Most experiments include observations of small, well-defined parts of the natural universe designed to see results of the experiments. What is chemistry? Simply put, chemistry is the study of the interactions of matter with other matter and with energy. This seems straightforward enough. However, the definition of chemistry includes a wide range of topics that must be understood to gain a mastery of the topic or even take additional courses in chemistry. In this book, we will lay the foundations of chemistry in a topic?by-topic fashion to provide you with the background you need to successfully understand chemistry.Chemistry. 1.1: Prelude to Chemistry 1.2: Basic Definitions 1.3: Chemistry as a Science Measurement In 1983, an Air Canada airplane had to make an emergency landing because it unexpectedly ran out of fuel; ground personnel had filled the fuel tanks with a certain number of pounds of fuel, not kilograms of fuel. In 1999, the Mars Climate Orbiter spacecraft was lost whilst attempting to orbit Mars because the thrusters were programmed in terms of English units, even though the engineers built the spacecraft using metric units. In 1993, a nurse mistakenly administered 23 units of morphine to a patient rather than the "2–3" units prescribed (the patient ultimately survived). These incidents occurred because people were not paying attention to quantities. Chemistry, like all sciences, is quantitative. It deals with quantities, things that have amounts and units. Dealing with quantities is very important in chemistry, as is relating quantities to each other. In this chapter, we will discuss how we deal with numbers and units, including how they are combined and manipulated. 2.1: Prelude to Measurements 2.2: Expressing Numbers 2.3: Expressing Units 2.4: Significant Figures 2.5: Converting Units 2.6: Other Units - Temperature and Density	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:02.117219	02/10/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100823/overview", "title": "Beginning of Chemistry", "author": "Sahil Mehta" }

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