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https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79220/overview	Learning Activities Overview Learning Activities for Unit 2. Activity 2.1 Answers to the learning check are provided below: - Can you explain why health and wellness would be important to college students? - Answer: They affect academic performance. - Can you list three of the most common health issues that negatively affect college students’ academic performance? - Answer: (any three) Procrastination, Stress, Cold/Virus or other respiratory illness or Flu, Anxiety, Sleep difficulties, Depression, Ongoing or chronic medical conditions, Finances, Intimate Relationships, Family - What are the three components of health? - Answer: [Physical, Mental and Spiritual] - List the eight components of wellness. - Answer: Physical, Mental or Intellectual, Spiritual, Emotional, Social, Financial, Occupational, Environmental - Where could you go on campus to address your physical health or wellness? - Answer: Student Health Center - Where could you go on campus to address your emotional wellness? - Answer: Student Counseling Center] Learning Check Health can be seen as the normal or optimal functioning of all components of a human being—body, mind, and spirit—and the absence of disease, illness, dysfunction, or pain. Health is important in college because it supports academic performance. Some of the top issues college students report adversely affect their academic performance are respiratory illness like colds, influenza, and other viral illnesses, depression, and chronic medical conditions. Answer the questions below for a quick assessment of your learning in this unit. - Can you explain why health and wellness would be important to college students? - Can you list three of the most common health issues that negatively affect college students’ academic performance? - What are the three components of health? - List the eight components of wellness. - Where could you go on campus to address your physical health or wellness? - Where could you go on campus to address your emotional wellness? Activity 2.2 Identify Your Wellness Behaviors and Activities Directions - Make a table using the 8 dimensions of wellness: physical, mental/intellectual, spiritual, emotional, social, environmental, financial, and occupational. - Next to each dimension, list activities or behaviors you currently incorporate into your regular routine. - Next to that, list activities or behaviors you would like to incorporate into your regular routine. - If you need some ideas, check out this examples in the table below. Table 1. Wellness Plan Dimension \| Current activity or behavior \| Planned activity or behavior \| Physical \| Walk to class \| Use cardio equipment at the Rec Center for 25 min, 5 times/week \| Mental \| Participate in study groups \| Visit the Academic Success Center \| Spiritual \| Say a nightly prayer \| Find a like-minded group of worship \| Emotional \| Quiet time/self-reflection \| Daily meditation, pursue a hobby \| Social \| Meet new classmates \| Join a campus club or organization \| Environmental \| Use dining hall recycling bins \| Recycle paper in computer lab or Newton Gresham Library \| Financial \| Pay bills, monitor bank account \| Set up a budget for this semester \| Occupational \| Follow degree plan \| Visit Career Services \| For more information, visit "Creating a healthier life: A Step-by-Step Guide to Wellness" from Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration: https://store.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/d7/priv/sma16-4958.pdf	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.467766	Heather F. Adair	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79220/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Health & Wellness, Learning Activities", "author": "Forrest Lane" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79236/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in Coming Soon or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.490617	Heather F. Adair	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79236/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Memory, Digging Deeper", "author": "Forrest Lane" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79221/overview	Sign in to see your Hubs Sign in to see your Groups Create a standalone learning module, lesson, assignment, assessment or activity Submit OER from the web for review by our librarians Please log in to save materials. Log in or	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.515213	Heather F. Adair	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79221/overview", "title": "Foundations for College Success, Health & Wellness, Digging Deeper", "author": "Forrest Lane" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87818/overview	Shiite Islam and Safavid Dynasty Overview Shiite Islam and the Safavid Dynasty Learning Objectives - Identify the historical significance of the conversion of Iran to a Shiite Islamic state under the Safavid Dynasty (1501-1722). - Assess the contributions of the Safavid Dynasty to the early modern world. Key Terms / Key Concepts Ismail: founding ruler of the Safavid empire Safavid Dynasty: dynasty of Turkic tribal leaders who ruled Persia from the sixteenth into the eighteenth centuries Abbas: ruler at the apex of Safavid power Isfahan: Safavid capital city In 1501 Shah Ismail influenced the course of southwest Asian history by establishing a new dynasty over Persia and rechristening the state Iran. The Safavid Dynasty, or empire, was one of three Muslim land-based empires in southwest Asia; the other two were the Ottoman empire, with Anatolia as its base, and the Mughal empire, which controlled India. These empires—also known as the “gunpowder empires”—rose, peaked, and declined between the fourteenth and the twentieth centuries, against the backdrop of the rise of the West. By the eighteenth century major Western powers had eclipsed these three empires, both economically and technologically. The Safavids The Safavids were a hereditary dynasty of Turkic tribal leaders who established their autonomy during fourteenth century with the decline of the Persian Khanate—which was one of the successor empires to Genghis Khan’s thirteenth-century trans-Asian empire. The decline of the Persian Khanate was part of the larger downfall of these Mongol empires across Asia, leaving a power vacuum in west Asia that was temporarily filled with various tribal confederations. The name of the Safavid dynasty comes from the first Safavid leader: Safi al-Din. Toward the end of increasing their power subsequent Safavid leaders intermarried into the tribal elites of various west Asian peoples, including Circassians, Pontic Greeks of Anatolia, Georgians, and Turkmens—which was one of a number of Turkic groups. Shah Ismail and Shiism The Safavid conquest of Persia was the product of a family struggle followed by a conventional campaign of territorial conquest. Ismail, a younger son of the late fifteenth-century Safavid shah, established himself as the dynastic leader in a successful struggle with other members of his extended family. He then installed the Safavid dynasty over Persia during the early sixteenth century. In 1501 his forces took control of Azerbaijan, and over the rest decade he expanded and consolidated his empire through a succession of conquests across Persia. In the context of Persian history, the Safavid Dynasty was one in a succession of dynasties, going back to the Achaemenid Dynasty, which ruled over Persia. While accepting the Persian cultural base, the Safavid Dynasty took Persian civilization in a new direction by embracing Shiism, and, in the process, diverging from the Sunni majorities among the Muslims of the Mughal and the Ottoman empires. This is significant because Shiites and Sunnis disagree over a number of issues concerning Islamic doctrine, as well as the selection of the Islamic leader known as the caliph. As the founder of the Safavid Dynasty Ismail initiated this process of embracing Shiism with his conquest of Persia. Ottoman Sultan Selim I invaded the northwestern corner of the Safavid empire in 1514, culminating in the Ottoman victory over Safavid forces at Tabriz. Although Selim could not maintain control of this part of the Safavid realm, the animosity between these two empires continued, punctuated by formal hostilities until the end of the Safavid Dynasty. This Safavid Shiite divergence metastasized into a violent religious and political division that manifested itself in numerous wars that exist to the present, including the 1980 – 88 Iran-Iraq War. Shah Abbas the Great The Safavid Dynasty reached the zenith of its power during the reign of Shah Abbas the Great. He centralized and strengthened the Safavid government and military, allowing the latter to compete more effectively with the Ottoman empire. When he came to power, Abbas restored the declining Safavid empire and took steps to increase Safavid power, relative to Mughal and Ottoman power. He initiated military campaigns against both powers during the early seventeenth century, regaining some of the territory previously lost by the Safavid empire. These campaigns, along with a strike against the Portuguese at Hormuz increased the Safavid presence along the Persian Gulf. To improve commerce and security across his empire Abbas also commissioned a network of roads with caravanserai constructed about every twenty miles. Caravanserai were secure facilities were caravans could stay overnight. At Abbas’s instruction government officials also worked with merchant groups to encourage trade, which was challenged by Persian geography at the time. Isfahan Every empire that aspires to be a great empire needs a great capital city. Such a capital city not only serves as the center of government but also as the focus of the empire, the source of culture and political power, and the symbol of the empire’s stability, power, and growth. Isfahan was that capital city for the Safavid empire, and, in this role, was comparable to Istanbul/Constantinople in the Ottoman empire and Agra in the Mughal empire. As a settlement, the roots of Isfahan go back about four thousand years. During the Achaemenid dynasty, about 2500 years ago, Isfahan emerged as a small city; it subsequently served as a regional center through a succession of imperial periods in Persian history, including during Parthian, Sassanid, Abbasid, and Timur’s rule. Isfahan was known for its ethnic diversity. Shah Abbas made Isfahan the capital city of his Safavid empire in 1598. Abbas and his successors sponsored numerous projects in the city. These projects embodied both Islamic and Persian features in their design and construction. Of the Safavid rulers Abbas I had the most ambitious plans for Isfahan, matching his ambitions for his empire. Initially he intended to renovate portions of the existing city, but in order to avoid opposition, he later decided instead to add on to it with new construction in the south. Two main features of Abbas’s “new” city to the south were the Maidan-I Naqsh-I Jahan—the center of the “new” city—and the Chahar Bagh Avenue, which ran through the “new” portions of Isfahan to the old. In 1647 Shah Abbas II, grandson of Shah Abbas I, had the Chihil Sutun palace completed. During the Safavid period the city grew with the arrival of thousands of migrants from the Caucasus, who were welcomed by Safavid rulers, including Abbas. These migrants made the city more ethnically and culturally diverse. Diversity was a characteristic of a number of imperial dynasties in Persian history, including the Achaemenid Dynasty. Eventually, by one count, Isfahan could boast 600,000 residents, 1802 caravanserais, 162 mosques, 273 public baths, 48 colleges and academies, and an indeterminable number of coffeehouses. Isfahan remained the urban center of the Safavid empire until its downfall. In this capacity it attracted the interest of European travelers, as an extension of their grand tours. The “Grand Tour” occurred during the so-called early modern period and was a ritual of wealthy Europeans, mostly the nobility. European travelers from the period after the Thirty Years War to the beginning of the French Revolution—a period of relative stability in Europe—toured European cities, along with sites in Asia, for the purposes of exposure and education. The Grand Tour was the predecessor to the mass tourism that grew out of the mass production of the Industrial Revolution. Decline and Fall of the Safavid Empire When considering questions concerning the fall of any empire, civilization, and/or culture, such questions can be phrased in terms of why a civilization fell or why it lasted as long as it did. In the early eighteenth century, the Safavid Dynasty became the first of the so-called gunpowder empires to collapse. A number of factors contributed to the Safavid empire lasting into the early eighteenth century, including Shiism as a unifying force, adequate government administration, commercial prosperity, internal tranquility, and the absence of acute and existential foreign threats, including the Mughal and Ottoman empires. From a more pessimistic perspective a number of factors contributed to the decline and collapse of the Safavid Dynasty. The Safavid Dynasty did not create the financial infrastructure necessary for economic development. In addition, it did not keep up with the innovations in military and maritime technology being made by various European powers. These European powers had embraced earlier technological advances and inventions from Asia and had improved upon them. In general terms these factors also contributed to the downfall of the Mughal and the Ottoman empires. Relative to the Mughal and the Ottoman empires, the Safavid empire fell behind in terms of trade and experienced an outflow of silver, along with growing domestic instability. In the early 1720s, Afghans overran the Safavid empire, capturing Isfahan, bringing down the Safavid dynasty in 1723. Temporarily restored in the 1730s by Nadir Khan, an adventurer-conqueror, this reincarnation died with Khan in 1747. The Safavid empire vividly illustrated the weaknesses of the three so-called gunpowder empires in the face of early modern European technologic advances and economic and imperial expansion. The fate that befell the Safavid empire occurred in slower motion compared to the Mughal empire later in the eighteenth century, as well as to the Ottoman empire during the early twentieth century in the aftermath of the First World War. Arguably the Safavid dynasty left as its most momentous legacy its sponsorship of Shiism Islam. Attributions Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Title Image - "Joseph Enthroned from a Falnama (Book of Omens), the Iranian Safavid Dynasty, circa 1550". Attribution: .Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Safavid_Dynasty%2C_Joseph_Enthroned_from_a_Falnama_%28Book_of_Omens%29%2C_circa_1550_AD.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Ottoman_Empire. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Eastern Question. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.537373	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87818/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 2: Islam & Southeast Asia, Shiite Islam and Safavid Dynasty", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87866/overview	The English Reformation Overview The English Reformation In England, the Protestant Reformation began as an initiative of the English crown for political reasons, but over time gained support from the general population. Learning Objectives - Discuss the major causes and contours of the English Reformation and its key developments. Key Terms / Key Concepts Canon Law: the body of laws and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership), for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members Annulment: legal term for declaring a marriage null and void. (Unlike divorce, it is usually retroactive, meaning that this kind of marriage is considered to be invalid from the beginning, almost as if it had never taken place. Annulment is closely associated with the Catholic Church, which does not permit divorce, teaching that marriage is a lifelong commitment that cannot be dissolved through divorce.) Nationalism: a belief, creed, or political ideology that involves an individual identifying with, or becoming attached to, one’s country of origin Puritans: group of English Protestants in the 16th and 17th centuries founded by some exiles from the clergy shortly after the accession of Elizabeth I of England The English Reformation The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th-century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Roman Catholic Church. The English Reformation was, in part, associated with the wider process of the European Protestant Reformation—a religious and political movement that affected the practice of Christianity across most of Europe during this period. Many factors contributed to the process: the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism, the rise of the common law, the invention of the printing press and increased circulation of the Bible, and the transmission of new knowledge and ideas among scholars, the upper and middle classes, and readers in general. However, the various phases of the English Reformation, which also covered Wales and Ireland, were largely driven by changes in government policy, to which public opinion gradually accommodated itself. Role of Henry VIII and Royal Marriages Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of seventeen. He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother, Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummer’s Day. Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared the epitome of chivalry and sociability. An observant Roman Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day (except during the hunting season). He let himself be influenced by his advisors from whom he was never apart. He was thus susceptible to whomever had his ear. This contributed to a state of hostility between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. As long as Wolsey had his ear, Henry’s Roman Catholicism was secure. In 1521, Wolsey helped Henry defend the Roman Catholic Church from Martin Luther’s accusations of heresy in a book Henry wrote—probably with considerable help from the conservative Bishop of Rochester, John Fisher—entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments; for this Henry VIII was awarded the title “Defender of the Faith” by Pope Leo X. Wolsey’s enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas, among whom was the attractive, charismatic Anne Boleyn, who became the mistress of Henry VIII. Anne arrived at court in 1522 from years in France, where she had been educated by Queen Claude of France. Anne served as maid of honor to Queen Catherine. She was a woman of renowned for her charm, style, and wit. By the late 1520s, Henry wanted his marriage to Catherine annulled, so that he could marry Anne. Catherine had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood, and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was in his words “blighted in the eyes of God”; Catherine had been his late brother’s wife, and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her—a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding to take place. Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the pope refused. According to Canon Law the pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed. Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine’s nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the pope prisoner. In 1529 the king summoned parliament to secure the annulment, thus bringing together those who wanted reform but disagreed on the form it should take; it became known as the Reformation Parliament. There were common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts, and there were those who had been influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the theology of Rome; Thomas Cromwell was both. Cromwell was a lawyer and a member of Parliament—a Protestant who saw how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy, which Henry wanted, and to further Protestant beliefs and practices Cromwell and his friends wanted. The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little, starting in 1531. The Act in Restraint of Appeals, drafted by Cromwell, declared that clergy recognize Henry as the “sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of England.” This declared England an independent country in every respect. Meanwhile, having taken Anne to France on a pre-nuptial honeymoon, Henry married her in Westminster Abbey in January 1533. Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry’s reign saw trials for heresy of Protestants, as well as Roman Catholics. The Reformation under Edward VI’s Reign When Henry died in 1547, his nine-year-old son, Edward VI, inherited the throne. Under King Edward VI more Protestant-influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. Cranmer introduced a series of religious reforms that revolutionized the English church from one that—while rejecting papal supremacy—remained essentially Catholic to one that was institutionally Protestant. All images in churches were to be dismantled. Stained glass, shrines, and statues were defaced or destroyed. Crosses were removed, and bells were taken down. Vestments (special uniforms for clergy) were prohibited and either burned or sold. Chalices were melted down or sold. The requirement of the clergy to be celibate was lifted. Clergy could now marry. Sacred processions were banned, and ashes and palms were prohibited. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy (the order of worship) but influenced by Protestant principles. Cranmer’s formulation of the reformed religion effectively abolished the mass, finally removing from the communion service of any notion of the real presence of God in the bread and the wine. The publication of Cranmer’s revised prayer book in 1552, supported by a second Act of Uniformity, marked the arrival of the English Church at Protestantism. The prayer book of 1552 remains the foundation of the Church of England’s services. However, Cranmer was unable to implement all these reforms once it became clear in the spring of 1553 that King Edward, upon whom the whole Reformation in England depended, was dying. Catholic Restoration From 1553, under the reign of Henry’s Roman Catholic daughter, Mary I, the Reformation legislation was repealed, and Mary sought to achieve reunion with Rome. Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry’s marriage to her mother and so legitimize her claim to the throne. After 1555, the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden. The medieval heresy laws were restored and 283 Protestants were burned at the stake for heresy (thus earning the queen the name “Bloody Mary” among her Protestant subjects). Full restoration of the Catholic faith in England to its pre-Reformation state would take time. Consequently, Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations were planning for a long haul, a ministry of survival. However, Mary died in November 1558, childless and without having made provision for a Catholic to succeed her, which undid her work to restore the Catholic Church in England. Elizabeth I Following Mary’s death, her half-sister Elizabeth inherited the throne. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth’s early reign was religion. Elizabeth could not be Catholic, as that church considered her illegitimate, being born of Anne Boleyn. At the same time, she had observed the turmoil brought about by Edward’s introduction of radical Protestant reforms. Communion with the Catholic Church was again severed by Elizabeth. Chiefly she supported her father’s idea of reforming the church, but she made some minor adjustments. In this way, Elizabeth and her advisors aimed at a church that included most opinions. Two groups were excluded in Elizabeth’s Church of England. Roman Catholics who remained loyal to the Pope were not tolerated. They were, in fact, regarded as traitors because the Pope had refused to accept Elizabeth as Queen of England. Roman Catholics were given the hard choice of being loyal either to their church or their country. For some priests it meant life on the run, and in some cases death for treason. The other group not tolerated were people who wanted reform to go much further, and who finally gave up on the Church of England. They could no longer see it as a true church. They believed it had refused to obey the Bible, so they formed small groups of believers outside the church. One of the main groups that formed during this time was the Puritans, whose beliefs were inspired by Calvinism. The government responded with imprisonment and exile to try to crush these “separatists.” Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:HenryAndAnneBoleynPortraits.jpg Double portrait photo made using File:Hans Holbein, the Younger, Around 1497-1543 - Portrait of Henry VIII of England Dancingtudorqueen, CC BY-SA 4.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0>, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/protestantism/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.562329	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87866/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 5: Europe, The English Reformation", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87864/overview	Witch Hunts Overview The 1500-1600s saw a surge in witch hunts across Western Europe. Reasons for the upswing vary but most scholars point to the clash of cultures between the Catholic Church, which dominated daily life in Western Europe, and the rebirth of intellectualism and individualism of the Renaissance. Learning Objectives - Analyze why witch-hunts began in Europe in the 16th century. - Evaluate the impact of witch hunts on European society in the 16th century. - Evalute the similarities and differences between witch trials in Western Europe and Russia. Key Terms / Key Concepts Johannes Kepler: German mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, and key figure in the 17th-century scientific revolution Malleus Maleficarum: 1487 book written by Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer about how to idenify and try witches Witch Hunts in Context Examine the image above, the burning question should be, what drove this society to do these acts to individuals in the 16th to 18th centuries? It would have been very difficult to watch a person slowly burn alive, all the while a crowd was onlooking and in some cases cheering. This was a member of the community, someone that had a standing and was known by people. This scene would have been very difficult to both watch and participate in. So the question is, what drove people in the 16th to 18th centuries to burn members of their communities at the stake? Individual cases might vary, but there was a deeper social and political change that was happening during this time period. Often in modern history, it becomes a short hand to refer to witches as short hand for a society that was suspicious of itself and willing to hurt or endanger the members of its community. The 16th century becomes one of the clearest examples of the divisions within a society that was willing to hurt themselves, but this isn’t the only example. In the 20th century, deep political divisions in the United States created McCarthyism that has been often cited as a witch hunt as well. Other sociologists and historians reference the early 21st century’s fear of Islam in the United States as another case of witch hunts. These cases of witch hunts and trials demonstrate that there is a deep fear of something within a society and that people are attempting to make sense of their world while having an extreme amount of anxiety and fear of an imagined other. The attempt to make sense of this changing world is important because oftentimes individuals are attempting to relieve their own pressure and make sense, but because of the complications of their situation, the only solution they arrive at is to hurt an innocent victim in the process. This is very important to note about the 16th century, because while witchcraft might have been in use, there was a deep-seated fear and anxiety of a changing world. It is important to put together the fundamental changes that the 16th century brought forward and how that would have impacted the European mindset and society. Take for example the rise of Protestantism. Previously in European history, there were clear rules about why the king of a country was the king, simply because God told the Pope that an individual should be king. This was straightforward and easy to understand. Yet, Protestantism changed this model. With Luther asking the question, why is the Pope in charge, should there even be a Pope? That question had a secular consequence. Now individuals had a very difficult question to ask, why was their king? If you were a Protestant, do you follow a Catholic king? Why? If you are a Catholic, do you follow a Protestant governor? This type of questioning meant that individuals had a very deep problem of trusting their neighbors or their communities. Before most communities of Europe were unified under the banner of Catholicism. With the introduction of Protestantism, how can you trust your neighbor if they are of a different religion than you? The wars and distrust of Catholics and Protestants would eventually come to a boil in the Thirty Years War and other religious conflicts of the 17th century. Yet, it is here that it is important to put the idea of witchcraft. How can you trust your neighbor if they are of a different religion? How can you explain the world now, if things are different inside of your community if something goes wrong? On a local level, this becomes more in focus of the individual. If you were a farmer, and your crops failed, but your neighbor’s crops didn’t. Why? Of course there are complex scientific reasons for this, but people of the 16th century were pre-scientific revolution and did not have the ideas to support those points. Individuals would look at one another and understand that there was a reason, but they did not have the scientific underpinning to explain, instead there was distrust and feelings of negativity towards their neighbors. As with every community, there is complex social engagements of reputation and standing inside the community. This would have also had a part to play with why individuals would have made charges against one another. Individuals seeking opportunities would accuse others who had lands that would then be up for sale for very cheap prices. The result of the witch trials of the 15th to 18th centuries casts a long legacy that should be examined and mined, instead of a moment in time that has no relationship to society, but instead, as a window into what happens when a society is at a fracturing point. These moments have happened in the past and demonstrate key moments of social breakdowns and potentially the ability to avoid those in the future. The witch trials in the early modern period were a series of witch hunts between the 15th and 18th centuries when across early modern Europe, and to some extent in the European colonies in North America, there was a widespread hysteria that malevolent Satanic witches were operating as an organized threat to Christendom. Those accused of witchcraft were portrayed as being worshippers of the Devil, who engaged in sorcery at meetings known as Witches’ Sabbaths. Many people were subsequently accused of being witches and were put on trial for the crime, with varying punishments being applicable in different regions and at different times. In early modern European tradition, witches were stereotypically, though not exclusively, women. European pagan belief in witchcraft was associated with the goddess Diana and dismissed as “diabolical fantasies” by medieval Christian authors. Background to the Witch Trials During the medieval period, there was widespread belief in magic across Christian Europe. The medieval Roman Catholic Church, which then dominated a large swath of Western Europe, divided magic into two forms—natural magic, which was acceptable because it was viewed as merely taking note of the powers in nature that were created by God, and demonic magic, which was frowned upon and associated with demonology. It was also during the medieval period that the concept of Satan, the Biblical Devil, began to develop into a more threatening form. Around the year 1000, when there were increasing fears that the end of the world would soon come in Christendom, the idea of the Devil had become prominent. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the concept of the witch in Christendom underwent a relatively radical change. No longer were witches viewed as sorcerers who had been deceived by the Devil into practicing magic that went against the powers of God. Instead they became all-out malevolent Devil-worshippers, who had made pacts with him in which they had to renounce Christianity and devote themselves to Satanism. As a part of this, it was believed that they gained new, supernatural powers that enabled them to work magic, which they would use against Christians. Why? Why did Western Europe suddenly experience a radical shift in how it discussed and evaluated witches? Why, in short, did they occupy so much attention in Western Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries? Historians frequently cite a major turning point in Western Europe: the arrival and spread of the European Renaissance. While the Renaissance did not outright denounce or diminish the teachings of the Catholic Church, it did promote questioning, new lines of thinking, and a break with roughly one thousand years of feudalism--a social structure in which the power and influence of the church over most of Western Europe was certain. By the 1500s, the Renaissance had spread so far that the Catholic Church feared its grip on Western Europe was sliding. Thus, they supported, if not outright initiated, public hunts for witches and sorcerers--people who were often social outcasts, misfits, irreligious, or pagan. This quest to identify and remove witches received a public boost in support in the late 1400s when German authors Jakob Sprenger and Heinrich Kramer released their book, Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of the Witches). The book openly stated three cardinal ideas: 1): witches exist; 2): they can be identified by certain behaviors; and 3): even a common man can identify them. It became enormously popular overnight. Part of the popularity arose from its association with the Catholic Church itself. Sprenger and Kramer were both sanctioned inquisitors of the Catholic Church--men who were "experts" in identifying and trying witches. Proof of this status was in the front of their book where a papal bull, signed by Pope Innocent VIII, appeared. Both authors used the papal bull as evidence of the Pope's support of their book, probably inaccurately. Nevertheless, the book helped set in motion a horrible witch-hunt among friends and neighbors. While the witch trials only really began in the 15th century, with the start of the early modern period, many of their causes had been developing during the previous centuries, with the persecution of heresy by the medieval Inquisition during the late 12th and the 13th centuries, and during the late medieval period, during which the idea of witchcraft or sorcery gradually changed and adapted. An important turning point was the Black Death of 1348–1350, which killed a large percentage of the European population, and which many Christians believed had been caused by evil forces. Beginnings of the Witch Trials While the idea of witchcraft began to mingle with the persecution of heretics even in the 14th century, the beginning of the witch hunts as a phenomenon in its own right became apparent during the first half of the 15th century in southeastern France and western Switzerland, in communities of the Western Alps. While early trials fall still within the late medieval period, the peak of the witch hunt was during the period of the European wars of religion, between about 1580 and 1630. Over the entire duration of the phenomenon of some three centuries, an estimated total of 40,000 to 100,000 people were executed. The Trials of 1580 – 1630 The height of the European witch trials was between 1560 and 1630, with the large hunts first beginning in 1609. The Witch Trials of Trier in Germany was perhaps the biggest witch trial in European history. The persecutions started in the diocese of Trier in 1581 and reached the city itself in 1587, where they were to lead to the deaths of about 368 people, and as such it was perhaps the biggest mass execution in Europe during peacetime. In Denmark, the burning of witches increased following the reformation of 1536. Christian IV of Denmark, in particular, encouraged this practice, and hundreds of people were convicted of witchcraft and burned. In England, the Witchcraft Act of 1542 regulated the penalties for witchcraft. In Scotland, over seventy people were accused of witchcraft on account of bad weather when James VI of Scotland, who shared the Danish king’s interest in witch trials, sailed to Denmark in 1590 to meet his betrothed, Anne of Denmark. The sentence for an individual found guilty of witchcraft or sorcery during this time, and in previous centuries, typically included either burning at the stake or being tested with the “ordeal of cold water." Accused persons who drowned were considered innocent, and ecclesiastical authorities would proclaim them “brought back,” but those who floated were considered guilty of practicing witchcraft, and burned at the stake or executed in an unholy fashion. Decline of the Trials While the witch trials had begun to fade out across much of Europe by the mid-17th century, they continued to a greater extent on the fringes of Europe and in the American colonies. The clergy and intellectuals began to speak out against the trials from the late 16th century. Johannes Kepler in 1615 could only by the weight of his prestige keep his mother from being burned as a witch. The 1692 Salem witch trials were a brief outburst of witch hysteria in the New World at a time when the practice was already waning in Europe. Witch Trials and Women An estimated 75% to 85% of those accused in the early modern witch trials were women, and there is certainly evidence of misogyny on the part of those persecuting witches, evident from quotes such as “[It is] not unreasonable that this scum of humanity, [witches], should be drawn chiefly from the feminine sex” (Nicholas Rémy, c. 1595) or “The Devil uses them so, because he knows that women love carnal pleasures, and he means to bind them to his allegiance by such agreeable provocations.” In early modern Europe, it was widely believed that women were less intelligent than men and more susceptible to sin. Nevertheless, it has been argued that the supposedly misogynistic agenda of works on witchcraft has been greatly exaggerated, based on the selective repetition of a few relevant passages of the Malleus Maleficarum. Many modern scholars argue that the witch hunts cannot be explained simplistically as an expression of male misogyny, as indeed women were frequently accused by other women, to the point that witch hunts, at least at the local level of villages, have been described as having been driven primarily by “women’s quarrels.” Barstow (1994) claimed that a combination of factors, including the greater value placed on men as workers in the increasingly wage-oriented economy, and a greater fear of women as inherently evil, loaded the scales against women, even when the charges against them were identical to those against men. Thurston (2001) saw this as a part of the general misogyny of the late medieval and early modern periods, which had increased during what he described as “the persecuting culture” from what it had been in the early medieval period. Gunnar Heinsohn and Otto Steiger in a 1982 publication speculated that witch hunts targeted women skilled in midwifery specifically in an attempt to extinguish knowledge about birth control and “repopulate Europe” after the population catastrophe of the Black Death. Witch Trials in Russia Witch trials in Russia took a very different course from those held in Western Europe. The Catholic Church in Western Europe promoted the idea that witches and sorcerers had made a direct pact with the Devil; and encouraged peasantry to be on their guard, and on the watch for witches and sorcerers. They should be eliminated in the eyes of the church. In contrast, the Russian Orthodox Church held no such belief, and made no encouragement to the peasantry to spy and accuse their neighbors. Instead, the church believed sorcery and witchcraft to be a form of paganism. Paganism, which promoted the belief in many gods, stood in direct opposition to Christianity. To ensure that Orthodoxy was a core feature of a unified Russia, the Russian Orthodox Church asked Tsar Ivan IV to outlaw witchcraft in all forms in the mid-1500s. Under Tsar Ivan IV, witchcraft and sorcery were outlawed. However, the tsar stopped short of instituting a death penalty for witchcraft. He instead asserted that individuals accused of witchcraft be tried before a secular court—a surprising move for Ivan IV who is remembered better by his nickname, “Ivan the Terrible.” A far more surprising turn-of-events occurred in Russia under the “gentle” Romanov tsar, Alexei Mikhailovich, in the mid-1600s. Under social and religious pressure, the tsar instituted a death penalty for anyone found guilty of practicing sorcery. From the mid-1600s to the turn of the eighteenth century, Russia tried roughly one hundred people for witchcraft. Again, events in Russia stand in stark, surprising contrast to those in Western Europe. Most of the accused in Russia were men. Perhaps because of the status of men in Russian society and their association as healers. Of the accused, only a handful were found guilty and executed. Although part of the Russian record of their witch trials during this era is incomplete due to a fire, historians speculate that less than twenty people were executed during the Russian witch trials—a far different story than what occurred in Western Europe where witch hangings and burnings were celebrated as public spectacle. By the eighteenth century, the Enlightenment had reached Russia and witch trials disappeared entirely. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Agnes_Sampson_and_witches_with_devil.jpg Text modified from: https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/protestantism/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.589367	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87864/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 5: Europe, Witch Hunts", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88235/overview	Aztecs Overview Aztecs The Aztecs were the key group in Central America that established trade routes and engagements of indigenous populations. The Aztecs built a city in the middle of a lake, from areas that had no land originally. The major empire was central in the importance before the Spanish arrived. Learning Objectives - Compare and contrast the Aztec peoples to the other American populations. - Analyze the development of Tenochtitlan and the impact of the city on the Aztec peoples. Key Terms / Key Concepts altepetl: Small, mostly independent city-states that often paid tribute to the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. Nahuatl: The language spoken by the Mexica people who made up the Aztec Triple Alliance, as well as many city-states throughout the region. flower wars: The form of ritual war where warriors from the Triple Alliance fought with enemy Nahua city-states. Mesoamerican ballgame: This ritual practice involved a rubber ball that the players hit with their elbows, knees, and hips, and tried to get through a small hoop in a special court. The Aztec People The Aztecs were a pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people of Central Mexico in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. They called themselves Mexica. The Republic of Mexico and its capital, Mexico City, derive their names from the word “Mexica.” The capital of the Aztec empire was Tenochtitlan, built on a raised island in Lake Texcoco. Modern Mexico City is built on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization; here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the city of Tenochtitlan, was built upon raised islets in Lake Texcoco. The Triple Alliance was comprised of Tenochtitlan along with their main allies. They formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city-states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, and reached remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. In 1521 Hernán Cortés, along with a large number of Nahuatl -speaking indigenous allies, conquered Tenochtitlan and defeated the Aztec Triple Alliance under the leadership of Hueyi Tlatoani Moctezuma II. Subsequently the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, from where they proceeded to colonize Central America. Politics The Aztec empire was an example of an empire that ruled by indirect means. Like most European empires, it was ethnically very diverse, but unlike most European empires, it was more of a system of tribute than a single system of government. Although the form of government is often referred to as an empire, in fact most areas within the empire were organized as city-states, known as “Altepetl” in Nahuatl. These were small polities ruled by a king (tlatoani) from a legitimate dynasty. Two of the primary architects of the Aztec empire were the half-brothers Tlacaelel and Montezuma I, nephews of Itzcoatl. Moctezuma I succeeded as king in 1440. Although he was also offered the opportunity to be tlatoani, Tlacaelel preferred to operate as the power behind the throne. Tlacaelel focused on reforming the Aztec state and religious practices. According to some sources, he ordered the burning of most of the extant Aztec books, claiming that they contained lies. He thereupon rewrote the history of the Aztec people, thus creating a common awareness of history for the Aztecs. This rewriting led directly to the curriculum taught to scholars, and promoted the belief that the Aztecs were always a powerful and mythic nation—forgetting forever a possible true history of modest origins. One component of this reform was the institution of ritual war (the flower wars) as a way to have trained warriors, and the necessity of constant sacrifices to keep the Sun moving. Economics The Aztec economy can be divided into a political sector, under the control of nobles and kings, and a commercial sector that operated independently of the political sector. The political sector of the economy centered on the control of land and labor by kings and nobles. Nobles owned all land, and commoners got access to farmland and other fields through a variety of arrangements, from rental through sharecropping to serf-like labor and slavery. These payments from commoners to nobles supported both the lavish lifestyles of the high nobility and the finances of city-states. Many luxury goods were produced for consumption by nobles. The producers of featherwork, sculptures, jewelry, and other luxury items were full-time commoner specialists who worked for noble patrons. Several forms of money were in circulation, most notably the cacao bean. These beans could be used to buy food, staples, and cloth. Around thirty beans would purchase a rabbit, while one father was recorded as selling his daughter for around 200 cacao beans. The Aztec rulers also maintained complex road systems with regular stops to rest and eat every ten miles or so. Couriers walked these roads regularly to ensure they were in good working order and to bring news back to Tenochtitlan. Trade also formed a central part of Aztec life. While local commoners regularly paid tribute to the nobles a few times a year, there was also extensive trade with other regions in Mesoamerica. Archeological evidence shows that jade, obsidian, feathers, and shells reached the capital through established trade routes. Rulers and nobles enjoyed wearing these more exotic goods and having them fashioned into expressive headdresses and jewelry. Architecture and Agriculture The capital of Tenochtitlan was divided into four even sections called campans. All of these sections were interlaced together with a series of canals that allowed for easy transportation throughout the islets of Lake Texcoco. Commoner housing was usually built of reeds or wood, while noble houses and religious sites were constructed from stone. Agriculture played a large part in the economy and society of the Aztecs. They used dams to implement irrigation techniques in the valleys. They also implemented a raised bed gardening technique by layering mud and plant vegetation in the lake in order to create moist gardens. These raised beds were called chinampas. These extremely fertile beds could harvest seven different crops each year. Some of the most essential crops in Aztec agriculture included: - Avocados - Beans - Squash - Sweet Potatoes - Maize - Tomatoes - Amarinth - Chilies - Cotton - Cacao beans Most farming occurred outside of the busy heart of Tenochtitlan. However, each family generally had a garden where they could grow maize, fruits, herbs, and medicinal plants on a smaller scale. Aztec Religion The Aztec religion focused on death, rebirth, and the renewal of the sun. The Aztecs practiced ritual sacrifice, ball games, and bloodletting in order to renew the sun each day. The Aztec religious cosmology included the physical earth plane, where humans lived, the underworld (or land of the dead), and the realm of the sky. Due to the flexible imperial political structure, a large pantheon of gods was incorporated into the larger cultural religious traditions. The Aztecs also worshipped deities that were central to older Mesoamerican cultures, such as the Olmecs. Some of the most central deities that the Aztecs paid homage to included: - Huizilopochtil – The “left-handed hummingbird” god was the god of war and the sun and also the founder of Tenochtitlan. - Quetzalcoatl – The feathered serpent god that represented the morning star, wind, and life. - Tlaloc – The rain and storm god. - Mixcoatl – The “cloud serpent” god that was incorporated into Aztec belief and represented war. - Xipe Totec – The flayed god that was associated with fertility. This deity was also incorporated from cultures under the Aztec Triple Alliance umbrella. Founding Myth of Tenochtitlan Veneration of Huizilopochtil, the personification of the sun and of war, was central to the religious, social, and political practices of the Mexica people. Huizilopochtil attained this central position after the founding of Tenochtitlan and the formation of the Mexica city-state society in the 14th century. According to myth, Huizilopochtil directed the wanderers to found a city on the site where they would see an eagle devouring a snake perched on a fruit-bearing nopal cactus. (It was said that Huizilopochtil killed his nephew, Cópil, and threw his heart on the lake. Huizilopochtil honoured Cópil by causing a cactus to grow over Cópil’s heart.) This legendary vision is pictured on the coat of arms of Mexico. Ritual and Sacrifice Like all other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs played a variant of the Mesoamerican ballgame. The game was played with a ball of solid rubber. The players hit the ball with their hips, knees, and elbows, and had to pass the ball through a stone ring to automatically win. The practice of the ballgame carried religious and mythological meanings and also served as sport. Many times players of the game were captured during the famous Aztec flower wars with neighboring rivals. Losers of the game were often ritually sacrificed as an homage to the gods. While human sacrifice was practiced throughout Mesoamerica, the Aztecs, if their own accounts are to be believed, brought this practice to an unprecedented level. For example, for the reconsecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they sacrificed 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days, reportedly by Ahuitzotl, the Great Speaker himself. This number, however, is not universally accepted. Accounts by the Tlaxcaltecas, the primary enemy of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish Conquest, show that at least some of them considered it an honor to be sacrificed. In one legend, the warrior Tlahuicole was freed by the Aztecs but eventually returned of his own volition to die in ritual sacrifice. Tlaxcala also practiced the human sacrifice of captured Aztec citizens. Everyone was affected by human sacrifice, and it should be considered in the context of the religious cosmology of the Aztec people. It was considered necessary in order for the world to continue and be reborn each new day. Death and ritual blood sacrifice ensured the sun would rise again and crops would continue to grow. Not only were captives and warriors sacrificed, but nobles would often practice ritual bloodletting during certain sacred days of the year. Every level of Aztec society was affected by the belief in the human responsibility to pay homage to the gods, and anyone could serve as a sacrificial offering. Priests and Religious Architecture A noble priest class played an integral role in the religious worship and sacrifices of Aztec society. They were responsible for collecting tributes and ensuring there were enough goods for sacrificial ceremonies. They also trained young men to impersonate various deities for an entire year before being sacrificed on a specific day. These priests were respected by all of society and were also responsible for practicing ritual bloodletting on themselves at regular intervals. Priests could come from the noble or common classes, but they would receive their training at different schools and perform different functions. Priests performed rituals from special temples and religious houses. The temples were generally huge pyramidal structures that were covered over with a new surface every fifty-two years, meaning some pyramids were gigantic in scale. These feats of architectural display were the sites of large sacrificial offerings and festivals, where Spanish reports said blood would run down the steps of the pyramids. The priests often performed smaller daily rituals in small, dark temple houses where incense and images of important gods were displayed. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Codex_Borgia_page_17.jpg Boundless World History https://www.coursehero.com/study-guides/boundless-worldhistory/the-toltecs-and-the-aztecs/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.617130	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88235/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 4: Latin America, Aztecs", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87811/overview	East Asian Interactions with Europe Overview East Asian Interactions with Europe Maritime voyages eclipsed the prodigious efforts of Europeans to cross Asia by the mid-sixteenth century. Consequently, East Asian Interactions with Europe were dictated by the Pacific Ocean. These interactions took the forms of trade, religious missions, and cultural and technological exchanges, usually from Europeans to east Asians. Learning Objectives Identify and assess the forms, effects, and repercussions of East Asian interactions with Europe. Keywords / Key Concepts Matteo Ricci - Italian Jesuit who worked as a Christian missionary and cultural intermediary in China from 1582 until his death in 1610 Tokugawa shogunate: the last feudal Japanese military government, which existed between 1603 and 1867 Sakoku: period of Japanese isolation dictated by the Tokugawa Shogunate from the early seventeenth to mid-nineteenth centuries During the early modern period, trade between Europeans and east Asians was asymmetrical, with European ships visiting east Asian ports. European traders easily found east Asian goods and commodities that would sell in European and at European-American markets, but they had more difficulty finding goods that interested east Asians. A number of east Asian governments, including those of the Ming and Qing Dynasties of China and the Tokugawa Shogunate of Japan, resorted to restrictions to control that trade. The Dutch, the Portuguese, and the Spanish established trading posts along the coasts of south and southeast Asia as part of their coastal trading empires in early modern eastern and southern Asia. Trade Restrictions In the early Ming, after the devastation of the war that expelled the Mongols, the Hongwu Emperor imposed severe restrictions on trade, which came to be known the “haijin” or “sea ban.” Believing that agriculture was the basis of the economy, Hongwu favored that industry over all else, including the merchant industry. Partly imposed to deal with Japanese piracy amid the mopping up of Yuan partisans, the sea ban was completely counterproductive; by the 16th century, piracy and smuggling were endemic and mostly consisted of Chinese who had been dispossessed by the policies. China’s foreign trade was limited to irregular and expensive tribute missions, and resistance to them among the Chinese bureaucracy led to the scrapping of Zheng He’s fleets. Piracy dropped to negligible levels only upon the ending of the policy in 1567. After Hongwu Emperor’s death, most of his policies were reversed by his successors. By the late Ming, the state was losing power to the very merchants Hongwu had wanted to restrict. Trade Expands After the Chinese banned direct trade with Japan, the Portuguese filled this commercial vacuum as intermediaries between China and Japan. The Portuguese bought Chinese silk and sold it to the Japanese in return for Japanese-mined silver; since silver was more highly valued in China, the Portuguese could then use Japanese silver to buy even larger stocks of Chinese silk. However, by 1573—after the Spanish established a trading base in Manila—the Portuguese intermediary trade was trumped by the prime source of incoming silver to China from the Spanish Americas. Although it is unknown just how much silver flowed from the Philippines to China, it is known that the main port for the Mexican silver trade—Acapulco—shipped between 150,000 and 345,000 kg (4 to 9 million taels) of silver annually from 1597 to 1602. Although the bulk of imports to China were silver, the Chinese also purchased New World crops from the Spanish Empire. This included sweet potatoes, maize, and peanuts. These were foods that could be cultivated in lands where traditional Chinese staple crops—wheat, millet, and rice—couldn’t grow; hence, they facilitated a rise in the population of China. In the Song dynasty (960 – 1279), rice had become the major staple crop of the poor, but after sweet potatoes were introduced to China around 1560, they gradually became the traditional food of the lower classes. The Ming also imported many European firearms in order to ensure the modernness of their weapons. The beginning of relations between the Spanish and Chinese were much warmer than when the Portuguese were first given a reception in China. In the Philippines, the Spanish defeated the fleet of the infamous Chinese pirate Limahong in 1575, an act greatly appreciated by the Ming admiral who had been sent to capture Limahong. In fact, the Chinese admiral invited the Spanish to board his vessel and travel back to China, beginning a trip that included two Spanish soldiers and two Christian friars eager to spread the faith. However, the friars returned to the Philippines after it became apparent that their preaching was unwelcome; Matteo Ricci would fare better in his trip of 1582. The thriving of trade and commerce was aided by the construction of canals, roads, and bridges by the Ming government. The Ming saw the rise of several merchant clans, such as the Huai and Jin, who disposed of large amounts of wealth. The gentry and merchant classes started to fuse, and the merchants gained power at the expense of the state. Some merchants were reputed to have a treasure of 30 million taels. During the last years of the Wanli Emperor’s reign and the reigns of his two successors, an economic crisis developed that was centered around a sudden widespread lack of the empire’s chief medium of exchange: silver. The Protestant powers of the Dutch Republic and the Kingdom of England were staging frequent raids and acts of piracy against the Catholic-based empires of Spain and Portugal in order to weaken their global economic power. Meanwhile, in favor of shipping American-mined silver directly from Spain to Manila, Philip IV of Spain (r. 1621 – 1665) began cracking down on illegal smuggling of silver from Mexico and Peru across the Pacific towards China. In 1639, the new Tokugawa regime of Japan shut down most of its foreign trade with European powers, causing a halt of yet another source of silver coming into China. Collectively, these reductions in the flow of silver into China caused a dramatic spike in the value of silver, which made paying taxes nearly impossible for most provinces in China. People began hoarding precious silver, forcing the ratio of the value of copper to silver into a steep decline. In the 1630s, a string of one thousand copper coins was worth an ounce of silver; by 1640 it was reduced to the value of half an ounce; by 1643 it was worth roughly one-third of an ounce. For peasants this was an economic disaster, since they paid taxes in silver while conducting local trade and selling their crops with copper coins. Isolationism in the Edo Period The isolationist policy of the Tokugawa shogunate, known as Sakoku, tightly controlled Japanese trade and foreign influences for over 200 years, ending with the Perry Expedition that forced Japan to open its market to European imperial powers. Sakoku Sakoku was the foreign relations policy of Japan under which severe restrictions were placed on the entry of foreigners to Japan and Japanese people were forbidden to leave the country without special permission, on penalty of death if they returned. The policy was enacted, through a number of edicts and policies from 1633 to 1639, by the Tokugawa shogunate under Tokugawa Iemitsu—the third shogun of the Tokugawa dynasty. It largely remained officially in effect until 1866, although the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry in the 1850s began the opening of Japan to Western trade, eroding its enforcement. Historians have argued that the Sakoku policy was established to remove the colonial and religious influence of Spain and Portugal, which was perceived as posing a threat to the stability of the shogunate and to peace in the archipelago. Some scholars, however, have challenged this view as only a partial explanation. Another important factor behind Sakoku was the Tokugawa government’s desire to acquire sufficient control over Japan’s foreign policy, to guarantee peace, and to maintain Tokugawa supremacy over other powerful lords in the country. Japan was not completely isolated under the Sakoku policy, but strict regulations were applied to commerce and foreign relations by the shogunate and certain feudal domains (han). The policy stated that the only European influence permitted was the Dutch factory at Dejima in Nagasaki. Trade with China was also handled at Nagasaki. Trade with Korea was limited to the Tsushima Domain. Trade with the Ainu people was limited to the Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, and trade with the Ryūkyū Kingdom took place in Satsuma Domain. Apart from these direct commercial contacts in peripheral provinces, trading countries sent regular missions to the shogun in Edo and Osaka Castle. Due to the necessity for Japanese subjects to travel to and from these trading posts, this trade resembled outgoing trade, with Japanese subjects making regular contact with foreign traders in essentially extraterritorial land. Trade with Chinese and Dutch traders in Nagasaki took place on an island called Dejima, separated from the city by a small strait. Foreigners could not enter Japan from Dejima, nor could Japanese enter Dejima, without special permissions or authority. Jesuits--European Catholic missionaries--came to east Asia to spread Christianity. These missionaries were part of the missionary impulse that the Roman Catholic Church pursued across east Asia from the sixteenth into the twentieth centuries. In these efforts Catholic missionaries were competing with Muslims, Hindus, and, later, Protestants. Cultural and technological exchanges also were one-sided, with Europeans bringing new technology to east Asia, and exposing east Asians to various facets of European cultures. East Asians did not send ships to Europe and pursue this same strategy in reverse. East Asian leaders were most interested in European technology and did not wish to embrace other parts of European culture as part of any technological exchanges. For example, during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European visitors found it much easier to interest the Chinese in European clocks than in Christianity. These early modern interactions between Europeans and east Asia, along with European advances in military and transportation technology, would lay the foundation for the relationships between these two sets of peoples. East Asian efforts to catch up technologically with the West would become one of the key themes in east Asian history. Attributions Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Title Image - Kircher, Athanasius, 1602-1680., CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ricci_Guangqi_2.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike. - Hongwu Emperor. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of the Ming dynasty. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ming dynasty. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hongwu1.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. Located at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hongwu1.jpg. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Economy of the Ming dynasty. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hongwu1.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Hongwu1.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 1280px-Chen_Hongshou,_leaf_album_painting.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Qing conquest of the Ming. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of the Ming dynasty. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Ming dynasty. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Hongwu1.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 440px-Ch'iu_Ying_001.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - 1024px-Matteo_Ricci_Far_East_1602_Larger.jpg. Provided by: Wikimedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - History of Japan. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tokugawa Ieyasu. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Tokugawa_Ieyasu2.JPG. Provided by: Wikimedia Commons. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.642598	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87811/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 1: Asia & Oceania, East Asian Interactions with Europe", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87816/overview	Islam and Eurasia: An Introduction Overview Islam and Eurasia: An Introduction The relationship between Islam and Eurasia is defined by a number of factors. Among the most significant is the missionary impulse of Islam, which drove Islamic expansion across Eurasia. Conversely, limits to that expansion included the missionary impulse of other religions and belief systems, including Buddhism, Christianity, and Hinduism. In part, Geography influenced where Islam spread, either facilitating or hindering that process. Tribalism strengthened group identification with and loyalty to Islam, among other ideologies and/or belief systems. As an example, such tribalism among the pastoral peoples who first embraced Islam was part of Islam’s early resilience. Other factors included economics, which in a number of cases acted as an imperative in its spread. Learning Objective - Assess the contributions of these three empires to the early-modern world. During the seventh century C.E. Islam spread across Arabia. In the process of expanding across Eurasia, Islam—and other expansionistic belief systems—spread by means of military force, economic incentive, and ideological and/or spiritual appeal. For the next several centuries Islam spread westward across north Africa and into southern Europe, northward into west Asia, and eastward into south and central Asia. With the diversification of the expanding Muslim world, that world became multipolar, with numerous centers of political and military power, as well cultural creativity. These centers punctuated the corridors of Islam’s spread. They also competed with each other. Since the seventh century C.E. Islam has been one of a number of forces that have influenced Eurasian history. Another way to look at Islam’s role is as part of a dynamic process in which each of the forces is continually evolving. Part of what historians do is try to paint a picture of a period, along with all the individuals, groups, and forces that are part of that period. That, of course, is one of the greatest challenges that historians face—describing a past essentially in static terms that is the sum of all the dynamic developments and events of which it is composed. This is the case with the effort to understand the development and expansion of Islam. Islam, among other expansionistic belief systems, ultimately was and is a complex and fluid force developing in the complex and fluid landscape that is Eurasia. Attributions Title Image - Taj Mahal photo by Vyacheslav Argenberg, via Wikimedia Commons. Attribution: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal_2,_Agra,_India.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Taj_Mahal_2,_Agra,_India.jpg . License: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.659113	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87816/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 2: Islam & Southeast Asia, Islam and Eurasia: An Introduction", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87883/overview	Reconquista and Technology Overview Reconquista and Technology The Reconquista refers to the period of, mainly, military efforts by Christians to reconquer land on the Iberian peninsula taken by Muslims by the early eighth century. The Reconquista lasted from the early eighth century to 1492, when the last of Muslim forces were forced from the southern edge of Iberia. It occurred within the context of wars during the Middle Ages between Christian and Muslim forces over control of southwest and south-central Europe. However, this period in Iberian history was marked not only by conflict between Christians and Muslims, but also by peaceful coexistence, including cultural exchanges. Learning Outcome - Identify the dynamics of trade and political power that led to European exploration of the New World. Key Terms / Key Concepts reconquista: Christian reconquest of Iberia from the eighth through the fifteenth century C.E. Arianism: a Christian doctrine concerning the Trinity that came to be seen as unorthodox, even heretic Christopher Columbus - Genoese explorer credited with the discovery of the Americas Prelude to the Muslim Conquest of Iberia: Catholicism’s Triumph over Arianism Before the Muslim invasion of Iberia, Catholicism established its primacy in the peninsula at the conclusion of a brief struggle with Arianism during the sixth century. Although the period of rule by the Visigothic Kingdom (c. 5th – 8th centuries) saw the brief spread of Arianism, Catholic religion coalesced in Spain at the time. The Councils of Toledo debated creed and liturgy in orthodox Catholicism, and the Council of Lerida in 546 constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them under the blessings of Rome. In 587, the Visigothic king at Toledo—Reccared—converted to Catholicism and launched a movement in Spain to unify the various religious doctrines that existed in the land. This put an end to dissension on the question of Arianism. Subsequently, Catholicism consolidated its control and domination over Iberia with the Reconquista and the Spanish Inquisition that followed. These developments have influenced the evolution of Spain and Iberia to the present. Background to and Beginning of the Reconquista The Reconquista “reconquest”) is a period in the history of the Iberian Peninsula, spanning approximately 770 years. Historians traditionally mark the beginning of the Reconquista with the Battle of Covadonga (most likely in 722), and its end with Columbus’ 1492 expedition. The successful conclusion of the Reconquista is associated with Portuguese and Spanish colonization of the Americas. Between the initial Umayyad conquest of Hispania in the 710s and the fall of the Emirate of Granada, the last Islamic state on the peninsula, to expanding Christian kingdoms in 1492, the Reconquista progressed slowly and unevenly. The Arab Islamic conquest had dominated most of North Africa by 710 CE. In 711 an Islamic Berber raiding party, led by Tariq ibn Ziyad, was sent to Iberia to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic Kingdom. Tariq’s army crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and won a decisive victory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic King Roderic was defeated and killed at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq’s commander, Musa, quickly crossed with Arab reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims were in control of nearly the whole Iberian Peninsula. West Germanic Franks stopped the Muslim advance into western Europe at the 732 Battle of Tours. In the summer of 722, a decisive victory for the Christians took place at Covadonga, in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. In a minor battle known as the Battle of Covadonga, a Muslim force was sent to put down the Christian rebels in the northern mountains, but it was defeated by Pelagius of Asturias, who established the monarchy of the Christian Kingdom of Asturias. In 739, a rebellion in Galicia, assisted by the Asturians, drove out Muslim forces; Galicia then joined the Asturian kingdom. The Kingdom of Asturias became the main base for Christian resistance to Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula for several centuries. Warfare between Muslims and Christians Medieval Spain was the scene of almost constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Muslim interest in the peninsula returned in force around when Al-Mansur sacked Barcelona in 985. Under his son, other Christian cities were subjected to numerous raids. After his son’s death, the caliphate plunged into a civil war and splintered into the so-called “Taifa Kingdoms.” The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids’ Maghribi and al-Andalus territories by 1147, surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist Islamic outlook, and they treated the non-believer dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of death, conversion, or emigration, many Jews and Christians left. The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north. After the loss of Toledo in 1085, the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the Almoravides into the conflict with Christian forces, who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the invasion of the Almohads, who were defeated by an alliance of the Christian kingdoms in the decisive battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212. By 1250, nearly all of Iberia was back under Christian rule, with the exception of the Muslim kingdom of Granada, the last state in Iberia to be taken back from Muslim forces. The reconquest of Granada marked the end of the Reconquista. Despite the Reconquista, the Muslim presence in Iberia left lasting legacies in technology, architecture, the arts, and literature. Spanish Inquisition The most prominent legacy of the Reconquista was the Spanish Inquisition. Around 1480, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, known as the Catholic Monarchs, established this campaign of religious expulsion that targeted Muslims and Jews. It was intended to maintain Catholic orthodoxy in their kingdoms and to replace the Medieval Inquisition, which was under Papal control. It covered Spain and all the Spanish colonies and territories, which included the Canary Islands, the Spanish Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples, and all Spanish possessions in the Americas. People who converted to Catholicism were not subject to expulsion, but between 1480 and 1492 hundreds of those who had converted (conversos and moriscos) were accused of secretly practicing their original religion (crypto-Judaism or crypto-Islam); they were arrested, imprisoned, interrogated under torture, and in some cases burned to death, in both Castile and Aragon. In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered segregation of communities to create closed quarters that became what were later called “ghettos.” They also furthered economic pressures upon Jews and other non-Christians by increasing taxes and social restrictions. In 1492 the monarchs issued a decree of expulsion of Jews, known formally as the Alhambra Decree, which gave Jews in Spain four months to either convert to Catholicism or leave Spain. Tens of thousands of Jews emigrated to other lands such as Portugal, North Africa, the Low Countries, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. Later in 1492, Ferdinand issued a letter addressed to the Jews who had left Castile and Aragon, inviting them back to Spain if they had become Christians. The Inquisition was not definitively abolished until 1834, during the reign of Isabella II, after a period of declining influence in the preceding century. Most of the descendants of the Muslims who submitted to Christian conversion—the Moriscos—were later expelled from Spain after serious social upheaval, when the Inquisition was at its height. The expulsions were carried out more severely in eastern Spain (Valencia and Aragon) due to local animosity towards Muslims and Moriscos perceived as economic rivals; local workers saw them as cheap labor undermining their bargaining position with the landlords. Those that the Spanish Inquisition found to be secretly practicing Islam or Judaism were executed, imprisoned, or expelled. Nevertheless, all those deemed to be “New Christians” were perpetually suspected of various crimes against the Spanish state, including continued practice of Islam or Judaism. Attributions Licenses and Attributions CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY - Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Title Image - "Moorish army (right) of Almanzor during the Reconquista Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz, from Cantigas de Alfonso X el Sabio". Attribution: Unknown author, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cantigas_battle.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Alhambra Decree. Provided by: Wikipedia. Location: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhambra_Decree. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Battle of Covadonga. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Reconquista. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Visigothic Kingdom. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Kingdom of Asturias. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Spanish Inquisition. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Arianism. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - History of Spain. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Catholic Monarchs. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Francisco_de_Goya_-_Escena_de_Inquisiciu00f3n_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - La_Rendiciu00f3n_de_Granada_-_Pradilla.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright - Spanish Golden Age. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Habsburg Spain. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Morisco. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - El Escorial. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.683170	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87883/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 6: Exploration, Reconquista and Technology", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87861/overview	Mississippian Peoples Overview Mississippian Peoples Complex cultures developed in the Mississippi River basin centuries before European contact. Learning Objectives Analyze the differences between the Toltec, Aztec, Inca, and North American indigenous groups. Key Terms / Key Concepts Maize: a grain, domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times, known in many English-speaking countries as corn Atlatl: a wooden stick with a thong or perpendicularly protruding hook on the rear end that grips a grove or socket on the butt of its accompanying spear three sisters: corn, squash, and beans, which were the three most important crops for Mississippian cultures Mounds: formations made of earth that were used as foundations for Mississippian culture structures Mississippian Peoples Centuries before the arrival of European explorers and colonists, complex cultures arose in several regions of North America: the Mississippi River basin of the Midwest and Southeast and the American Southwest; the Mound builder cultures along the Mississippi River basin; and the Pueblo cultures in the Southwest. None of these cultures left behind any written records; consequently, knowledge of them is based on archaeological study. The artifacts, which these cultures produced, however, enable labeling them as complex. The various Mound builder cultures flourished at different times and regions in areas watered by the Mississippi and its tributaries in the Eastern Woodlands region. The Adena and Hopewell cultures inhabited the upper and lower Ohio River valley, respectively, for approximately 2000 years between 1000 BCE and 1000 CE. The introduction of Indian corn or maize from Mexico made possible the growth of these cultures, thereby making possible an agricultural surplus. Maize is rich in carbohydrates as well vitamins and minerals; therefore, its inclusion into the diet helped to sustain a healthy and growing population. The construction of massive earthworks or mounds in the shape of animals or humans (effigies) by these peoples not only provided archaeologists with a nickname for them but is also evidence that they possessed a formal government or state, which must have overseen the building of these monumental public works. These mounds were probably ceremonial centers for religious rites, which were conducted by a specialized class of priests. Elaborate burial sites indicate that these societies possessed a ruling elite. The elite was often buried with grave goods, which reflected their high social standing. The artifacts recovered from these burials, such as jewelry and pottery, show a degree of workmanship that would suggest a class of specialized craft workers. Such artifacts also indicate the existence of long-distance trade and, therefore, a specialized class of traders as well. Based on this knowledge, the Adena and Hopewell cultures possessed traits characteristic of a complex culture: government, social stratification, and specialization. Eastern Woodland Culture Eastern Woodland Culture refers to the way of life of indigenous peoples in the eastern part of North America between 1,000 BCE and 1,000 CE. The Eastern Woodland cultural region extended from what is now southeastern Canada, through the eastern United States, down to the Gulf of Mexico. The time in which the peoples of this region flourished is referred to as the Woodland Period. This period is known for its continuous development in stone and bone tools, leather crafting, textile manufacture, cultivation, and shelter construction. Many Woodland hunters used spears and atlatl until the end of the period, when those were replaced by bows and arrows. The Southeastern Woodland hunters also used blowguns. The major technological and cultural advancements during this period included the widespread use of pottery and the increasing sophistication of its forms and decoration. The growing use of agriculture and the development of the Eastern Agricultural Complex also meant that the nomadic nature of many of the groups was supplanted by permanently occupied villages. Early Woodland Period (1000 – 1 BCE) The archaeological record suggests that humans in the Eastern Woodlands of North America were collecting plants from the wild by 6,000 BCE and gradually modifying them by selective collection and cultivation. In fact, the eastern United States is one of 10 regions in the world to become an independent center of agricultural origin. Research also indicates that the first appearance of ceramics occurred around 2,500 BCE in parts of Florida and Georgia. What differentiates the Early Woodland period from the earlier periods is the appearance of permanent settlements, elaborate burial practices, intensive collection and horticulture of starchy seed plants, and differentiation in social organization. Most of these were evident in the southeastern United States by 1,000 BCE with the Adena culture, which is the best-known example of an early Woodland culture. The Adena culture was centered around what is present-day Ohio and surrounding states and was most likely a number of related indigenous American societies that shared burial complexes and ceremonial systems. Adena mounds generally ranged in size from 20 to 300 feet in diameter and served as burial structures, ceremonial sites, historical markers, and possibly even gathering places. The mounds provided a fixed geographical reference point for the scattered populations of people dispersed in small settlements of one to two structures. A typical Adena house was built in a circular form, 15 to 45 feet in diameter. Walls were made of paired posts tilted outward that were then joined to other pieces of wood to form a cone-shaped roof. The roof was covered with bark, and the walls were bark and/or wickerwork. While the burial mounds created by Woodland culture peoples were beautiful artistic achievements, Adena artists were also prolific in creating smaller, more personal pieces of art using copper and shells. Art motifs that became important to many later indigenous Americans began with the Adena. Examples of these motifs include the weeping eye and the cross and circle design. Many works of art revolved around shamanic practices and the transformation of humans into animals, especially birds, wolves, bears, and deer, indicating a belief that objects depicting certain animals could impart those animals’ qualities to the wearer or holder. Middle Woodland Period (1 – 500 CE) The beginning of this period saw a shift of settlement to the interior. As the Woodland period progressed, local and inter-regional trade of exotic materials greatly increased to the point where a trade network covered most of the eastern United States. Ceramics during this time were thinner, of better quality, and more decorated than in earlier times. This ceramic phase saw a trend towards round-bodied pottery and lines of decoration with cross-etching on the rims. Throughout the Southeast and north of the Ohio River, burial mounds of important people were very elaborate and contained a variety of mortuary gifts, many of which were not local. The most archaeologically certifiable sites of burial during this time were in Illinois and Ohio. These have come to be known as the Hopewell tradition. The Hopewellian peoples had leaders, but they were not powerful rulers who could command armies of soldiers or slaves. It has been posited that these cultures accorded certain families with special privileges and that these societies were marked by the emergence of “big-men,” or leaders, who were able to acquire positions of power through their ability to persuade others to agree with them on matters of trade and religion. It is also likely these rulers gained influence through the creation of reciprocal obligations with other important community members. Regardless of their path to power, the emergence of big-men marked another step toward the development of the highly structured and stratified sociopolitical organization called the chiefdom, which would characterize later American Indigenous tribes. Due to the similarity of earthworks and burial goods, researchers assume a common body of religious practice and cultural interaction existed throughout the entire region (referred to as the Hopewellian Interaction Sphere). Such similarities could also be the result of reciprocal trade, obligations, or both between local clans that controlled specific territories. Clan heads were buried along with goods received from their trading partners to symbolize the relationships they had established. Although many of the Middle Woodland cultures are called Hopewellian, and groups shared ceremonial practices, archaeologists have identified the development of distinctly separate cultures during the Middle Woodland period. Examples include the Armstrong culture, Copena culture, Crab Orchard culture, Fourche Maline culture, the Goodall Focus, the Havana Hopewell culture, the Kansas City Hopewell, the Marksville culture, and the Swift Creek culture. Late Woodland Period (500 – 1000 CE) The late Woodland period was a time of apparent population dispersal. In most areas, construction of burial mounds decreased drastically, as did long distance trade in exotic materials. Bow and arrow technology gradually overtook the use of the spear and atlatl, and agricultural production of the “three sisters” (maize, beans, and squash) was introduced. While full scale intensive agriculture did not begin until the following Mississippian period, the beginning of serious cultivation greatly supplemented the gathering of plants. Late Woodland settlements became more numerous, but the size of each one was generally smaller than their Middle Woodland counterparts. It has been theorized that populations increased so much that trade alone could no longer support the communities and some clans resorted to raiding others for resources. Alternatively, the efficiency of bows and arrows in hunting may have decimated the large game animals, forcing tribes to break apart into smaller clans to better use local resources, thus limiting the trade potential of each group. A third possibility is that a colder climate may have affected food yields, also limiting trade possibilities. Lastly, it may be that agricultural technology became sophisticated enough that crop variation between clans lessened, thereby decreasing the need for trade. In practice, many regions of the Eastern Woodlands adopted the full Mississippian culture much later than 1,000 CE. Some groups in the North and Northeast of the United States, such as the Iroquois, retained a way of life that was technologically identical to the Late Woodland until the arrival of the Europeans. Furthermore, despite the widespread adoption of the bow and arrow, indigenous peoples in areas near the mouth of the Mississippi River, for example, appear to have never made the change. Mississippian Culture Mississippian cultures lived in the modern-day United States in the Mississippi valley from 800 to 1540. The Mississippian Period lasted from approximately 800 to 1540 CE. It’s called “Mississippian” because it began in the middle Mississippi River valley, between St. Louis and Vicksburg. However, there were other Mississippians as the culture spread across modern-day US. There were large Mississippian centers in Missouri, Ohio, and Oklahoma. A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in adoption of some or all of the following traits: - The construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, burial buildings, or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds. - A maize-based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization. - The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in their shell-tempered pottery. - Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean. - The development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. - A centralization of control through combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. - The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in which one major center (with mounds) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds. - The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin to the Gulf Coast, and from Florida to Arkansas and Oklahoma. The SECC was frequently associated with ritual game-playing. Although hunting and gathering plants for food was still important, the Mississippians were mainly farmers. They grew corn, beans, and squash, called the “three sisters” by historic Southeastern Indians. The “sisters” provided a stable and balanced diet, making a larger population possible. Large scale agricultural production made it possible for thousands of people to live in some larger towns and cities, such as at the site of Cahokia, near the modern city of St. Louis, Missouri. A typical Mississipian town was built near a river or creek. It covered about ten acres of ground, and was surrounded by a palisade—a fence made of wooden poles placed upright in the ground. A typical Mississippian house was rectangular, about 12 feet long and 10 feet wide. The walls of a house were built by placing wooden poles upright in a trench in the ground. The poles were then covered with a woven cane matting. The cane matting was then covered with plaster made from mud. This plastered cane matting is called “wattle and daub.” The roof of the house was made from a steep “A” shaped framework of wooden poles covered with grass woven into a tight thatch. Mississippian cultures, like many before them, built mounds. Though other cultures may have used mounds for different purposes, Mississippian cultures typically built structures on top of them. The type of structures constructed ran the gamut: temples, houses, and burial buildings. The Nashville area in Tennessee was a major population center during this period. There were once many temple and burial mounds in Nashville, especially along the Cumberland River. Thousands of Mississippian-era graves have been found in the city, and thousands more may exist in the surrounding area. Mississippian artists produced unique art works. They engraved shell pendants with animal and human figures, as well as carved ceremonial objects out of flint. They sculpted human figures and other objects in stone. Potters molded their clay into many shapes, sometimes decorating them with painted designs. Decline of the Mississippians Hernando de Soto was a Spanish explorer who, from 1539 – 43, lived with and spoke to many Mississippian cultures. After his contact, their cultures were relatively unaffected directly by Europeans, though they were indirectly. Since the natives lacked immunity to new infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics induced by contact with the Europeans caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to nomadism. Political structures collapsed in many places. By the time more historical accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee. Other Indigenous American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from indigenous Americans. Mississippian peoples were almost certainly ancestral to the majority of the indigenous American nations living in this region in the historic era. The historic and modern-day nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian Culture include: Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Kansa, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Osage, Quapaw, Seminole, Tunica-Biloxi, Yamasee, and Yuchi. Attributions Title Image https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mississippian_Figure_MET_DP261003.jpg Mississippian culture; Male figure; Stone Sculpture. Discovered at the Link Farm Site located at the confluence of the Duck and Buffalo Rivers in Humphreys County, Tennessee, as part of of a paired male and female set of statues nicknamed "Adam" and "Eve" by the discoverers Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/native-american-cultures-in-north-america/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.712448	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87861/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Making of Early Modern World 1450-1700 CE, Chapter 4: Latin America, Mississippian Peoples", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88062/overview	War in the Pacific: Midway to Okinawa Overview 1942-43: Allies take the Initiative in the Pacific - Coral Sea to Guadalcanal In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in Washington, DC. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However, the smaller powers continued to push for an American-based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington, on 1 April 1942, with representatives from the U.S., Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the US-UK Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington. Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor. Learning Objectives - Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts Battle of Midway: 4-7 June 1942 naval battle in which the Japanese lost four aircraft carriers and the initiative in the Pacific War. This battle demonstrated the dominance of air power in World War II Guadalcanal Campaign: Aug 1942-February 1943 campaign between U.S. and Japanese forces for control of this south Pacific island. U.S. victory ended Japanese offensive operations in the Pacific, and put Japan on the defensive for the rest of the Pacific War. Having accomplished their objectives during the First Operation Phase with ease, the Japanese now turned to the second. Japan planned the Second Operational Phase to expand Japan's strategic depth by adding eastern New Guinea, New Britain, the Aleutians, Midway, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, and strategic points in the Australian area. However, limited resources and U.S. naval intervention in March 1942 stopped Japanese expansion across the south Pacific toward Australia. This intervention, along with the U.S. Doolittle bombing raid against Tokyo in April 1942, provoked Japanese leaders to try a series of riskier offensives against the U.S. naval presence in the central Pacific, specifically at Midway Island. Admiral Yamamoto now perceived that it was essential to complete the destruction of the United States Navy, which had begun at Pearl Harbor. He proposed to achieve this by attacking and occupying Midway Atoll—an objective he thought the Americans would be certain to fight for, as Midway was close enough to threaten Hawaii. A month before the June 1942 Battle of Midway U.S. and Japanese naval forces fought the Battle of the Coral Sea. Although the outcome of the Battle of the Coral Sea in the southwest Pacific was not conclusive, U.S. forces did succeed in stopping the Japanese campaign to capture Australia. The Battle of the Coral Sea was the first naval battle fought in which the ships involved never sighted each other, with attacks solely by aircraft. During this battle, Japan attacked Port Moresby—the capital and largest city of Papua New Guinea. From the Allied point of view, if Port Moresby fell, the Japanese would control the seas to the north and west of Australia and could isolate the country. Although they managed to sink a carrier, the battle was a disaster for the Japanese. Not only was the attack on Port Moresby halted, which constituted the first strategic Japanese setback of the war, but all three Japanese carriers that were committed to the battle would now be unavailable for the operation against Midway. After Coral Sea, the Japanese had four operational fleet carriers—Sōryū, Kaga, Akagi, and Hiryū, and they believed that the Americans had a maximum of two—Enterprise and Hornet. Saratoga was out of action, undergoing repair after a torpedo attack, while Yorktown had been damaged at Coral Sea and was believed by Japanese naval intelligence to have been sunk. She would, in fact, sortie for Midway after just three days of repairs to her flight deck, with civilian work crews still aboard, in time to be present for the next decisive engagement. Midway Admiral Yamamoto viewed the operation against Midway as the potentially decisive battle of the war, which could lead to the destruction of American strategic power in the Pacific; this, the Japanese felt, would open the door for a negotiated peace settlement with the United States, favorable to Japan. Through strategic and tactical surprise, the Japanese felt they could knock out Midway's air strength and soften it for a landing by 5,000 troops. After the quick capture of the island, the Combined Fleet would lay the basis for the most important part of the operation. Yamamoto hoped that the attack would lure the Americans into a trap. Midway was to be bait for the US Navy which would depart Pearl Harbor to counterattack after Midway had been captured. When the Americans arrived, he would concentrate his scattered forces to defeat them. An important aspect of the Japanese scheme was Operation AL, which was the plan to seize two islands in the Aleutians while the attack on Midway was happening. Contradictory to persistent myth, the Aleutian operation was not a diversion to draw American forces from Midway, as the Japanese wanted the Americans to be drawn to Midway, rather than away from it. However, in May, US intelligence codebreakers discovered the planned attack on Midway. At the conclusion of this battle U.S. naval forces had sunk all four Japanese carriers involved in the battle, at a loss of one U.S. carrier. In the aftermath of this battle Japanese forces lost the strategic initiative in the Pacific War, never to regain it. New Guinea and the Solomons Japanese land forces continued to advance in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. From July 1942, a few Australian reserve battalions, many of them very young and untrained, fought a stubborn rearguard action in New Guinea, against a Japanese advance along the Kokoda Track, towards Port Moresby and over the rugged Owen Stanley Ranges. The militia, worn out and severely depleted by casualties, were relieved in late August by regular troops from the Second Australian Imperial Force, who were returning from action in the Mediterranean theater. In early September 1942 Japanese marines attacked a strategic Royal Australian Air Force base at Milne Bay, near the eastern tip of New Guinea. They were beaten back by Allied forces (primarily Australian Army infantry battalions and Royal Australian Air Force squadrons, with United States Army engineers and an anti-aircraft battery in support). On New Guinea, the Japanese on the Kokoda Track were within sight of the lights of Port Moresby but were ordered to retreat to the northeastern coast. Australian and US forces attacked their fortified positions and after more than two months of fighting in the Buna–Gona area finally captured the key Japanese beachhead in early 1943. This was first on land defeat of Japanese forces in the war. Guadalcanal At the same time major battles raged in New Guinea, U.S. and Japanese forces fought for control of Guadalcanal, in the Guadalcanal Campaign. With Japanese and U.S. forces occupying various parts of the island, over the following six months both sides poured resources into an escalating battle of attrition on land, at sea, and in the sky. US air cover based at Henderson Field ensured American control of the waters around Guadalcanal during daytime, while superior night-fighting capabilities of the Imperial Japanese Navy gave the Japanese the upper hand at night. By late 1942, Japanese headquarters had decided to make Guadalcanal their priority. Contrarily, the US Navy hoped to use their numerical advantage at Guadalcanal to defeat large numbers of Japanese forces there and progressively drain Japanese manpower. Ultimately nearly 20,000 Japanese died on Guadalcanal compared to just over 7,000 Americans. In February 1943, after a six-month campaign of attrition, the Japanese evacuated Guadalcanal. Allied Offensives 1943-44 Midway proved to be the last great naval battle for two years. The United States used the ensuing period to turn its vast industrial potential into increased numbers of ships, planes, and trained aircrew. At the same time, Japan lacked an adequate industrial base or technological strategy, a good aircrew training program, and adequate naval resources and commerce defense; this, of course, caused them to fall further and further behind. In strategic terms the U.S. began a long movement across the Pacific, seizing select islands. Not every Japanese stronghold had to be captured; some, like Truk, Rabaul, and Formosa, were neutralized by air attack and bypassed. The goal was to get close to Japan itself, then launch massive strategic air attacks, improve the submarine blockade, and finally (only if necessary) execute an invasion. Learning Objectives - Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts island-hopping: U.S. strategy of seizing select Pacific islands in the war effort against the Japanese in the Pacifc Theater In its drive westward across the Pacific the US Navy did not seek out the Japanese fleet for a decisive battle. Because of superiority in resources the U.S. could advance westward across the Pacific through attrition, specifically relying on submarines to sink Japanese transports. The Japanese could only stop the U.S. advance with victory in a large-scale naval attack and battle. Oil shortages, brought about by submarine attacks, made such a battle impossible. Allied Offensives on New Guinea and up the Solomons The Allies then seized the strategic initiative for the first time during the War in the South Western Pacific. And, in June 1943, they launched a series of amphibious invasions to recapture the Solomon Islands and New Guinea. Ultimately, isolating the major Japanese forward base at Rabaul. These landings prepared the way for the final stage of Nimitz's island-hopping campaign towards Japan. Allied Submarines in the Pacific War US submarines, as well as some British and Dutch vessels, played a major role in defeating Japan in the Pacific Theater, even though submarines made up a small proportion of the Allied navies—less than two percent in the case of the US Navy; they operated from bases at Cavite in the Philippines (1941 – 42); Fremantle and Brisbane, Australia; Pearl Harbor; Trincomalee, Ceylon; Midway; and later Guam. Submarines strangled Japan by sinking its merchant fleet, intercepting many troop transports, and cutting off nearly all the oil imports essential to weapons production and military operations. By early 1945, Japanese oil supplies were so limited that its fleet was virtually stranded. Allied submarine operations were an important component of the island-hopping strategy employed against the Japanese in the Pacific War. Learning Objectives - Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts Pacific Theater: a major theater of the war between the Allies and Japan defined by the Allies Powers' Pacific Ocean Area command island-hopping: U.S. strategy of seizing select Pacific islands in the war effort against the Japanese in the Pacific Theater The Japanese military claimed its defenses sank 468 Allied submarines during the war. In reality, only 42 American submarines were sunk in the Pacific due to hostile action, with 10 others lost in accidents or as the result of friendly fire. The Dutch lost five submarines due to Japanese attack or minefields, and the British lost three. American submarines accounted for 56% of the Japanese merchantmen sunk; mines or aircraft destroyed most of the rest. American submariners also claimed 28% of Japanese warships destroyed. Furthermore, they played important reconnaissance roles, as at the battles of the Philippine Sea (June 1944) and Leyte Gulf (October 1944) (and, coincidentally, at Midway in June 1942), when they gave accurate and timely warning of the approach of the Japanese fleet. Submarines also rescued hundreds of downed fliers, including future US president George H. W. Bush. Allied submarines did not adopt a defensive posture and wait for the enemy to attack. Within hours of the Pearl Harbor attack, in retribution against Japan, Roosevelt promulgated a new doctrine: unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan. This meant sinking any warship, commercial vessel, or passenger ship in Axis-controlled waters, without warning and without aiding survivors. At the outbreak of the war in the Pacific, Dutch admiral Conrad Helfrich, who was in charge of the naval defense of the East Indies, gave instructions to wage war aggressively. His small force of submarines sank more Japanese ships in the first weeks of the war than the entire British and US navies together, an exploit which earned him the nickname “Ship-a-day Helfrich.” While Japan had a large number of submarines, they did not make a significant impact on the war. In 1942, the Japanese fleet submarines performed well, knocking out or damaging many Allied warships. However, Imperial Japanese Navy (and pre-war US) doctrine stipulated that only fleet battles, not guerre de course (commerce raiding), could win naval campaigns. So, while the US had an unusually long supply line between its west coast and frontline areas, leaving it vulnerable to submarine attack, Japan used its submarines primarily for long-range reconnaissance and only occasionally attacked US supply lines. The Japanese submarine offensive against Australia in 1942 and 1943 also achieved little. As the war turned against Japan, IJN submarines increasingly served to resupply strongholds which had been cut off, such as Truk and Rabaul. In addition, Japan honored its neutrality treaty with the Soviet Union and ignored American freighters shipping millions of tons of military supplies from San Francisco to Vladivostok, much to the consternation of its German ally. The US Navy, by contrast, relied on commerce raiding from the outset. However, the problem of Allied forces surrounded in the Philippines, during the early part of 1942, led to diversion of boats to "“guerrilla submarine" ” missions. Basing in Australia placed boats under Japanese aerial threat while en route to patrol areas, reducing their effectiveness, and Nimitz relied on submarines for close surveillance of enemy bases. Furthermore, the standard issue Mark 14 torpedo and its Mark VI exploder both proved defective, problems which were not corrected until September 1943. Worst of all, before the war, an uninformed US Customs officer had seized a copy of the Japanese merchant marine code (called the “maru code” in the USN), not knowing that the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI) had broken it. The Japanese promptly changed it, and the new code was not broken until 1943. Thus, only in 1944 did the US Navy begin to use its 150 submarines to maximum effect: installing effective shipboard radar, replacing commanders deemed lacking in aggression, and fixing the faults in the torpedoes. Japanese commerce protection was “shiftless beyond description,” and convoys were poorly organized and defended compared to Allied ones. These issues were a product of flawed IJN doctrine and training, a fact concealed by American faults as much as Japanese overconfidence. The number of American submarines patrols (and sinkings) rose steeply: 350 patrols / 180 ships sunk in 1942, 350 / 335 in 1943, and 520 / 603 in 1944. By 1945, sinkings of Japanese vessels had decreased because so few targets dared to venture out on the high seas. In all, Allied submarines destroyed 1,200 merchant ships, which equates to about five million tons of shipping. Most were small cargo carriers, but 124 were tankers bringing desperately needed oil from the East Indies. Another 320 were passenger ships and troop transports. At critical stages of the Guadalcanal, Saipan, and Leyte campaigns, thousands of Japanese troops were killed or diverted from where they were needed. Over 200 warships were sunk, ranging from many auxiliaries and destroyers to one battleship and no fewer than eight carriers. Underwater warfare was especially dangerous; of the 16,000 Americans who went out on patrol, 3,500 (22%) never returned; this was the highest casualty rate of any American force in World War II. The Joint Army–Navy Assessment Committee assessed US submarine credits. The Japanese losses were higher: 130 submarines in all. Final Allied Offensives in the Pacific, 1944-45 During the final stage of the U.S. approach toward Japan, U.S. forces in the south Pacific proceeded toward the Philippines, while U.S. forces in the central Pacific proceeded toward Japan itself. The Allies sought the unconditional surrender of Japan, while incurring the smallest number of casualties among their own forces possible. These efforts went along with the Allied efforts to drive the Japanese out of Asia. In the Pacific Theater the main U.S. operations were the Philippines and the Iwo Jima and Okinawa Campaigns. Learning Objectives - Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts Iwo Jima and Okinawa Campaigns: U.S. campaigns for theses Japanese-held islands near the Japanese home islands in the first half of 1945 the length and heavy casualties of each hinting at the high cost of an invasion of the Japanese home islands, which led to the decision to detonate atomic bombs over Hiroshima atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki: U.S. detonation of atomic bombs over Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 and Nagasaki on 9 August 1945, which forced Japan to surrender, ended World War II, and ushered in the atomic age Potsdam Declaration: Allied statement of surrender terms to be imposed on Japan, drafted at the 17 July-2 August 1945 Potsdam Conference of Allied leaders The main objective was to liberate the Philippines Luzon—the largest and most populous island in that archipelago. In all, ten US divisions and five independent regiments battled on Luzon, making it the largest campaign of the Pacific War, involving more troops than the United States had used in North Africa, Italy, or southern France. Other Allied forces in the Luzon campaign included a Mexican fighter squadron, as part of the Fuerza Aérea Expedicionaria Mexicana (FAEM—"Mexican Expeditionary Air Force”); this squadron was attached to the 58th Fighter Group of the United States Army Air Force that flew tactical support missions. 80 percent of the 250,000 Japanese troops defending Luzon, died. And the remainder of the Philippine islands were liberated by Allied forces in April 1945. In one sense the war for Japan ended when the last remaining Japanese soldier in the Philippines—Hiroo Onoda—surrendered on 9 March 1974. Iwo Jima Although the Marianas were secure and American bases firmly established, the long 1,200 miles (1,900 km) range from the Marianas meant that B-29 aircrews on bombing missions over Japan found themselves ditching in the sea if they suffered severe damage and were unable to return home. Attention focused on the island of Iwo Jima in the Volcano Islands, about halfway between the Marianas and Japan. American planners recognized the strategic importance of the island, which was only 5 miles (8.0 km) long, 8 square miles (21 km2) in area and had no native population. The island was used by the Japanese as an early-warning station against impending air raids on Japanese cities. Additionally, Japanese aircraft based on Iwo Jima were able to attack the B-29s on their bombing missions on route to their missions and on the returning leg home, and even to attack installations in the Marianas themselves. The capture of Iwo Jima would provide emergency landing airfields to repair and refuel crippled B-29s in trouble on their way home and a base for P-51 fighters escorts for the B-29s. Iwo Jima could also provide a base from which land-based air support could protect the US Naval fleets as they moved into Japanese waters along the arc descending from Tokyo through the Ryukyu Islands. In response to the U.S. advance toward Iwo Jima the Japanese strengthened their defenses on Iwo Jima with additional bunkers, hidden guns, and underground passageways during the latter half of 1944. The Japanese were determined to make the Americans pay a high price for Iwo Jima and were prepared to defend it to the death. The Japanese commander on Iwo Jima, Lieutenant General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, knew that he could not win the battle, but he hoped to slow the U.S. advance on Japan by inflicting heavy casualties on U.S. forces. By the end of 1944 a number of Japanese leaders didn’t expect to triumph over the Americans, but they sought to improve Japan’s bargaining position in peace negotiations by slowing the U.S. advance. In February, a total of 21,000 Japanese troops were deployed on Iwo Jima. The American operation to capture the island (“Operation Detachment”) involved three Marine divisions of the V Amphibious Corps, which was a total of 70,647 troops under the command of Holland Smith. From mid-June 1944, Iwo Jima came under American air and naval bombardment, this continued until the days leading up to the invasion. An intense naval and air bombardment preceded the landing but did little more than drive the Japanese further underground, making their positions impervious to enemy fire. The hidden guns and defenses survived the constant bombardment virtually unscathed. U.S. conquest of the island took from February 19 through March 26, 1945, at a cost of 6,821 Americans killed and 19,207 wounded. The Japanese losses totaled well over 20,000 men killed, with only 1,083 prisoners taken. Okinawa The largest and bloodiest battle fought by the Americans against the Japanese came at Okinawa. The seizure of islands in the Ryukyus was to have been the last step before the actual invasion of the Japanese home islands. Okinawa, the largest of the Ryukyu Islands, was located some 340 miles (550 km) from the island of Kyushu—the most southerly of the main Japanese islands The capture of Okinawa would provide airbases for B-29 bombers to intensify aerial bombardment of Japan and for direct land-based air support of the invasion of Kyushu. The islands could also open the way for tightening the blockade of Japanese shipping and be used as a staging area and supply base for any invasion of the home islands. Over 75,000 Japanese troops defended Okinawa, augmented by thousands of civilians. 183,000 troops participated in the U.S. conquest of Okinawa. The British Pacific Fleet also operated as a separate unit from the American task forces in the Okinawa operation. Its objective was to strike airfields on the chain of islands between Formosa and Okinawa, to prevent the Japanese reinforcing the defenses of Okinawa from that direction. The Allied operation to capture Okinawa began with a week-long bombardment in late March 1945. The land campaign took three months, beginning on April 1 and not being formally declared over until July 2. The battle for Okinawa proved costly and lasted much longer than the Americans had originally expected. The Japanese had skillfully utilized terrain to inflict maximum casualties. Total American casualties were 49,451, including 12,520 dead or missing and 36,631 wounded. Japanese casualties were approximately 110,000 killed, and 7,400 were taken prisoner. 94% of the Japanese soldiers died along with many civilians. Kamikaze attacks also sank 36 ships of all types, damaged 368 more and led to the deaths of 4,900 US sailors, for the loss of 7,800 Japanese aircraft. The Borneo campaign of 1945 was the last major campaign in the South West Pacific Area. In a series of amphibious assaults between 1 May and 21 July, the Australian I Corps, under General Leslie Morshead, attacked Japanese forces occupying the island. Allied naval and air forces, centered on the US 7th Fleet under Admiral Thomas Kinkaid. The Australian First Tactical Air Force and the US Thirteenth Air Force also played important roles in the campaign. Although the campaign was criticized in Australia at the time, and in subsequent years as pointless or a “waste of the lives,” it did achieve a number of objectives: increasing the isolation of significant Japanese forces occupying the main part of the Dutch East Indies, capturing major oil supplies, and freeing Allied prisoners of war, who were being held in deteriorating conditions. At one of the very worst sites, around Sandakan in Borneo, only six of some 2,500 British and Australian prisoners survived the tortuous conditions of their captivity. Landings in the Japanese Home Islands (1945) Hard-fought battles on the Japanese islands of Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides,. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa, 94 percent died. Faced with the loss of most of their experienced pilots, the Japanese increased their use of kamikaze tactics in an attempt to create unacceptably high casualties for the Allies. The US Navy proposed to force a Japanese surrender through a total naval blockade and air raids. Many military historians believe that the Okinawa campaign led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland. This view is explained by Victor Davis Hanson: because the Japanese on Okinawa ... were so fierce in their defense (even when cut off, and without supplies), and because casualties were so appalling, many American strategists looked for an alternative means to subdue mainland Japan, other than a direct invasion. This means presented itself, with the advent of atomic bombs, which worked admirably in convincing the Japanese to sue for peace [unconditionally], without American casualties. Towards the end of the war, a new command for the United States Strategic Air Forces in the Pacific was created to oversee all US strategic bombing in the hemisphere, under United States Army Air Forces General Curtis LeMay. This happened because the role of strategic bombing came to be seen as more important. B-29 firebombing raids took out nearly half of the built-up areas of 67 cities, which caused Japanese industrial production to plunge. For example, on 9 – 10 March 1945 General Curtis LeMay oversaw Operation Meetinghouse, which saw 300 Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers drop 1,665 tons of bombs on the Japanese capital, mostly 500-pound E-46 napalm-carrying M-69 incendiary bombs. This attack is seen the most destructive bombing raid in history and killed between 80,000 – 100,000 people in a single night, as well as destroyed over 270,000 buildings and left over 1 million residents homeless. In the ten days that followed, almost 10,000 bombs were dropped destroying 31% of Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and Kobe. LeMay also oversaw Operation Starvation, in which the inland waterways of Japan were extensively mined by air, which disrupted the small amount of remaining Japanese coastal sea traffic. On 26 July 1945, the President of the United States Harry S. Truman, the Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China Chiang Kai-shek and the Prime Minister of Great Britain Winston Churchill issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for the Empire of Japan as agreed upon at the Potsdam Conference. This ultimatum stated that, if Japan did not surrender, it would face “prompt and utter destruction.” Attributions Images Courtesy of Wikipedia Commonds Title Image - photo of the burning Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryu in the Battle of Midway. Attribution: Naval History & Heritage Command, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:Japanese_aircraft_carrier_Hiryu_adrift_and_burning_on_5_June_1942_(NH_73065).jpg. License: Creative Commons CC0 License. Boundless World History "The Pacific War" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-pacific-war/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION World War II. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#War_breaks_out_in_the_Pacific_.281941.29. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack on Pearl Harbor. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Battle of Midway. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Guadalcanal Campaign. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike GuadPatrol.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign#/media/File:GuadPatrol.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike "The End of the War" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-end-of-the-war/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION - Yalta Conference. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yalta_Conference_1945_Churchill,_Stalin,_Roosevelt.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - World War II. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Battle of Okinawa. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Battle of Iwo Jima. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - War in the Pacific. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yalta_Conference_1945_Churchill,_Stalin,_Roosevelt.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - WW2_Iwo_Jima_flag_raising.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-Sha - Yalta_Conference_1945_Churchill,_Stalin,_Roosevelt.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - WW2_Iwo_Jima_flag_raising.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - Yalta_Conference_1945_Churchill,_Stalin,_Roosevelt.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike - WW2_Iwo_Jima_flag_raising.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlik	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.754714	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88062/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, War in the Pacific: Midway to Okinawa", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88061/overview	Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942 Overview The title image is of a battleship sinking during the Japanese strike on Pearl Harbor. Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942 The Pacific War component of the Second World War was part of the larger effort at imperial expansion by the Japanese and was the culmination of the colonial rivalry among Japan, Russia, the United States, and various European powers for control of the Pacific Oceans and islands therein. It is one of the numerous conflicts into which World War II is divided, and it was most closely related to the Japanese war efforts in eastern and southern Asia. The Pacific War constituted the largest geographic theater of World War II, being fought in the Pacific and the Indian Oceans and known as the Pacific War. Learning Objectives Discuss the significance of Pearl Harbor and the early campaigns in the Pacific theater and connect the battles for Okinawa and Iwo Jima with the greater American “island hopping” strategy. Key Terms / Key Concepts Pacific Theater: a major theater of the war between the Allies and Japan defined by the Allied powers’ Pacific Ocean Area command Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere: an imperialist propaganda concept created by the Japanese government to disguise and/or rationalize Japanese conquest of the Pacific and portions of Asia Pearl Harbor: site of main U.S. military complex in Hawaii, and target of Japanese attack on 7 December 1941, as part of larger Japanese offensive to take control of the Pacific Ocean Background of the Pacific War The Second Sino-Japanese War between the Empire of Japan and China had been in progress since 7 July 1937, with hostilities dating back as far as 19 September 1931 when the Japanese invaded Manchuria. However, it is more widely accepted that the Pacific War itself began on 7 December (8 December Japanese time) 1941, when the Japanese initiated their offensive against Thailand; the British colonies of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong; and United States military and naval bases in Hawaii, Wake Island, Guam, and the Philippines. Summary of the Pacific War The Pacific War saw the Allies pitted against Japan, the latter aided by Thailand and to a lesser extent by the Axis powers: Germany and Italy. This conflict was marked by naval battles across the Pacific and land campaigns on numerous Pacific islands. The war culminated in massive Allied air raids over Japan, and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, accompanied by the Soviet Union's declaration of war and invasion of Manchuria and other territories on 9 August 1945, causing the Japanese to announce an intent to surrender on 15 August 1945. The formal surrender of Japan ceremony took place aboard the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay on 2 September 1945. After the war, Japan lost all rights and titles to its former possessions in Asia and the Pacific, and its sovereignty was limited to the four main home islands and other minor islands as determined by the Allies. Japan's Shinto Emperor relinquished much of his authority and his divine status through the Shinto Directive in order to pave the way for extensive cultural and political reforms. Names for the War Naming this war has been a challenge because of how it overlaps with World War II conflicts in Asia. In Allied countries during the war, the "Pacific War" was not usually distinguished from World War II in general; it was simply known as the War against Japan. In the United States, the term Pacific Theater was widely used, although this was a misnomer in relation to the Allied campaign in Burma, the war in China, and other activities within the South-East Asian Theater. However, the US Armed Forces considered the China-Burma-India Theater to be distinct from the Asiatic-Pacific Theater during the conflict. Japan used the name Greater East Asia War, as chosen by a cabinet decision on 10 December 1941, to refer to both the war with the Western Allies and the ongoing war in China. This name was released to the public on 12 December, with an explanation that it involved Asian nations achieving their independence from the Western powers through armed forces of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Japanese officials integrated what they called the Japan–China Incident into the Greater East Asia War. During the Allied military occupation of Japan (1945 – 52), these Japanese terms were prohibited in official documents, although their informal usage continued. The conflict eventually became officially known as the Pacific War. In Japan, the term Fifteen Years' War is also used, to refer to all the fighting in which Japanese forces participated from the Mukden Incident of 1931 through 1945. Participants Allies The major Allied participants were China, the United States, and the British Empire, but other nations assisted these allies in some fashion. China had already been engaged in a war against Japan since 1937. The United States and its territories, including the Philippine Commonwealth, entered the war after being attacked by Japan. The British Empire was also a major belligerent consisting of British troops along with large numbers of colonial troops from the armed forces of India, Burma, Malaya, Fiji, Tonga, in addition to troops from Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. The Dutch government-in-exile (as possessor of the Dutch East Indies) also participated. All of these were members of the Pacific War Council. Mexico provided some air support, and Free France sent the naval vessels Le Triomphant and the Richelieu. From 1944 the French commando group Corps Léger d'Intervention also took part in resistance operations in Indochina. French Indochinese forces faced Japanese forces in a coup in 1945. The commando corps continued to operate after the coup until liberation. Some active pro-allied guerrillas in Asia included the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army, the Korean Liberation Army, the Free Thai Movement, the Việt Minh, and the Hukbalahap. The Soviet Union fought two brief, undeclared border conflicts with Japan in 1938 and 1939, then remained neutral through the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact of April 1941, until August 1945 when it (and Mongolia) joined the rest of the Allies and invaded the territory of Manchukuo, China, Inner Mongolia, the Japanese protectorate of Korea, as well as Japanese-claimed territory such as South Sakhalin. Axis Powers and Aligned States The Axis-aligned states which assisted Japan included the authoritarian government of Thailand, which formed a cautious alliance with the Japanese in 1941, when Japanese forces issued the government with an ultimatum following the Japanese invasion of Thailand. Also involved were members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, which included the Manchukuo Imperial Army and Collaborationist Chinese Army of the Japanese puppet states of Manchukuo (consisting of most of Manchuria), and the collaborationist Wang Jingwei regime (which controlled the coastal regions of China). In the Burma campaign, the anti-British Indian National Army of Free India and the Burma National Army of the State of Burma, among others, were active and fighting alongside their Japanese allies. Other units assisted the Japanese war effort in their respective territories. Japan conscripted many soldiers from its colonies of Korea and Taiwan. Collaborationist security units were also formed in Hong Kong (reformed ex-colonial police), Singapore, the Philippines (also a member of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), the Dutch East Indies (the PETA), British Malaya, British Borneo, former French Indochina (after the overthrow of the French regime in 1945) (the Vichy French had previously allowed the Japanese to use bases in French Indochina beginning in 1941, following an invasion) as well as Timorese militia. Germany and Italy both had limited involvement in the Pacific War. The German and the Italian navies operated submarines and raiding ships in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, notably the Monsun Gruppe. The Italians had access to concession territory naval bases in China, which was later ceded to collaborationist China by the Italian Social Republic in late 1943. After Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent declarations of war, both navies had access to Japanese naval facilities. Theaters Between 1942 and 1945, the Allies and Japan divided the Pacific War into several areas of conflict, including the central Pacific, the south Pacific, and the southwest Pacific. These areas overlapped with the China-Burma-India Theater—the Allies name for the area of fighting against the Japanese across south and east Asia. In the Pacific, the Allies divided operational control of their forces between two supreme commands, known as Pacific Ocean Areas and Southwest Pacific Area. In 1945, for a brief period just before the Japanese surrender, the Soviet Union and Mongolia engaged Japanese forces in Manchuria and northeast China. The Imperial Japanese Navy did not integrate its units into permanent theater commands. The Imperial Japanese Army, which had already created the Kwantung Army to oversee its occupation of Manchukuo and the China Expeditionary Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War, created the Southern Expeditionary Army Group at the outset of its conquests of South East Asia. This headquarters controlled the bulk of the Japanese Army formations that opposed the Western Allies in the Pacific and South East Asia. Background War between Japan and the U.S. was a possibility each nation had been planning for since the 1920s, and serious tensions began with Japan’s 1931 invasion of Manchuria. Over the next decade, Japan continued to expand into China, leading to all-out war between those countries in 1937. Japan spent considerable effort trying to isolate China and achieve sufficient resource independence to attain victory on the mainland; the “Southern Operation” was designed to assist these efforts. From December 1937, events such as the Japanese attack on USS Panay, the Allison incident, and the Nanking Massacre swung public opinion in the West sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion, the U.S., the United Kingdom, and France provided loan assistance for war supply contracts to the Republic of China. The U.S. ceased oil exports to Japan in July 1941 following Japanese expansion into French Indochina after the fall of France, in part because of new American restrictions on domestic oil consumption. This caused the Japanese to proceed with plans to take the Dutch East Indies, an oil-rich territory. On August 17, Roosevelt warned Japan that the U.S. was prepared to take steps against Japan if it attacked “neighboring countries.” The Japanese were faced with the option of either withdrawing from China and losing face or seizing and securing new sources of raw materials in the resource-rich, European-controlled colonies of Southeast Asia. The Japanese attack had two major aims. First, it was intended to destroy important American fleet units, thereby preventing the Pacific Fleet from interfering with Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies and Malaya, which would enable and enabling Japan to conquer Southeast Asia without interference. Second, it was meant to intimidate the U.S. into negotiating for terms favorable to Japan. Japanese Offensives, 1941 – 42 Following prolonged tensions between Japan and the Western powers throughout most of 1941, the Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army launched simultaneous surprise attacks on a number of United States and British colonial possessions across the Pacific and east Asia on 7 December 1941 (8 December in Asia/West Pacific time zones). The targets of the first wave of Japanese attacks included the American territories of Hawaii, the Philippines, Guam, and Wake Island, as well as the British territories of Malaya, Singapore, and Hong Kong. Concurrently, Japanese forces invaded southern and eastern Thailand; they were resisted for several hours, before the Thai government signed an armistice and entered an alliance with Japan. Although Japan declared war on the United States and the British Empire, the declaration was not delivered until after the attacks began. Subsequent attacks and invasions followed during December 1941 and early 1942, leading to the occupation of American, British, Dutch and Australian territories and air raids on the Australian mainland. The Allies suffered many disastrous defeats in the first six months of the war. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was the centerpiece of the Japanese offensive against the U.S. It was a carrier-based air strike on Pearl Harbor in Honolulu that was conducted without explicit warning, and it crippled the US Pacific Fleet. The attack knocked eight American battleships out of action, destroyed 188 American aircraft, and caused the deaths of 2,403 Americans. The Japanese had gambled that the United States, when faced with such a sudden massive blow and so much loss of life, would agree to a quick negotiated settlement and allow Japan free rein in Asia. This gamble did not pay off. American losses were not as expansive as initially thought: the American aircraft carriers, which would prove to be more important than battleships, were at sea. Additionally, vital naval infrastructure (fuel oil tanks, shipyard facilities, and a power station), submarine base, and signals intelligence units were unscathed. Even more detrimental to the Japanese plan was the fact the bombing happened while the US was not officially at war, which caused a wave of outrage across the United States. Japan's fallback strategy, relying on a war of attrition to make the US come to terms, was beyond the Imperial Japanese Navy's capabilities. On December 8, the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, and The Netherlands declared war on Japan, followed by China and Australia the next day. Four days after Pearl Harbor, Germany and Italy declared war on the United States. These German and Italian war declarations on the U.S. are widely agreed to have been strategic blunders, as they negated both the benefit Germany gained by Japan's distraction of the US and the reduction in aid to Britain, which both Congress and Hitler had managed to avoid during over a year of mutual provocation. South-East Asian campaigns of 1941–42 Thailand, with its territory already serving as a springboard for the Malayan Campaign, surrendered within 5 hours of the Japanese invasion. The government of Thailand formally allied with Japan on 21 December. To the south, the Imperial Japanese Army had seized the British colony of Penang on 19 December, encountering little resistance. Hong Kong was attacked on 8 December; even though Canadian forces and the Royal Hong Kong Volunteers played an important part in the defense of Hong Kong, it fell on 25 December 1941. Japanese forces captured U.S. bases on Guam and Wake Island about the same time. British, Australian, and Dutch forces, already drained of personnel and material by two years of war with Germany, as well as heavily committed elsewhere, were unable to provide much more than token resistance to the battle-hardened Japanese. As part of a Japanese air attack Japanese aircraft sank two major British warships, the battlecruiser HMS Repulse and the battleship HMS Prince of Wales, off Malaya on 10 December 1941. Following the Declaration by United Nations (the first official use of the term United Nations) on 1 January 1942, the Allied governments appointed the British General Sir Archibald Wavell to the American-British-Dutch-Australian Command (ABDACOM), a supreme command for Allied forces in Southeast Asia. This gave Wavell nominal control of a huge force, albeit thinly spread over an area from Burma to the Philippines to northern Australia. On 15 January, Wavell moved to Bandung in Java to assume control of ABDACOM. Other areas, including India, Hawaii, and the rest of Australia remained under separate local commands. In January 1942, Japanese forces invaded British Burma, the Dutch East Indies, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, and captured Manila, Kuala Lumpur, and Rabaul. After being driven out of Malaya, Allied forces in Singapore attempted to resist the Japanese during the Battle of Singapore, but they were forced to surrender to the Japanese on 15 February 1942, at which time about 130,000 Indian, British, Australian and Dutch personnel became prisoners of war. The pace of conquest was rapid, as Bali and Timor also fell in February. The rapid collapse of Allied resistance left the "ABDA area" split in two. Wavell resigned from ABDACOM on 25 February, handing control of the ABDA Area to local commanders and returning to the post of Commander-in-Chief, India. Meanwhile, Japanese aircraft had all but eliminated Allied air power in Southeast Asia and were making air attacks on northern Australia, beginning with a psychologically devastating but militarily insignificant bombing of the city of Darwin on 19 February, which killed at least 243 people. Philippines At the Battle of the Java Sea in late February and early March, the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) inflicted a resounding defeat on the main ABDA naval force, under Admiral Karel Doorman. The Dutch East Indies campaign subsequently ended with the surrender of Allied forces on Java and Sumatra. Two months later Japanese forces completed their conquest of the Philippines, taking more than 80,000 U.S. soldiers and Marines prisoner. General Douglas MacArthur, commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines, had already withdrawn to Australia, where he assumed his new post as Supreme Allied Commander South West Pacific. The US Navy, under Admiral Chester Nimitz, had responsibility for the rest of the Pacific Ocean. This divided command had unfortunate consequences for the commerce war, and consequently, the Allied war effort in the Pacific, by then under U.S. control. The U.S. assumed this responsibility in the Pacific War because of its geographic proximity to the Pacific, its overwhelming superiority in human and material resources, and its status as the leading Allied Power in this theater. Australia In late 1941, as the Japanese struck at Pearl Harbor, most of Australia's best forces were committed to the fight against Axis forces in the Mediterranean Theatre. Australia was ill-prepared for an attack, lacking armaments, modern fighter aircraft, heavy bombers, and aircraft carriers. While still calling for reinforcements from Churchill, the Australian Prime Minister John Curtin called for U.S. support with a historic announcement on 27 December 1941. Many Australians were captured by the Japanese, and at least 8,000 died as prisoners of war. The Australian Government ... regards the Pacific struggle as primarily one in which the United States and Australia must have the fullest say in the direction of the democracies' fighting plan. Without inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom. — Prime Minister John Curtin Australia had been shocked by the speedy and crushing collapse of British Malaya and the fall of Singapore, in which around 15,000 Australian soldiers were captured and became prisoners of war. Curtin predicted the "battle for Australia" would soon follow. The Japanese established a major base in the Australian Territory of New Guinea, beginning with the capture of Rabaul on 23 January 1942. On 19 February 1942, Darwin suffered a devastating air raid, the first time the Australian mainland had been attacked. Over the following 19 months, Australia was attacked from the air almost 100 times. Two battle-hardened Australian divisions were moved from the Middle East for Singapore. Churchill wanted them diverted to Burma, but Curtin insisted on a return to Australia. In early 1942 elements of the Imperial Japanese Navy proposed an invasion of Australia. The Imperial Japanese Army opposed the plan, and it was rejected in favor of a policy of isolating Australia from the United States via blockade by advancing through the South Pacific. The Japanese decided upon a seaborne invasion of Port Moresby, capital of the Australian Territory of Papua, which would put all of Northern Australia within range of Japanese bomber aircraft. U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt ordered General Douglas MacArthur to formulate a Pacific defense plan with Australia. Curtin agreed to place Australian forces under the command of MacArthur, who became Supreme Commander, South West Pacific. MacArthur moved his headquarters to Melbourne in March 1942, and American troops began massing in Australia. Enemy naval activity reached Sydney in late May 1942, when Japanese midget submarines launched a raid on Sydney Harbour. On 8 June 1942, two Japanese submarines briefly shelled Sydney's eastern suburbs and the city of Newcastle. Japanese Advance until mid-1942 In early 1942, the governments of smaller powers began to push for an inter-governmental Asia-Pacific war council, based in Washington, DC. A council was established in London, with a subsidiary body in Washington. However, the smaller powers continued to push for an American-based body. The Pacific War Council was formed in Washington, on 1 April 1942, with representatives from the U.S., Britain, China, Australia, the Netherlands, New Zealand, and Canada. Representatives from India and the Philippines were later added. The council never had any direct operational control, and any decisions it made were referred to the US-UK Combined Chiefs of Staff, which was also in Washington. Allied resistance, at first symbolic, gradually began to stiffen. Australian and Dutch forces led civilians in a prolonged guerilla campaign in Portuguese Timor. Japanese Strategy and the Doolittle Raid Having accomplished their objectives during the First Operation Phase with ease, the Japanese now turned to the second. Japan planned the Second Operational Phase to expand Japan's strategic depth by adding eastern New Guinea, New Britain, the Aleutians, Midway, the Fiji Islands, Samoa, and strategic points in the Australian area. However, limited resources and U.S. naval intervention in March 1942 stopped Japanese expansion across the south Pacific toward Australia. This intervention, along with the U.S. Doolittle bombing raid against Tokyo in April 1942, provoked Japanese leaders to try a series of riskier offensives against the U.S. naval presence in the central Pacific, specifically at Midway Island. Attributions Images Courtesy of Wikipedia Commonds Title Image - U.S.S. Arizona sinking during Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Attribution: Photographer: Unknown. Retouched by: Mmxx, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons. Provided by: Wikipedia Commons. Location: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_USS_Arizona_(BB-39)_burning_after_the_Japanese_attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_-_NARA_195617_-_Edit.jpg. License: CC-BY-SA Boundless World History "The Pacific War" Adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-pacific-war/ CC LICENSED CONTENT, SHARED PREVIOUSLY Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike CC LICENSED CONTENT, SPECIFIC ATTRIBUTION World War II. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II#War_breaks_out_in_the_Pacific_.281941.29. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack on Pearl Harbor. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Battle of Midway. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Guadalcanal Campaign. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Pacific War. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor#/media/File:Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_Japanese_planes_view.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Midway#/media/File:USS_Yorktown_hit-740px.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike GuadPatrol.jpg. Provided by: Wikipedia. Located at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadalcanal_Campaign#/media/File:GuadPatrol.jpg. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.790837	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88061/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, Japanese Expansion November 1941 to June 1942", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87988/overview	The Great Depression Overview Political Impact of the Great Depression The poverty and misery among the working class due to the Great Depression stirred up fears of social revolution and Communist influence among the middle class in industrialized countries. In many European countries military dictatorships arose to maintain order and to fight Communism. Industrialized countries with a long tradition of Liberal government avoided social revolution during the Great Depression and maintained their democratic forms of government, but underwent sweeping reforms, which resulted in the development of the so-called “Welfare State.” Learning Objectives - Analyze the worldwide reactions of nations to the global depression. Key Terms / Key Concepts Corporatism: a 20th century political ideology which sought to organize society into corporate groups based on their common interests, such as agricultural, labor, military, business, scientific, or guild associations Estado Novo: the "New State" in Portugal; was Roman Catholic, anti-Communist, and dedicated to preserving Portugal's overseas empire Fascism: a form of radical authoritarian nationalism that came to prominence in early 20th-century Europe; the belief that liberal democracy is obsolete and that the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state is necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties Iron Guard: the name most commonly given to the far-right movement and political party in Romania, from 1927 into the early part of World War II; was ultra-nationalist, antisemitic, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith; members were called “Greenshirts” because of the predominantly green uniforms they wore Welfare State: a form of government in the 20th century that uses its power to tax and spend to provide a "safety net" for its citizens negatively impacted by a capitalist economy The Rise of Fascism across Europe The conditions of economic hardship caused by the Great Depression brought about significant social unrest around the world, leading to a major surge of fascism and, in many cases, the collapse of democratic governments. The events of the Great Depression resulted in an international surge of fascism and the creation of several fascist regimes or regimes that adopted fascist policies. Fascist propaganda blamed the problems of the long depression of the 1930s on minorities and scapegoats. Fascist governments often blamed nations’ problems on “Judeo-Masonic-Bolshevik” conspiracies, left-wing internationalism or “communists”, and the presence of immigrants. According to historian Philip Morgan, “the onset of the Great Depression…was the greatest stimulus yet to the diffusion and expansion of fascism outside Italy.” Yugoslavia, Romania, Hungary, and Portugal were among the nations that dealt with strong fascist movements during this time. Hungary In 1920 Conservative Anti-Communists in Hungary organized a National Assembly and announced the re-establishment of the Kingdom of Hungary. France and the United Kingdom, however, strongly opposed the restoration of the former Hapsburg king Charles, so the National Assembly appointed a Hungarian aristocrat and war hero, Miklos Horthy to be "Regent" of the kingdom. Horthy continued to serve as head of state until 1945 and enjoyed support from conservative Roman Catholics, aristocratic landowners, and the Hungarian middle class that were opposed to the Communist threat. Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his Party of National Unity throughout the country. Gömbös created an eight-hour workday and a 48-hour work week in industry, sought to entrench a corporatist economy, and pursued claims to territories belonging to Hungary’s neighbors. Romania With the onset of the Great Depression, the king of Romania, Carol II, assumed dictatorial powers with the support of the army due to the threat of Communism The fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania gained political support after 1933, securing representation in the Romanian government. An Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca. The Iron Guard was a far-right movement and political party in Romania, from 1927 into the early part of World War II. Its supporters were ultra-nationalist, antisemitic, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and promoted the Orthodox Christian faith. Iron Guard members were called “Greenshirts” because of the predominantly green uniforms they wore Yugoslavia Yugoslavia briefly had a significant fascist movement called the Organization of Yugoslav Nationalists (ORJUNA); ORJUNA supported Yugoslavism (the unity of all “Southern Slavs”: Serbs, Croats, Slovenes). The Kingdom of Serbia after 1918 became the "Kingdom of the Southern Slavs" or Yugoslavia as Serbia annexed former territories of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Croatia, Slovenia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina, along with the tiny principality of Montenegro. This new state was quite diverse and included Serbian Orthodox Christians, Roman Catholic Croats and Slovenes, and Bosnian Muslims. Forging a sense of unity was a difficulty task. ORJUNA also supported the creation of a corporatist economy, opposed democracy, and took part in violent attacks on communists. The group was opposed to the Italian government due to Yugoslav border disputes with Italy. ORJUNA was dissolved in 1929 when the King of Yugoslavia, Alexander, banned political parties and created a royal dictatorship; ORJUNA supported the King’s decision. Portugal In Portugal, a former economist, Antonio Salazar, emerged as military dictator in 1932, following the military overthrow of Portugal's First Republic in 1926 (Portugal had deposed its last king, Manuel II in 1910). Salazar's envisioned an Estado Novo ("New State") that was Roman Catholic, anti-Communist, and dedicated to preserving Portugal's overseas empire in Africa (modern Angola and Mozambigue). Salazar remained in power in Portugal until he fell into a coma in 1968 and died. The Welfare State Industrialized countries with a long tradition of Liberal government—such as the United Kingdom, France, and the United States—avoided social revolution during the Great Depression and maintained their democratic forms of government, but underwent sweeping reforms, which resulted in the development of the so-called Welfare State. In the 1930s John Maynard Keynes—a British economist—studied these economic developments and these government policies. He determined that governments could effectively regulate a market economy through taxation and government spending (i.e., public works projects such as roads and dams), which put cash into the hands of the masses and thereby promoted consumer spending and economic growth. According to Keynes, governments should go into debt to pay for government spending that boosts the economy. Keynes's economic theories would become the basis for government policies among industrialized countries for decades following World War II. In these industrialized states, the government used its power to tax and spend to provide a "safety net" for its citizens who were negatively impacted by the economic downturn. A market economy continued to operate in these states, but governments taxed upper income citizens at a higher rate than those with lower incomes, and then regulated the economy by providing financial support and assistance to those with lower incomes. For example, in 1936, the Popular Front in France—a coalition of Liberal, Socialist, and Communist Parties—won elections under the leadership of Léon Blum, who was a Socialist; afterwards, they passed laws to mandate a 40-hour work week and a minimum wage. Additionally, they recognized the right of labor unions to represent workers and go on strike. In the United States, the Democratic Party, under the leadership of Franklin Roosevelt, won control of the government in elections in 1932, and proceeded to pass a whole series of laws, which became known as The New Deal. The Social Security Act, passed in 1935, mandated that all employers pay into a fund to provide pensions for the elderly, as well as provide unemployment insurance. The Wagner Act of 1935 recognized the right of workers to organize unions. The Fair Labor Standards Act, established in 1938, instituted a minimum wage. By the end of the 1930s, Roosevelt and his Democratic Congresses had presided over a transformation of the American government: Before World War I, the American national state, though powerful, had been a “government out of sight.” After the New Deal, Americans came to see the federal government as a potential ally in their daily struggles, whether finding work, securing a decent wage, getting a fair price for agricultural products, or organizing a union. The population of the United Kingdom suffered less than other countries from the impact of the Great Depression due to the earlier passage of the National Insurance Act in 1911. This act mandated that employers pay a tax to the government to provide unemployment insurance for their workers. Consequently, when unemployment rates skyrocketed in the United Kingdom due to the Great Depression, unemployed workers still received an income from the government. As government debts mounted, the United Kingdom in 1931 went off the gold standard, so that the government could print paper money to pay its debts without this currency being backed by government gold reserves. Attributions Title Image Unemployed men queued outside a depression soup kitchen opened in Chicago by Al Capone, 1931 - National Archives at College Park, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons Adapted from: https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-rise-of-fascism/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.823097	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87988/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 13: Post WWI, The Great Depression", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88113/overview	Contemporary Latin America Overview Contemporary Chile and Argentina Latin America in the 21st century highlights the challenges of the post-Cold War world. Many states in Latin America were divided between the Soviet Union and the United States, that would have long term consequences for the new century. Learning Objectives: - Evaluate the role of the end of the Cold War on Latin American states. - Analyze the differences of the role of the United States on Latin American states in the early 21st century. Chile in the 21st Century The Concertación has continued to dominate Chilean politics for last two decades. Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile. In January 2006 Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet, of the Socialist Party. She was sworn in on March 11, 2006, extending the Concertación coalition governance for another four years. Chile signed an association agreement with the European Union in 2002; signed an extensive free trade agreement with the United States in 2003; and signed an extensive free trade agreement with South Korea in 2004. With these trade agreements, Chile expected a boom in the import and export of local produce, hoping to become a regional trade-hub. Continuing the coalition’s free-trade strategy, in August 2006 President Bachelet promulgated a free trade agreement with the People’s Republic of China (signed under the previous administration of Ricardo Lagos), which was the first Chinese free-trade agreement with a Latin American nation. Similar deals with Japan and India were achieved in August 2007. In October 2006, Bachelet made a multilateral trade deal with New Zealand, Singapore and Brunei, the Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership (P4), also signed under Lagos’ presidency. Regionally, she has signed bilateral free-trade agreements with Panama, Peru, and Colombia. After 20 years, Chile went in a new direction marked by the win of center-right Sebastián Piñera in the Chilean presidential election of 2009 – 2010. On February 27, 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 MW earthquake—the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks. Initial damage estimates were in the range of $15 – 30 billion US, which is about 10 to 15 percent of Chile’s real gross domestic product. Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On August 5, 2010 an access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile; this collapse trapped 33 men 2,300 feet below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on October 13, 2010 within 24 hours, an effort that was broadcasted on live television around the world. Good macroeconomic indicators failed to halt the social dissatisfaction claiming for a better and fairer education, which was traced to massive protests demanding more democratic and equitable institutions and a permanent disapproval of Piñera’s administration. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office. In 2015 a series of corruption scandals became public, threatening the credibility of the political and business class. Photo of the five most recent presidents on Chile standing side by side, waving Chilean flags. Presidents of Chile: Five presidents of Chile since Transition to democracy (1990 – 2018), celebrating the Bicentennial of Chile. Contemporary Era in Argentina De la Rúa kept Menem’s economic plan despite the worsening crisis, which led to growing social discontent. A massive capital flight led to a freezing of bank accounts, generating further turmoil. The December 2001 riots forced him to resign. To fill the void Rúa left, congress appointed Eduardo Duhalde as acting president, and he repealed the fixed exchange rate established by Menem. By the late 2002 the economic crisis began to recess, but the assassination of two protestors by the police caused political commotion, prompting Duhalde to move the next elections forward. Néstor Kirchner was elected as the new president. Boosting the neo-Keynesian economic policies laid by Duhalde, Kirchner ended the economic crisis attaining significant fiscal and trade surpluses, with a steep GDP growth. Under his administration Argentina restructured its defaulted debt with an unprecedented discount of about 70% on most bonds, paid off debts with the International Monetary Fund, purged the military of officers with doubtful human rights records, nullified and voided the Full Stop and Due Obedience laws—as well as ruled them as unconstitutional, and resumed legal prosecution of the Juntas’ crimes. Kirchner did not run for reelection, promoting instead the candidacy of his wife: Senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, who was elected in 2007 and reelected in 2011. Cristina Fernández and Néstor Kirchner: Cristina Fernández and Néstor Kirchner during the bicentennial of Chile. The couple has occupied the presidency of Argentina for 12 years, he from 2003 to 2007 and she from 2007 to 2015. Brazil Learning Objectives - Evaluate the role of Brazil's economic miracle in Latin America. - Analzye the role of corruption in Brazil's political life. Brazil’s Economic Success and Corruption Woes Brazil, a member of the BRICS group, had one of the world’s fastest growing major economies until 2010, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition and influence. Background: Re-Democratization of Brazil Leading up to the 21st century, Brazil saw a return to democratic rule after a period of dictatorship during the Vargas Era (1930 – 1934 and 1937 – 1945) and a period of military rule (1964 – 1985) under Brazilian military government. In January 1985 the process of negotiated transition towards democracy reached its climax with the election of Tancredo Neves of the PMDB party (the party that had always opposed the military regime) as the first civilian president since 1964. He died before being sworn in, and the elected vice president, José Sarney, was sworn in as president in his place. In 1986 the Sarney government fulfilled Tancredo’s promise of passing a Constitutional Amendment to the Constitution inherited from the military period: summoning elections for a National Constituent Assembly to draft and adopt a new Constitution for the country. The Constituent Assembly began deliberations in February 1987 and concluded its work on October 5, 1988. The adoption of Brazil’s current Constitution in 1988 completed the process of re-establishment of the democratic institutions. The new Constitution replaced the authoritarian legislation that still remained in place and that had been inherited from the days of the military regime. In 1989 the first elections for president by direct popular ballot, since the military coup of 1964, were held under the new Constitution, and Fernando Collor was elected. Collor was inaugurated on March 15, 1990. With the inauguration of the first president elected under the 1988 Constitution, the last step in the long process of democratization took place, and the phase of transition was finally over. Since then, six presidential terms have elapsed, without rupture to the constitutional order: the first term corresponded to the Collor and Franco administrations (Collor was impeached on charges of corruption in 1992 and resigned the presidency. He was succeeded by Franco, his vice president.); the second and third terms corresponded to Fernando Henrique Cardoso’s administration; the fourth and fifth presidential terms corresponded to Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva’s administration; and the sixth term corresponded to Dilma Rousseff’s first administration. In 2015, Mrs. Rousseff started another term in office, due to end in 2018, but she was impeached for violations of budgetary and fiscal responsibility norms in 2016. She was succeeded by Vice President Michel Temer. Lula Administration In 2002, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the PT (Workers’ Party) won the presidency with more than 60% of the national vote. In the first months of his mandate, inflation rose perilously, reflecting the markets’ uncertainty about the government’s monetary policy. However, the market’s confidence in the government was promptly regained as Lula chose to maintain his predecessor’s policies, particularly the continuation of Central Bank’s task of keeping inflation down. After that, the country underwent considerable economic growth and employment expansion. On the other hand, Lula’s mainstream economic policies disappointed his most radical leftist allies, which led to a breakdown of the PT (Workers’ Party) that resulted in the creation of the PSOL (Socialism and Liberty Party). Several corruption scandals occurred during Lula’s presidency. In 2005, Roberto Jefferson, chairman of the Brazilian Labour Party (PTB), was implicated in a bribery case. As a Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry was set up, Jefferson testified that the members of parliament were being paid monthly stipends to vote for government-backed legislation. Later, in August of the same year, after further investigation, campaign manager Duda Mendonça admitted that he had used illegal undeclared money to finance the PT electoral victory of 2002. The money in both cases was found to have originated from private sources, as well as from the advertising budget of state-owned enterprises headed by political appointees; both sources had been laundered through Duda’s Mendonça advertising agency. The collection of these incidents was dubbed the Mensalão scandal. On August 24, 2007, the Brazilian Supreme Court (Supremo Tribunal Federal) accepted the indictments of 40 individuals relating to the Mensalão scandal, most of whom were former or current federal deputies, and all of whom were still allies of the Brazilian president. The loss of support resulting from these scandals was outweighed by the president’s popularity among the voters of the lower classes, whose income per capita rose as a consequence of both higher employment, expansion of domestic credit to consumers, and government social welfare programs. The stable and solid economic situation of the country, which Brazil had not experienced in the last 20 years, resulted in fast growth in production both for internal consumers and exportation. And there was a soft but noticeable decrease in social inequality. These may partially explain the high popularity of Lula’s administration even after several scandals of corruption involving important politicians connected to Lula and to PT. Lula was re-elected in 2006. After almost winning in the first round, Lula won the run-off against Geraldo Alckmin of the PSDB (Brazilian Social Democracy Party) by a 20 million vote margin. Following Lula’s second victory, his approval ratings started to rise again (fueled by the continuity of the economic and social achievements obtained during the first term) to a record of 80%, the highest for a Brazilian president since the end of the military regime. The focus of Lula’s second term was to further stimulate the economy by investments in infrastructure and measures to keep expanding the domestic credit to producers, industry, commerce, and consumers alike. Another mark of Lula’s second term was his efforts to expand Brazil’s political influence worldwide, specially after G20 (from which Brazil and other emerging economies participate) replaced the G8 as the main world forum of discussions. Lula is an active defender of the Reform of the United Nations Security Council, as Brazil is one of the four nations (the others being Germany, India, and Japan) officially coveting a permanent seat in the council. Lula also helped orchestrate Brazil’s membership in BRICS, the acronym for an association of five major emerging national economies: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa. Lula is also notorious for seeing himself as a friendly, peacemaker conciliator Head of State, managing to befriend leaders of rival countries from the likes of Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama from the United States to Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez, Cuban former president Fidel Castro, the President of Bolivia Evo Morales, and lastly, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad; the latter fueling protests inside and outside the country due to Ahmadinejad’s polemical anti-Semitic statements. Lula took part in a deal with the governments of Turkey and Iran regarding Iran’s nuclear program despite the United States’s desire to strengthen the sanctions against the country, fearing the possibility of Iran developing nuclear weapons. Rousseff Administration On October 31, 2010, Dilma Rousseff, also from the Worker’s Party, was the first woman elected President of Brazil, with her term beginning on January 1, 2011. In her winning speech, Rousseff, who was also a key member in Lula’s administration, made clear that her mission during her term would be to keep enforcing her predecessor’s policies to mitigate poverty and ensure Brazil’s current economic growth. On June 2011, Rouseff announced a program called “Brasil Sem Miséria” (Brazil Without Poverty). With the ambitious task of drastically reducing absolute poverty in Brazil until the end of her term, which currently afflicts 16 million people in the country or a little less than a tenth of the population. The program involves broadening the reach of the Bolsa Família social welfare program while creating new job opportunities and establishing professional certification programs. In 2012, another program called “Brasil Carinhoso” (Tenderful Brazil) was launched with the objective to provide extra care to all children in the country who live below the poverty threshold. Although there was criticism from the local and international press regarding the lower-than-expected economic results achieved during her first term ahead of the government and the measures taken to solve it, Rouseff’s approval rates reached levels higher than any other president since the end of the military regime, until a wave of protests struck the country in mid 2013 reflecting dissatisfaction from the people with the current transport, healthcare, and education policies, among other issues that affected the popularity not only of the president, but several other governors and mayors from key areas in the country as well. In 2014, Rousseff won a second term by a narrow margin, but was unable to to prevent her popularity from falling. In June 2015, her approval dropped to less than 10% after another wave of protests, this time organized by opposition who wanted her ousted from power, amid revelations that numerous politicians, including those from her party, were being investigated for accepting bribes from the state-owned energy company Petrobras from 2003 to 2010, during which time she was on the company’s board of directors. In 2015, a process of impeachment was opened against Rousseff that culminated with her temporarily removal from power in May 12, 2016 with Vice President Michel Temer assuming power temporarily until the final trial was concluded in August 31, 2016, when Rousseff was officially impeached and Temer was sworn in as president for the remainder of the term. During the impeachment process, Brazil hosted the 2016 Summer Olympics. Attributions Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless World History	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.851611	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88113/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 17: Post-Cold War International Structure, Contemporary Latin America", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88070/overview	Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations Overview The Declaration of Human Rights and the Founding of the UN World War II ended in September 1945 with the surrender of Japan. At the end of the war, 75 million people were dead, mostly civilians. As the world tried to grasp the scope of the Holocaust, as well as the massacres of Chinese in the Far East, the global community came together and declared that such atrocities much never occur again. They decided that the responsible parties must be held accountable and international organizations created to protect humanity. These assertions led to the creation of three very significant developments: the creation of the United Nations, the passage of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and widespread international war crimes trials in Europe and the Pacific. All of these measures were undertaken to promote international justice for the victims of World War II, to protect future humanity, and to establish the precedent that individual people, regardless of their status, must be held responsible for their actions in wartime. Learning Objectives - Analyze and assess the measures undertaken after World War II to protect humanity and plan for global peace. Key Terms / Key Concepts Human rights: basic rights to safety, food, and certain freedoms issued to individual human beings at birth by virtue of being born human Universal Declaration of Human Rights: a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, the first global expression of what many believe are the rights to which all human beings are inherently entitled United Nations: organization tasked with the purpose of designing international law, monitoring international crises, human rights, and international peace Rise of the United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace. The UN was founded in 1945 after World War II to replace the League of Nations, stop wars between countries, and provide a platform for dialogue. It contains multiple subsidiary organizations to carry out its missions. Creation of the UN The earliest concrete plan for a new world organization was begun under the U.S. State Department in 1939. Franklin D. Roosevelt first coined the term “United Nations” as a term to describe the Allied countries. The term was first officially used on January 1, 1942, when 26 governments signed the Atlantic Charter, pledging to continue the war effort. On April 25, 1945, the UN Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, attended by 50 governments and a number of non-governmental organizations involved in drafting the United Nations Charter. The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a declaration that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot, Paris. Importantly, the UDHR recognized that all human beings, regardless of age, ethnicity, class, religion, or any other category are individual human beings and entitled to certain individual rights. Although this concept seems elementary, it was first put into effect in 1948, three years after the end of World War II. Prior to its creation, there existed no document, no law, that universally recognized, or gave rights to human beings in terms of individuals. Moreover, the UDHR was the first document to speak of these individual rights in terms of human rights—rights given to an individual at birth by virtue of the fact they were born human. The UDHR was framed by members of the Human Rights Commission, with Eleanor Roosevelt as Chair, who began to discuss an International Bill of Rights in 1947. The members of the Commission did not immediately agree on the form of such a bill of rights and whether or how it should be enforced. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic, and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the “foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.” It recognizes, “the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice, and peace in the world.” The Declaration consists of 30 articles that, although not legally binding, have been elaborated in subsequent international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The International Bill of Human Rights consists of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and its two Optional Protocols. In 1966, the General Assembly adopted the two detailed Covenants, which complete the International Bill of Human Rights. In 1976, after the Covenants had been ratified by a sufficient number of individual nations, the Bill became international law. Even though it is not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as regional, subnational, and national institutions protecting and promoting human rights. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless U.S. History “An International System” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-ushistory/chapter/an-international-system/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ Boundless World History “Impact of World War II” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/impact-of-war-world-ii/	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.877270	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88070/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 14: The World Afire: World War II, Declaration of Human Rights and the United Nations", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88086/overview	Africa Overview Decolonization: Libya and Congo When World War II ended, the economies of most of the Western European nations were shattered. And yet, the end of the war ushered in waves of independence movements across Africa. Africans, who had been treated as second or third-class citizens by the colonizers for nearly a century, saw the time was ripe for severing ties with their colonial “parent” countries. Between the mid-1940s and early 1960s, numerous countries across Africa fought for, and won, their independence. Learning Objectives - Compare and contrast the decolonization processes across Northwest Africa and Congo. - Evaluate the successes and challenges of decolonization for Africans. Key Terms / Key Concepts Arab nationalism: after World War II, movement that promotes unity among Arab people Muammar Gaddafi: brutal Arab nationalist, politician, and military leader in Libya (1969 – 20) Libyan Revolution: 1969 Revolution that overthrew the Libyan king and installed military dictator, Muammar Gaddafi Patrice Lumumba: Congolese politician and independence activist who became prime minister of Congo Évolués: in Congo, the new middle class of “Europeanized” Africans Force Publique: Belgian-operated military and police force in Congo Congo Crisis: period of political crisis and upheaval during Congo’s early stages of independence (1960 – 65) Joseph-Desiré Mobutu: Congolese military and political leader who was president of Congo, and later, Zaire Zaire: name for Congo under President Mobutu (1965 – 1997) The Libyan Arab Republic Background From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces, while the French-administered the province of Fezzan. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. Kingdom of Libya On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before January 1, 1952. On December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya—a constitutional and hereditary monarchy—led by King Idris, Libya’s only monarch. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled Libya, one of the world’s historically poorest nations, to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government’s finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation’s wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East, so while the continued presence of Americans, Italians, and British in Libya aided in the increased levels of wealth and tourism following WWII, it was seen by some as a threat. Libyan Revolution: Gaddafi On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d’état against King Idris, launching the Libyan Revolution. Gaddafi was referred to as the “Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution” in government statements and the official Libyan press. On the birthday of Muhammad in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a “Five-Point Address.” He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of Sharia. He said that the country would be purged of the “politically sick”; a “people’s militia” would “protect the revolution”; and there would be an administrative revolution and a cultural revolution. Gaddafi set up an extensive surveillance system: 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees, which monitored place in government, factories, and the education sector. Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels. Additionally, he employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world. In 1977, Libya officially became the “Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.” Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People’s Committees and, henceforth, claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead, but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power. Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself. The new government he established was officially referred to as a form of direct democracy, though the government refused to publish election results. Gaddafi was ruler of Libya until the 2011 Libyan Civil War, when he was deposed with the backing of NATO. Since then, Libya has experienced instability. A New Start for Congo Background: Belgian Rule Colonial rule in the Congo began in the late 19th century. King Leopold II of Belgium attempted to persuade his government to support colonial expansion around the then-largely unexplored Congo Basin. The Belgian government’s ambivalence eventually led Leopold to create the colony on his own account. With support from several Western countries who viewed Leopold as a useful buffer between rival colonial powers, Leopold achieved international recognition in 1885 for a personal colony: the Congo Free State. By the turn of the century, however, the violence of Free State officials against indigenous Congolese and the ruthless system of economic extraction led to intense diplomatic pressure on Belgium to take official control of the country, which it did in 1908, when the Belgian Congo was created. During the 1940s and 1950s, the Congo experienced an unprecedented level of urbanization. The colonial administration developed programs aimed at making the territory into a “model colony.” One of the results of these measures was the development of a new middle class, in the cities, of Europeanized African “évolués”. By the 1950s the Congo had a wage labor force twice as large as that of any other African colony. The Congo’s rich natural resources, including uranium, led to substantial interest in the region from both the Soviet Union and the United States as the Cold War developed. Much of the uranium used by the U.S. nuclear program during World War II was Congolese. Nationalist Politics An African nationalist movement developed in the Belgian Congo during the 1950s, primarily among the évolués. The movement consisted of several parties and groups which were divided on ethnic and geographical lines and opposed to one another. The largest, the Mouvement National Congolais (MNC), was a united front organization dedicated to achieving independence “within a reasonable” time. It was created around a charter that was signed by, among others, Patrice Lumumba. Lumumba became a leading figure within the MNC, and by the end of 1959, the party claimed 58,000 members. Although it was the largest of the African nationalist parties, the MNC had many different factions that took differing stances on many issues. It was increasingly polarized between moderate évolués and the more radical mass membership. Major riots broke out in Léopoldville, the Congolese capital, on January 4, 1959, after a political demonstration turned violent. The colonial army, the Force Publique, used force against the rioters. Total casualties may have been as high as 500. The nationalist parties’ influence expanded outside the major cities for the first time, and nationalist demonstrations and riots became a regular occurrence over the next year, bringing large numbers of black people from outside the évolué class into the independence movement. Many blacks began to test the boundaries of the colonial system by refusing to pay taxes or abide by minor colonial regulations. Independence from Belgium Congolese, supported by Lumumba, started arguing for independence from Belgium. They projected a target date of June 30, 1960. Belgians began campaigning against Lumumba. They accused him of being a communist to little effect. On June 30, 1960, King Baudouin—the last king of the Belgian Congo, gave a speech in which he presented the end of colonial rule in the Congo. Immediately after, Lumumba gave an unscheduled speech in which he angrily attacked colonialism and described independence as the crowning success of the nationalist movement. The Congo Crisis The Congo Crisis was a period of political upheaval and conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo between 1960 and 1965 that was a series of civil wars, as well as a proxy in the Cold War, for which the Soviet Union and United States supported opposing factions; it was initially caused by a mutiny of the white leadership in the Congolese army and resulted in the execution of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. Around 100,000 people were killed during the crisis. Minimal preparations had been made for Congo once it became independent. Many issues remained unresolved. In the first week of July, a mutiny broke out in the army and violence erupted between black and white civilians. Belgium sent troops to protect fleeing whites; two areas of the country—Katanga and South Kasai—seceded with Belgian support. Amid continuing unrest and violence, the United Nations deployed peacekeepers, but the UN Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld refused to use these troops to help the central government in Léopoldville fight the secessionists. Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba called for assistance from the Soviet Union. who promptly sent military advisors and other support. The involvement of the Soviets split the Congolese government and led to an impasse between Lumumba and the Congolese president. Mobutu, in command of the army, broke this deadlock with a coup d’état, expelled the Soviet advisors, and established a new government effectively under his control. Lumumba was placed in captivity and subsequently executed in 1961. Mobatu and Zaire During the Congo Crisis, military leader Joseph-Desiré Mobutu ousted the nationalist government of Patrice Lumumba and eventually took authoritarian control of the Congo, renaming it Zaire in 1971. Mobutu then attempted to purge the country of all colonial cultural influence. Mobutu's Rise to Power In 1960, Lumumba appointed Joseph-Désiré Mobutu as Chief of Staff of the Armée Nationale Congolaise—the Congolese National Army. Violence soon erupted in the southern part of Congo. Concerned that the United Nations force was inadequate, Lumumba turned to the Soviet Union for assistance, receiving massive military aid and about a thousand Soviet technical advisers in six weeks. Lumumba’s rivals tried to overthrow Lumumba through a coup de-tat. Both sides of the conflict ordered Mobutu to arrest the other. Mobutu accused Lumumba of pro-communist sympathies, thereby hoping to gain the support of the United States, but Lumumba fled to Stanleyville where he set up his own government. The USSR again supplied Lumumba with weapons and he was able to defend his position. In November 1960, he was captured and sent to Katanga. Mobutu still considered him a threat and on January 17, 1961, ordering him arrested and publicly beaten. Lumumba then disappeared from the public view. It was later discovered that he was murdered the same day by the secessionist forces. On January 23, 1961, Mobutu was promoted to major-general. Mobutu's Coup With the government hanging by a thread, Mobutu seized power in a bloodless coup on November 25, a month after his 35th birthday. Under state of emergency, Mobutu assumed sweeping—almost absolute—powers for five years. In his first speech upon taking power, Mobutu told a large crowd at Léopoldville’s main stadium that since politicians had brought the country to ruin in five years, “for five years, there will be no more political party activity in the country.” Parliament was reduced to a rubber-stamp before being abolished altogether, though it was later revived. The number of provinces was reduced and their autonomy curtailed, resulting in a highly centralized state. In 1971 Mobutu changed of the country to “Republic of Zaire.” Zaire under Mobutu Facing many challenges early in his rule, Mobutu was able to co-opt many people; those he could not, he dealt with forcefully. In 1966 four cabinet members were arrested on charges of complicity in an attempted coup, tried by a military tribunal, and publicly executed in an open-air spectacle witnessed by over 50,000 people. Uprisings by former Katangan gendarmeries were crushed, as was an aborted revolt led by white mercenaries in 1967. By 1970, nearly all potential threats to his authority had been smashed, and, for the most part, law and order was brought to most of the country. That year marked the pinnacle of Mobutu’s legitimacy and power. Despite rampant corruption, Mobutu had the support of the United States because of his staunch opposition to Communism. Decolonization: Egypt and South Africa After World War II, nearly every African country fought for independence from their European colonizers. Each had a unique strategy and story. But each country also experienced the common desire to govern themselves, and establish socities in which African people were no longer second-class citizens. Learning Objectives - Compare and contrast the decolonization processes in Egypt and South Africa - Evaluate the successes and challenges of decolonization for Africans Key Terms / Key Concepts Bantustans: in South Africa, the English notions of “traditional homelands” for black-Africans apartheid: segregation of society and facilities in South Africa (1948 – early 1990s) Nelson Mandela: successful South African lawyer and independence leader who called for the end of apartheid and South African independence Egyptian Revolution of 1952: Egypt’s breakaway from English colonial rule that was led by Colonel Nasser Gamal Abdel Nasser: Egyptian military and political leader who was also the president of Egypt from 1956 – 1970 Suez-Canal Crisis: an invasion by Israel, England, and France into Egypt to regain control of the vital Suez Canal that ended in their defeat by Nasser Six-Day War: brief and critical war in which Israel was invaded by a coalition of Arab States including Egypt, Syria, and Jordan, and in which Israel won Anwar Sadat: president of Egypt between 1970 – 1981 who sought to win Western favor Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty: peace treaty between Egypt and Israel (1979) witnessed by the United States Yom Kippur War: invasion of Israel by an Arab Coalition of Syria and Egypt (1973) Camp David Accords: political documents signed between the Israeli and Egyptian heads of state, and witnessed by the United States at Camp David (1978) Egypt The Kingdom of Egypt was established in 1922 following the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence, but the Kingdom was only nominally independent since the British continued to have varying degrees of political control and military presence until 1952. Background: British Involvement in Egypt Post-Independence On September 23, 1945, after the end of World War II, the Egyptian government demanded the modification of the treaty to terminate the British military presence and to allow the annexation of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Three years later with new government leadership under Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser, the UK agreed to withdraw its troops in the Anglo–Egyptian Agreement of 1954; the British withdrawal was completed in June 1956. This is the date when Egypt gained full independence, although Nasser had already established an independent foreign policy that caused tension with several Western powers. The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 The Egyptian Revolution of 1952 began on July 23, 1952, by the Free Officers Movement—a group of army officers led by Gamal Abdel Nasser. The revolution’s initial goal was to overthrow King Farouk, who the military blamed for Egypt’s poor performance in the 1948 war with Israel. From July 22 – 26, 1952, a group of disaffected army officers led by Muhammad Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser were able to achieve the goal, and King Farouk was removed from power. But the movement also had more ambitious political aims: the creation of a republic, the end of British occupation, and the independence of neighboring Sudan. The revolutionary government adopted a staunchly nationalist, anti-imperialist agenda, expressed chiefly through Arab nationalism and international non-alignment. The revolution was faced with immediate threats from Western imperial powers, particularly France and the United Kingdom, who had occupied Egypt since 1882. Both European countries were wary of rising nationalist sentiment in territories under their control throughout the Middle East and Africa. The ongoing state of war with Israel also posed a serious challenge, as the Free Officers increased Egypt’s already strong support of the Palestinians. These issues conflated four years after the revolution, when Egypt was invaded by Britain, France, and Israel in the Suez Crisis of 1956. Despite enormous military losses, the war was seen as a political victory for Egypt, especially as it left the Suez Canal in uncontested Egyptian control for the first time since 1875, erasing what was considered a mark of national humiliation. This strengthened the appeal of the revolution in other Arab and African countries. Agrarian reform and huge industrialization programs were initiated in the first 15 years of the revolution, leading to an unprecedented period of infrastructure building and urbanization. By the 1960s, Arab socialism became a dominant theme, transforming Egypt into a centrally planned economy. Fear of a Western-sponsored counter-revolution, domestic religious extremism, potential communist infiltration, and the ongoing conflict with Israel were all cited as reasons for severe and longstanding restrictions on political opposition and the prohibition of a multi-party system. These restrictions would remain in place until the presidency of Anwar Sadat from 1970 on, during which many of the policies of the revolution were scaled back or reversed. The early successes of the revolution encouraged numerous other nationalist movements in other Arab and African countries, such as Algeria and Kenya, where there were anti-colonial rebellions against European empires. It also inspired the toppling of existing pro-Western monarchies and governments in the region and on the continent. After the Revolution Nasser was appointed president in 1956. He announced a new constitution on January 16 at a popular rally, setting up a system of government in which the president had the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. Nasser was elected as the second president of the Republic on June 23. In 1957, Nasser announced the formation of the National Union paving the way to July elections for the National Assembly, the first parliament since 1952. Nasser served as president until his death in 1970. Despite his defeat in the Six-Day War with Israel, he remained popular among his people and within neighboring Syria. Sadat and Cold War Influences The Sadat era in Egypt refers to the presidency of Anwar Sadat, the 11-year period of Egyptian history spanning from the death of president Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1970 through Sadat’s presidency. The presidency of Anwar Sadat saw many changes in Egyptian politics and policy: breaking with Soviet Union to make Egypt an ally of the United States, initiating the peace process with Israel, reinstituting the multi-party system, and abandoning socialism. Sadat’s presidency saw many changes in Egypt’s direction, reversing some of the economic and political principles of Nasser by breaking with Soviet Union to make Egypt an ally of the United States, initiating the peace process with Israel, reinstituting the multi-party system, and abandoning socialism by launching the Infitah economic policy. His term in office ended abruptly on October 6, 1981 when fundamentalists assassinated him. The Yom Kippur War (1973) a began when the coalition launched a joint surprise attack on Israel on Yom Kippur, the holiest day in Judaism, which occurred that year during the Muslim holy month of Ramadan. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Israeli-held Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, respectively. After Israel lost the defensive war, Egypt and Israel came together for negotiations with Israel, culminating in the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in which Israel traded the Sinai to Egypt for peace. This led to Egypt’s estrangement from most other Arab countries and Sadat’s assassination several years later. Relations with the United States Sadat instigated momentous change in foreign relations, shifting Egypt from a policy of confrontation with Israel to one of peaceful accommodation through negotiations. Following the Sinai Disengagement Agreements of 1974 and 1975, Sadat created a fresh opening for progress by his dramatic visit to Jerusalem in November 1977. This led to an invitation from President Jimmy Carter of the United States to President Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Begin to enter trilateral negotiations at Camp David. The outcome was the historic Camp David Accords, signed by Egypt and Israel and witnessed by the U.S. on September 17, 1978. The accords led to the March 26, 1979, signing of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty, by which Egypt regained control of the Sinai in May 1982. Throughout this period, U.S.–Egyptian relations steadily improved, and Egypt became one of America’s largest recipients of foreign aid. Sadat’s willingness to break ranks by making peace with Israel earned him the enmity of most other Arab states, however, which was the instigation for the 1977 a short border war between Egypt and Libya. South Africa Much of South Africa’s history, particularly of the colonial and post-colonial eras, is characterized by clashes of culture, violent territorial disputes between European settlers and indigenous people, dispossession and repression, and other racial and political tensions. Background: English Annexation During the Napoleonic Wars, South Africa was annexed by the British and officially became their colony in 1815. Britain encouraged settlement on the Cape. The changing of the Cape from Dutch to British excluded the Dutch farmers in the area: the Boers. This period also marked the rise in power of the Zulu under their king Shaka Zulu. Subsequently, several conflicts arose between the British, Boers, and Zulus. The Boers successfully resisted British encroachments during the First Boer War (1880 – 1881), using guerrilla warfare tactics that were well-suited to local conditions. The British returned with greater numbers, more experience, and new strategy in the Second Boer War (1899 – 1902), but they suffered heavy casualties through attrition. By 1902, 26,000 Boers (mainly women and children) had died of disease, hunger, and neglect in concentration camps. On May 31, 1902, a superficial peace came with the signing of the Treaty of Vereeniging. Under its terms, the Boer republics acknowledged British sovereignty, while the British committed themselves to reconstruction of the areas under their control. Within the country, anti-British policies among white South Africans focused on independence. During the Dutch and British colonial years, racial segregation was mostly informal, though some legislation was enacted to control the settlement and movement of native people, including the Native Location Act of 1879 and the system of pass laws. Power was held by the ethnic European colonists, and black citizens remained marginalized in society. The British High Commissioner Lord Alfred Milner introduced legal “segregation,” later known as apartheid. The authorities imposed harsh taxes and reduced wages. Resentment was rampant as racial tensions escalated. Apartheid The National Party in South Africa imposed apartheid in 1948, which institutionalized racial segregation through a series of legislation that established strict racial classification, forced relocation of nonwhites to “tribal homelands,” and segregated public facilities and institutions. It also prevented marriages between racial groups. It racially divided South Africa from 1948 to 1991. Places of residence were determined by racial classification. Between 1960 and 1983, 3.5 million nonwhite South Africans were removed from their homes and forced into segregated neighborhoods in one of the largest mass removals in modern history. Most of these targeted removals were intended to restrict the black population to ten designated “tribal homelands.” These removals included people relocated due to slum clearance programs, labor tenants on white-owned farms, the inhabitants of the so-called “black spots” (black-owned land surrounded by white farms), the families of workers living in townships close to the homelands, and “surplus people” from urban areas, including thousands of people from the Western Cape. Relocated peoples also lost their citizenship of South Africa as they were moved into bantustans. The NP also passed a string of legislation that became known as petty apartheid. Acts passed under petty apartheid were meant to separate nonwhites from daily life. Blacks were not allowed to run businesses or professional practices in areas designated as “white South Africa” unless they had a permit. Transport and civil facilities were segregated. Black buses stopped at black bus stops and white buses at white ones. Trains, hospitals, and ambulances were segregated. Because there were fewer white patients and white doctors preferred to work in white hospitals, conditions in white hospitals were much better than those in often overcrowded and understaffed black hospitals. Apartheid Opposition and Abolishment Apartheid sparked significant international and domestic opposition, resulting in some of the most influential global social movements of the twentieth century. It was the target of frequent condemnation in the United Nations and brought about an extensive arms and trade embargo on South Africa. During the 1970s and 1980s, internal resistance to apartheid became increasingly militant, prompting brutal crackdowns by the National Party administration and violence that left thousands dead or imprisoned. Some reforms of the apartheid system were undertaken, but these measures failed to appease most activist groups. Nelson Mandela and the End of Apartheid Nelson Mandela, a successful South African lawyer, strongly opposed apartheid. Throughout the 1940s and through the early 1960s, Mandela strongly campaigned to end racial segregation and to overthrow the white-only government of South Africa. For his efforts, he was charged with treason and frequently arrested. His final arrest came in 1962 after a failed attempt to overthrow the government. Twenty-seven years later, he was released from prison to enormous fanfare. Between 1987 and 1993, the white-only National Party entered negotiations with the African National Congress—the leading anti-apartheid political movement. They sought to end segregation and introduce majority rule. In 1990, Nelson Mandela and other prominent African National Congress leaders were released from detention. Apartheid legislation was abolished in mid-1991, pending the multiracial elections set for April 1994. Mandela was elected the president of the African National Congress in 1991. Within three years, he was elected the first President of South Africa. After serving his term of four years, Mandela semi-retired from politics. He later received numerous awards for his work, including the Nobel Peace Prize. Primary Source: The Case for Apartheid, 1953 The following speech was given before the Rotary Club of London on August 19, 1953. A supporter of apartheid explains why it is the best policy for all races in South Africa. A. L. Geyer (1953) "The Case for Apartheid" As one of the aftermaths of the last war, many people seem to suffer from a neurotic guiltcomplex with regard to colonies. This has led to a strident denunciation of the Black African's wrongs, real or imaginary, under the white man's rule in Africa. It is a denunciation, so shrill and emotional, that the vast debt owed by Black Africa to those same white men is lost sight of (and, incidentally, the Black African is encouraged to forget that debt). Con fining myself to that area of` which I know at least a very little, Africa south of the Equator, I shall say this without fear of reasonable contradiction: ever) millimetre of progress in all that vast area is due entirely to the White Man. You are familiar with the cry that came floating over the ocean from the West-a cry that "colonialism" is outmoded and pernicious, a cry that is being vociferously echoed by a certain gentleman in the East. (This refers to Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India.) May I point out that African colonies are of comparatively recent date Before that time Black Africa did have independence for a thousand years and more-and what did she make of it? One problem, I admit, she did solve most effectively. There was no overpopulation. Interminable savage inter tribal wars, witchcraft, disease, famine, and even cannibalism saw to that. Let me turn to my subject, to that part of Africa south of the Sahara which, historically, is not part of Black Africa at all - my own country. Its position is unique in Africa as its racial problem is unique in the world. - South Africa is no more the original home of its black Africans, the Bantu than it is of its white Africans. Both races went there as colonists and, what is more, as practically contemporary colonists. In some parts the Bantu arrived first, in other parts the Europeans were the first comers. - South Africa contains the only independent white nation in all Africa ~. South African nation which has no other homeland to which it could retreat; a nation which has created a highly developed modern state, and t which occupies a position of inestimable importance - South Africa is the only independent country in the world in which white people are outnumbered by black people. Including all coloured races or peoples the proportion in Brazil is 20 to 1. In South Africa it is 1 to 4. This brings me to the question of the future. To me there seems to be two possible lines of development: Apartheid or Partnership. Partnership means Cooperation of the individual citizens within a single community, irrespective of race.... (It) demands that there shall be no discrimination whatsoever in trade and industry, in the professions and the Public Service. Therefore, whether a man is black or a white African, must according to this policy be as irrelevant as whether in London a man is a Scotsman or an Englishman. I take it: that Partnership must also aim at the eventual disappearance of all social segregation based on race. This policy of Partnership admittedly does not envisage immediate adult suffrage. Obviously, however, the loading of the franchise in order to exclude the great majority of the Bantu could be no wore than a temporary expedient.... (In effect) "there must one day be black domination, in the sense that power must pass to the immense African majority. Need I say more to show that this policy of Partnership could, in South Africa, only mean the eventual disappearance of the white South African nation? And will you be greatly surprised if I tell you that this white nation is not prepared to commit national suicide, not even by slow poisoning? The only alternative is a policy of apartheid, the policy of separate development. The germ of this policy is inherent in almost all of our history, implanted there by the force of circumstances.... Apartheid is a policy of self preservation. We make no apology for possessing that very natural urge. But it is more than that. It is an attempt at selfpreservation in a manner that will enable the Bantu to develop fully as a separate people. We believe that, for a long time to come, political power will have to remain with the whites, also in the interest of our still very immature Bantu. But we believe also, in the words of a statement by the Dutch Reformed Church in 1950, a Church that favours apartheid, that "no people in the world worth their salt, would be content indefinitely with no say or only indirect say in the affairs of the State or in the country's socioeconomic organisation in which decisions are taken about their interests and their future." The immediate aim is, therefore, to keep the races outside the Bantu areas apart as far as possible, to continue the process of improving the conditions and standards of living of the Bantu, and to give them greater responsibility for their own local affairs. At the same time the longrange aim is to develop the Bantu areas both agriculturally and industrially, with the object of making these areas in every sense the national home of the Bantu - areas in which their interests are paramount, in which to an ever greater degree all professional and other positions are to be occupied by them, and in which they are to receive progressively more and more autonomy. - From Union of South Africa Government: Information Pamphlet (New York, 1953), reprinted in Ruth E. Gordon and Clive Talbot, eds., From Dias to Vorster: Source Material on South African History 14881975 (Goodwood, S.A.: Nasou, n.d.), pp. 409 410. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Boundless World History: “Independence in the Maghreb” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/independence-in-the-maghreb/ https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ “The Democratic Republic of Congo” https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/the-democratic-republic-of-the-congo/ “Egypt” https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/egypt/ “South Africa” https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-worldhistory/chapter/south-africa/ Geyer, A.L. "The Case for Apartheid." 1953. Hosted by: Fordham University.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.952293	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88086/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 15: Cold War & Decolonization, Africa", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88085/overview	Oceania During the Cold War Overview Who are We?: Oceania in the Cold War The militaries of Australia and New Zealand played a significant role in the Pacific Theater of World War II. They had firmly supported and led Allied resistance against the Imperial Japanese forces. In effect, they had held their own and proved as strong as any Western European nation. Following World War II’s Allied victory, Australia and New Zealand began to question their status and position in global affairs—particularly with the advent of the Cold War. Throughout the Cold War, both countries experienced numerous challenges and triumphs as they searched for identity. Similarly, many Pacific Island nations sought fought for and won their independence from their European colonizers, notably Indonesia. For much of Oceania, the Cold War was a time wherein the search for identity was paramount. Learning Objectives - Evaluate the challenges faced by Australia and New Zealand during the Cold War. - Analyze the independence movements in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Key Terms / Key Concepts ANZUS: Australia-New Zealand-United States defense alliance Australia Act of 1986: document that cuts all legal ties between Australia and Great Britain Cultural Assimilation: Australian attempts to assimilate Aborigines into Western lifestyles Child-removal: Australian program in which white Australians forcefully removed Aborigine children from their homes Indonesian War of Independence: war between Indonesia and the Dutch, 1945 – 1949 Māori urbanization: New Zealand programs in the 1960s to assimilate and westernize Māori people Papua New Guinea: independent, Pacific Island established in 1975 Statute of Westminster Approval Act: 1947 act that cut all legal ties between New Zealand and Great Britain Stolen Generation: name given to Aborigine children who were removed from their families and placed into white, Australian homes to assimilate into western culture The Republic of Indonesia: independent Indonesia state established in 1949 Australia during the Cold War During the Cold War, Australia faced many of the same challenges domestically and internationally as the United States. It underwent its own version of the Red Scare, as fear of communism spread. Moreover, Australian forces served in both the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Because of increased tension in Asia and Europe, Australia signed a military alliance, ANZUS, with the United States in 1951. Separately, New Zealand would also sign ANZUS, thus forming a military alliance between the United States and Australia, and New Zealand and the United States. Immigration to Australia One of the earliest developments Australia faced during the Cold War was increased immigration. Eastern Europeans immigrated to Australia following the creation of the Soviet Bloc, while Chinese immigrants fled during the ascension of communist leader, Mao Zedong. In a reversal of previous policy, Australia welcomed immigrants from throughout the Pacific and Asia because they needed a labor force to help with the development of Australian industry and infrastructure following World War II. Most of the immigrants were hired to work in unskilled manufacturing. In response to the growing immigration, the Australian prime minister passed the Migration Act of 1958 which undid many of the restrictive clauses of the 1901 Immigration Restriction Act, thus significantly diminishing the “White Australia” policies. By the early 1970s, the policies had vanished entirely and a multicultural Australia was born. Australia and the "Stolen Generation" When Australia was opening its arms to immigrants from Asia and the rest of the world, it was still failing to open its arms to its own people. Aborigine land reserves were governed by the federal government. The reserves were also considered public land that could be used for additional purposes without Aboriginal consent. Moreover, the federal government had no power to make treaties or negotiate with the Aborigines. Those powers rested alone with the governments of Australia’s six states. Until the 1960s, the governments refused to grant rights or negotiate with the Aborigines. Instead, they continued to allow low wages to be paid to Aborigine workers on cattle ranches and forbade them from consuming alcohol. One of the most contentious, and now embarrassing moments, in Australia’s history began in 1951 when the Australian government passed legislature in favor of cultural assimilation. Under official government policy, Aborigines would be forced to adopt western practices and live as white Australians. Several measures were placed on the Aborigines to try and “westernize” them, with mixed success. Most heinous of the actions carried out by the Australian government were the practices and policies of child-removal. From the 1910s to the 1970s, children of Aborigine descent, especially mixed-race children, were removed from their Aboriginal homes and placed in state-run facilities. Often these facilities were hundreds of miles from their families. As wards of the state, these children were taught to dress, act, and think as if they were white Australians. They were forced to speak only English, relinquish their former identities, and learn white Australian professions. By the time the practice of child-removal ended in 1973, roughly 10 – 15% of Aborigine children had been removed from their parents and their homes. These children are remembered today as Australia’s “Stolen Generation.” The Australia Act of 1986 Australia had emerged as a strong, Western power during the World Wars and the Cold War. As such, it also craved independence from Britain. In the 1980s, Australia followed the pattern of Canada and New Zealand and prepared to sever its legal connections to Great Britain. In 1986, two acts were passed, collectively known as the Australia Act of 1986. This legislation granted full legal rights to Australia and effectively ended any legal and constitutional ties between Australia and Great Britain. Australia emerged as a totally sovereign commonwealth free to exercise independence in law-making, although the Queen of England remains a figurehead monarch. New Zealand in the Cold War Despite their close connections, New Zealand is a country quite different from Australia in its people and politics. During the 1940s, it, like many western nations, experienced relative prosperity. But after the war, New Zealand also struggled to establish its purpose and identity. The Early Cold War and the Quest for Identity After World War II, New Zealanders enjoyed relative economic stability and growing nationalism. As such, it was unsurprising that they also sought greater independence from Great Britain. In 1947, it signed the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act. This promoted New Zealand to the status of a Commonwealth in the British Empire, rather than a Dominion. Additionally, the passage of the act gave New Zealanders three new measures that increased their independence: citizenship as New Zealanders (rather than British), a reformed and updated constitution, and the exclusive right for New Zealand to make and administer its own laws. In this fashion, New Zealand established itself as an independent nation-state. One of the first acts undertaken by the freshly created New Zealand parliament was to push for stronger military connections. With the rise of communist China and Soviet-led Eastern Europe in the late 1940s and early 1950s, New Zealand realized that it needed protection in case a world war should again erupt. As its counterpart Australia had done, New Zealand signed a military alliance with the United States, ANZUS, in 1951. Simultaneously, this aligned the country with Western powers and solidly against communism. New Zealand's Social Challenges From the 1940s to early 1960s, New Zealand was a peculiar place for foreigners because of it was seemingly locked in a time warp. Hotels closed at 6 PM, restaurants did not sell alcohol, and shops were strictly controlled. Families were expected to be at home on the weekends. Once mass travel began, New Zealand society changed. People, especially young men, traveled abroad. Mass communication arrived and pulled New Zealand into contact with the rest of the world. And by the 1980s, New Zealand was booming as a tourist destination, one that could boast of sophisticated wines and exquisite dinners for those seeking a cosmopolitan experience. It also grew to cater to extreme athletes because it promoted itself as “the adventure capital of the world.” Māori Urbanization Historically, New Zealand has proven more liberal and progressive than Australia in its attitudes toward its indigenous peoples: the Māori. Generally, white New Zealanders had worked with the Māori, instead of considering them a primitive exhibition. And many Māori fought with the white New Zealanders during World War II. In the 1960s, the Māori began moving into New Zealand’s cities, and Māori urbanization took off. This movement marked a significant departure from the traditional way of life for the Māori, who had been primarily hunter-gather peoples or farmers prior to World War II. Although the Māori thrived in the cities, with increased pay and improved education, they were not free from racial discrimination. In contrast to the Aborigines, though, the Māori proved far more willing and able to adapt to Western culture, while still promoting their heritage. Their culture is nationally renowned through the Haka dance performed by New Zealand sports teams before each match; this is most famously done by the All Blacks—New Zealand’s national rugby team. The Indonesian War for Independence Australia and New Zealand were not the only countries searching for independence and identity after World War II. In fact, most of the Pacific Island nations were. Most of them were still under European control following World War II. After decades of colonial exploitation, bitter occupation, and combat during World War II, nearly every Pacific Island nation desired freedom. More than most, Indonesia stood ready to fight for their independence. Indonesia's Battle for Freedom Begins The Indonesian War for Independence began in August 1945. Two days after the surrender of Japan to the Allies, the Indonesians declared independence from Holland. The subsequent war pitted the Indonesian forces against their old colonizers, the Dutch. Although the war was drawn out over four years, it was evident from the beginning that the Dutch did not have their heart invested in the battle. They were, instead, recovering from years of Nazi German occupation and the loss of many of their own people in World War II. And public sentiment was never in favor of yet another war. Dutch troops arrived war-weary and weak. Indonesian troops were inexperienced but high-spirited. For the next four years, the two sides were relatively evenly matched. The new world order proved as essential to an Indonesian victory as the battlefield. The United Nations and the UN Security Council severely criticized Dutch involvement in Indonesia. The United States, Australia, and India voiced criticism of Dutch actions in Indonesia. Under pressure from the United Nations, the Dutch withdrew in 1949. That same year, the Republic of Indonesia was created. Indonesia established itself as a republic following the Dutch departure. It also established a model of Pacific Island independence that many smaller island nations would follow. Today, it is the world’s largest island nation, consisting of 17,000 islands. It also constitutes the world’s largest Muslim country and is the fourth most populous in the world. Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea is an island nation north of Australia that is famous for its rich biodiversity, tropical waters, and dense rainforests. It is equally rich in its languages, religions, and cultures. Historically, however, this large island nation has struggled to retain its independence. During the late 1800s, Papua New Guinea was divided and colonized by both England and Imperial Germany in the eastern half of the country, and Holland in the western half. From 1919 – 1975, New Guinea was under control of its powerful southern neighbor, Australia, and by extension became a possession of the British Empire. During World War II, New Guinea was at the heart of a major campaign between the Allies and the Japanese that resulted in hundreds of thousands of casualties. Following World War II, New Guinea sought independence. The effort to secure independence was not smooth. It was fraught with political and social upheaval and discord. In 1975, New Guinea achieved independence from Australia with its promotion to the status of the Commonwealth. By achieving this status, New Guinea can create and administer its own laws and government. It also joined the Commonwealth of Nations as an independent state and is a member of the United Nations. Attributions Images courtesy of Wikimedia Commons Matsuda, Matt K. Pacific Worlds: A History of Seas, Peoples, and Cultures. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 2012. 300-301. Smith, Roy. Australia: Journey through a Timeless Land. National Geographic, Washington, DC. 54-55. Welsh, Frank. Australia: A New History of the Great Southern Land. Overlook Press, New York: 2004. 420-461; 525-9. Insight Guides: New Zealand. Ed. Tom Le Bas. Langenscheidt Publishers, Inc., New York: 2009. 42-47.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:27.994465	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88085/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 15: Cold War & Decolonization, Oceania During the Cold War", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87985/overview	Splintering of Eastern Europe: Poland and Ukraine Overview Poland With regards to European History, there is no region more complex and nuanced than the borderlands, sometimes called the “frontier lands”; these are Eastern European countries that are located between Germany and Russia. Two of the most prominent countries in the history of this region are Poland and Ukraine. Both countries have rich histories full of ethnic, cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity. Simultaneously, both countries have fought for autonomy and survival for centuries—sometimes between one another, sometimes between themselves and foreign occupiers: Germany and the Soviet Union. With shifting politics and borders, these countries experienced excessive violence in the twentieth century. But despite their shared border and status as “borderlands,” the histories of Poland and Ukraine are starkly different but ever intertwined. In this way, both countries serve as benchmarks for conflicts that have persisted into the late twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Learning Objectives - Evaluate how both the West and Russia responded to Poland and Ukraine during the interwar era (1919 – 1939). Key Terms / Key Concepts borderlands: countries in Eastern Europe that are located between Russia and Germany Polish-Ukrainian Conflict: conflict between Poland and Ukraine in 1918 – 1919 over the territories of Galicia and Volhynia Galicia and Volhynia: territories on the Polish-Ukrainian borders that were heavily fought over because of oil and agrarian resources Polish-Soviet War: major war between Poland and the Soviet Union (1918 – 1921) in which Poland stopped the communists from spreading their revolutionary ideology across Europe Battle of Warsaw: decisive turning point for the Poles in the Polish-Soviet War Antisemitism: anti-Jewish ideology Pogrom: physical attacks on Jewish communities that often result in arrests, beatings, murders, and seizure of Jewish property Polonization: attempt by Poles to minimize Jewish culture in Poland and promote ethnic Polish culture, which focused on Catholicism, cuisine, dress, and language Poland For centuries, Poland has played an integral part economically, politically, and militarily in Central-Eastern Europe. Just east of Germany, it is historically rich in agricultural production, coal, and natural resources. Poland is equally rich in its cultural diversity. The country has historically been ethnically Slavic and religiously Catholic, but also the home to some of the largest Jewish communities in Europe. Historically, Poland has been targeted for exploitation and violent conflict within its borders and with its closest neighbors. Background During the late nineteenth century through World War I, Poland did not exist as a country. For this reason, Poles fought on both sides in World War I, although predominately with the Allies. During the war, the lands of present-day Poland were some of the primary regions of conflict on the Eastern Front. The war devastated Polish communities economically and socially, leaving the peasants with little to survive on. When the Allies won the war in 1918, England, France, and the United States insisted that Poland, which had once been a sovereign nation, regain their former land and become an independent nation once more. President Woodrow Wilson was so committed to the restoration of an independent Poland that he devoted principle #13 to argue for it in his famous Fourteen Points. Its borders were created from lands that were, at that point, part of the three strong empires that surrounded it: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. On paper, the Allies’ support for Poland’s independence appeared altruistic. And perhaps, some of the western politicians supported the movement based on altruistic, humanitarian principles. Behind closed doors, though, western politicians supported the re-establishment of an independent Poland to counter the threat growing in Eastern Europe—the communist Bolsheviks. Drawing on their history, the Allies (correctly) assumed that the Poles would not willingly join with the Bolsheviks. An independent Poland, supported by the Western Allies, would act as a buffer zone between Russia and Western Europe, thus reducing the threat that Lenin’s revolution would sweep across Europe. Regardless of the motivation, Poland regained its independence following the end of World War I in late 1918. From afar, the Western Allies knew they had been right on two points: Lenin was on the move to seize Europe’s borderlands, and Poland would resist the Soviet tide to the last man. Second Polish Republic In late 1918, the Second Polish Republic was born. Following World War I and the collapse of the German, Austro-Hungarian, and Russian Empires, political and economic instability reigned across the borderlands. Poland did not escape these social disruptions. As a country, though, it did achieve something enviable to many of the other borderland countries—independence supported by Western Allies, which involved restoration of their former territory. Throughout the 1920s, Poland struggled to stay afloat financially, particularly after the Great Depression. Poverty was high, especially in the eastern part of the country. Inflation was rampant. Despite their independence, social tensions were elevated due to the instability within the country and the external threats it faced. Much of the land that fell into Polish hands at the end of World War I was deeply contested by all their Eastern neighbors. Belarus, Lithuania, and Ukraine all believed that borders of the Second Polish Republic incorporated territory that belonged to their nations. As a result of these disputes, Poland engaged in numerous conflicts throughout the 1920s, including wars against Lenin and the Soviets, as well as a war with their next-door neighbor, newly-born Ukraine. Polish-Ukrainian Conflict As World War I ended, conflict between Poland and its eastern neighbor, the newly independent Ukraine, escalated into military action. In October 1918, the two countries attacked one another for possession of the lands known as Galicia and Volhynia. These regions lay between the Polish and Ukrainian borders. Both sides sought to gain control of the region. Because of its oil reserves, Galicia was especially important to both nations. In contrast, Volhynia remained largely rooted in agriculture and animal husbandry, which are also important resources because of the enormous amount of food that could be produced in the area. Poland defeated the Ukrainian troops in the conflict by the summer of 1919 due to better organization, discipline, and Western support. To their delight, the Poles retained control of Galicia and Volhynia. However, the Polish government treated the Ukrainian people who lived in the territories as second-class citizens, which ensured a lingering tension. Furthermore, the Poles did not anticipate the horror that would result from their possession of the two territories, as they became zones of intense fighting during World War II. Polish-Soviet War Poland engaged in minor wars with all of its eastern neighbors during the interwar era. But by far the most significant threat remained the communist Soviet Union. As the Western Allies predicted, Lenin was keen to spread his communist revolution across Europe, and possibly topple democracies in the western half of the continent. Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, the Russians annulled the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and moved to claim territory in central Europe for the Soviet Union. Poland was believed by both the Russians, and the Western Powers alike, to be the one country which could halt the surging red tide. Therefore, it is not surprising that Lenin set his sites on taking control of the nation. The Poles had no interest in losing their independence, culture, or religion to the Bolsheviks. Battles raged between the Catholic Poles and the seemingly “godless” Red Army. They mounted a dramatic offensive that resulted in their securing territory throughout Belarus, Lithuania, and Poland by early 1920. The Polish army experienced several significant defeats as the Red Army advanced through Lithuania toward Warsaw. Before the Russians could secure the capital city, the Poles launched a massive defense at the Battle of Warsaw. The massive Polish defense of the city repelled the Russians and forced a ceasefire. In spring 1921, the Poles had decisively won the Polish-Soviet War. The Peace Treaty of Riga was signed, securing Polish territory in eastern Europe. For the time, Poland had expelled the Russian communists from its lands and intended to remain a democratic nation. Antisemitism and Polonization Instability in the borderlands was due to not only external threats but also the disparities among civilians and communities. Active attempts were made to create a Polish identity based on Catholicism, as well as the Polish language and culture. Historically, Polish lands were rich in ethnic diversity. Jews were the largest of the minority groups to live in Poland. They had developed large communities called shtetls throughout the country. For centuries, the Poles and the Jews had developed a workable, if not always harmonious, relationship that enabled them to work and live among one another. However, during the interwar era Polish attitudes shifted dramatically toward their Jewish neighbors—particularly in the poorer parts of the country. Antisemitism spiked across the country. Poles began to circulate the idea that their country and people had suffered so intensely during World War I because of Jewish collaboration with occupying forces. Moreover, they saw the Jews as natural allies of the Russian communists. Thus, in the interwar era, the Poles launched a campaign of Polonization in Galicia and other regions that had large Jewish communities. During the Polish-Soviet War, and through the early 1920s, Poles engaged in pogroms across the country. These attacks on Jews resulted in hundreds of arrests, widespread murders of Jews, and seizure of Jewish property. While the attacks did not come close to matching the murderous regime of the Nazis in the 1940s, they did signal hostility between Poles and Jews that would persist into World War II to disastrous effect. Significance During the interwar years, Poland achieved independence that always seemed under threat. Political, social, and economic strife produced the allusion that the democratic government stood on a narrow precipice and that it could fall if the wind blew too hard. And yet, despite their setbacks and instability, the Poles repelled the Bolsheviks in 1921. Thus, they stopped Lenin’s attempt to spread the communist revolution across Europe. In the process of halting Soviet expansion, Poland created enemies and allies that would become important in World War II. Ukraine In the twenty-first century, no Eastern European nation has received such attention or has taken such a place of importance as Ukraine. This country, the largest European nation (other than Russia), is peculiar in its duality. On the surface, it is a country of sweeping landscapes, and a nation of agrarianism. Beneath the pastoral scene though is a country that has been fraught with political tension for over a hundred years. Learning Objectives - Evaluate how both the West and Russia responded to Poland and Ukraine during the interwar (1919 – 1939) era Key Terms / Key Concepts Ukrainian People’s Republic: independent Ukrainian state from 1917 – 1921 based in Kyiv West Ukrainian People’s Republic: short-lived Ukrainian state based in Lviv from fall 1918 to summer 1919 Soviet-Ukrainian War: war between Ukrainian government and forces in the Ukrainian People’s Republic and the Russian Red Army (1918 – 1921) that ended in a Russian victory Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic: name for the Ukrainian republic governed by Russia from 1922 – 1921 Background of Ukraine People have inhabited the present-day country of Ukraine for millennia. Historians generally cite the establishment of Ukrainian people in Eastern Europe in the late 800s with the settlement of the Kyivan Rus—Slavic peoples descended from eastern Viking tribes. Indeed, the Kyvian Rus peoples played a significant role in the Middle Ages, prior to the Mongol invasion. During this time, the basis for the modern Ukrainian language developed, and along with it, a particular sense of an ethnic Ukrainian culture Following the defeat of the Mongols, Ukrainians found themselves in a region with constantly shifting political borders—sometimes belonging to the Poles and Lithuanians, other times to the Russians. World War I During World War I, most of the lands where Ukrainians lived were in the Russian Empire. There were, however, significant Ukrainian populations living in the territory of Galicia—a region that was part of Austria-Hungary in 1914. Because of this split, Ukrainian troops fought on both sides of the war throughout World War I, although higher numbers of troops fought on the side of Russia and the Allies. Like many ethnic groups, the Ukrainians saw the collapse of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, and German Empires in 1917 – 1918 as a gateway to independence based on ethnic borders. Similarly, they hoped for support from Western democracies, such as Poland had received. The Two Ukraines Following the Russian Revolution of 1917, nationalist Ukrainians established an independent government in the city of Kyiv, located at that time in Russian territory. This government proclaimed independence for the Ukrainian People's Republic. The new country would establish its borders based on ethnic Ukrainian populations and loosely model their government on socialist principles. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918, a second nationalist Ukrainian group established the West Ukrainian People's Republic with its capital at Lviv, a city in Galicia. This situation resulted in two separate, briefly independent, Ukraines. Each had their own ideology but advocated for Ukrainian independence and promoted nationalism. Very quickly, the West Ukrainian People’s Republic government claimed control over the highly contested and desired region of Galicia. This set the fragile Ukrainian state on a collision course with their significantly stronger neighbor, Poland. War for control over Galicia erupted in late 1918, and ended within a year with a Polish victory in the Polish-Ukrainian Conflict. The Polish triumph resulted in the collapse of the West Ukrainian People’s Republic. Fighting for Survival With the Western Ukrainian People’s Republic’s collapse in 1919, there was little opportunity for a large and united Ukraine. Even in the larger state of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, division was high. In the western borderlands, Poland remained in control of Galicia. Internal fighting for control of Ukrainian-inhabited lands persisted for two additional years. Unlike Poland, which had received political support for the reestablishment of its borders from Western allies, Ukraine received no support. Instead, Western countries raised eyebrows at the potentially socialist state that shared a border with Russia. While Poland had strong allies, Ukraine was left to stand alone against Polish and Russian enemies. Russia also eyed the politically weak, Ukrainian People’s Republic. It not only lacked strong infrastructure but also a strong military because much of the Ukrainian’s fighting force had perished in World War I. From 1918 to 1921, the Bolsheviks launched campaigns to destroy the Ukrainian People’s Republic and annex its lands into Soviet territory. This campaign pitted the Ukrainian nationalists in Kyiv against the Russian Red Army in the Soviet-Ukrainian War. With no allies, and significantly under-gunned in comparison to the Russians, the Ukrainians capitulated in 1921. In four years, Ukrainian dreams of an independent country were erased. In place of the Ukrainian People’s Republic, Lenin established a pro-Russian, communist government and annexed all of the Ukrainian lands not claimed by the Poles. With the Russian victory, Lenin and the Bolshevik party annexed the majority of Ukrainian lands into a constituent republic based on Ukrainian ethnicity and named the new republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. This new state, joined with Russia, formed the basis of the Soviet Union. Life for Ukrainians under Russian rule proved challenging. On the one hand, the Russians encouraged “Ukrainization” of the land by encouraging the widespread use of the Ukrainian language in schools, public offices, and in publications. But Joseph Stalin’s rise to power in Russia soon ended the golden age of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, as life for Ukrainians became harsher and increasingly violent. Legacy Ukraine’s history during the early twentieth century is simultaneously inspiring and tragic. It lacked the military strength and alliances with the West that Poland had; therefore, it could not successfully repel the Russian Red Army. And yet, regardless of its political and military defeats, the Ukrainian people never relinquished their ethnic pride. Attributions All Images from Wikimedia Commons Prusin, Alexander V. The Lands Between: Conflict in the East European Borderlands, 1870-1992. Oxford University Press, Oxford: 2010. 72-97; 98; 110; 115. Snyder, Timothy. The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999. New Haven, Yale University Press: 2003. 133-142.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.038859	Neil Greenwood	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/87985/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit World History, The Catastrophe of the Modern Era: 1919-Present CE, Chapter 13: Post WWI, Splintering of Eastern Europe: Poland and Ukraine", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117299/overview	Sewing Machine Overview Photograph of an Isaac Singer Sewing Machine patent from the year 1851. Adult Ed 110 Students research the evolution of the sewing machines as they study the Industrial Revolution from 1790 to the present day. Images credited to Birmingham Museums Trust, Panjigally, Inayity, Frank Puterbaugh Bachman, U.S. Patent Office, and Txinviolet.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.055975	06/25/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117299/overview", "title": "Sewing Machine", "author": "Gina Kessee" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56814/overview	4.4 Cell structure 4.4 Cell structure The video that covers topics in Chapter 4 Openstax Biology 2e book. Topics: Plant vs. animal cells differences Organelles Differences between plant and animal cells Endosymbiotic theory The video that covers topics in Chapter 4 Openstax Biology 2e book. Topics: Plant vs. animal cells differences Organelles Differences between plant and animal cells Endosymbiotic theory	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.072753	08/09/2019	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/56814/overview", "title": "4.4 Cell structure", "author": "Urbi Ghosh" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97540/overview	BIO-061 Biome Assignment: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview Outdoor activity, 25 points. BIO-061 Biome assignment (Video assignment) 25pts	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.091244	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97540/overview", "title": "BIO-061 Biome Assignment: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96408/overview	PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES Overview PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES PREPARATION AND REACTION OF ALKENES PDF Preparation and reactions of alkenes Download View	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.162952	08/15/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/96408/overview", "title": "PREPARATION AND REACTIONS OF ALKENES", "author": "Ruchi Bohidar" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73003/overview	"The Power of Money," by Karl Marx Overview Classic writing on the social psychology of money by the youthful Karl Marx. original text excerpted from The Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844 By possessing the property of buying everything, by possessing the property of appropriating all objects, money is thus the object of eminent possession. The universality of its property is the omnipotence of its being. It is therefore regarded as an omnipotent being. Money is the procurer between man’s need and the object, between his life and his means of life. But that which mediates my life for me, also mediates the existence of other people for me. For me it is the other person. That which is for me through the medium of money – that for which I can pay (i.e., which money can buy) – that am I myself, the possessor of the money. The extent of the power of money is the extent of my power. Money’s properties are my – the possessor’s – properties and essential powers. Thus, what I am and am capable of is by no means determined by my individuality. I am ugly, but I can buy for myself the most beautiful of women. Therefore I am not ugly, for the effect of ugliness – its deterrent power – is nullified by money. I, according to my individual characteristics, am lame, but money furnishes me with twenty-four feet. Therefore I am not lame. I am bad, dishonest, unscrupulous, stupid; but money is honoured, and hence its possessor. Money is the supreme good, therefore its possessor is good. Money, besides, saves me the trouble of being dishonest: I am therefore presumed honest. I am brainless, but money is the real brain of all things and how then should its possessor be brainless? Besides, he can buy clever people for himself, and is he who has power over the clever not more clever than the clever? Do not I, who, thanks to money, am capable of all that the human heart longs for, possess all human capacities? Does not my money, therefore, transform all my incapacities into their contrary? If money is the bond binding me to human life, binding society to me, connecting me with nature and man, is not money the bond of all bonds? Can it not dissolve and bind all ties? Is it not, therefore, also the universal agent of separation? It is the coin that really separates as well as the real binding agent – the [...] chemical power of society. The distorting and confounding of all human and natural qualities, the fraternization of impossibilities – the divine power of money – lies in its character as men’s estranged, alienating and self-disposing species-nature. Money is the alienated ability of mankind. That which I am unable to do as a man, and of which therefore all my individual essential powers are incapable, I am able to do by means of money. Money thus turns each of these powers into something which in itself it is not – turns it, that is, into its contrary. If I long for a particular dish or want to take the mail-coach because I am not strong enough to go by foot, money fetches me the dish and the mail-coach: that is, it converts my wishes from something in the realm of imagination, translates them from their meditated, imagined or desired existence into their sensuous, actual existence – from imagination to life, from imagined being into real being. In effecting this mediation, [money] is the truly creative power. No doubt the demand also exists for him who has no money, but his demand is a mere thing of the imagination without effect or existence for me, for a third party, for the [others], and which therefore remains even for me unreal and objectless. The difference between effective demand based on money and ineffective demand based on my need, my passion, my wish, etc., is the difference between being and thinking, between that which exists within me merely as an idea and the idea which exists as a real object outside of me. If I have no money for travel, I have no need – that is, no real and realizable need – to travel. If I have the vocation for study but no money for it, I have no vocation for study – that is, no effective, no true vocation. On the other hand, if I have really no vocation for study but have the will and the money for it, I have an effective vocation for it. Money as the external, universal medium and faculty (not springing from man as man or from human society as society) for turning an image into reality and reality into a mere image, transforms the real essential powers of man and nature into what are merely abstract notions and therefore imperfections and tormenting chimeras, just as it transforms real imperfections and chimeras – essential powers which are really impotent, which exist only in the imagination of the individual – into real powers and faculties. In the light of this characteristic alone, money is thus the general distorting of individualities which turns them into their opposite and confers contradictory attributes upon their attributes. Money, then, appears as this distorting power both against the individual and against the bonds of society, etc., which claim to be entities in themselves. It transforms fidelity into infidelity, love into hate, hate into love, virtue into vice, vice into virtue, servant into master, master into servant, idiocy into intelligence, and intelligence into idiocy. Since money, as the existing and active concept of value, confounds and confuses all things, it is the general confounding and confusing of all things – the world upside-down – the confounding and confusing of all natural and human qualities. He who can buy bravery is brave, though he be a coward. As money is not exchanged for any one specific quality, for any one specific thing, or for any particular human essential power, but for the entire objective world of man and nature, from the standpoint of its possessor it therefore serves to exchange every quality for every other, even contradictory, quality and object: it is the fraternization of impossibilities. It makes contradictions embrace. Assume man to be man and his relationship to the world to be a human one: then you can exchange love only for love, trust for trust, etc. If you want to enjoy art, you must be an artistically cultivated person; if you want to exercise influence over other people, you must be a person with a stimulating and encouraging effect on other people. Every one of your relations to man and to nature must be a specific expression, corresponding to the object of your will, of your real individual life. If you love without evoking love in return – that is, if your loving as loving does not produce reciprocal love; if through a living expression of yourself as a loving person you do not make yourself a beloved one, then your love is impotent – a misfortune.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.182812	Sociology	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/73003/overview", "title": "\"The Power of Money,\" by Karl Marx", "author": "Psychology" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85983/overview	CA Real Estate Practice Overview This is the reading material for the closing process in California Real Estate. It will be followed by assignments at a later date. It lays out the steps that a realtor needs to make sure take place to ensure a smooth close. The Closing Process The closing process Our learning objectives for this week are - Explain the series of events that take place during closing - Discuss responsibilities for ordering inspections and insurance, and state which party usually pays for these products or service - Describe the process for estimating seller’s net proceeds and buyer’s net cost - Understand federal and state laws that regulate settlement - Summarize the real estate agent’s role during the closing process The Steps in the Closing Process -- Steps in closing process 1. Inspections ordered by buyer or real estate agent, as soon as possible -- these are usually a termite inspection, roof inspection and a home inspection. a. Reports sent to buyer or buyer’s agent and lender - the lender only needs to see these if you have written on the contract that you are requiring them. Any time you request any thing on the contract you have to show the lender. The pitfall on this is that the lender can require repairs based on reports provided. i. Buyer, with the advice of their agent, must decide whether to request that seller make any repairs called for by report. You will need to use a "request for repairs" form. b. If seller agrees to make repairs, need to verify that repairs are adequate (via reinspection) c. Inspections: structural, electrical and plumbing, interior, pest, soil, and environmental i. Most lenders require structural pest control inspections - these are only required on VA loans who require a clearance of all items on the reports. Most lenders do not require them unless it is on the RPA. (Residentail purchase contract) ii. Usually, sellers pay for corrective repairs, and buyers for preventive ones - this is something that will be negotiated. The seller is under no obligation to pay for repairs. d. If asked, agent should give buyer at least three names of inspectors; verify credentials with business organizations e. If repairs necessary, seller and buyer negotiate costs; must also do reinspection of repairs before closing 2. Financing applied for and/or finalized by buyer a. Lender’s staff plays active role throughout closing process 3. Escrow real estate agent, with delivery of purchase agreement and EMD (ernest money deposit) 4. Escrow instructions signed by parties; may be included in purchase agreement or separate document - In California the RPA includes the escrow intructions. 5. Appraisal ordered by lender a. Lender is appraiser’s client; other parties may have to request report from lender 6. Preliminary title report ordered by closing agent; copies sent to lender and buyer, for approval and/or corrections by seller 7. Loan payoff amount requested from seller’s lender a. Using “Demand for Payoff” or “Request for Beneficiary’s Statement” form b. Escrow agent or buyer’s lender must also get figures for any other liens or judgments 8. Loan approval documents signed by buyer a. Lender sends loan documents to escrow agent, for buyer to review and sign b. After documents signed, escrow agent gives them to lender, coordinates loan funding 9. Downpayment and closing costs deposited by buyer, once all contingencies met 10. Loan funds deposited by lender 11. Title insurance policy issued by title company a. Two main types of policies i. Lender’s policy ii. Owner’s policy b. Lenders require buyers to purchase lender’s policy; protects lender’s security interest c. Owner’s policy benefits buyer; protects against undiscovered title problems i. In northern California, buyer usually pays for owner’s policy ii. In southern California, seller typically pays for policy d. Standard coverage protects against problems with matters of record, e.g., deeds, liens, and other recorded interests e. Extended coverage includes all of the above, plus problems discoverable by inspection, e.g., encroachments or adverse possession f. Homeowner’s coverage covers most of the same matters as an extended coverage policy, plus some additional issues such as violations of restrictive covenants g. Lender’s policy is always extended coverage; owner’s policies are usually homeowner’s coverage 12. Hazard insurance policy issued to buyer - this is the homeowners insurance a. Minimum policy required by lenders is usually HO-3 policy i. Protects against numerous perils; usually covers personal property, too ii. Does not cover damage from earthquakes or floods; need supplemental policy for that b. Some purchase agreement forms now have hazard insurance contingency provision 13. Settlement statements prepared by closing agent or lender 14. Documents filed for recording 15. Funds disbursed by closing agent D. Real estate agent’s role is to make sure tasks are completed, and to communicate regularly with all parties 1. If problems, agents should deal with them in a fair and direct manner 2. Agent’s role during closing just as important as negotiating sale Closing Costs: A. Some closing costs are paid by seller, some by buyer, some split - this is set County by County. Always check for what is customary for the county you are working in. 1. Settlement statement (part of the closing disclosure form) is used to list closing costs a. Preliminary and final statements prepared for seller and buyer by closing agent or lender b. Seller’s net proceeds (cash at end of sale) and buyer’s net cost (cash buyer pays at closing) depend on how closing costs are allocated i. Use software to calculate net proceeds and net cost ii. Some expenses prorated between buyer and seller, based on time, interest, or benefit B. Costs and credits 1. Debits: costs party must pay at closing 2. Credits: payments parties will (or have) receive(d) 3. Some closing costs paid to other party; others paid to third parties 4. Many costs are standard or allocated by custom; others allocated based on purchase agreement or by law C. Buyer’s net cost 1. To estimate buyer’s net cost, total debits are reduced by total credits a. Purchase price is major cost (debit); good faith deposit and financing are credits offset against purchase price, to get remainder (downpayment) needed at closing b. Closing costs usually paid by buyer include: appraisal fees, credit report fees, origination fees, discount points, prepaid (or interim) interest, lender’s title insurance, inspection fees, hazard insurance, recording fees for new mortgage c. Examples of fees split or prorated: escrow fees and property taxes 2. To pay net cost, buyer usually delivers certified check or cashier’s check (or wires money); verify with escrow agent D. Seller’s net proceeds 1. Sales price is largest credit for seller; any other credits seller will get at closing are added together, any costs (debits) subtracted 2. Examples of credits include refunds for property taxes paid in advance, or reserves remaining in impound account 3. Examples of debits a seller pays: seller financing or loan assumption, payoff of seller’s loan, interest on seller’s loan (and prepayment penalty if applicable), sales commission for broker, documentary transfer tax, escrow and recording fees 4. Examples of closing costs a seller may agree to pay include: owner’s title insurance premium, discount points (or buydown), repair costs, and attorney’s fees 5. Escrow agent may offer seller options for receiving net proceeds, e.g., cashier’s check or direct deposit - today most funds are wired.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.204302	09/19/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/85983/overview", "title": "CA Real Estate Practice", "author": "Christine Foreman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86006/overview	Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education Overview The blog post series Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education was originally published on the website of the Digital Higher Education Consortium of Texas (DigiTex) and has now been compiled into a booklet for ease of use. In this series, you will find articles covering five pivotal moments in the history of digital higher education including the first "online" learning program at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon University, Project Athena at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Glenn Jones' Mind Extension University, and CALCampus, one of the first resources for online synchronous learning. Description of Resource The blog post series Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education was originally published on the website of the Digital Higher Education Consortium of Texas (DigiTex) and has now been compiled into a booklet for ease of use. In this series, you will find articles covering five pivotal moments in the history of digital higher education including the first "online" learning program at the Western Behavioral Sciences Institute, the Andrew Project at Carnegie Mellon University, Project Athena at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Glenn Jones' Mind Extension University, and CALCampus, one of the first resources for online synchronous learning. This work is licensed CC BY 4.0 and may be freely used and adapted, with attribution to the author.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.222107	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/86006/overview", "title": "Important Events in the History of Digital Higher Education", "author": "History" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89105/overview	Biotech Lab Techniques Manual Overview This is a laboratory manual for Biotechnology lab at the undergraduate level. Welcome Welcome to your first laboratory course in biotechnology Techniques of Instrumentation for Biotechnology (BTC-105). The course is designed for you to understand, learn and practice techniques and instruments commonly used in biotechnology. You will also learn and master labmath required to make buffers, media and dilutions related to molarity, percentage and other concentrations units. The objectives of the course are: - Understand the concepts underlying techniques & instrumentation in biotechnology. - Apply formulas to calculate, prepare and standardize various strengths of molar, normal, and percent solutions within a 10% error. - Operate instruments in the average biological, chemical, clinical, and/or analytical laboratory. - Master in Scientific presentations and writing generating lab reports using good documentation practices. - Learn to work efficiently independently as well as in teams. - Develop critical thinking and analytical abilities to perform small and big projects. Students are expected to behave professionally in a laboratory at all times. The lecture will provide background and relevant information about the solutions, prep, procedure, and related techniques. The students should plan on having the following in the lab at all times- a lab coat, close-toed shoes, and a bound lab notebook. The techniques you will learn in this course include the following - Making Buffers - Simple and serial Dilutions - pH meter - Thin layer Chromatography. - Spectrophotometer - Centrifuge - Protein estimation by Bradford. - Gel filtration chromatography - Bacterial Cell – Growth Curve, Transformation - Mammalian cell culture - Polymerase chain reaction - DNA gel - Protein gel Please make sure to ask questions if you are unaware of a certain technique or where a chemical is in teh lab. Introduction to Laboratory General Lab Organization & Procedures This module will serve as an introduction to the lab. There are different kinds of labs based on their research and work focus. The type of labs are: - Research Labs (University) – focus on a question or hypothesis related to basic science or applied research. - Applied Science Labs (Company)- to develop & make products for human diseases, drug discovery, also including biologically engineered food and medical products. - Core Labs –supports the research of others using a specific type of assay or in an area of expertise. - Clinical Labs - the majority of work in these labs supports patient care. Figure 1: Different types of scientific labs based on the research work. Laboratory Personnel work in a laboratory at different level as shown in the figure below. These levels are primarily based on the education level of individuals. So as an Associate or certificate student in Biotechnology, you will fall in the same category as undergraduate student researcher. You can find employment as lab technician. Lab Routine: It is important to understand the lab routine for any lab. In most of the labs you are expected to know what is the dress code and what personal protective equipment (PPE) you are supposed to wear. In this lab you must wear a lab coat on top of your clothes and also closed toed shoes. Every lab is different, so make sure to Before entering the lab, please ensure: - Leave the food/ drinks outside the lab. - Have your lab coat and lab notebook with you. While in the lab: - Wear your lab coat and take it off if you have to step out of the lab even for a few minutes. - Note down the name of instruments and ask if you have any doubts or questions about their usage. - Note down the readings and observations of your experiments carefully. Before leaving the lab: - Make sure that you leave your bench clean. - Use Lysol and scrub at the end of the lab work to wipe your working area. - Make sure you keep all the unused lab items back on the shelves. - Ensure that the used/dirty dishes are on the cart next to -20. (after rinsing and removing labels) - Paper and other regular trash should be in the trash can. - Chemical, media, and bacterial work-generated trash must be disposed in biohazard bags. - Make sure you wash your hands before you go. Find about the following item locations and practices before you start working: - Chemicals - First Aid box - Glassware - Fire extinguisher - Lab coats - Gloves - Trash Disposal - Computer usage LABORATORY Dos and Don'ts DO's: - Take notes - Wear lab coat and PPE as needed. - Familiarize yourself with lab - Conduct experiments carefully. - Different trash in different disposal bins. - Cleanup after you complete experiments. Don'ts: - Use cell phones. - Use reagents/ buffers without asking. - Lab coats and gloves outside the lab if directed. - No open toed shoes, shorts. Methods to reduce the risk in laboratory work: - NO eating - NO smoking - NO drinking - NO chewing gum - NO applying makeup - NO combing hair. Universal precautions in a laboratory: Universal precautions have been developed to protect health professionals - Most often applied in a clinical setting - These are also important (outside the lab) for field epidemiology practices during an outbreak investigation (e.g., collecting lab specimens) - Include hand hygiene, gloves, gown, masks, eye protection, face shields, safe injection practices - Require that all equipment or contaminated items are handled to prevent transmission of infectious agents - Special circumstances may require additional precautions - For example, protective clothing, special site decontamination Barriers There are two types of barriers in a laboratory - Primary (physical) and Secondary (structural) - Primary barriers are physical barriers or personal protective equipment (PPE) between lab workers and pathogens. - Personal Protective Equipment or "PPE" is equipment worn by lab personnel to minimize exposure to hazards in the lab. Contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards can cause injury or illness. Personal protective equipment is worn according to biosafety levels and may include gloves, safety glasses and shoes, or full body suits. - Secondary barriers are structural aspects of the laboratory that make the working environment safer against infection. For example, sinks for handwashing, special containment areas, special air ventilation patterns These barriers will vary based on the microbes (biological agents) and chemicals being handled in the laboratory. Biosafety Levels (BSL) Biosafety level is a level of the biocontainment precautions required to isolate dangerous biological agents in an enclosed laboratory facility. - BSL-1 agents are not known to cause disease in healthy adults (Example: B. subtilis, E. coli) - BSL-2 agents are associated with human diseases derived from blood or body fluids (Example: Hepatitis B virus, C. botulinum) - BSL-3 agents have the potential for respiratory transmission and may cause severe and potentially lethal infection (Example: M. tuberculosis, C. burnetti) - BSL-4 agents are dangerous and exotic agents and have the potential to cause a high risk of life-threatening disease (Example: Ebola virus, Marburg virus) Lab Safety – Signs & Symbols Laboratory signs and symbols are vital for the safety of the lab and the lab personnel. Labs typically contain hazardous chemicals, biohazards, delicate equipment, and flammable objects. Having adequate signage helps lab personnel remind and prevent errors and accidents. The symbols are mostly self-explanatory. Some of the common lab symbols are shown below. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) Diamonds and HMIS Hazardous Material Identification System) Bars are Color & Number Coded with Hazard Information. NFPA signs alert first responders to chemical hazards. DOT (Department of Transportation) Symbols Are Usually Found on Shipping Cartons. MSDS: You must know information about a chemical prior to using it. Information is provided in Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS). You can look up MSDS of a chemical online. Some labs might have it stored in a physical file. Exposure to Hazardous Chemicals can Result in acute or chronic health effects. Acute – Effects occurring within hours or days of exposure Chronic – Effects occurring after exposure over many years Physical Hazards - Fire - Bunsen Burners - Autoclaves - Compressed Gas Cylinders - Broken Glassware - Razorblades and needles - Electrical Equipment - Ultraviolet light Some terms used in the lab (do you know what these are?) : - MSDS - PPE - Sharps - BSL - Biohazard Laboratory Documentation Contents of a Lab Notebook: Every lab has its documentation style to record experimental procedures and data. In this lab, you will record experiments as you do them weekly. For every lab, you are expected to record – Date, Aim, Materials, Procedure, Results, and Conclusions. Here is the purpose of each of them. Aim – States the goal of the experiment. Material – Includes all the chemicals and biological items that are required for the experiment Procedure - Description/protocol with reference to calculations (such as molecular weight, concentrations, dilutions, etc.). All the experiment steps should be written carefully so someone can repeat that in the future and produce a similar outcome. Observation – Includes the summary of data, often in form of a table, graph or figures. Results -must include both qualitative and quantitative data. If the results are unexpected or negative, they should always be included. Conclusions – Summary of the experimental results. Pre-lab write-up is done before you begin the experiment (see below). Lab notes which include the standard operating procedure (SOP) used, the data and detailed observations you make while doing the lab, and any other comments you may want to remember or convey to others Post-lab Analysis involves any calculations, conclusions drawn, and questions answered after the lab is completed. Most lab exercises come with a set of analysis questions to be answered. Good Documentation Practices Documentation is the mechanism by which raw data are captured and evaluated to ensure personal accountability. Good Documentation Practices or GDP provides a tangible, detailed record of observations and activities – a "paper trail." This is extremely important in a biotech or pharmaceutical company where products are being manufactured. The Food & Drug Administration (FDA) can supervise the process and products. FDA assumptions about documentation must always be followed: - If it isn't written down, it wasn't done - If it isn't legible, you made a mistake - If it is written in pencil, it was changed - If it isn't "controlled," you made a copy. - If it wasn't "approved" before you started, you made it up Document dates in a standardized format must be specified in your Standard Operating Procedure. Blank fields can be interpreted as missing data, and empty spaces at the bottom of a page (e.g. lab notebooks) can allow someone to add data without your knowledge or consent. Good Documentation Practices in a lab notebook We will try to follow the Good Documentation Practices in laboratory notebooks by trying to follow as many as items stated below: - Use indelible (water-resistant) blue or black ink so that it doesn't fade over time or smudge if it gets wet. No pencils or felt-tipped markers are allowed. - NEVER back date! - Enter data directly in the controlled record and never on a piece of scrap paper in the interim. - Make sure the entries are accurate and legible so that anyone can understand your entries. - Draw a diagonal line through any blank fields or empty spaces at the bottom of a page and include 'N/A' along with your initials and date. - Number each page in a controlled notebook chronologically. This verifies that no pages are missing. - For instrument printouts and attachments make sure they are within the notebook limits, and are stuck with clear adhesive tape. Include your initials and date so that part of your initials will be on the attachment and part will be on the notebook. - When entering repetitive data, do not use ditto marks. Lab Math - Significant Figures, SI Unit/ Metric System In this module, we are going to learn about more concepts that are relevant to laboratory math including significant figures, SI units, and metric systems including conversions within the metric system. Lab math Why is Lab Math Important? PURPOSE The purpose of this module is to become well versed with simple calculations - Multiplication with factors of 10 - Division by factors of 10. - How to move around decimal when multiplying or dividing. - Remembering tables - Multiplication by factors of 10 - When there is no decimal in a number then you can add the same number of zeros to the right as many you see in the multiplying factor of 10. 1. 1357 x 10 = 13570 2. 123 x 1000 = 123000 3. 8 x 200 ? - When there is a decimal in a number then you can move the decimal to as many places to the right as the number of zeros in the multiplying factor of 10. 1. 135.7 X 10 = 2. 13.57 x 10 = 3. 1.357 x 1000 = Division by factors of 10 - When there are zeros in number, equal number of zeros on top and bottom can cancel out. 200/10= 5000/1000= - When there is no decimal in a number then you can assume that the decimal is in the end. Move the decimal to the left as many zeros as you see in the dividing factor of 10. 1357 /10 = 123 / 1000 = 8 / 200 ? MULTIPLICATION PRACTICE \| PRACTICE 1. 23 x 10 = 2. 12 x 100 = 3. 150 x 100 = 4. 230 x 10000 = 5. 12.3 x 100= 6. 1.567 x 10= 7. 180.5 x100 = 8. 3 x 300 = 9. 5 x 150 = 10. 300 x 500 = 11. 55/10 = 12. 330/100 = 13. 500/ 100 = 14. 660/1000= 15. 200/20= 16. 400/20 = 17. 10/10000= 18. 200/100000= 19. 120/12= 20. 103/100= What kind of Lab Math will we be doing ? - Scientific Notations - Standard Notations Standard & Scientific Notation - Scientific numbers are written in 10x. - The first number before x should be between 1 and 9.9999 (less than 10). - Then count the numbers after that and put the count as a power of 10. Example : 2300 = 2.3 X 103 0.023 = 2.3 X 10-2 - Standard numbers are written in terms of 0s and decimal. Example : 4.5 X 103 = 4500 4.5 X 10-2 = 0.045 Symbol \| Units \| Standard Notation \| Scientific Notation \| K \| Kilo \| 1000 \| 1 x 103 \| 100 \| 1 x 102 \| \|\| 10 \| 1 x 101 \| \|\| m/g/l/M \| 1 \| 1 x 100 \| \| 0.1 \| 1 x 10-1 \| \|\| c \| Centi \| 0.01 \| 1 x 10-2 \| m \| Mili \| 0.001 \| 1 x 10-3 \| 0.0001 \| 1 x 10-4 \| \|\| 0.00001 \| 1 x 10-5 \| \|\| m \| Micro \| 0.000001 \| 1 x 10-6 \| 0.0000001 \| 1 x 10-7 \| \|\| 0.00000001 \| 1 x 10-8 \| \|\| n \| Nano \| 0.000000001 \| 1 x 10-9 \| Scientific notation is a way of expressing really big numbers or really small numbers that are in standard notation. - The scientific notation consists of two parts: - A number between 1 and 10 (N) - A power of 10 (x) N x 10x Example: Express in Scientific notation (a) 200,000 (b) 0.00002 Class Assignment Brainstorming Practice Session Scientific Figures & Scientific Notations Write the appropriate scientific notation for the following 1. 600000 \| = \| 2. 0.0678 \| = \| 3. 23.785 \| = \| 4. 89600000 \| = \| 5. 0.000009 \| = \| 6. 50005 \| = \| 7. 543.00 \| = \| 8. 0.00456 \| = \| Write the appropriate standard notation for the following 1. 3 x 10-3 = 2. 1.34 x 107 = 3. 7.29 x 10-2 = 4. 5.55 x 102 = 5. 1.054 x 101 = 6. 1.5 X 100 = 7. 2.05 x 105 = 8. 8.0354 x 10-4 = Significant Figures - There are 2 different types of numbers - Exact - Measured - Exact numbers are infinitely important - Measured number = they are measured with a measuring device (name all 4) so these numbers have ERROR. - Solution - Exact numbers are obtained by - counting - definition B. Measured numbers are obtained by using a measuring tool - Learning Check Classify each of the following as an exact or a measured number.(Hint: Whatever needs a measuring tool can not be exact number) 1 yard = 3 feet The diameter of a red blood cell is 6 x 10-4 cm. There are 6 hats on the shelf. Gold melts at 1064°C. Measurement and Significant Figures - Every experimental measurement has a degree of uncertainty. - The best guess is needed for the tenth place. What is the Length? \| \| \| We can see the markings between 1.6-1.7cm - We can't see the markings between the .6-.7 - We must guess between .6 & .7 - We record 1.67 cm as our measurement - The last digit an 7 was our guess... Measured Numbers - Do you see why Measured Numbers have error…you have to make that Guess! - All but one of the significant figures are known with certainty. The last significant figure is only the best possible estimate. - To indicate the precision of a measurement, the value recorded should use all the digits known with certainty. Below are two measurements of the mass of the same object. The same quantity is being described at two different levels of precision or certainty. RULES: Counting Significant figures - Non-Zero Digits: All the digits that are not zero count towards the number of significant figures. Example 1: 324 \| (3) Sig. Fig \| \| 2: 1.223 \| (4) \| \| 3: 12.1256 \| (6) \| \| 4: 1200001 \| (7) \| - Zero Digits: - Zeros that come between two non-zero numbers are counted in significant figures. E.g. 10001 (5 Significant Fig) - Zeros that come after non-zero number in decimal count. E.g. 2.10 (3 Significant Fig). - Zeros that come before decimal do not count. E.g. 0.25 (2 Significant Fig.) - Placeholder zeros do not count. E.g. 0.00023 (2 significant figures) 1. Trailing zeros are significant only if the number has a decimal, otherwise not. E.g. 1200.0 (5 significant Fig.); 1200 (2 Significant Fig.) RULES: Significant figures after Addition/ Subtraction/ Multiplication/ Division. - When you multiply, divide, add or subtract 2 numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will have the minimum of the two significant figures: E.g. 1.05 (significant figure 3) x 2.2 (significant fig 2) = 23.1 (Significant figure 2) Rounding Off: After decimal number greater than 5 can be rounded to next digit. E.g. 1.55 to 1.6 3.54678 to 3.5468 - Rounding Off: After decimal number lesser than 5 can be rounded to the previous digit. E.g. 1.54 to 1.5 3.54674 to 3.5467 In the last module, we learned about the concept of significant figures. Significant figures (or significant digits) are the digits in a number of a measurement that we can say is accurate and precise with a good degree of confidence. RULES or counting Significant figures WHAT COUNTS? Non-Zero Digits: All the digits that are not zero counts towards the number of significant figures: Example 1: 324 (3) Sig figs 2: 1.223 (4) 3: 12.1256 (6) 4: 1200001 (7) Zero Digits count under the following conditions: - Zeros that come between two non-zero numbers are counted in significant figures. E.g. 10001 ( 5 Significant Fig) - Zeros that come after non-zero numbers in the decimal count. 2.10 ( 3 Significant Fig). WHAT DOESN’T COUNT? (When Zero doesn’t count) - Zeros that come before decimal do not count. E.g. 0.25 ( 2 Significant Fig.) - Placeholder zeros do not count. E.g. 0.00023 ( 2 significant figures) - Trailing zeros are significant only if the number has a decimal, otherwise not. E.g. 1200 (__ significant Fig.); 1200.0 (___ Significant Fig.) RULES: Significant figures after Addition/ Subtraction/ Multiplication/ Division. Rounding Off: After decimal number greater than 5 can be rounded to the next digit. Example 1.55 to 1.6 or 3.54678 to 3.5468 Rounding Off: After decimal, a number lesser than 5 can be rounded to the previous digit. E.g. 1.54 to 1.5 or 3.54674 to 3.5467 When you add or subtract two numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will be rounded of to the least number of decimal places E.g. 1.05 (2 numbers after decimal) + 2.2 (1 number after decimal) = 3.25 rounded off to 3.2 (1 number after decimal) When you multiply or divide two numbers having different significant figures then the final answer will have the minimum of the two significant figures: E.g. 1.05 (3 significant figures) x 2.2 (2 significant figs) = 2.31 rounded off to 2.3 (2 Significant figures) Practice Session- Significant Figures What is the number of significant figures in the following? - 39.57 _______ - 132 _______ - 2.90 _______ - 123.456 _______ - 0.23 _______ - 11.02 _______ - 18.500 _______ - 1230 _______ - 123000 _______ - 0.05000 _______ Round off: - 76.512 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 932.058 to 5 significant figures. ________ - 0.5879 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 35.733 to 2 significant figures ________ - 120.5879 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 135.700 to 3 significant figures ________ - 0.5879 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 35.745 to 3 significant figures. ________ - 100.010 to 4 significant figures. ________ - 100.090 to 4 significant figures. ________ Write the answer in the appropriate significant figures - 6.28 x 5.004 = - 782.2 ¸ 2.36 = - 5.789 + 3.21 = - 6.789 – 5.980 = SI Units & Metric System The SI system is the International System of Units is the form of the metric system used around the world. There are seven basic units in the SI system: the meter (m), the kilogram (kg), the second (s), the kelvin (K), the ampere (A), the mole (mol), and the candela (cd). Important SI units that we should know in the context of laboratory math are listed here. \| SI Unit \| Symbol \| \| \| Length \| Meter \| m \| \| Mass \| Kilogram \| Kg \| \| Volume \| Liter \| L \| \| Time \| Second \| s \| \| Amount of substance \| Mole \| mol/ M \| Metric System (Conversions) Note how the major units are at every third place. Why is the conversion important? - There may be two different units on both sides of the equation. So you may need to convert - Sometimes you may need to convert it to a unit that you can measure using lab equipment like a graduated cylinder or pipette. How to convert within the metric system? Always draw the metric system line before starting conversions. 1 Kg = ______________ g 3 g = _______________ mg 60 mg = ______________ug 1.2 Kg= _______________ g = _____________________mg 3.625 g = ________________mg = __________________ug 10.03 mg = ________________ug 5000g = ______________ Kg 3500 mg = _______________ g 6000 ug = ______________mg 12 g= _______________ Kg 362.5 mg = ________________g = __________________Kg 10.03 ug = ____________mg= ____________g=_____________Kg Practice Session Write the correct abbreviation for each metric unit. 1) Kilogram _____ 4) Milliliter _____ 7) Kilometer _____ 2) Meter _____ 5) Millimeter _____ 8) Centimeter _____ 3) Gram _____ 6) Liter _____ 9) Milligram _____ Try these conversions. 10) 2 gm = _______ mg 11) 5 L = _______ mL 12) 16 km = _______________m 13) 1000 m = __________ Km 14) 2000 g = _______ kg 15) 2500 ml = _______ L 16) 48 mm = __________Km 17) 75 mL = _____ L 18) 65 g = _________Kg 19) 5.6 mM = ___________µM 20) 0.55 M = _________ mM 21) 6.3 m = _____ mm 22) 8.2 mm = ___________ m 23) 5.6 M = _______ mM 24) 120 mg = _________ g Pipette aids and pipet In the laboratory, you may have to measure and dispense liquid of different types and quantities. This can be easily achieved using a device called a pipette which can draw liquid in the slender plastic or glass tube attachment known as a pipet. Pipettes can be of different types: Bulb pipette, pipette pump, or pipette aid. Bulb Pipettes are made of natural rubber bulbs that can help suction up to a fixed volume of liquid. These kinds of pipettes are accurate and yet cheap. This type of pipette aid maybe like a dropper or more complex device with three buttons: The first displaces air from the bulb, the second is used to draw liquid into the pipette, and the third is used to expel the liquid. Pipette Pump are hollow plastic devices with a pump attached to one end and a pipet attached to the other end. The pump can be maneuvered with a thumb to regulate the amount of fluid that can be taken in the pipet. Pipette Aid are motorized devices for suction and dispensing of accurate amount of liquid. Pipets are glass (or plastic) tubes used for serology (serological pipet) and chemistry (volumetric pipet). Volumetric Pipet - Used to deliver a single specific volume of liquid, usually 1-100 ml. - On a volumetric pipette, the specifications indicate how much liquid will be transferred if the liquid is drawn up to the calibration line on the neck - the temperature at which the calibration was made - whether it is a TD (To deliver) or TC (To contain) pipette - After it is emptied, the small amount of liquid which remains in the tip should not be blown out. - Volumetric pipettes are usually marked TD hence the liquid is allowed to drain out and these are NOT blow-out pipettes Serological Pipet Serological pipette are used for precise transfer of liquid the laboratory. They are called so because they were traditionally used in the laboratory for transfer of blood or serum. - Printed on the neck of the pipette are the specifications that indicate: - the maximum volume of liquid that can be transferred - the size of the divisions on the pipette - the temperature at which calibrations were made - Always check the marking for TD or TC. TD pipettes are not blown out, TC pipettes are blown out. The key difference between volumetric and serological pipettes is that volumetric pipettes are calibrated to deliver a certain volume of a solution (through free drainage), whereas serological pipettes are generally calibrated all the way to the tip, (and the last drop of the solution has to be blown out). HANDLING STERILE PIPETTES - When using sterile pipettes, be sure to use proper techniques. - If you have a sterile package of disposable pipettes, tear only a small corner of the package open and push one pipette out of this opening, then immediately close the package to prevent contamination. - If its taken from a steel container in a hood, keep the container closed after use immediately Transferring a precise volume of liquid using a pipette - A pipette bulb is used to draw liquid up into the pipet. - There are many types of pipette bulbs. - The use of 3 types will be demonstrated in this module. The first to be demonstrated will be the common rubber bulb. Using the common rubber bulb - Squeeze bulb and touch it to the mouth of the pipette. - Place other end of the pipette in liquid to be transferred and slowly release pressure on bulb. - Draw liquid up past desired level, quickly replacing bulb with index finger. - Let liquid drain until bottom of meniscus lines up with desired level on pipette. - Touch tip of pipette to inside of beaker to remove any adhering drops. - Transfer liquid to second beaker and touch tip to inside of beaker and let liquid drain out of pipette. Use of safety bulb pipette filler Aspirate (A) → Suction (S) → Expel (E) 1: With a gentle twisting motion, insert the pipette into the Safety Pipette Filler about 1/2 cm. 2: To produce a vacuum for aspiration, squeeze valve “A” with your thumb and index finger of one hand while using your other hand to squeeze the bulb. “A” stands for “air” or “aspirate.” 3. To “pull” the liquid up into the pipette place the pipette into the liquid and squeeze the “S” or “suction” valve until the liquid reaches the desired level. 4. To “expel” the liquid, squeeze the “ E” valve. This will allow the liquid to flow out of the pipette except for the last drop. Use of pipette pump and pipette aid 1. The first step is to connect a sterile pipet to the end. 2. The pipet mouth is then placed inside the liquid to be transferred. The mouth should never be inserted too much. 3. In case of the pipette pump, the upper part can then clasped with the hand and thumb can be used to move the adjuster so that the liquid starts to get inside the pipet. 4. Once the desire level is reached then the pipet is gently lifted off the liquid and placed on top of the container for liquid to be transferred. 5. In case of pipette aid, make sure that the motor is connected to a working outlet or the pipette aid is charged. Since it is automatic, there are two buttons, one for uptake of liquid in the pipet and the other for the dispensing of liquid. Weighing and steps to making a solution Weighing a chemical in the lab Before you begin make sure that you are wearing appropriate personal protective equipment or PPE (usually lab coat and gloves). Sometimes you may be weighing a fine powder, then you may want to wear protective eye gear or mask, to prevent it from causing any eye, nose, or throat irritation. Also, make sure that you know the exact amount of substance to be weighed and what weighing balance you are going to use. Make sure to turn on the weighing balance. After you keep the weigh boat or container on the balance pan, make sure to tare the balance to zero. This will ensure that anything that you add on the weigh boat or container is reflected accurately on the digital scale. You can use spatula to add or remove the chemical. Steps to making a solution (Weigh, mix, and store) Method 1 - Weigh the solid chemical in a weigh boat. - Put it in an appropriate volumetric flask. - Add distilled water up to about 80% of the desired volume. - Stir the solution. - Once mixed makeup to the desired volume. - Store it in an appropriate container. - Autoclave if needed. Method 2 - Weigh the solid chemical in a weigh boat. - Put it in an appropriately sized beaker. - Add distilled water up to about 80% of the desired volume. - Drop a stir bar and stir the solution. - Adjust the pH if so needed. - Once mixed makeup to the desired volume in a graduated cylinder. - Store it in an appropriate container. - Autoclave if needed. Please make sure that after you are done, you will clean the area and either keep the spatula for washing or wash it and keep it aside. Also make sure to discard the PPE to the right places. Simple and Serial Dilutions In a simple dilution, a unit volume of a liquid from stock is combined with an appropriate volume of a solvent liquid to achieve the desired concentration. - The dilution factor is the unit you added the +total number of unit volumes in which your material will be dissolved. - For e.g. 1ml in 5 ml. DF= 5 folds or 1:5 A serial dilution is a series of simple dilutions which increases the dilution factor quickly. - The source of dilution material for each step comes from the diluted material of the previous step. - In a serial dilution, the total dilution factor at any point is the product of the individual dilution factors in each step up to it. Why do we need Serial Dilution? - Example 1: A technician performed a laboratory analysis of the patient’s serum for a serum glucose (blood sugar) determination. The patient’s serum glucose was too high to read on the glucose instrument. This might require dilution. - Example 2: 100 mg/dl solution of the substrate is needed for a laboratory procedure. All that is available is a 5000 mg/dl solution of the substrate. - Example 3: Serial dilutions are most often used in serological procedures, where technicians need to make dilutions of a patient’s serum to determine the weakest concentration that still exhibits a reaction of some type. The RECIPROCAL of the weakest concentration exhibiting a reaction is called a “titer”. - Example 4: If we have to measure bacteria in a wastewater sample. However as seen in the following, figure below, it is not possible to count bacteria in the first plate. It is only after a series of dilutions, that the bacteria can be counted. Simple Dilution Simple Dilution: A specific amount of stock is added to diluent like water to achieve a lower concentration. This is only a one-time dilution. Below you can see that each tube gets a sample from the stock. Dilution factor means how many folds dilution. Example 1: If its 1 ml stock in 9 ml water Dilution Ratio = 1/ (1+9) = 1/10 or 1:10 (It is expressed as 1:Dilution Factor) Example 2: If its 0.5 ml stock in 9.5 ml water Dilution Ratio = 0.5/ (0.5+9.5) = 0.5/10 = 0.05 ?? (How do we convert this to 1:Dilution factor?) There are two ways of doing this: Also note that, if we make a dilution of 1:10 to a stock solution of 200mM, the dilution will become (1/10 x 200) 20mM. Serial Dilution Serial Dilution is a series of dilutions or stepwise dilutions in which the 1st dilution is from the stock, the 2nd dilution is from 1st, the 3rd dilution is from 2nd, and so on and so forth till the desired dilution factor is reached. If V1 is added to V2 then the dilution factor at Step 1 will be DF1= V1 / V1+V2 - The dilution factor at each step can be calculated For e.g. at Step 3 the dilution factor (DF) = DF1 x DF2 x DF3. - Serial dilutions find their applications in labs both clinical as well as scientific labs like determining antibody titer, diluting blood, or serum. - Dilution factor can be popularly expressed as ratio. (Also in your experimental data) Link: http://education.wichita.edu/saltymicro/ecology_interactives/serial_dilution.html PRACTICE PROBLEMS: DILUTIONS Name: Date: - If you add 1.0 ml of a colored solution (Stock) to 4.0 ml of water in a test tube, what is the dilution ratio, of the colored solution to the final volume? - A dilution ratio of 1:10 means there is _______ul of stock in 10 ul of final volume. - A dilution ratio of 1:10 means ______ml of stock in 20 ml of final volume. - A dilution ration of 1:10 means _______L of stock in 50 L of final volume. - What is the dilution when we add 3 ml of stock to 27 ml of water? - Find the concentrations of A, B, C, D. (Hint: Observe carefully if it is simple or serial dilution) - A= 1ml of serum in 4ml of buffer = ____________________ - B = 1ml of A in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - C= 1ml of B in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - D= 1ml of C in 4 ml of buffer = _____________________ - If you were making a 1:10 dilution of a 100mM NaCl solution what will be its final concentration? - If you were making 1:25 dilution of a 25mM KCl solution what will be its final concentration? - If you have a Bradford reagent that you have to dilute 1:4. After dilution the final volume should be 20ml, how much of the Bradford reagent would you use to make this final volume (diluted solution)? pH pH is a unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity (basic) of a solution. The formal definition of pH is that it is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. - It is measured on a scale of 0 to 14. - "p" means taking the negative logarithm of whatever follows in the formula. for pH, pOH, p[anything] - pH = -log[H+] The pH scale corresponds to the concentration of hydrogen ions. How do we identify acids or bases? pH 7 is considered neutral. Acid has a pH of less than 7. The base has a pH greater than 7. The lower the value, the stronger is the acid. The higher the value, the stronger is the base. Logarithmic Scale Preview Number Representation and Logarithms \| \|\| Number \| Exponent/Scientific Notation \| Log of the Number \| 1000 \| 103 \| 3 \| 100 \| 102 \| 2 \| 10 \| 101 \| 1 \| 1 \| 100 \| 0 \| 0.1 \| 10-1 \| -1 \| 0.01 \| 10-2 \| -2 \| 0.001 \| 10-3 \| -3 \| 0.0001 \| 10-4 \| -4 \| How do we determine pH? Example: If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.0001 M, find the pH. Solution: - First convert the number to exponential/ scientific notation, find the log, then solve the pH equation. - H+ = 0.0001M = 10-4; log of 10-4 = -4; - pH = - log [ H+] = - log (10-4) = - (-4) = +4 = pH - The purpose of the negative sign in the log definition is to give a positive pH value. Question (Solve this): If an acid has an H+ concentration of 0.000001 M, find the pH. Example of various pH in daily life Water undergoes auto- or self-ionization as shown in the following equation. 2 H2O --> H3O+ + OH- (What happened to H+ ions?) - An equilibrium is established between the ions produced and the unionized water. An equilibrium expression can be written for this system. Kw = [H3O+][OH-] where Kw is used to represent the equilibrium constant for the ionization of water. - The value of Kw, when experimentally measured has been determined to be 1 x 10-14. - Mathematically, if one takes the log of both sides of the equation, remembering that when numbers are multiplied their logs are added: log (1 x 10-14) = log [H3O+] + log [OH-] Thus, - 14 = log[H3O+] + log [OH-] Multiplying both sides of the equation by -1, we get 14 = - log [H3O+] - log [OH-] 14 = pH + pOH pH Measurement pH is measured in a number of different ways using pH paper or pH meter. pH strips are pieces of paper that change color depending on the the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid. pH Meter pH Meter is an instrument to measure the hydrogen-ion activity in solutions as pH indicating its acidity or alkalinity. - A pH measurement system consists of three parts: a pH measuring electrode, a reference electrode, and a high input meter. - The pH meter is a potentiometer which measures the potential developed between the glass electrode and the reference electrode. - The pH measuring electrode is a hydrogen ion sensitive glass bulb. - The reference electrode output does not vary with the activity of the hydrogen ion. - In modern instruments, the two electrodes are combined into one electrode, known as a combination electrode. How to pH - • A sample is placed and the glass probe at the end of the retractable arm is placed in it. - • The probe is connected to the main box. - • There are two electrodes inside the probe that measure voltage. - • One is contained in liquid with fixed pH. The other measures the acidity of the sample through the amount of H+ ions. - • A voltmeter in the probe measures the difference between the voltages of the two electrodes. - • The meter then translates the voltage difference into pH and displays it on the screen. - • Before taking a pH measurement the meter must be calibrated using a solution of known pH. Titration - The process of gradually adding known amounts of reagent to a solution with which the reagent reacts while monitoring the results is called a titration. Buffers are mixtures of weak acids and their anions (conjugate base) - Buffers resist change in pH - At pH = pKa, there is a 50:50 mixture of acid and anion forms of the compound - Buffering capacity of acid/anion system is greatest at pH = pKa - Buffering capacity is lost when the pH differs from pKa by more than 1 pH unit pH related questions: - If H+ ion concentration of a buffer is 10-9M, what is its pH? Is it acidic or basic? - If the H+ concentration of a buffer is 0.0001 M, what is the pH? Is it acidic or basic? - If the pH is 4, what is the pOH? - If the H+ concentration is 0.00001 M, what is the OH- concentration? - If the pH of a buffer is 7 what is the hydrogen ion concentration? - If the pH of buffer A is 3 and pH of buffer B is 5, what is the difference in their hydrogen ion concentration? - If the expected pH of Buffer A is 5.5 and the observed pH is 5 what is the % error in the observed as compared to the expected pH? (Percent error formula = (Theoretical - Expected)/ Theoretical x 100) Centrifuge CENTRIFUGATION - A process that involves the use of centrifugal force for the separation of mixtures. - The equipment that is used for centrifugation is called a centrifuge and the vessel that spins the sample is called rotor. Supernatant & Pellet are separated after the process of centrifugation. Supernatant : Liquid on top Pellet : Solid at the bottom of the tube Watch this video on centrifuge: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IhJNFGfsUus INSTRUMENT DESIGN Centrifugal force can be measured as: - Revolutions per minute (RPM) or - Acceleration applied to the sample/Relative Centrifugal force (RCF, also referred as g) Types of Centrifuges - Low Speed (3-6000 rpm) - Micro centrifuge or Microfuge (Upto 12,000 rpm) - Small amounts, less than 2 ml - High Speed, (Upto 24,000 rpm) - Refrigerated to counteract the build up of heat produced. - Ultra Centrifuge (30-60,000 rpm) - dependent upon rotor type - Used to separate similarly sized particles - Vacuum pressure (diffusion pump) - Refrigerated - Rotors are fixed angle or vertical, - Rotors made up of heat and pressure tolerant metal - Specialize tubes - EX. Ti 60 = 60,000rpm limit - Holds 8 - 38 ml tubes Types of Rotors - Fixed angle - Vertical - Horizontal/ swinging bucket Centrifuge tubes - Centrifuge tubes are tapered tubes of various sizes made of glass or plastic. - They may vary in capacity from tens of mm, to much smaller capacities used in - One of the most commonly encountered tubes is about the size and shape of a normal test tube (~ 10 cm long). Microcentrifuge tubes - These are used extensively in molecular biology laboratories. - Micro-centrifuges typically accommodate micro-centrifuge tubes with capacities - from 250 μto 2.0 ml →These are exclusively made of plastic. Procedure of centrifugation - Set the desired temperature - Close the lid while temperatures are adjusting - Check tube tops are closed - Weigh and balance tubes - Start when the proper temperature is achieved - Place the tube into centrifuge in a balanced position - Close and lock lid - Check if speed is in RPM or RCF and accordingly set. - Set time and brake before you begin Balancing rotor load in a centrifuge If there are 3 tubes, you can use a balance tube like a tube filled with water. You should balance the tubes on the weighing scale to ensure the diagonally placed tubes have exact same weight. If there are 3 tubes, you can use a balance tube like a tube filled with water. You should balance the tubes on the weighing scale to ensure the diagonally placed tubes have exact same weight. Balancing rotor load in centrifuge Spectrophotometer Every compound absorbs and emits lights over a certain range of wavelength. A spectrophotometer is an instrument that emits light of specific wavelength to pass through a solution and measures the transmitted light. It is used to measure the concentration of a solution, confirm chemical entity or purity. Qualitative Analysis - Spectrophotometer can help identify the samples that is being measured including RNA, DNA and proteins - Purity of DNA or protein can be measured using a spectrophotometer. Quantitative Analysis can help identify - Proteins by colorimetric (broad wavelength analysis) - Nucleic acids by absorption analysis (260-280nm) - Cell Density by turbidity analysis Three types of spectrum can be used in spectrophotometer: Photometric Assay - Direct measurement of the absorption of a sample at a given wavelength. - Indirect measurement of an enzymatic reaction product that serves as an indicator of absorption that is directly proportional to absorption of the target compound. ( Ex Kinetic assays, Lowry’s assay) Absorbance measures how much of an incident light is absorbed when it travels in a material while transmittance measures how much of the light is transmitted. Spectrophotometer is based on the Beer-Lambert Law which states that the amount of light absorbed is directly proportional to the concentration of the solute in the solution and thickness of the solution under analysis. Beer-Lambert law The Beer-Lambert law states that the quantity of light absorbed by a substance dissolved in a fully transmitting solvent is directly proportional to the concentration of the substance and the path length of the light through the solution The Beer-Lambert law also referred to as Beer’s Law, describes the relationship among absorbance, the molar solute concentration, and the length of the path the light takes to get to the sample in centimeters. Absorbance is directly proportional to concentration and length: A = εcl ε is the wavelength-dependent molar absorptivity coefficient A - Absorbance (A) M (c) - Molar solute concentration in M (c) l - length of the path the light takes to get to the sample in centimeters (l) Transmittance is the relationship between the amount of light that is transmitted to the detector once it has passed through the sample (I) and the original amount of light (Io). This is expressed in the following formula. T = I / Io Spectrophotometer Components \| Video - Inside a spectrophotometer Spectrophotometer components - l selector: Usually a prism, diffraction grating or set of screening filters where a specific l of monochromatic light is selectively generated. - Slit: Regulates intensity - Photocell: Detects absorption by using electrons in the refracted light to generate an electric current that can be amplified and measured for an absorbance value - Absorbance scale – exponential (0-infinity) Proportion of light absorbed in solution. - Transmission – Percentage, linear (0-100) Proportion of light passing through the solution. - OD- Optical density Inside our Spectrophotometer Procedure - Turn on the instrument. Allow it to warm up for 5 or more minutes. - Insert the control/ blank solution into the well. - Be sure that the sides of the cuvette are clean and dry. Set the absorbance to zero. - Remove blank. Close the well, set the transmission to 0%. - Now insert the sample tube and note down the reading. Toggle between Abs and %T to see absorbance and transmittance. Absorbance & Transmittance are inversely related. Absorbance scale – Exponential (0- Infinity) Transmission (%T) - Percent, Linear (0-100); the proportion of light passing through a solution. Optical Density (OD) - is measured or corrected against a blank control. Chromatography Chromatography refers to a family of separation techniques used to separate molecules from a mixture. Chromatography is used to separate & identify components of a mix. (Like separate individual colors. (Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=08YMBGS1pYU) In chromatography, components to be separated are distributed between two phases the stationary phase and the mobile phase. - Mobile phase: Phase in which sample is dissolved, it may be gas, liquid. - Stationary phase: Phase through which mobile phase is forced through like Column or TLC. How does it happen? - Individual sample components move through the mixture in mobile phase at different speed based on their solubility. - Molecules that spend most of their time in the mobile phase are carried along faster. Separation of components of ink using paper chromatography How are the mobile & stationary phases chosen in chromatography? Mobile and stationary phases are chosen so the analyte (ink mixture to be analyzed) will distribute itself between the two phases. Uses of Chromatography Chromatography is a technique to - Analyze & separate mixtures of compounds - Identify unknown compounds - Purify or establish the purity or concentration of compounds - Quantify and Monitor product formation in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industries Chromatography is widely used by forensic teams to analyze blood and urine samples for drugs, paint analysis, and testing for the presence of explosives. Chromatography has applications in various fields including: - Pharmaceutical Company – determine the amount of each chemical found in new product - Hospital – detect blood or alcohol levels in a patient’s bloodstream. - Law Enforcement – to compare a sample found at a crime scene to samples from suspects - Environmental Agency – determine the level of pollutants in the water supply - Manufacturing Plant – to purify a chemical needed to make a product Separation in Chromatography Separation in chromatography occurs based on differences in factors such as: - Polarity (Extent of separation of charge, positive & negative) - Ionic strength (Separation is based on net surface charge) - Size (Separation is based on the size of the molecule) - Affinity (Separation is based on biological affinity such as Antigen-Antibody interaction) There is differential interaction of molecules between an immobile (Stationary/ Solid) and a mobile (solvent) phase. Mobile phase or Solvent phase is also known as the elution buffer in many types of chromatography. Important terms used here: Stationary/ Immobile/ Solid phase; Mobile/ Solvent phase. Chromatography – Types - Partition: Partitioning the molecule of interest between an immobile (stationary) phase (column material) and a mobile phase (elution buffer). The molecule does not attach to the stationary phase. - Adsorption: Separation by the strength of binding of a molecule of interest to the immobile phase (solid stationary phase) Partition Chromatography - The molecule to be separated must be dissolved in the solvent. - Any molecule that differs in solubility in the mobile and immobile phases can be separated. Examples of Partition chromatography are: - PC (paper chromatography) - TLC (thin layer chromatography) - Gel Filtration Chromatography Adsorption Chromatography - Separation is by the strength of binding of a molecule of interest to the immobile phase (solid stationary phase). This is different from partition chromatography because in partition, molecules distribute themselves between mobile and stationary phases without binding but in adsorption, there is binding due to attraction between a molecule and stationary phase. The interaction of a molecule with the column material causes separation Examples of Adsorption chromatography are: - Ion exchange - Affinity Chromatography Paper Chromatography and Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) Two types of separation based on sample movement are possible in paper chromatography: - Ascending PC (capillary) action (More common) - Ascending means “Going Up” - Descending PC (gravity & capillary) interactions - Descending means “Going Down - Descending means “Going Down Ascending Chromatography Descending Chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC) is a method for identifying substances and testing the purity of compounds. TLC is a useful technique because it is relatively quick and requires small quantities of material. The stationary phase is a thin layer of adsorbent (usually silica gel or alumina) coated on a plate. The mobile phase is a developing liquid that travels up the stationary phase, carrying the samples with it. Components of the samples will separate on the stationary phase according to how much they dissolve in the mobile phase and how much they adsorb on the stationary phase. TLC Chromatogram shown in the figure below was taken after experimenting with black ink from the permanent marker (Stabilo OHPen universal) and ethanol + water mixture as solvent Separation of black ink on TLC plate. (Photo Source: Wikipedia.) Checkout this Youtube Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmHFVxTxkGs Can you tell which color is most soluble and which is the least soluble? How to set up TLC? Which color is more soluble? (Hint: The one that is running faster or higher) Paper or Thin Layer Chromatography – Lab Math Ratio of Fronts (Rf) How to calculate Rf - Mark origin at the point of start - Let the separation of colors be completed - Stop the run when the solvent has reached about 75-80% - Now calculate two distances as mentioned below Rf = Distance (Start to Center of Spot) Distance (Start to Solvent front) Distance traveled by A is 5 cm Distance traveled by B is 2 cm Distance traveled by the solvent front is 10cm Rf of A = Distance traveled by A / Distance travelled by Solvent front = 5 cm/ 10 cm = 0.5 Can you calculate Rf of B? Rf of B = Distance traveled by B / Distance traveled by Solvent front Properties of Ratio of Fronts Is the Rf same if compound run alone or with mixture? Yes, because the movement of a compound depends on how soluble it is not if it is run alone or in a mixture. Is the Rf same or different for same compound run in different solvents? If you run the same compound in water or ethanol its solubility may be different, so its Rf is different. Interpreting Chromatography data - The Rf (retention factor) value for each spot should be calculated. Remember when calculating its from origin to middle of the spot not beginning or end of spot. - It is characteristic for any given compound on the same stationary phase using the same mobile phase for development of the plates. So if you run it in anywhere in world you will always get the same Rf factor. - Hence, known Rf values can be compared to those of unknown substances to aid in their identifications. - In addition, the purity of a sample may be estimated from the chromatogram. - An impure sample will often develop as two or more spots, while a pure sample will show only one spot. What determines the separation? - Solubility - Dissociation constant - Molecular size - Temperature/humidity - Spot size/dry spot Solubility - Few substances have identical solubility in any one solvent, so this can help separate components of a mixture. - More soluble a molecule the faster it moves Dissociation Constant - Determines if a molecule is charged or uncharged at a certain pH, - Why is Dissociation constant important? As this affects the solubility. - Generally, uncharged mole separates in organic (hydrophobic) solvent. - Charged mole separate in aqueous (hydrophilic) solvent. Molecular Size - Increased mole weight = more lipophilic - Number of polar side groups (peptides) = more aqueous Temperature and Humidity - The saturation of solvent changes the flow rate. - Increased temperature= increased vapor in the chamber, so it can affect the flowrate of solvent - Increased humidity paper saturates before entering the chamber. Spot Size - You should always use small spot as large spot means streaking, tailing, run together with another sample Column chromatography The stationary phase is held in a narrow tube (not a paper) through which the mobile phase is forced under pressure or under the effect of gravity. There are several different types of column chromatography of which 3 are mentioned here: - Gel Filtration (Based on molecule size) - Ion Exchange (Based on molecular charge) - Affinity Chromatography Gel Filtration Chromatography Separation in Gel filtration chromatography is based on molecular size. - Sample: The mixture you are separating in gel filtration column is made up of molecules of different sizes. - The column is made up of beads that are like little wire cages. These beads could be: - Dextran, Agarose, Polyacrylamide (Bio gel), Sephadex (cross-linked dextran) The mixture being separated here is made up of two molecules: Blue (big) and Red (Small). Observe which comes out first and why? The sample mixture being separated here is made up of two molecules: Blue (big) and Red (Small). Observe which comes out first and why? Big molecules pass around the column beads in empty spaces and come out first. Small molecules get stuck in the beads as the beads are like empty cages. Since the smaller molecules keep getting stuck in the column beads along the path, they take a longer time to come out in comparison to the bigger molecules from the column. This type of chromatography is also known as: - Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) - Molecular Exclusion Chromatography (MEC) - Molecular Sieve Chromatography (MSC) - Gel Filtration Chromatography (GFC) - Gel Chromatography. Ion Exchange Chromatography Separation based on the strength of binding to the immobile phase, based on ionic interactions. - Anion Exchanger is positively charged column that binds to anions/ negatively charged protein. - Cation Exchanger is negatively charged column that binds to cations/ positively charged protein. EX: (-) Carboxy-methyl groups (CM) - Attracts positive ions (+) Diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) - Attracts negative ions Affinity Chromatography Separation based on specific binding to the immobile phase by exploiting known selectivity/ affinity/interaction of certain biological molecules. - EX: Specific binding of substrates - Inhibitors to cofactors (NZ) - Base sequence interactions (DNA, RNA) - Receptors to hormones - Antibodies to lectins Chromatography columns we just studied are used on specific instrumentation: - HPLC: High Pressure Liquid Chromatography - FPLC: Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC; formerly referred to as high-pressure liquid chromatography), is a technique in analytical chemistry used to separate, identify, and quantify each component in a mixture. It relies on pumps to pass a pressurized liquid solvent containing the sample mixture through a column filled with a solid adsorbent material. A chromatogram is a paper printout or graph of chromatographic data. Features of a chromatogram are: - position of peaks (x-axis) Time/ Tube # - width of peak - symmetry of peaks - Height of peak (y-axis)- Absorbance On-column detection for colored or fluorescent compounds directly after developing the chromatogram. Monitoring of eluted fractions (PC or TLC). Using special detectors connected to the, UV detectors, etc.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.667281	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89105/overview", "title": "Biotech Lab Techniques Manual", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93908/overview	First Day of Class OER Powerpoint Overview This CC-BY licensed, fully editable and adaptable "First Day of Class" PowerPoint is intended for faculty using Open Educational Resources (OER) in their courses. Similar to presentations provided by traditional publishers that introduce required course materials, this PowerPoint resource explains in a few concise slides what OER is, why it's so great, and how students can access the OER needed for their course that semester. This CC-BY licensed, fully adaptable "First Day of Class" PowerPoint is for faculty using Open Educational Resources (OER) in their courses. Similar to presentations provided by traditional publishers that introduce required course materials, this PowerPoint resource explains in a few concise slides what OER is, why it's so great, and how students can access the OER needed for their course that semester. Unless where otherwise indicated, this OER First Day of Class PowerPoint by Elizabeth Spica is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.690472	06/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93908/overview", "title": "First Day of Class OER Powerpoint", "author": "Elizabeth Spica" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88373/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software Overview Welcome to Astronomy 1020 Lab 1! The Introduction to Stellarium Software lab will cover the installation, navigation, and use of Stellarium, the software which will be used to complete ASTR 1020 lab work. Stellarium [Copyright © 2004-2011 Fabien Chereau et al.] ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software Download the attached zip file and install the zipped file (it contains a website) on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML (website) content in D2L's Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.709253	11/29/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/88373/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 1: Introduction to Stellarium Software", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68685/overview	Scientific Method Overview Activity to work with scientific method. The scientific Method: Childbed Fever This exercise introduces students with the story of Ignaz Philipp Semmelweis's work with childbed fever and hand washing. It can be a dry lab activity, in-class-activity or homework.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.726763	06/17/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68685/overview", "title": "Scientific Method", "author": "Erika Brockmann" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74106/overview	CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" Overview This is the recording of a webinar by CCCOER titled "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom" CCCOER Webinar on "Culture Shift to Academic Freedom"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.748458	10/30/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/74106/overview", "title": "CCCOER Webinar on \"Culture Shift to Academic Freedom\"", "author": "Aubree Evans" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69012/overview	Education Standards OSPI Other Functions Instructional Task: Fencing Land Overview This resource was created by the Washington Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction. Task OSPI Other Functions Instructional Task E Other Functions; Standard A-APR.1, Claim 3A Fencing Land Two mathematicians are neighbors. Each owns a separate rectangular plot of land that shares a boundary and has the same dimensions. They agree that each has an area of square units. Mathematician A sells his plot to the other. Mathematician B wants to put a fence around the perimeter of her new combined plot of land. Mathematician B wants to know how many linear units of fencing she needs. Mathematician A says the perimeter of the combined plot of land would be - Determine whether Mathematician A’s claim is True, False, or Cannot be determined. Show your reasoning using numbers and words. Rubric Rubric Question Number \| Standard/Claim \| Description \| E \| A-SSE.2/Claim 3A \| A 1-point response demonstrates full and complete understanding of the standard and claim by doing all the following: \| A 0-point response demonstrates almost no understanding of the standard and claim. \| OSPI Other Functions Instructional Task E Exemplar OSPI Other Functions Instructional Task E Exemplar Other Functions; Standard A-APR.1, Claim 3A Fencing Land Two mathematicians are neighbors. Each owns a separate rectangular plot of land that shares a boundary and has the same dimensions. They agree that each has an area of square units. Mathematician A sells his plot to the other. Mathematician B wants to put a fence around the perimeter of her new combined plot of land. Mathematician B wants to know how many linear units of fencing she needs. Mathematician A says the perimeter of the combined plot of land would be - Determine whether Mathematician A’s claim is True, False, or Cannot be determined. Show your reasoning using numbers and words. The area of each plot is . That means that the dimensions of each plot are and In the diagram if the horizontal distance is and the vertical distance is the perimeter of the combined lots would be If the dimensions are reversed the perimeter of the combined lots would be which is what Mathematician B said it would be. Since we don’t know which dimension represents the length and which represents the width, we cannot determine whether Mathematician A’s claim is true or false. \|	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.780535	Hannah Hynes-Petty	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/69012/overview", "title": "OSPI Other Functions Instructional Task: Fencing Land", "author": "Homework/Assignment" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20476/overview	Adolescent Developmental Stages Audition and Other Senses Balance Classical Conditioning Cognitive development during the early years Consciousness Controversial Issues and Intelligence Developmental Stages during Middle to Late Adulthood Emotions How we Recall Human Motivation Infancy Intelligence Interacting with Others Introduction to Psychology Knowledge Based Perception Interpretation Learning Stages Lifespan Development Mindfullness Nature/Nurture Observational and Insight Learning Operant Conditioning Origins of Personality Personality/Behaviors Positive Emotions Psychological Disorders Sensation and Perception Sleep Social Development in Children Stemberg/Gardner Stress The Bell Curve The Biology of Memory The Nervous System and Endocrine System The Visual System Unbalanced Behaviors Understanding Ourselves Unit 2 The Study of Psychology Unit 3- The Scientific Method Unit 4 Research Designs Unit 5 The Brain Unit 6 Brain Regions Unit 7 Wellness Unit 1 Introduction to Psychology Overview What You Need to Know About Each Unit Each unit in this course has features designed to support you as an online learner, including: Explanatory content: This is the informational “meat” of every unit. It consists of short passages of text with information, images, explanations, and short videos. Learn By Doing activities: Learn By Doing activities give you the chance to practice the concept that you are learning, with hints and feedback to guide you if you struggle. Did I Get This? activities: Did I Get This? activities are your chance to do a quick "self-check" and assess your own understanding of the material before doing a graded activit Section 1 What You Need to Know About Each Unit Each unit in this course has features designed to support you as an online learner, including: Explanatory content: This is the informational “meat” of every unit. It consists of short passages of text with information, images, explanations, and short videos. Learn By Doing activities: Learn By Doing activities give you the chance to practice the concept that you are learning, with hints and feedback to guide you if you struggle. Did I Get This? activities: Did I Get This? activities are your chance to do a quick "self-check" and assess your own understanding of the material before doing a graded activit	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.812945	01/27/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/20476/overview", "title": "Unit 1 Introduction to Psychology", "author": "Lori S Price" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92596/overview	The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 7] Overview The seventh episode of "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast", discussing faculty engagement with OEP, and open assessment practices with Rajiv Jhangiani. The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 7] Episode 7 - Open Assessment, and Engagement [Rajiv Jhangiani] Originally published on March 7th, 2018 I am joined this episode by Rajiv Jhangiani fromt Kwantlen Polytechnic University, where he is the Special Advisor to the Provost on Open Education and a faculty member in the Department of Psychology. Rajiv talks about ways to engage Faculty staff with Open Educational Practice, the key advantages of open education for universities, and we discuss the role of open assessment in higher education. If you'd like to know more about Rajiv's work, please follow the links: - Twitter @thatpsychprof - Open: the philosophy and practices that are revolutionizing education and science (open book from Ubiquity Press) - Open pedagogy (chapter), A guide to making open textbooks with students (open book in PressBooks) - Pragmatism vs. idealism and the identity crisis of OER advocacy (Open Paxis article) Hosts: Adrian Stagg & Rajiv Jhangiani	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.837665	05/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92596/overview", "title": "The Other Fifty Weeks: An Open Education Podcast [Episode 7]", "author": "Adrian Stagg" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102860/overview	Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Template Overview The Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Program – co-led by CCCOER and College of the Canyons – emerged as a response to the growing awareness of structural racism in our educational systems and the realization that adoption of open educational resources (OER) and open pedagogy could be transformative at institutions seeking to improve. The program is designed to give participants a workshop experience where they can better understand anti-racist teaching and how the use of OER and open pedagogy can empower them to involve students in the co-creation of an anti-racist classroom. The capstone project involves developing an action plan for incorporating OER and open pedagogy into a course being taught in the spring semester. OFAR participants are invited to remix this template to design and share their projects and plans for moving this work forward. Action Plan Describe how OER and open pedagogy help your class to be antiracist here. Course Description Add your course description here including the course name and number, and learning outcomes. Attach your syllabus here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your syllabus, and save. Antiracist Assignment / Module Describe your antiracist assignment or module. Attach your assignment or module here clicking the Attach Section paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer, name your assignment or module, and save. Paste any relevant links that others would find helpful.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.852042	04/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102860/overview", "title": "Open For Antiracism (OFAR) Template", "author": "Connor Van Leeuwen" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97546/overview	Learning Styles Module: Open for Antiracism (OFAR) Overview Textbooks & Other Resource Links Finnegan, Lisa. 2020. Medical Terminology in a Flash: A Multiple Learning Styles Approach (4 th Edition). Publisher FA Davis 2020 ISBN 9780803689534 OFAR Module Module 1- Learning Styles Visual-Auditory-Verbal-Kinesthetic Learning style theory suggests that individuals learn information in different ways according to their unique abilities and traits. Therefore, although all humans are similar, the ways in which you best perceive, understand, and remember information may be somewhat different from the ways other people learn. In truth, all people possess a combination of styles. You may be especially strong in one style and less so in others. You may be strong in two or three areas or may be equally strong in all areas. As you learn about the styles described in this chapter, you may begin to recognize your preferences and will then be able to modify your study activities accordingly. Try using multiple learning styles as you study rather than choosing one in particular. This will help you make the most of your valuable time, enhance your learning, and support you in doing your very best in future classes. Sensory Learning Styles Experts have identified numerous learning styles and have given them various names. Some are described in an abstract and complex manner, whereas others are relatively simple and easy to grasp. For ease of understanding, this book uses the learning styles associated with your senses. You use your senses to see and hear information. You use touch and manipulation or your sense of taste or smell. You may find it useful to think aloud as you discuss new information with someone else. Because the senses are so often involved in the acquisition of new information, many learning styles are named accordingly: visual, auditory, verbal, and kinesthetic (hands-on or tactile). In this chapter you will learn about the different learning styles and will also be able to determine what learning style or combination of styles are you. Mrs. Bravo Action Plan The OFAR Action Plan consists of the following interventions. - Review different nursing OER Resources for Medical Terminology - Evaluate the content of OER Resources is appropriated and aligns to curriculum, SLO’s and Course Objectives. - Present to Faculty for better feedback. - Propose OER resources to curriculum committee and nursing faculty - Integrate an antiracism classroom Module 1 section providing a survey to students to help identify high risk students and to better serve student population. - Ensure class content delivers in different learning styles. - Integrate action plan to syllabus and curriculum. - Review all material and OER resources for appropriateness - Test the course environment with other faculty and possibly student volunteers for feedback and constructive critique. - Implement Action Plan and Anti-Racism Classroom into canvas. Course Description Course of study is designed to develop competency in the accurate use of medical vocabulary to include anatomy, physiology, diseases, and descriptive terms to prepare students for entry-level positions as medical transcribers, clinical editors, health insurance processors, patient administration specialists OFAR Module 1. Identify Anti-racism in the classroom 2. Complete The VARK Questionnaire The assessment consists of 16 questions related to your learning strengths and weaknesses. The following is the direct link to go to the VARK ASSESSMENT (Links to an external site.) Objectives After completing the questionnaire you will be able to identify your learning styles and preferences. The results will provide you with tools and suggestions to facilitate your learning. Assignment Submit a your results to the assignment tab.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.871800	09/27/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97546/overview", "title": "Learning Styles Module: Open for Antiracism (OFAR)", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79388/overview	Rhetoric in the REal: A First-Year Writing Syllabus Overview Syllabus and assignments for a First-Year Writing Course. I think there's enough in this document for you to run this class if you wanted to! Intro Hi everyone, Attached, you will find my most recent First-Year Writing syllabus. There's a new edition every year. I strive to build my syllabi to best serve each semester's student body. This syllabus includes a wide range of assignments and assessment modalities, a sample semester schedule, the prompts I use throughout the semester, and the course's "logistics." I use a kind of question-answer dialogue to discuss the "logistics." It may seem a little weird at first. I've found talking about expectations and policies and all the rest through a performed dialogue helps me create a hospitable environment in the classroom from the get-go. It's fun and funny and we get to laugh together. The dialogue helps keep my first experience with my students full of sweetness and light--I hope. For this course, the department requires an assignment sequence that includes a rhetorical analysis essay and a well-scaffolded 10-page research paper. All assigned readings must be non-fiction. I love teaching this class! In Solidarity, Daniel Hengel	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.888812	04/18/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79388/overview", "title": "Rhetoric in the REal: A First-Year Writing Syllabus", "author": "Daniel Hengel" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98820/overview	Video Presentation detailing how to add resources to the Massachusetts Community Colleges OER (Open Educational Resources) Hub. Instructions for Faculty Overview Instructions for creating and adding material to the Massachusetts Community Colleges Open Educational Resources Hub in PDF and video format. Slideshow of instructions for Faculty and other members of Massachusetts Community College community to add content to the Massachusetts Communtiy Colleges Open Educational Resources Hub.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.906980	Emily Butler	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/98820/overview", "title": "Instructions for Faculty", "author": "Rachel Oleaga" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84249/overview	Math 150: Myth and Measurement--African Americans and Statistics Overview Welcome to Statistics! In this statistics course, we learn about the ethical use and the basic practice of statistics. As we learn, we will also explore how statistics have been used unethically to create enduring and false myths about African Americans. We will also see how statistics can be used to illuminate injustice and offer clear information upon which we can act to become anti-racist agents in our communities. Syllabus Welcome to Statistics! In this statistics course, we learn about the ethical use and the basic practice of statistics. As we learn, we will also explore how statistics have been used unethically to create enduring and false myths about African Americans. We will also see how statistics can be used to illuminate injustice and offer clear information upon which we can act to become anti-racist agents in our communities.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.923436	Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84249/overview", "title": "Math 150: Myth and Measurement--African Americans and Statistics", "author": "Syllabus" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107662/overview	BUS274 Chapter 10 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 11 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 11 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 12 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 12 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 13 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 14 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 14 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 15 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 15 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 1 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 1 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 2 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 3 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 3 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 4 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 4 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 5 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 5 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 6 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 6 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 7 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 7 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 8 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 8 MC and TF Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 9 Essay Item Bank BUS274 Chapter 9 MC and TF Item Bank Test Bank for Entrepreneurship in QTI Files Overview These are the QTI Files for the Entrepreneurship text. If something isn't working, please email me at lswilliams@tcc.edu Thanks for your patience as I completed this project. QTI Zip files for Entrepreneurship Test Bank These are the QTI files exported from Canvas for the MSWord testbank for the Entrepreneurship text. If something isn't working, please let me know (lswilliams@tcc.edu). They are labeled with my course number (BUS274). Good luck and thanks for your patience as I worked on this. Linda Attribution: Test Bank to accompany Entrepreneurship by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.958911	08/12/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/107662/overview", "title": "Test Bank for Entrepreneurship in QTI Files", "author": "Linda Williams" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90869/overview	Wars Overview Short text about wars. There is a common saying that war is never good, peace is never bad. But if we look back into the history of mankind, it will be cleared that there have been wars since prehistoric ages. Although attempts have been made to abolish it, success has not been achieved so far. Thus, eternal peace seems to be beyond our reach. There are people who justify wars and say that it is necessary because it is the law of nature. They highlight their point by placing Charles Darwin at their front. It was he who established the principle of survival of the fittest. He told that there is a constant struggle for surrival in all nature, both animate and inanimate. In this struggle only those will succeed who are the fittest. Thus, war is held necessary without which there will be any development of humanity.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.970497	alperen turktemiz	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90869/overview", "title": "Wars", "author": "Lecture Notes" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89135/overview	How To De-Escalate a Call Overview This is a short overview of how to handle escalations for a fictional company that has call center locations. Introduction Escalated calls can be some of the most challenging things one our associates can face. It is important that when faced with a difficult situation like an escalation, our associates know exactly what to do and how to handle themselves. Are you prepared to learn all you can so that you are an effective representative of CompanyCo during some of the more challenging calls? Escalations: Where do we start? After listening to some of the examples of escalated callers from your instructor, we hope that you have been paying close attention to how they start and how they were handled. Some customers can be escalated from the very beginning of the call. Others can be escalated as a result of something the agent does or says. Either way, it is important to deescalate the situation, and leave the customer as close to satisfied as we can. The price of not handling escalations well can be felt in droves. According to human resources technology company HelpShift, "the ability to diffuse tense situations is especially important in an era when frustrated customers have an instant outlet on social media. With the ease and accessibility that exists today when it comes to customers venting their frustration, brands can’t afford to risk a bad outcome. It’s on customer service managers to have the skills to de-escalate situations with proper escalation management before they become PR dings" (HelpShift, 2021) The impact of mishandling this escalation might not only ruin the customer experience, it may also impact the company as a whole quite negatively. So, to start, it's important to acknowledge that importance. This customer needs to be as pleased as they can be with our company. If we fail in this respect, it may not only reflect poorly on you but on your company. Next, think about what kind of escalation this is. Was the customer angry to open the call? Were they angry because of something that happened during the call? Next, think of solutions that fit those respective situations. If they were angry at the beginning of the call, there may be something we can do that the customer may be surprised to hear. This may erase their anger. This will be explored further. Source What Is Escalation Management. HelpShift. (2021, September 22). Retrieved January 5, 2022, from https://www.helpshift.com/glossary/escalation-management/ Escalations That Start Prior To Call With these types of escalations, it is vital that we look into what caused the customer to be in an agitated state. For example, it could be that one of our orders sent to the customer was delayed. In this instance, it is important to be generous but also firm to company policy. You could check the company resources on delayed order and what we can do in situations like these. If these are sufficient, great! Say you can offer a refund to their shipping charges. If the customer is happy, then you have handled that situation successfully. (Just be sure to listen to their entire problem before proposing this solution.) If they are not satisfied with this resolution, you can ask a manager if we can do something more. Put the customer on a brief hold and contact your leadership team. If they approve this extra resolution, you can implement it! Say the customer wants to be refunded a portion of their order. With manager approval, you can do this for the customer and instantly make their day. However, if the manager does not approve, you must be firm with the customer. Be sure to be polite but confident in telling them that the shipping cost resolution is all we can do. Remember to stay true to company policy. If the customer still is not satisfied, you can get in touch with leadership and have them reach out to the customer. After this, your job is done! Escalations That Happen During The Call If you have an escalation that occurs during a call because of something you said or did, don't panic! Take the time to listen to the customer and what their concerns are with what happened. Then, address their concern with an apology and a plan to move forward. For example, say you told them the wrong delivery date only to correct yourself. This could set off certain customers. Take the time to listen to their anger first. It is vital to never cut a customer off when they are in an agitated state. From there, simply tell them that you misspoke and that you can assure them that the delivery will take place on the new date. If this doesn't work for them, get a manager involved! Then, repeat the same process as in the lesson on escalations that happen before calls. Conclusion Through this short presentation, we have learned how to handle two different escalation situations. We have also learned how important it is to handle escalations properly as they can often lead to bigger damages than we realize. It is important to know that escalations are not a reflection on you as an employee. It should also be noted that if you ever have issues after a particularly difficult call, we have a SAP line here at CompanyCo that is free to use for any and all employees. We always have someone here to talk to you and listen. We understand this job can be difficult, but know that you are never at it alone.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:28.987657	01/09/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89135/overview", "title": "How To De-Escalate a Call", "author": "Jesse Sutherland" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89822/overview	Micrograph Escherichia coli safranin red 1000x p000004 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Escherichia coli cells grown in broth culture overnight at 37 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained for 1 minute with safranin red stain prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph White background with about 100 small, red, rod-shaped Escherichia coli cells scattered across.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.005830	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89822/overview", "title": "Micrograph Escherichia coli safranin red 1000x p000004", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93041/overview	Micrograph Bacillus subtilis 5d endospore 1000X p000064 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Bacillus subtilis cells were grown in broth culture for 5 days at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and stained with malachite green (endospores) and safranin red (vegetative cells) prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox Micrograph Light background with few rod-shaped pink cells and many green oval endospores	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.023184	Diagram/Illustration	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93041/overview", "title": "Micrograph Bacillus subtilis 5d endospore 1000X p000064", "author": "Health, Medicine and Nursing" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84246/overview	Counseling 110: College Success Skills Overview Provides students with the skills and knowledge necessary to reach their educational goals. Topics include academic learning strategies, college and life skills, diversity awareness and assessment of personal characteristics related to educational success. The role of race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation and age in higher education and personal identity is a central theme of the course. Syllabus Provides students with the skills and knowledge necessary to reach their educational goals. Topics include academic learning strategies, college and life skills, diversity awareness and assessment of personal characteristics related to educational success. The role of race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation and age in higher education and personal identity is a central theme of the course.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.040805	07/27/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/84246/overview", "title": "Counseling 110: College Success Skills", "author": "Open for Antiracism Program (OFAR)" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103644/overview	ERROR: type should be string, got "https://dmes.com/\nhttps://ssa.ocgov.com/IHSS/Apply\nhttps://www.dor.ca.gov/Home/IndependentLiving\nhttps://www.medicare.gov/coverage/durable-medical-equipment-dme-coverage\nhttps://www.ncoa.org/adviser/medical-alert-systems/best-medical-alert-systems/\nhttps://www.walgreens.com/store/c/home-medical-supplies-and-equipment/ID=359443-tier1\nhttps://www.wellnessmedicalcbd.com/\nILS Resources\nOverview\nHere is a list of ILS Resources you can use.\nDriver's License Acquisition\nFollow these steps to obtain your Driver's License:\nGo to the DMV website: https://www.dmv.ca.gov/portal/driver-education-and-safety/educational-materials/\nClick on the Driver Education & Safety tab (shown below) you can find links to educational materials.\nOnce you click the Educational Materials, you will find information on handbooks,\nvideos, and other resources (shown below).\nCollege and Vocational Support/Transition\nHere are links to the College Disability Services Page for various colleges and programs:\nCoastline Community College\nSanta Ana College\nSaddleback Community College\nCA Department of Rehabilitation DOR\nGoodwill\nBest Buddies Jobs Program\nPreparing for the Transition to Live Independently\nIndependent Living Recources: DOR\nClick here to see the DOR website for more information.\nWhat is Independent Living?\nIndependent Living is both a cultural movement and a program. It is a way of looking at disability that puts the individual first and the disability second. The Independent Living Community works toward equal opportunity for people with disabilities to share in all the benefits of society.\nWhat is an Independent Living Center?\nAn Independent Living Center serves people with any kind of disability in a local community who can benefit from services. Independent Living Centers are designed and operated by a majority of people with disabilities.\nQuestions to Ask yourself When Thinking About Living Independently\n(1) Am I ready to live on my own?\n(2) Do I want to have a roomate?\n(3) Do I know what to do in case of an emergency?\n(4) Am I good about saving money?\n(6) Can I keep my personal space clean and organized?\n(7) Can I prepare my own meals?\n(8) What kind of support do I need?\n(9) Do I need help reading and understanding my mail?\n(10) Do I know how to budget my money?\n(11) Am I able to make and keep appointments?\n(12) Do I have reliable and accessible transportation?\nWays to Stay Safe When Living Alone\nTurn off the stove everytime you are done cooking\nMake sure you have a fire alarn\nMake sure you change the fire alarm batteries when needed\nMake sure you have a carbon monoxide alarm\nHave a first aid kit\nHave an earthquake kit\nGet to know your neighbors\nCreate emergency exit plans\nKeep a list of emergency numbers (Local police department, Hospital, Poison Control, Fire department, Animal control, Family doctor, Neighbors)\nLock all doors and windows\nTurn on outdoor lights in the evening\nKeep blinds closed at night\nRetrieve mail during the day\nCheck your peep hole before opening the door for visitors\nGet your keys ready before approaching your door\nDon't walk alone at night\nEngaging with Police\nSteps to Take When Stopped by a Police Officer:\nIF YOU'RE STOPPED FOR QUESTIONING\n- Stay calm. Don’t run. Don’t argue, resist or obstruct the police, even if you are innocent or police are violating your rights. Keep your hands where police can see them.\n- Ask if you are free to leave. If the officer says yes, calmly and silently walk away. If you are under arrest, you have a right to know why.\n- You have the right to remain silent and cannot be punished for refusing to answer questions. If you wish to remain silent, tell the officer out loud. In some states, you must give your name if asked to identify yourself.\n- You do not have to consent to a search of yourself or your belongings, but police may “pat down” your clothing if they suspect a weapon. You should not physically resist, but you have the right to refuse consent for any further search. If you do consent, it can affect you later in court.\nWhat to do if Stopped by a Police Officer while Driving:\nIF YOU'RE STOPPED IN YOUR CAR\n- Stop the car in a safe place as quickly as possible. Turn off the car, turn on the internal light, open the window part way and place your hands on the wheel.\n- Upon request, show police your driver’s license, registration and proof of insurance.\n- If an officer or immigration agent asks to look inside your car, you can refuse to consent to the search. But if police believe your car contains evidence of a crime, your car can be searched without your consent.\n- Both drivers and passengers have the right to remain silent. If you are a passenger, you can ask if you are free to leave. If the officer says yes, sit silently or calmly leave. Even if the officer says no, you have the right to remain silent.\nResources:\nhttps://www.aclusocal.org/en/if-you-are-stopped-police\nIn-Home Suportive Services (IHSS)\nClick here to see the HSS website, it will look like this image below:\nHow To Apply For IHSS:\nYou can go to the website and follow the steps to the left of the screen look for\n(How do I apply for IHSS) https://ssa.ocgov.com/IHSS/Apply\nSample IHSS application\nSilver Sneakers\nSilver Sneakers Program\nWhat Is the SilverSneakers Program?\nAre you looking for a senior fitness program? If you have a Medicare Advantage or Medigap plan, your health insurance may include a free fitness membership for adults 65+ called SilverSneakers. A SilverSneakers membership includes access to roughly 14,000 recreation centers, churches, senior communities, and other neighborhood locations across the nation. You’ll get access to fitness equipment, social events, a variety of exercise classes, including boot camp, circuit training, strength and balance, tai chi, yoga, water aerobics, and Zumba, plus access to amenities like swimming pools, tennis courts, and walking tracks if available at certain locations. Sounds pretty good, right? Here’s what else you may want to know about the program.\nDoes Original Medicare cover SilverSneakers?\nOriginal Medicare, Part A and Part B, does not cover this benefit. If you’re considering a Medicare plan with SilverSneakers coverage, including Medicare Advantage (Part C) or Medicare Supplement (Medigap) plans, contact a Medicare.org licensed sales agent at 1-877-388-0596 – TTY 711 for a quote.\nWho accepts Silver Sneakers\nClick on the link to find your nearest Silver Sneakers Gym\nhttps://tools.silversneakers.com/LocationSearch\nSenior Centers\nThe Value That Senior Centers Bring To Our Older Adults\nSenior center services\n- Senior centers connect older adults to vital community services that can help them stay healthy and independent.\n- More than 60% of senior centers are designated focal points for delivery of OAA services—allowing older adults to access multiple services in one place.7\n- Senior centers work in partnership with other community agencies and organizations and businesses to provide access to an array of opportunities for older adults to stay safe, active, and healthy.\n- Senior centers frequently serve as part of emergency response. During the pandemic, seniors centers have been a lifeline for older adults and their communities.\n- Senior centers offer a wide variety of programs and services, including:\n- Meal and nutrition programs\n- Information and assistance\n- Health, fitness, and wellness programs\n- Transportation services\nSenior Centers Also Provide:\nSenior Centers in Orange County:\n- Orange Senior Center\n- Santa Ana Senior Center\n- Anaheim Senior Center\n- Irvine Senior Center/Rancho\nSafety Medical Alert\nHow Can a Medical Alert System Benefit Me\nMedical alert systems connect you with help in the event of a fall or other emergency. Medical alert devices are available as at-home systems or on-the-go wearables, monitored or unmonitored, and traditional or specialized. Some systems include a wearable help button and a base unit, and some have wall-mounted options.\nHere Are Some Details About The Different Kinds of Medial Alert Systems Available\n- Medical alert systems generally cost between $20–$30 per month, and some brands charge one-time equipment or activation fees. It’s important to determine upfront what your unique needs are, such as fall detection, and your budget for a medical alert system.\n- Some brands offer discounts when you choose a quarterly or annual payment plan.\n- The best medical alert systems on the market include companies like MobileHelp, Bay Alarm Medical, Medical Guardian, and others mentioned in this guide.\nIf you live alone or care for someone who has a medical condition, you may be interested in learning about what medical alert systems have to offer. Medical alert systems, also called life alert systems, provide added peace of mind for older adults who are aging in place, as well as their loved ones and caregivers.\nWhen you activate your medical alert system (whether it’s an at-home or on-the-go device), it connects to the company’s 24/7 monitoring center, from where a monitoring center professional will respond when you push your device’s help button. They will then alert emergency services, your emergency contacts, or both, depending on the situation.\nThe best medical alert systems can provide vital support for older adults, but features and prices vary. It’s important to find a system that meets your unique needs and budget.\nOur Reviews Team researched and tested the top medical alert systems on the market to help you make an informed decision for yourself or your loved one. Let’s take a look at our Reviews Team’s picks for the best medical alert systems in 2023.\n- Best Premium Features: Medical Guardian\n- Best for the Price: Bay Alarm Medical\n- Best All-Around System: MobileHelp\n- Best Customer-Friendly Policies: LifeFone\n- Best for No Extra Fees: ADT Health\n- Best At-Home Medical Alert System: GetSafe\n- Best All-in-One Device: Medical Alert\n- Best Health Services: Lively\n- Best for Caregivers: Aloe Care Health\n- Best Monitoring Center: Medical Care Alert\n- Best Technologically Advanced System: HandsFree Health\n- Best Two-for-One Deal: One Call Alert\n- Best Mobile Medical Alert System: LifeStation\n- Not Recommended: Life Alert\nDurable Medical Equipment (DME)\nDurable Medical Equipment Covered by Medicare\nDurable medical equipment (DME) coverage\nDME that Medicare covers includes, but isn't limited to:\n- Blood sugar meters\n- Blood sugar test strips\n- Canes\n- Commode chairs\n- Continuous passive motion machines, devices & accessories\n- Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machines\n- Crutches\n- Home infusion services\n- Hospital beds\n- Infusion pumps & supplies\n- Lancet devices & lancets\n- Nebulizers & nebulizer medications\n- Oxygen equipment & accessories\n- Patient lifts\n- Pressure-reducing support surfaces\n- Suction pumps\n- Traction equipment\n- Walkers\n- Wheelchairs & scooters\nWhere To Purchase Durable Medical Equipment If These Items Are Not Covered Through Medicare\n- Wallgreens\n- CVS\n- DMES Medical Suply in Orange https://dmes.com/\n- Joy Medical Suply in Santa Ana\n- Wellness Medical Suply in Anaheim https://www.wellnessmedicalcbd.com/\nEmergency Shelters\n\| Emergency Shelters \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Anaheim Emergency Shelter \| 657-999-2430 \| 1455 S Salvation PL, Anaheim, CA 92805 \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Armory Emergency Shelter Program Mercy House \| 714-836--7188 EXT 131 \| N/A \| Link \| The Armory Emergency Shelter Program is a seasonal emergency shelter program which operates from December at the National Guard Armory locations in Santa Ana and Fullerton. Sleeping arrangements are on mats. It offers emergency housing from 6:00pm until 6:00am. No alcohol or drugs permitted. There is no maximum length of stay. Primary language is English, but volunteers speak other languages. Each night at the Armory hot meals, showers, and a safe place to sleep are provided. Alternative emergency shelter is provided for families with children. Call for specific locations of armories in Santa Ana and Fullerton. \| \|\|\n\| Grandma's House of Hope \| 714-558-8600 \| 1505 E. 17th Street Ste. 116 Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - F 9am - 5pm \| Link \| Grandma’s House of Hope (GHH) offers emergency, safe haven, transitional, and long-term supportive housing, as well as food to prepare three meals a day, services to meet basic needs, care coordination, case management, counseling, workforce development, 12-step programs, and individualized care to men and women with or without very young children. Based on a campus housing model in which women and men live in community and support each other. GHH runs housing facilities for women and men in locations throughout Orange County, operative year-round. The men’s home provide care and supportive living for homeless men and veterans with mental health challenges and disabilities. Immigration status is not a disqualifying factor for acceptance into our housing program. Office hours are Mon-Fri, 9am5pm. To start the intake process, call our 24-hour intake line at (714) 833-5333. \| \|\n\| LINK - Santa Ana \| 714-662-9600 714-836-7188 ext. 204 \| 2320 Red Hill Ave, Santa Ana, CA \| luisb@mercyhouse.net \| Link \| Needs proof of living in Santa Ana (e.g., previous address, attendance to school etc.,). Must undergo 3-day Covid test/quarantine in Buena Park. Must be able to meet own ADAs. Must be vetted through City Net (714-451-6198; for those with disabilities. Medical Assessment to determine appropirateness of emergency shelter considering disabilities. ) \| \|\n\| Illumination Foundation \| 714-507-2459 \| 1091 N. Batavia Street Orange, CA 92867 \| M - F 9am - 5pm \| info@ifhomeless.org \| Link \| See link for description of various housing/shelter program \|\n\| American Family Housing \| 714-897-3221 \| info@afhusa.org \| Link \| American Family Housing provides a continuum of interim and permanent housing and a broad spectrum of related services to vulnerable populations facing barriers to achieving housing stability, including veterans and adults with disabilities and mental illness serving Los Angeles, Orange and San Bernardino counties. American Family Housing provides flexible and responsive services based on the specific needs of each individual. AFH offers an extensive range of programs including intensive case management, nursing consultation, budgeting, employment, therapeutic counseling, credit, crisis intervention. \|\nLow Income Housing\n\| Low Income Housing \| Phone Number \| Address \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Civic Center Barrio Housing Corp \| 714-835-0406 \| 1277 South Lyon Street STE 505, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| Helps low and very low income recipients ranging between 30-50% of the county median obtain housing. Must meet the income restriction designed and structured by HUD, must have a source of income two times the rental amount and must be able to provide proof of income, identification, social security, birth certificate, employment, etc. All applicants age 18 and over must pass a background check and complete CCBHC’s application process to determine eligibility \| \|\|\n\| Mercy House - Joseph Residence \| 714-836-7188 EXT. 156 \| Link \| Joseph Residence is a permanent housing facility for homeless single men. There are 15 beds in shared rooms and rent is $350 a month with a move in deposit of $525. To apply, call the phone number above to get onto the interest list. Case management and supportive services are provided to tenants upon request. \| \|\|\n\| Orange County Housing Authority (OCHA) \| 714-480-2700 \| 1501 E. St Andrew Pl, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| OCHAContact@occr.ocgov.com \| Link \| Currently Closed Section 8, Section 811 (disabilities), Special Housing Programs (Family Self-Sufficiency, Family Unification, Supportive Housing, and Non-Elderly Disabled). \|\n\| *OCHA - 811 \| Questions from persons seeking housing should be directed to Pa Lee at Pa.Lee@dhcs.ca.gov, Kendra Kelly at Kendra.Kelly@dhcs.ca.gov, or Mirella Quaranta at Mirella.Quaranta@dds.ca.gov. \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Dayle McIntosh Center \| 714-621-3300 \| Link \| The Rental Assistance for Non-Elderly Persons with Disabilities program provides incremental Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers (HCV) for non-elderly disabled families served by PHAs with demonstrated experience and resources for supportive services. These vouchers will enable non-elderly disabled (NED) persons residing in nursing homes or other healthcare institutions to transition into the community with appropriate services. \| \|\|\n\| Regional Center Orange County \| Ddhousing@rcocdd.com \| Link \| Regional Center of Orange County is committed to providing safe, affordable living options for people with developmental disabilities in their communities. Email all inquiries. \| \|\|\n\| Section 8 \|\nMedical\n\| MediCal \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| MediCal \| Phone Number \| Link \| Notes \| \|\|\|\n\| Orange County Social Services Agency \| 800-281-9799 \| Link \| Medi-Cal point of contact for Orange County Health Care Coverage. \| \|\|\|\n\| Medi-Cal Points of Reference \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| What is Medi-Cal \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| FAQ on Medi-Cal \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Medi-Cal and & Citizenship/Immigration \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Medi-Cal Application \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Seniors and Persons w/ Disabilities \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Skilled Nursing \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Dental \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Children/Families \| Link \|\nMediCare\n\| MediCare \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| MediCare \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Social Security Office \| 1-800-633-4227 \| Link \| Enrolled through social security department \| \|\|\|\n\| Social Security Office (Anaheim) \| 866-657-3133 \| 900 S Harbor Blvd, Anaheim, CA 92805 \| M - F 9am - 4 pm \| \|\|\|\n\| Orange County Social Services (Santa Ana) \| 714-825-3000 \| 1505 E Warner Ave, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - F 8am - 5pm \| \|\|\|\n\| Social Security Administration (Santa Ana) \| 800-772-1213 \| 1851 E First St STE 500, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - F 9am - 4 pm \| \|\|\|\n\| U.S. Social Security Administration (Garden Grove) \| 877-669-3115 \| 11900 Gilbert St, Garden Grove, CA 92841 \| M - F 9am - 4 pm \| \|\|\|\n\| Social Security Administration (Fountain Valley) \| 877-304-1566 \| 17075 Newhoe St # B, Fountain Valley, CA 92708 \| M - F 9am - 4 pm \| \|\|\|\n\| MediCare Points of Reference \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| What is MediCare Who Qualifies? \| Link \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\n\| MediCare Application \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Parts of MediCare \| Link \|\nCalOptima\n\| CalOptima \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| CalOptima \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Cal Optima \| 1-888-587-8088 \| 505 City Parkway West, Orange, CA 92868 \| 8 am - 5 pm \| Link \| Walk-ins currently closed due to COVID-19 \| \|\n\| CalOptima Points of Reference \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| What is CalOptima? \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| CalOptima Application \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| CalOptima FAQ \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| CalOptima Services \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| MediCal \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| OneCare Connect MediConnect Plan (Medicare-Medicaid Plan) \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| One Care (HMO SNP) \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Program of All-Inclusive Care for the Elderly (PACE) \| Link \|\nCounty Mental Health\n\| Mental Health Services \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| Agency \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| OC-LINKS \| 855-625-4657 \| N/A \| 24 hours a day, 7 days a week \| N/A \| Link \| OCLinks provides confidential, free telephone and online chat support for information or linkage to mental health and drug/alcohol programs and services \|\n\| Orange County Mental Health \| 714-935-6061 \| 301 The City Dr S, Orange, CA 92868 \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Community Counseling & Supportive Service (CCSS) \| 714-645-8000 \| 4000 W. Metropolitan Dr. STE 405, Orange, CA 92868 \| M- Th 8am - 8pm F 8am - 5pm \| Link \| Community Counseling & Supportive Services (CCSS) is a short-term counseling program for Orange County residents of all age groups, who have or are at risk of developing a mild to moderate behavioral health condition. The program specializes in providing services to diverse communities including Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Intersex, and/or Questioning (LGBTIQ+), deaf and hard of hearing and underserved ethnic communities. \| \|\n\| OC Center for Resiliency, Education, Wellness (OCCREW) \| 714-480-5100 \| 4000 W. Metropolitan Dr. STE 403, Orange, CA 92868 \| M- Th 8am - 6pm F 8am - 5pm \| Link \| The Orange County Center for Resiliency, Education and Wellness (OC CREW) program provides early intervention services to Orange County residents between the ages of 12- 25 years old who are experiencing their first episode of psychosis with symptoms that started within the last 24 months. Additionally, the program serves the families of eligible youth. Services include screening and needs assessments, clinical case management, individual counseling and family services, psychiatric care, psychoeducational groups, referrals and linkages to community resources, and community education on “The First Onset Of Psychosis.” \| \|\n\| Regional Center - Orange County (RCOC) \| 714-796-5100 \| 24 hours a day, 7 days a week \| Link \| For many people with developmental disabilities – particularly children with autism — psychological, counseling or behavior services can help impart the essential skills they need to interact with others and to function as normally as possible in the community. \| \|\|\n\| The LGBTQ Center OC \| 714-953-5428 Ext. 330 \| 1605 N Spurgeon St, Santa Ana, CA 92701 \| M - F 10am - 9pm Sat & Sun By Appointment \| info@lgbtqcenteroc.org \| Link \| The LGBTQ Center OC’s Mental Health Program has moved to teletherapy services for the safety of our clients and staff. Please fill out the referral form below to request more information or to schedule teletherapy services. \|\n\| Centralized Assessment Team (CAT) \| 866-830-6011 \| 2035 E Ball Rd # 200, Anaheim, CA 92806 \| 24 hours a day, 7 days a week \| N/A \| Link \| 24-hour mobile response services to any adult experiencing a behavioral health crisis. Staff members receive calls to provide crisis intervention individuals living with mental health issues from law enforcement officers in the field, social services agencies, and concerned family members. CAT conducts risk assessments, initiates involuntary hospitalizations when necessary, provides resources and linkage, and conducts follow-up contacts for individuals assessed. \|\n\| National Alliance of Mental Health \| 714-544-8488 \| 1810 17th St, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - F 9am - 8pm \| INFO@NAMIOC.ORG \| Link \| The mission of NAMI Orange County is to provide emotional support, education and resources for families, and those affected by mental illness. In collaboration with the entire community, we advocate for a life of quality and dignity, one without discrimination, for all those persons affected by this illness. NAMI Orange County conducts educational programs, meetings and support groups throughout the Orange County addressing every aspect of mental health at no cost to the community \|\n\| National Suicide Prevention Lifeline \| 800-273-8255 \|\nFood Pantries\n\| Food Pantries \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Food Pantries.org (Search Tool) General \| Link \| See website for Lists \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Fullerton \| Link \| See website for Lists & Info \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Santa Ana \| Link \| See website for Lists & Info \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Orange County Free Food Map \| Link \| For instructions on how to use website click here. \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Community Action Partnership \| Link \| List with address of Distribution centers/food banks \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Meals on Wheels - Lunch Café Program \| 714-823-3294 \| info@mealsonwheelsoc.org \| Link \| Days, times, and locations for pick up may be changing. Check this site daily starting at 9 a.m. for the latest daily and weekly updates. Registered Lunch Café participants, can have a family or friend pick up their meal by providing the first and last name, and address of the program participant. Unregistered participants may have someone pick up the meal as long as that person has the ID for the individual for whom the meal is intended.The program is available for adults age 60 and over. \| \|\|\n\| Meals on Wheels - Home Delivery Program \| 714-220-0224 \| 1200 N. Knollwood Cir. Anaheim, CA 92801 \| info@mealsonwheelsoc.org \| Link \| Submitting the information will not automatically add the individual to the Meals on Wheels program. Once you submit your web inquiry below, a phone call is not necessary — a Meals on Wheels OC or city representative will be in touch. \|\nFarmers Markets\n\| Farmers Markets \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| OC Farmers Markets Directory - Search Engine \| Link \| Website organizes list of Farmers Markets by day of the week, month, or cities. Due to possible seasonal, holiday or weather related changes to times & locations, we encourage you to click on the link of the market event holder to get the most updated information. 'Rain or Shine' markets may have low vendor attendance on wet days. \| \|\|\|\|\n\| OC Public Works - Certified Farmers Markets \| Link \| OC Public Works list of certified Farmers Markets organized by days of the week. Information includes, hours of market, location, and contact person with telephone number and/or email. \|\nSoup Kitchens\n\| Soup Kitchens \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| Orange County Free Food Map \| Link \| Website search engine to locate soup kitchens in specific areas. \|\nDay Programs\n\| Day Programs \| Information pulled from California Department of Aging \| Link \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Populations \| Service Area \| \|\n\| ABC - Santa Ana Day Health Center \| 657-210-2379 \| 206 W. 15th St, Santa Ana, CA 92701 \| M - F 8am - 2pm \| admin@abcadhc.com \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectual or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Santa Ana \|\n\| ABC - Westminister Day Health Center \| 714-894-5880 \| 202 Hospital Circle, Westminister, CA 92683 \| M - F 8am - 2pm \| admin@abcadhc.com \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectual or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Westminister \|\n\| Acacia Adult Day Services \| 714-530-1566 \| 11391 Acacia Parkway, Garden Grove, CA 92840 \| M - F 8am - 4:30pm \| info@alzoc.org \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled. \| Garden Grove \|\n\| Alzheimer's Family Services Center \| 714-593-9630 \| 9451 Indianapolis Ave, Huntington Beach, CA 92646 \| M - Sat 7:30am - 5:30pm \| troundy@afscenter.org \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Huntington Beach \|\n\| Anaheim V.I.P. Adult Day Health Care Center \| 714-220-2114 714-220-1561 \| 1158 North Knollwood Circle, Anaheim, CA 92801 \| M- F 7am - 4pm \| gcorzo@seniorserv.org \| Senior \| Anaheim \| \|\n\| CalOptima - Pace \| 714-468-1100 \| 13300 Garden Grove Blvd., Garden Grove, CA 92843 \| M - F 8am - 4:30pm \| Link \| Senior only \| Garden Grove \| \|\n\| Commonwealth Adult Day Health Care Center \| 714-522-4960 \| 7811 Commonwealth Ave, Buena Park, CA 90621 \| M - F 8:30am - 5pm \| commonwealthadhc@gmail.com \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Truamatic Brain Injury. \| Buena Park \| \|\n\| Cypress Adult Day Health Care Center \| 714-826-9664 \| 4470 Lincoln Ave Ste 1, Cypress, CA 90630 \| M - F 8am - 4pm \| cypressadhcc@yahoo.com \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Truamatic Brain Injury. \| Cypress \| \|\n\| El Toro Adult Day Services \| 949-457-2275 \| 24300 El Toro Road, Laguna Woods, CA 92637 \| M - F 8:30am - 5pm \| contact@thealdercorp.com \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Truamatic Brain Injury. \| Laguna Woods \|\n\| Evergreen World ADHC \| 714-638-1818 \| 9856 Westminister Ave, Garden Grove, CA 92844 \| M - F 8:30am - 4:30pm \| evergreenworldinc@gmail.com \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Traumatic Brain Injury \| Garden Grove \| \|\n\| Happy (brea) Adult Day Health Care \| 562-266-3736 \| 401 W. Whittier Blvd Ste 201, La Habra, CA 90631 \| M - F 8:30am - 2:30pm \| happydaycenter@yahoo.com \| Alzherim's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly \| La Habra \| \|\n\| Helping Hands for Better Living \| 714-530-4489 \| 10281 Chapman Ave, Garden Grove, CA 92840 \| M - F 8am - 3:30pm \| info@helpinghandsforbetterliving.com \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Garden Grove \|\n\| Irvine Health Foundation Adult Day Health Services Center \| 949-262-1123 \| 20 Lake Road, Irvine, CA 92604 \| M - F 8am - 5pm \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled. \| Irvine \| \|\n\| Laguna Adult Day Health Center \| 949-309-1900 \| 23551 Moulton Parkway, Laguna Hills, CA 92653 \| M - F 7:30am - 3:30pm \| mona.yacko@lagunaadhc.org \| Link \| Mental & Physical Impairments \| Laguna Hills \|\n\| New Life Adult Day Health Care Center \| 714-828-7898 \| 716 S. Beach Blvd., Anaheim, CA 92804 \| M - F 8am - 5pm \| newlifeadhc@gmail.com \| Link \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury \| Anaheim \|\n\| Regent West Adult Day Health Care Center \| 714-530-9992 \| 8341 Garden Grove Blvd, Garden Grove, CA 92844 \| M- F 8am - 5pm Sat 9am - 2pm \| regentwestadhc@gmail.com \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Garden Grove \| \|\n\| Reimagine Network - Fullerton \| 714-680-6060 \| 130 Laguna Rd Ste A, Fullerton, CA 92835 \| M - F 9am - 3pm \| info@reimagineoc.org \| Link \| Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Fullerton \|\n\| Reimagine Network - Santa Ana \| 714-633-4700 \| 1601 E Staint Andrew Pl, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - F 9am - 3pm \| info@reimagineoc.org \| Link \| Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Santa Ana \|\n\| Sarang Adult Day Helath Care Center \| 714-236-0852 \| 5171 Lincoln Ave, Cypress, CA 90630 \| M - F 7:30am - 4pm \| sarangadhc@gmail.com \| Alzheimer's or Dementia, Behavioral Health, Frail or Elderly, Intellectually or Developmentally Disabled, Traumatic Brain Injury. \| Cypress \| \|\n\| South County Adult Day Services \| 949-855-9444 \| 24260 El Toro Road, Laguna Woods, CA 92637 \| M - F 8am - 4:30pm \| deloris.matthews@alzoc.org \| Link \| Laguna Woods \|\nSupport Groups\n\| Support Groups \| \|\|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \| \|\n\| National Alliance on Mental Health (NAMI) Orange County \| 714-544-8488 \| kgarcia@namioc.org \| Link \| NAMI - List of support groups with facilitator information, support group information log in (where applicable). Support groups organized by type (Family Support Group, Clinicial-led Family Support Group, Faith Based Family Support Group, Support Group in Spanish, Peer Led Support Group). Select groups to meet in person. \| \|\|\n\| Depression & BiPolar Support Alliance (DBSA) Orange County Chapter \| Link \| Various support groups focusing on mental health issues pertaining to Depression and BiPolar. Site offers information on Group topics (e.g., depression and unemployed), days and times of support groups. Additional support group held in Mandarin Chinese and select inperson meetings. \| \|\|\|\|\n\| Regional Center - Orange County \| 714-558-5400 \| 1525 N. Tustin Ave Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| Link \| Extensive Parent Support list ranging in topics (e.g., autism, down syndrome, cultural, LGTB, deaf, etc.). List includes topic and contact person. Additional Support groups in American Indian, Asian Indian, Chineese/Manarin, Korean, Japanese, Spanish, and Vietnamese. \| \|\|\n\| Caregiver Resource Center Orange County \| 714-446-5053 800-543-8312 \| 130 W Bastanchury Rd, Fullerton, CA 92835 \| Link \| To register for support groups call number. Group topics vary with date, time, and topic (Spanish, vietnamese, young/sandwich generation, caregiver support group). Link opens calendar of days, time, and topic of support group. \| \|\|\n\| 2-1-1 Orange County - Resource Center \| 2-1-1 \| Link \| Search engine for resources in Orange County. Clicking on Link will provide list of variouis support group search options (e.g., Substance use, general mental health support group, health/disability related support group, bereavement, parenting/family, codependent, sexual/love, sexual abuse, and crive victim support groups). Group information (day, time, fees, topic) are provided upon following steps to search and identify support groups of interest. \|\nHospitals\n\| Hospitals \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| Name \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \|\n\| St. Jude Medical Center \| 714-871-3280 \| 101 E Valencia Mesa Dr, Fullerton, CA 92835 \| 24 hours / 7 Days \| Link \| \|\n\| Anaheim Regional Medical Center \| 714-774-1450 \| 1111 W La Palma Ave, Anaheim, CA 92801 \| 24 hours / 7 Days \| Link \| \|\n\| UCI Health Douglas Hospital \| 714-456-7890 \| Building 1, 101 The City Dr s, Orange, CA 92868 \| 24 hours / 7 Days \| Link \| \|\n\| St. Joseph Hospital Neuro Oncology Program \| 714-734-6238 \| 1000 W La Veta 1st Floor, Orange, CA 92868 \| M - F 9am - 5pm \| Link \| \|\n\| St Joseph Hospital Cancer Prevention and Treatment \| 714-734-6200 \| 1000 W La Veta 1st Floor, Orange, CA 92868 \| M - F 6:30am - 5pm \| Link \|\nPlanned Parenthood\n\| Planned Parenthood \| \|\|\|\|\|\n\| City \| Phone Number \| Address \| Hours of Operation \| Link \| Notes \|\n\| Anaheim \| 714-922-4100 \| 303 W. Licoln Ave #105., Anaheim, CA 92805 \| M - Th 7am - 6pm F 7am - 5pm Sat & Sun 6:30am - 4:30am \| Link \| Services offered: HIV Services, LGBTQ Services, Men's Health Care, Primary Care, Women's Health Care, STD Care (Testing, Treatment, & Vaccines), Pregnancy Testing & Services, Birth Control, Morning-After Pill (Emergency Contraception), Abortion. See website for detailed information on services. \|\n\| Orange \| 714-922-4100 \| 700 S Tustin ST, Orange, CA 92866 \| M - Th 6:30am - 5pm F/Sat/Sun 6:30am - 4:30pm \| Link \| Services offered: HIV Services, LGBTQ Services, Men's Health Care, Primary Care, Women's Health Care, STD Care (Testing, Treatment, & Vaccines), Pregnancy Testing & Services, Birth Control, Morning-After Pill (Emergency Contraception), Abortion. See website for detailed information on services. \|\n\| Santa Ana \| 714-922-4100 \| 1421 17th St, Santa Ana, CA 92705 \| M - Th 7am - 6pm F 7am - 5pm Sat & Sun 6:30am - 4:30am \| Link \| Services offered: HIV Services, LGBTQ Services, Men's Health Care, Primary Care, Women's Health Care, STD Care (Testing, Treatment, & Vaccines), Pregnancy Testing & Services, Birth Control, Morning-After Pill (Emergency Contraception), Abortion. See website for detailed information on services. \|\nSenior Specific Resources\n\| Senior Services/Resources \| \|\|\n\| Social Security \| Link \| Notes \|\n\| *What is it? \| Link \| Social Security is part of the retirement plan for almost every American worker. It provides replacement income for qualified retirees and their families. \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| Housing \| \|\|\n\| Senior Housing/ Assisted Living \| Link \| \|\n\| How it Works \| Link \| \|\n\| List of Residential Care facilities for Elderly & Adult Residential Facilities \| Link \| \|\n\| What are they? \| Link \|\nCouncil On Aging\n\| Council On Aging \| \|\|\n\| Program \| Link \| Description of Program \|\n\| Concierge Care Navigators \| Link \| skilled team of Registered Nurses are Certified Geriatric Care Managers and are specially trained to evaluate, plan and coordinate your loved one’s care with you. A Registered Nurse (RN) will meet with you and your loved one at home or on-site to conduct a comprehensive assessment. The geriatric care plan focuses on wellness, crisis prevention and keeping your loved one safely at home for as long as possible. The plan is HIPAA compliant and accessible online to all family members, facilitating well-being, independence, and peace of mind for all. \|\n\| Friendly Visitor Program \| Link \| The Friendly Visitor Program prevents and alleviates the physical and mental health risks linked to isolation. This program benefits isolated older and disabled adults by addressing their basic, social, emotional, and environmental needs. Program offers a supportive social structure of trained volunteers who provide weekly positive interactions to frail and disabled adults. Through ongoing assessments, recurring home and telephone visitations, the program identifies clients’ unmet needs and offers ongoing assistance in securing access to appropriate health and social resources. \|\n\| Health Insurance Counseling & Advocacy (HICAP) - Council on Aging \| Link \| The Council on Aging’s HICAP counselors are trained California state-registered staff and volunteers. We provide Medicare counseling, community education and outreach to Orange, Riverside, San Bernardino, Inyo and Mono counties. Check out our HICAP counseling locations and services. \|\n\| Long-Term Care Ombudsman \| Link \| Our long-term care Ombudsmen are advocates for residents of nursing homes, board and care homes, and assisted living facilities in Orange & Riverside counties. Ombudsmen provide information about how to find a facility and what to do to get quality care. They are trained to resolve problems and can assist you with complaints. \|\n\| ReConnect Program (EISOA) \| Link \| ReConnect offers no-cost short-term, and private comprehensive services to Orange County residents ages 60 and above who are experiencing emotional challenges and overall health barriers, particularly those appearing later in life. Staying vital and connected can help you ward off the loneliness that often comes with aging. \|\n\| Senior Protection Program and FAST \| Link \| SPP is proud to be part of a multidisciplinary team known as the Financial Abuse Specialist Team (FAST). FAST members serve as volunteer advisors offering information in the areas of law, criminal investigation, civil litigation, guardianship, fiduciary matters, banking and accounting, real estate, insurance, and senior services. FAST assists Adult Protective Services (APS), the Ombudsmen, law enforcement and attorneys in resolving complicated matters of abuse. \|\n\| Smile Makers \| Link \| Our SmileMakers coordinate with our Ombudsmen to provide individually wrapped gifts to thousands of long-term care residents who would otherwise be forgotten. \|\nGroup Housing\n\| Group Housing \| \|\|\n\| Community Care Facilities (CCF) \| Community Care Facilities (CCFs) are licensed by the Community Care Licensing Division of the State Department of Social Services to provide 24-hour non-medical residential care to children and adults with developmental disabilities who are in need of personal services, supervision, and/or assistance essential for self-protection or sustaining the activities of daily living. \| \|\n\| * What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| Intermediate Care Facilitiy (ICF) \| Intermediate Care Facilities for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities (ICF/IID) are health facilities licensed by the Licensing and Certification Division of the California Department of Public Health to provide 24-hour-per-day residential services. The following provides information for developing a program plan for these facilities types. *ICF/DD-H – Intermediate Care Facility for the Developmentally Disabled-Habilitative ICF/DD-N – Intermediate Care Facility for the Developmentally Disabled-Nursing \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| Skilled Nursing Facility (SNF) \| Skilled care is nursing and therapy care that can only be safely and effectively performed by, or under the supervision of, professionals or technical personnel. It’s health care given when you need skilled nursing or skilled therapy to treat, manage, and observe your condition, and evaluate your care. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| Senior Housing/ Assisted Living \| Assisted living facilities are designed for older people who are no longer able to manage living independently and need help with daily activities such as bathing or dressing, but don’t require the round-the-clock health care that a nursing home would provide. \| \|\n\| How it Works \| Link \| \|\n\| List of Residential Care facilities for Elderly & Adult Residential Facilities \| Link \| \|\n\| What are they? \| Link \| \|\n\| List of Residential Care facilities for Elderly & Adult Residential Facilities \| Link \| \|\n\| What are they? \| Link \| Link \|\nCaregiver Support Resouces\n\| Caregiver Resources/Information \| \|\|\n\| IHSS \| The purpose of the IHSS program is to provide supportive services to persons who are aged, blind, or disabled, and who are limited in their ability to care for themselves and cannot live at home safely without assistance. This includes persons who would be able to return to their homes from hospitals, nursing homes, or board and care homes, if they had help at home. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| Respite \| Respite care provides short-term relief for primary caregivers. It can be arranged for just an afternoon or for several days or weeks. Care can be provided at home, in a healthcare facility, or at an adult day center. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| Find Respite Services \| Link \| \|\n\| Caregiver Resource Center Orange County \| Link \| To register for support groups call number. Group topics vary with date, time, and topic (Spanish, vietnamese, young/sandwich generation, caregiver support group). Link opens calendar of days, time, and topic of support group. \|\n\| 2-1-1 Orange County - Resource Center \| Link \| Search engine for resources in Orange County. Clicking on Link will provide list of variouis support group search options (e.g., Substance use, general mental health support group, health/disability related support group, bereavement, parenting/family, codependent, sexual/love, sexual abuse, and crive victim support groups). Group information (day, time, fees, topic) are provided upon following steps to search and identify support groups of interest. \|\nFinancial Support Resources\n\| Financial Support/Resources \| \|\|\n\| General Relief \| General Relief (GR) is a cash assistance program funded by the County of Orange. It provides temporary cash aid to eligible indigent adult lawful residents who do not have custody of any minor children and do not qualify for Federal or State funded cash aid programs. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| CalWORKS \| The California Work Opportunity and Responsibility to Kids (CalWORKs) program provides cash benefits for the care of children in need when one or both parents are absent, disabled, deceased or unemployed. If you are eligible for CalWORKs, you automatically qualify for Medi-Cal and you might qualify for CalFresh (formerly known as Food Stamps) as well. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| Supplemental Security Incomer (SSI) \| SSI makes monthly payments to people who have low income and few resources, and who are: • Age 65 or older. • Blind. • Disabled. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| page 5 \|\n\| Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) \| The Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) and Supplemental Security Income (SSI) programs provide assistance to people with disabilities. This page provides detailed information to help you understand what to expect from Social Security during the application process. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| Workers Comp \| This guidebook gives an overview of the California workers’ compensation system. It is meant to help workers with job injuries understand their basic legal rights, the steps to take to request workers’ compensation benefits, and where to seek further information and help if necessary. \| \|\n\| \"Guidebook for Injured Workers\" \| Link \| \|\n\| Utility Assitane Program \| The Home Energy Assistance Program (HEAP) is a one-time per funding year assistance program that helps income qualified households with utility payment assistance on either their electric or gas bill in Orange County. \| \|\n\| What is it? \| Link \| \|\n\| **How to Apply \| Link \| \|\n\| CalFresh/Food Stamps \| Link \| CalFresh is for people with low-income who meet federal income eligibility rules and want to add to their budget to put healthy and nutritious food on the table. Click link to access online application or finding local county office to sign up for CalFresh. If you have questions or problems with your CalFresh benefits, contact your county social services agency 800-281-9799. \|"	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.558921	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103644/overview", "title": "ILS Resources", "author": "Primary Source" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100336/overview	Bias In Sampling Intro to Statistics Measures of Center Measures of Dispersion and Empirical Rule Measures of Position (Z-scores, Percentiles, Quartiles) Organizing Data (Frequency and Classes) Sampling Methods Lesson Summaries Overview As a supplement to the OpenStax textbook, we have also created lesson summaries for our OER course. Attached are some instructor created notes on the following topics. - Introduction to Statistics - Sampling Methods - Bias in Sampling - Organizing Data using Frequency Distributions and Histograms - Measures of Center - Measures of Dispersion and Empirical Rule - Measures of Position, Fences and Outliers - 5-Number Summary and Boxplots Notes As a supplement to the OpenStax textbook, we have also created lesson summaries for our OER course. Attached are some instructor created notes on the following topics. - Introduction to Statistics - Sampling Methods - Bias in Sampling - Organizing Data using Frequency Distributions and Histograms - Measures of Center - Measures of Dispersion and Empirical Rule - Measures of Position, Fences and Outliers - 5-Number Summary and Boxplots	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.587194	Student Guide	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/100336/overview", "title": "Lesson Summaries", "author": "Reading" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110148/overview	NSG 144: Mental Health Nursing Overview Course Description Introduction to the concepts of psychosocial nursing care for clients throughout the life span. Emphasis on the use of the nursing process to assess and integrate therapeutic communication techniques, learning/teaching, psychosocial, diversity/cultural, spiritual, nutritional, pharmacological, legal and ethical issues. Introduction to adaptive and maladaptive, psychosocial and physiological responses related to commonly occurring psychological disorders as seen in the various healthcare settings. Integration QSEN competencies of patient-centered care, teamwork and collaboration, evidence-based practice, quality improvement, safety and informatics. Prerequisite: Admission to nursing program. Corequisite: NSG 140, NSG 142, NSG 143, NSG 145. Course Information Course Description Introduction to the concepts of psychosocial nursing care for clients throughout the life span. Emphasis on the use of the nursing process to assess and integrate therapeutic communication techniques, learning/teaching, psychosocial, diversity/cultural, spiritual, nutritional, pharmacological, legal and ethical issues. Introduction to adaptive and maladaptive, psychosocial and physiological responses related to commonly occurring psychological disorders as seen in the various healthcare settings. Integration QSEN competencies of patient-centered care, teamwork and collaboration, evidence-based practice, quality improvement, safety and informatics. Prerequisite: Admission to nursing program. Corequisite: NSG 140, NSG 142, NSG 143, NSG 145. Course Content - Principles of nursing care related to mental health nursing standards of care - Principles of nursing care related to psychosocial and mental status assessment - Principles of nursing care related to development of the nurse client relationship - Principles of nursing care related to adaptation to stress / coping - Principles of nursing care related to religion / spirituality - Principles of nursing care related to developmental theories / transitions - Principles of nursing care related to end of life care / grief and loss - Principles of nursing care related to legal/ethical aspects related to clients with mental health needs - Principles of nursing care related to crisis intervention / suicide - Principles of nursing care related to therapeutic environment / milieu management /behavioral management - Principles of nursing care related to care of clients from vulnerable populations Course Outcomes - Patient-centered care - Recognize the patient or designee as the source of control and full partner in providing compassionate and coordinated care based on respect for patient’s preferences, values and needs. (1-12) - Teamwork and Collaboration - Function effectively within nursing and inter-professional teams, fostering open communication, mutual respect, and sharing decision making to achieve quality patient care. (1-12) - Evidence-Based Practice - Integrate best current evidence with clinical expertise and patient/family preferences and values for delivery of optimal health care. (1-12) - Quality Improvement - Use data to monitor the outcomes of care processes and use improvement methods to design and test changes to continuously improve the quality and safety of healthcare systems. (1-12) - Safety - Minimize risk of harm to patients and providers through both system effectiveness and individual performance. (1-12) - Informatics - Use information and technology to communicate, manage knowledge, mitigate error and support decision making. (1-12) Course Link in Canvas Commons (for Canvas LMS Common Cartridge Download (for non-Canvas LMS) Download this file to load the course in any non-Canvas LMS (Moodle, Blackboard, D2L, etc).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.609052	Gillian Troxel	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/110148/overview", "title": "NSG 144: Mental Health Nursing", "author": "Micah Weedman" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109758/overview	Resume Example Professionalism as an Early Business Major Overview This module allows students to prepare for career fairs, applying to internships, and looking for post-graduation opportunities. These tips and skills will be crucial to college students as the go through their journey of professionalism Overview of lesson This lesson allows you to work on aspects that will prepare you for internships, career fairs, and business life post-graduation. We will work on - Resume - Elevator pitch - Professional Attire Resume Header - Name in bold on top - Where you’re from and where you’re looking to work - Contact Info: Personal phone number and a NON school email - LinkedIn profile: If you are not active on LinkedIn or it is not up-to-date, do not include it Education - Where you go to school, what college you’re in, what your major is, and when you’re supposed to graduate - NO High School Information - Only include GPA if you’re above a 3.0 - Include multiple decimal points: a 3.8 is significantly different than a 3.89 - Honors and Awards: Include dean's list, academic awards, or academic scholarships you’ve earned here Experience - Reverse chronological order- most recent and relevant on top - Include future internships where you have a contract but have not started - With past/current internships, note the specific job tasks you did, not just a simplified overview - use different, specfic action verbs at the start of each bullet description Professional Development - Include a brief bio of all orgs; It takes up space, gives some context, and can make your involvement sound more profound - List any philanthropy experience, sales/marketing involvement, or new member leadership Additional info - Include any clubs you’ve been involved in throughout your college experience but never took a leadership role in or are no longer an active member - any certifications you have obtained or proficiency in programs like excel Tips for the resume: - personalize it to your major. - if you are not a major that is specific to the job you are applying for it helps to write an objective at the top describing what you want to do specifically - Should only be one page LinkedIn is a huge part of job recruiting now because everything is online! You should develop your linkedIn and start making connections as soon as you can. your linkedIn should include: - name - recent photo - about - experience - education you can also post about professional events that you attend. make sure to stay professional and use language that reflects the way you would talk to a recruiter in person Elevator Pitch Your elevator pitch should be around a 30 seconds to a minute it should include: - name - major - minors (if relevant) - Graduation date - what kind of job you are looking for It is important to personalize and stand out... make yourself memorable Rehearsing this before going to a career fair is crucial to make sure yoou have a clear thouht about what you will say to introduce yourself. Professional Attire Business professional and Business Casual - There is a big difference between the two - If you are unsure what the event requires it is always safer to overdress then to underdress	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.634905	Catherine Fuccillo	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/109758/overview", "title": "Professionalism as an Early Business Major", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103335/overview	Accessibility in OER - IHE Spring 2023 Cohort - Home Base Document Overview This resource will contain all of the links and resources from the Accessibility in OER - IHE Spring 2023 Cohort webinar series. Session One Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session One. Links to resources from the pre-work: Links to resources from Session One's webinar: Video Recording Links to resources for after the webinar: Attendance document - Please see this document for the Discussion Board links. Additional links to support teams: Session Two - Implementation Session - Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session two - Implementation Session. Links to resources from Session Two's webinar: Videorecording with captions Links to support further OER learning: Links to resources to preview for Session Three: Session Three - SLIDE practices - Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session Three. Links to resources from the Session Three webinar: Video Recording Links to resources for after the webinar: Attendance document - Please see this document for the Discussion Board links. Additional links to support teams: Session Four - POUR and Implementation - Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session Four. Links to resources from the Session Four webinar: Video Recording Links to resources for after the webinar: Attendance document - Please see this document for the Discussion Board links. Additional links to support teams: Session Five - POUR and Implementation - Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session Five. Links to resources from the Session Four webinar: Video Recording Links to resources for after the webinar: Attendance document - Please see this document for the Discussion Board links. Additional links to support teams: Session Six - Wrap Up and Implementation - Home Base Document In this section, you will find all of the links and resources from the "Accessibility in OER Spring 2023 IHE Cohort" Session Six. Links to resources from the Session Four webinar: Video Recording Links to resources for after the webinar: Attendance document - Please see this document for the Discussion Board links. Additional links to support teams: Additional Resources Below you will find a short list of Accessibility Resources and OER Resources. We are also compiling your resources that you shared into a document as well. Accessibility Resources OER Resources (note from Joanna: I decided to find some new resources based on your needs and interests. I haven't yet adapted them for some small accessibility concerns. It's on my list and I'll ping you when I've updated them.None of these are 100% perfect, but they have some really valuable things to talk about with your team.)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.667918	Joanna Schimizzi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/103335/overview", "title": "Accessibility in OER - IHE Spring 2023 Cohort - Home Base Document", "author": "Unit of Study" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106983/overview	HyFlex Instruction @MCC Overview HyFlex Instruction@MCC infographics (Spring 2023) HyFlex Instruction HyFlex Instruction @MCC at a glance.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.684271	07/21/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106983/overview", "title": "HyFlex Instruction @MCC", "author": "Daniela Loghin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93390/overview	Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 1000x p000025 Overview This micrograph was taken at 1000X total magnifcation on a brightfield microscope. The subject is Candida albicans cells grown in broth culture at 30 degrees Celsius. The cells were heat-fixed to a slide and Gram stained prior to visualization. Image credit: Emily Fox micrograph Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 1000x	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.701228	Emily Fox	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93390/overview", "title": "Micrograph Candida albicans Gram stain 1000x p000025", "author": "Diagram/Illustration" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76708/overview	Chapter 2 CAD for 3D 1-30-21 Chapter 3 All-In-One2-11-21 Chapter 4 All-In-One 2-11-21 Chapter 5 3DPrintingTechnologies3-18-2021 Chapter 6 All-In-One JWRW v1.2 Additive Manufacturing (AM) Overview This resource contains materials related to Additive Manufacturing. Feel free to use any of the materials and modify them as needed for your class, If you modify them, please resubmit them to SLAM Resources. Section 1 - Introduction to Additive Manufacturing This chapter is intended to introduce the reader to the fundamentals of three-dimensional printing (3D printing). The reader will get an overview of these paradigm shifting machines, and learn of the history of additive manufacturing, dating back to the 1980’s. This chapter will also cover some of the specialized software that drives 3D printing, as well as the general framework for several popular AM technologies. Some of the objectives of the chapter include: 1) Defining the term “additive manufacturing” (AM), 2) Providing an overview of the history surrounding this technology, 3) Understanding “layers” and the parts of the slicer, the program that drives a 3D printer, and 4) Learning to follow the basic workflow as it applies to nearly all AM machines. Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 2 - Fundamentals of CAD for AM This chapter introduces computer-aided design (CAD) from a theoretical and practical perspective with emphasis as to how they apply CAD to additive manufacturing. The reader will dive into a brief history of CAD and how the software has reached its current state. A discussion /exposure to Autodesk Fusion 360, a free program which introduces tools dedicated to 3D printing design will also be presented. This chapter will evaluate Fusion 360 tools and how they apply to AM. The objectives of the chapter are to: 1) Provide a high-level overview of computer-aided design, 2) Provide a tutorial for Fusion 360’s fundamental design tools, 3) An exposure to additional design environments and capabilities of CAD, and 4) Understand how CAD can be leveraged for use in additive manufacturing Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 3 - Contemporary methods for production Title of work: Contemporary Manufacturing Methods Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: This chapter will introduce to the reader the means of production which have come to shape the face of manufacturing as we know it today. Students will explore the use of molding, CNC machining, and more in mass production, as well as the use of joining and forming to create various parts and assemblies. For each manufacturing technique, advantages, drawbacks, applications, and design considerations will be thoroughly presented. Objectives - Understand the operative concepts behind molding, machining, forming and joining - Weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each manufacturing method - Pair each technique with an array of industry-wide applications - Consider the design specifications for each method & how this affects the finished part - Relate this newfound knowledge to additive manufacturing for comparison Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 4 Applications of Additive Manufacturing Methods Title of work: Applications of Additive Manufacturing Methods Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: In this chapter, the reader will be introduced to some of the most common applications of additive manufacturing. While studying each use of this technology, we will delve into precisely why 3D printing has been adopted in this fashion and how this technological and economic advantages have been utilized. Along with technical specifications, individual cases will be presented for each application. Objectives - Know the most common uses for additive manufacturing in industry - Understand how the benefits of 3D printing can be leveraged - Analyze case studies to better comprehend the technology’s usage in the real world - Look at some lesser known applications as well as uses in the near future Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 5 3D Printing Technologies SLAM Data Sheet Title of work: 3D Printing Technology Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Mariel Jeffries, Joseph McConnell, Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: basic physics, chemistry Purpose: In this chapter, students will explore a variety of 3D printing technologies, from the highly popular, such as Fused Deposition Modeling or (FDM) to those that fill niche applications, such as sheet lamination. For each process, the methodology will be explained in detail along with technical specifications and available material types. Students will also learn the benefits and limitations of each process and come to understand the applications in which they are used. Objectives - Understand the numerous 3D printing technologies and how they work - Explore the types of materials that each method may print in - Know the pros and cons of each technology based on their process - Learn of the most popular applications of each method based on benefits & drawbacks Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow. Section 6 Design for AM SLAM Data Sheet Title of work: Additive Manufacturing (AM) Design Principles Type of material: Chapter Principle author(s): Sid Collins, Ola L. Harrysson and Richard A. Wysk Editor(s): Joseph McConnell, Jason Wheeler and Julie Talbot Prerequisite material: Linear algebra, basic physics, chemistry Purpose: Additive manufacturing’s unique perspective on manufacturing has led to innovative products, concepts, and ideas that would not be possible with traditional means of production. However, to utilize this powerful tool, students must understand the rules of design such that their CAD model properly leverages the benefits of the technology. In this chapter, readers will learn how to apply these specifications and concepts to their prints to reduce cost, material use, and weight while maximizing strength and integrity. Objectives - Become aware of the technical abilities of the most popular AM technologies - Learn to optimize a model such that material is conserved - Understand the design features which may not be manufacturable on a 3D printer - Explore the design rules of both polymer and metal AM production methods Use: This material is Open source educational material. These materials may be adopted for any learning (non-commercial) activities. Future contributors may use these materials as foundation for their new methods or materials. This “Open use” is predicated on the improved/extended material being returned to the SLAM repository so that the material will continue to grow.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.755170	Richard Wysk	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/76708/overview", "title": "Additive Manufacturing (AM)", "author": "Textbook" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95540/overview	CT_adipose_kidney_630x, p000137 Overview CT_adipose_kidney_630x, p000137 CT_adipose_kidney_630x, p000137 CT_adipose_kidney_630x, p000137	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.777377	07/25/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/95540/overview", "title": "CT_adipose_kidney_630x, p000137", "author": "Lauren Amundson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106735/overview	Final Project Business and Culture Overview The aim of this project is to help students to initiate an idea of small business, the students will be a high school students in the small town of Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. The students in the class come from different linguistics backgrounds (Sindhi, Urdu) and they possess an intermediate level of proficiency (B1/B2). The class consists of 25 students and due to unavailability of technology, most students have their own mobile devices, and there are few school laptops available that can be borrowed. In certain instances, traditional methods of using paper and pencil, white board, and chart papers may need to be used as alternatives to activities relying on technology. Lesson can be extended to various classes depending on the topic and availability of material.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.789205	Afshan Abbasi	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/106735/overview", "title": "Final Project Business and Culture", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92790/overview	ASTR 1020 - Lab 12: Mapping the Milky Way Overview In 1610, Galileo made the first telescopic survey of the Milky Way and discovered that it is composed of a multitude of individual stars. Today, we know that the Milky Way comprises our view inward of the huge cosmic pinwheel that we call the Milky Way Galaxy and that is our home. Moreover, our Galaxy is now recognized as just one galaxy among many billions of other galaxies in the cosmos. --------------------------------------- Distant Nature: Astronomy Exercises 2016 by Stephen Tuttle under license "Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike". ASTR 1020 - Lab 12: Mapping the Milky Way Download the attached zip file and install the website on a server or in your LMS course section. To place HTML website content in Brightspace: - Create an appropriate folder structure in Manage Files. This location is where files will be uploaded and unzipped. Each resource (website) should have a descriptively named independent folder. - Navigate to the appropriate folder and Upload the zip file. - Unzip the folder by clicking the pull-down arrow, and clicking Unzip on the submenu. A content folder will appear. It contains two folders and two HTML files. - Associate the index.html file to your Course Content topic. Perform this task in the Course Content area by clicking New and then clicking Add from Manage Files on the submenu. Next, navigate to the index.html file and Add the file. - Click the pull-down arrow by the new web page topic (currently named index). Next, click Edit Properties In-place on the submenu and rename the link to be descriptive. - Delete the extraneous zip file from the Manage Files folder.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.807610	05/17/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/92790/overview", "title": "ASTR 1020 - Lab 12: Mapping the Milky Way", "author": "Hollyanna White" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79661/overview	Lesson Overview This is a simple worksheet that invites students to think about multifactorial, polygenic inheritance in the context of artificial selection. Answer key and teahcing notes coming soon! Worksheet Coming soon! This is a simple worksheet that invites students to think about multifactorial, polygenic inheritance in the context of artificial selection. Answer key and teahcing notes coming soon!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.823877	04/27/2021	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/79661/overview", "title": "Lesson", "author": "Pam Kalas" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89325/overview	Ploidy video tutorial Ploidy_Worksheet.odt 1n, 2n, 1c, 2c... - Cell ploidy made simple Overview This set of resources was developed and employed numerous times to help students clarify the frequent confusion about cells' chromosome number and ploidy level. It uses simplified stick diagrams to represent chromosomes and circles or oval to represent cells and includes a short, low-tech video tutorial that delivers the information, a worksheet that students can use to practice and test their understanding of the video materials, a set of clicker questions that address the same points as the worksheet, and instructor's notes. Ploidy resource set Major learning objective: Given a diagram representing the chromosomes of a cell, determine: - the total number of chromosomes present; - whether the chromosomes are replicated or unreplicated; - the cell ploidy level (n, 2n, 3n, etc.) - the amount of DNA expressed as number of genomes, c, in the cell. How I have been using the resource set: 1. Before coming to class, students watch the video tutorial (as homework assignment). 2. Once they come to class, they receive a copy of the Ploidy Worksheet and are asked to complete individually (I usually give them 5 minutes). 3. When the time is up, students swap their worksheets with a classmate. 4. The instructor uses the slide presentation as a set of clicker questions, providing feedback, answering students' questions, and "revealing" the correct or best answer in each case. Throughout this process, students use the feedback and infromation provided by the instructor to "mark" their classmates' worksheets and include helpful feedback and comments. 5. Students return the worksheets to the classmates who filled them out. Instructors' materials: - editable clicker questions/slide deck - worksheet answer key and clicker questions key This set of resources includes: 1. A simple video introducing the concept of cell ploidy (preparation for the "Ploidy Worksheet"); 2. The "Ploidy Worksheet", where learners have a chance to practice/test their understanding of the concept of ploidy; 3. The "Ploidy Clicker Questions Set", which instructors can use to a) assess learners' understanding of the concept of ploidy and b) as a way to give students feedback on their Ploidy Worksheet answers without having to mark all the worksheets; 4. (Only visible to instructors) Instructor's notes with editable files, comments, suggestions, etc. Have fun!	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.845161	Pam Kalas	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/89325/overview", "title": "1n, 2n, 1c, 2c... - Cell ploidy made simple", "author": "Module" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71635/overview	PARTIAL EVALUATIONS Overview PARTIAL EVALUATIONS FOCUSED ON A1 ENGLISH LEVELS partial evaluations Partial evaluations	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.861866	08/24/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/71635/overview", "title": "PARTIAL EVALUATIONS", "author": "Luis Yanchatipan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99263/overview	Inoculation Theory Overview A brief outline of inoculation theory. Intended audience: undergraduate psychology students. Think back to the last time you got a flu shot. You likely knew that flu season was coming and didn’t want to get sick, so you decided to allow someone to inject you with a small, deactivated segment of the flu virus so that your body could promote antibodies to keep you healthy should you encounter the real thing in the wild. Because of your foresight in receiving the vaccine, you were able to remain healthy throughout the flu season. Inoculation Theory posits that just as our bodies grow stronger with exposure to an inactive virus, our attitudes can become more resistant to change with exposure to weak arguments that are easily refutable. Inoculation theory was developed in 1961 by the social-cognitive psychologist William McGuire (McGuire, 1961a; McGuire, 1961b) at the University of Illinois. In a seminal inoculation theory study (McGuire & Papageorgis, 1961), participants were exposed to experimental manipulation, including either an inoculation or a control condition, during an initial laboratory session prior to returning to the lab two days later for a second data collection session. In the experimental manipulation period, participants were assigned to read or write about a cultural truism they supported (e.g., value in daily tooth brushing, efficacy of penicillin). Participants read either a prompt/essay in favor of their supported belief or a prompt/essay in favor of their belief, in addition to multiple weak arguments attacking their belief and counterarguments against these attacks. The type of message received by participants in the inoculation condition, containing both weak arguments against the held attitude and rebuttals to these arguments, is known as a refutational pretreatment (McGuire, 1964) or two-sided message (Allen, 1994). Messages received by participants in the control condition, without weak attitude attacks, are known as supportive pretreatments or one-sided messages (McGuire, 1964). Two days after the manipulation session, participants returned to the lab for a data collection session. During the data collection, participants read two strong counterarguments to the truism they initially endorsed, plus an additional counterargument to an unrelated belief. Following exposure to the strong counterarguments, participants exposed to two-sided messages (those in the inoculation condition) displayed greater levels of belief in the statement they originally endorsed than those exposed to one-sided messages in support of their stance. In the years following early studies such as the experiment described above, the literature surrounding McGuire’s inoculation theory experienced substantial growth. Indeed, meta-analytic approaches have supported the hypothesis that exposure to inoculating messages is associated with greater resistance to attitude change with a small to moderate effect size (Banas & Rains, 2010). Inoculation theory has been applied to protect positive attitudes related to health behaviors, such as the protective utility of vaccinations (Wong & Harrison, 2014) and engagement in safe-sex practices (Parker et al., 2012). Examples such as these illustrate the role that attitude inoculation can play in our society, but how can inoculation theory explain this phenomenon from a social-cognitive perspective? The main components of the inoculation model are threat, counterarguing, and refuting (Compton, 2013; McGuire, 1964). If a persuasive message threatens a receiver's perceptions of the security of a held attitude, it is considered threatening (Compton, 2013). Threatening messages can further be subcategorized into messages that contain both implicit and explicit threats. Messages that present alternative viewpoints or challenges to an existing attitude are classified as implicit, whereas messages that directly signal direct persuasion are explicit threats (Compton, 2013; McGuire, 1964). Exposure to threats catalyzes the individual to search for further justification to support their extant attitude or position, prompting engagement in counterarguing and refutation. Counterarguing and refuting is the process of compiling responses and rebuttals to the content of a message that presents a threat to one's position or attitude. Although McGuire’s early work investigating inoculation and many studies following incorporated refutational pretreatments to support engagement in counterarguing processes, individuals can engage in counterarguing organically without immediate prompting (Compton, 2013). For example, suppose you are debating a political topic with a friend, and they make a statement that either implicitly or explicitly threatens your extant political attitude. In this situation, you will likely engage in counterarguing processes to maintain a consistent stance - searching for gaps in their logic or engaging in additional research to support your own political attitude. Research examining inoculation theory has identified various persuasive phenomena that can be understood through the framework of inoculation. One such occurrence is spreading inoculation, which occurs when the content of inoculation messages spreads throughout a social network (Compton & Pfau, 2009). As noted by Compton & Pfau (2009), attitude inoculation increases both the accessibility of an attitude (Pfau et al., 2003) and the willingness to discuss the inoculated attitude (Lin & Pfau, 2007). With these factors in mind, inoculation of an attitude may lead to the inoculated individual sharing their attitude more frequently with others, potentially prompting attitude threat for others in their network. With the advent of social media, some researchers suggest the potential for spreading inoculation to occur through virtual mediums such as social networks (Compton et al., 2021). The generalizability of inoculation within inoculation theory is another area that has received much attention within the attitude inoculation literature. Throughout a vast number of studies investigating the generalizability of attitude inoculation effects, meta-analytic approaches have found no significant differences in an attitude's resistance to persuasion between novel threats to an inoculated attitude and the originally refuted threat (Banas & Rains, 2010). In other words, if you were to successfully refute an attack on an attitude you hold, that same attitude would be more resistant to change from entirely different attacks. For example, if you hold the attitude “Devoting resources to protect the environment is a worthwhile endeavor,” and you successfully refute the attack “Protecting the environment is not worth the economic burden it carries with it,” then your attitude will also be more resistant to novel attacks such as “There is only so much we can do to protect the environment, so why bother?”. Because of the generalizability of inoculation across topographically different attitudinal attacks, some scholars have investigated alternative persuasive strategies to circumvent the extensive inoculation many individuals build throughout normal social interactions. One such approach is directly targeting values that underlie cognitive architecture supporting attitudes themselves. Indeed, indirectly attacking attitudes through related values is more effective than attacking attitudes themselves, potentially due to the fact that underlying values are threatened less frequently than attitudes (Bernard et al., 2003; Blankenship et al., 2015). As we go throughout our everyday lives, our own attitudes and beliefs are constantly being put to the test. Through repeated exposure to threats and repeated generation of refutations, our attitudes grow stronger and less susceptible to change. Take a moment to consider an attitude you hold, thinking back to a moment when it was challenged. Were you able to successfully refute the threat? Do you feel that your attitude was stronger because of it? This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. References Allen, M. (1991). Meta‐analysis comparing the persuasiveness of one‐sided and two‐sided messages. Western Journal of Speech Communication, 55(4), 390-404. Banas, J. A., & Rains, S. A. (2010). A meta-analysis of research on inoculation theory. Communication Monographs, 77(3), 281-311. Bernard, M. M., Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (2003). The vulnerability of values to attack: Inoculation of values and value-relevant attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(1), 63-75. Blankenship, K. L., Wegener, D. T., & Murray, R. A. (2015). Values, inter-attitudinal structure, and attitude change: Value accessibility can increase a related attitude’s resistance to change. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(12), 1739-1750. Compton, J. (2013). Inoculation theory. The SAGE handbook of persuasion: Developments in theory and practice, 2, 220-237. Compton, J., & Pfau, M. (2009). Spreading inoculation: Inoculation, resistance to influence, and word-of-mouth communication. Communication Theory, 19(1), 9-28. Compton, J., van der Linden, S., Cook, J., & Basol, M. (2021). Inoculation theory in the post‐truth era: Extant findings and new frontiers for contested science, misinformation, and conspiracy theories. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 15(6), e12602. Lin, W.-K., & Pfau, M. (2007). Can inoculation work against the spiral of silence: A study of public opinion on the future of Taiwan. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19, 155–172. McGuire, W. J., & Papageorgis, D. (1961). The relative efficacy of various types of prior belief-defense in producing immunity against persuasion. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62(2), 327. McGuire, W. J. (1961). Resistance to persuasion conferred by active and passive prior refutation of the same and alternative counterarguments. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(2), 326. McGuire, W. J. (1961). The effectiveness of supportive and refutational defenses in immunizing and restoring beliefs against persuasion. Sociometry, 24(2), 184-197. McGuire, W. J. (1964). Inducing resistance to persuasion. Some contemporary approaches. CC Haaland and WO Kaelber (Eds.), Self and Society. An Anthology of Readings, Lexington, Mass.(Ginn Custom Publishing) 1981, pp. 192-230. Parker, K. A., Ivanov, B., & Compton, J. (2012). Inoculation's efficacy with young adults' risky behaviors: can inoculation confer cross-protection over related but untreated issues?. Health communication, 27(3), 223-233. Pfau, M., Roskos-Ewoldsen, D., Wood, M., Yin, S., Cho, J., Lu, K. H., & Shen, L. (2003). Attitude accessibility as an alternative explanation for how inoculation confers resistance. Communication Monographs, 70(1), 39-51. Wong, N. C., & Harrison, K. J. (2014). Nuances in Inoculation: Protecting positive attitudes toward the HPV vaccine and the practice of vaccinating children. J. Women’s Health Issues Care, 3(6).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.879335	12/05/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/99263/overview", "title": "Inoculation Theory", "author": "Matt Andersland" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90656/overview	Japanese Cuisine Overview The Relationship between the Culture and Cuisine The Relationship Between a Society and Its Cuisine To learn about the lifestyle of people living in a society, one can look at cuisine of that society. One of the perfect examples of this relationship is Japanese cuisine, which is one of the most popular cuisines in the world. Japanese cuisine and the way of life of Japanese people are closely related. One can understand that the Japanese people attach importance to aesthetics and beauty in their daily life and occupations by looking at the way they present their dishes. The fact that they pay attention to the appearance and colour harmony of the dishes clearly shows that they like to be meticulous about the work they do. Just as the Japanese are trying to adopt a healthy lifestyle in daily life, they generally prefer to use less oil and spices in their meals; thus, they manage to preserve not only nutritional value of the food but also its flavour. Serving food in small portions suggests that they are a more minimalist society rather than extravagant. Just as they give importance to the balance in their daily life, they also pay attention to balance in their meals and use rice instead of bread as their main source of carbohydrates. The fact that they attach great importance to table manners shows that they are a society that takes care of their values. To give an example of table manners, chopsticks should not be stuck in a rice dish called Hashi. This is because sticking a chopstick in Hashi rice is a traditional movement that is done in funerals as a sign of respect, which shows that the Japanese people are a society that respects the dead. To sum up, by looking at Japanese culture, we can get many clues about the life of Japanese society and it can be understood that people's lifestyles are an element that deeply affects culinary culture.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.892475	Reading	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90656/overview", "title": "Japanese Cuisine", "author": "Lesson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26340/overview	Political Parties Overview Political Parties Introduction Introduction At some point, most of us have found ourselves part of a group trying to solve a problem, like picking a restaurant or movie to attend, or completing a big project at school or work. Members of the group probably had various opinions about what should be done. Some may have even refused to help make the decision or to follow it once it had been made. Still others may have been willing to follow along but were less interested in contributing to a workable solution. Because of this disagreement, at some point, someone in the group had to find a way to make a decision, negotiate a compromise, and ultimately do the work needed for the group to accomplish its goals. This kind of collective action problem is very common in societies, as groups and entire societies try to solve problems or distribute scarce resources. In modern U.S. politics, such problems are usually solved by two important types of organizations: interest groups and political parties. There are many interest groups, all with opinions about what should be done and a desire to influence policy. Because they are usually not officially affiliated with any political party, they generally have no trouble working with either of the major parties. But at some point, a society must find a way of taking all these opinions and turning them into solutions to real problems. That is where political parties come in. Essentially, political parties are groups of people with similar interests who work together to create and implement policies. They do this by gaining control over the government by winning elections. Party platforms guide members of Congress in drafting legislation. Parties guide proposed laws through Congress and inform party members how they should vote on important issues. Political parties also nominate candidates to run for state government, Congress, and the presidency. Finally, they coordinate political campaigns and mobilize voters. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, studens will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Describe political parties and what they do - Differentiate political parties from interest groups - Differentiate between the party in the electorate and the party organization - Discuss the importance of voting in a political party organization - Describe party organization at the county, state, and national levels - Compare the perspectives of the party in government and the party in the electorate - Understand the cultural backround of Texas’ political parties - Understand the historical dominance of the Democratic Party in Texas - Understand the rise of the Republican Party in Texas - Understand the current dominance of the Republican Party in Texas - Think about what the future holds for party politics in Texas Political Parties As Unique Organizations Political Parties As Unique Organizations In Federalist No. 10, written in the late eighteenth century, James Madison noted that the formation of self-interested groups, which he called factions, was inevitable in any society, as individuals started to work together to protect themselves from the government. Interest groups and political parties are two of the most easily identified forms of factions in the United States. These groups are similar in that they are both mediating institutions responsible for communicating public preferences to the government. They are not themselves government institutions in a formal sense. Neither is directly mentioned in the U.S. Constitution nor do they have any real, legal authority to influence policy. But whereas interest groups often work indirectly to influence our leaders, political parties are organizations that try to directly influence public policy through its members who seek to win and hold public office. Parties accomplish this by identifying and aligning sets of issues that are important to voters in the hopes of gaining support during elections; their positions on these critical issues are often presented in documents known as a party platform, which is adopted at each party’s presidential nominating convention every four years. If successful, a party can create a large enough electoral coalition to gain control of the government. Once in power, the party is then able to deliver, to its voters and elites, the policy preferences they choose by electing its partisans to the government. In this respect, parties provide choices to the electorate, something they are doing that is in such sharp contrast to their opposition. Winning elections and implementing policy would be hard enough in simple political systems, but in a country as complex as the United States, political parties must take on great responsibilities to win elections and coordinate behavior across the many local, state, and national governing bodies. Indeed, political differences between states and local areas can contribute much complexity. If a party stakes out issue positions on which few people agree and therefore builds too narrow a coalition of voter support, that party may find itself marginalized. But if the party takes too broad a position on issues, it might find itself in a situation where the members of the party disagree with one another, making it difficult to pass legislation, even if the party can secure victory. It should come as no surprise that the story of U.S. political parties largely mirrors the story of the United States itself. The United States has seen sweeping changes to its size, its relative power, and its social and demographic composition. These changes have been mirrored by the political parties as they have sought to shift their coalitions to establish and maintain power across the nation and as party leadership has changed. As you will learn later, this also means that the structure and behavior of modern parties largely parallel the social, demographic, and geographic divisions within the United States today. To understand how this has happened, we look at the origins of the U.S. party system. The Party-In-The-Electorate The Party-In-The-Electorate A key fact about the U.S. political party system is that it’s all about the votes. If voters do not show up to vote for a party’s candidates on Election Day, the party has no chance of gaining office and implementing its preferred policies. As we have seen, for much of their history, the two parties have been adapting to changes in the size, composition, and preferences of the U.S. electorate. It only makes sense, then, that parties have found it in their interest to build a permanent and stable presence among the voters. By fostering a sense of loyalty, a party can insulate itself from changes in the system and improve its odds of winning elections. The party-in-the-electorate are those members of the voting public who consider themselves to be part of a political party and/or who consistently prefer the candidates of one party over the other. What it means to be part of a party depends on where a voter lives and how much he or she chooses to participate in politics. At its most basic level, being a member of the party-in-the-electorate simply means a voter is more likely to voice support for a party. These voters are often called party identifiers, since they usually represent themselves in public as being members of a party, and they may attend some party events or functions. Party identifiers are also more likely to provide financial support for the candidates of their party during election season. This does not mean self-identified Democrats will support all the party’s positions or candidates, but it does mean that, on the whole, they feel their wants or needs are more likely to be met if the Democratic Party is successful. Party identifiers make up the majority of the voting public. Gallup, the polling agency, has been collecting data on voter preferences for the past several decades. Its research suggests that historically, over half of American adults have called themselves “Republican” or “Democrat” when asked how they identify themselves politically. Even among self-proclaimed independents, the overwhelming majority claim to lean in the direction of one party or the other, suggesting they behave as if they identified with a party during elections even if they preferred not to publicly pick a side. Partisan support is so strong that, in a poll conducted from August 5 to August 9, 2015, about 88 percent of respondents said they either identified with or, if they were independents, at least leaned toward one of the major political parties.[16] Thus, in a poll conducted in January 2016, even though about 42 percent of respondents said they were independent, this does not mean that they are not, in fact, more likely to favor one party over the other.[17] Strictly speaking, party identification is not quite the same thing as party membership. People may call themselves Republicans or Democrats without being registered as a member of the party, and the Republican and Democratic parties do not require individuals to join their formal organization in the same way that parties in some other countries do. Many states require voters to declare a party affiliation before participating in primaries, but primary participation is irregular and infrequent, and a voter may change his or her identity long before changing party registration. For most voters, party identification is informal at best and often matters only in the weeks before an election. It does matter, however, because party identification guides some voters, who may know little about a particular issue or candidate, in casting their ballots. If, for example, someone thinks of him- or herself as a Republican and always votes Republican, he or she will not be confused when faced with a candidate, perhaps in a local or county election, whose name is unfamiliar. If the candidate is a Republican, the voter will likely cast a ballot for him or her. Party ties can manifest in other ways as well. The actual act of registering to vote and selecting a party reinforces party loyalty. Moreover, while pundits and scholars often deride voters who blindly vote their party, the selection of a party in the first place can be based on issue positions and ideology. In that regard, voting your party on Election Day is not a blind act—it is a shortcut based on issue positions. The Party Organization The Party Organization A significant subset of American voters views their party identification as something far beyond simply a shortcut to voting. These individuals get more energized by the political process and have chosen to become more active in the life of political parties. They are part of what is known as the party organization. The party organization is the formal structure of the political party, and its active members are responsible for coordinating party behavior and supporting party candidates. It is a vital component of any successful party because it bears most of the responsibility for building and maintaining the party “brand.” It also plays a key role in helping select, and elect, candidates for public office. Local Organizations Since winning elections is the first goal of the political party, it makes sense that the formal party organization mirrors the local-state-federal structure of the U.S. political system. While the lowest level of party organization is technically the precinct, many of the operational responsibilities for local elections fall upon the county-level organization. The county-level organization is in many ways the workhorse of the party system, especially around election time. This level of organization frequently takes on many of the most basic responsibilities of a democratic system, including identifying and mobilizing potential voters and donors, identifying and training potential candidates for public office, and recruiting new members for the party. County organizations are also often responsible for finding rank and file members to serve as volunteers on Election Day, either as officials responsible for operating the polls or as monitors responsible for ensuring that elections are conducted honestly and fairly. They may also hold regular meetings to provide members the opportunity to meet potential candidates and coordinate strategy. Of course, all this is voluntary and relies on dedicated party members being willing to pitch in to run the party. State Organizations Most of the county organizations’ formal efforts are devoted to supporting party candidates running for county and city offices. But a fair amount of political power is held by individuals in statewide office or in state-level legislative or judicial bodies. While the county-level offices may be active in these local competitions, most of the coordination for them will take place in the state-level organizations. Like their more local counterparts, state-level organizations are responsible for key party functions, such as statewide candidate recruitment and campaign mobilization. Most of their efforts focus on electing high-ranking officials such as the governor or occupants of other statewide offices (e.g., the state’s treasurer or attorney general) as well as candidates to represent the state and its residents in the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives. The greater value of state- and national-level offices requires state organizations to take on several key responsibilities in the life of the party. First, state-level organizations usually accept greater fundraising responsibilities than do their local counterparts. Statewide races and races for national office have become increasingly expensive in recent years. The average cost of a successful House campaign was $1.2 million in 2014; for Senate races, it was $8.6 million.[18] While individual candidates are responsible for funding and running their own races, it is typically up to the state-level organization to coordinate giving across multiple races and to develop the staffing expertise that these candidates will draw upon at election time. State organizations are also responsible for creating a sense of unity among members of the state party. Building unity can be very important as the party transitions from sometimes-contentious nomination battles to the all-important general election. The state organization uses several key tools to get its members working together towards a common goal. First, it helps the party’s candidates prepare for state primary elections or caucuses that allow voters to choose a nominee to run for public office at either the state or national level. Caucuses are a form of town hall meeting at which voters in a precinct get together to voice their preferences, rather than voting individually throughout the day. Second, the state organization is also responsible for drafting a state platform that serves as a policy guide for partisans who are eventually selected to public office. These platforms are usually the result of a negotiation between the various coalitions within the party and are designed to ensure that everyone in the party will receive some benefits if their candidates win the election. Finally, state organizations hold a statewide convention at which delegates from the various county organizations come together to discuss the needs of their areas. The state conventions are also responsible for selecting delegates to the national convention. National Party Organization The local and state-level party organizations are the workhorses of the political process. They take on most of the responsibility for party activities and are easily the most active participants in the party formation and electoral processes. They are also largely invisible to most voters. The average citizen knows very little of the local party’s behavior unless there is a phone call or a knock on the door in the days or weeks before an election. The same is largely true of the activities of the state-level party. Typically, the only people who notice are those who are already actively engaged in politics or are being targeted for donations. But most people are aware of the presence and activity of the national party organizations for several reasons. First, many Americans, especially young people, are more interested in the topics discussed at the national level than at the state or local level. According to John Green of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics, “Local elections tend to be about things like sewers, and roads and police protection—which are not as dramatic an issue as same-sex marriage or global warming or international affairs.”[19] Presidential elections and the behavior of the U.S. Congress are also far more likely to make the news broadcasts than the activities of county commissioners, and the national-level party organization is mostly responsible for coordinating the activities of participants at this level. The national party is a fundraising army for presidential candidates and also serves a key role in trying to coordinate and direct the efforts of the House and Senate. For this reason, its leadership is far more likely to become visible to media consumers, whether they intend to vote or not. A second reason for the prominence of the national organization is that it usually coordinates the grandest spectacles in the life of a political party. Most voters are never aware of the numerous county-level meetings or coordinating activities. Primary elections, one of the most important events to take place at the state level, have a much lower turnout than the nationwide general election. In 2012, for example, only one-third of the eligible voters in New Hampshire voted in the state’s primary, one of the earliest and thus most important in the nation; however, 70 percent of eligible voters in the state voted in the general election in November 2012.[20] People may see or read an occasional story about the meetings of the state committees or convention but pay little attention. But the national conventions, organized and sponsored by the national-level party, can dominate the national discussion for several weeks in late summer, a time when the major media outlets are often searching for news. These conventions are the definition of a media circus at which high-ranking politicians, party elites, and sometimes celebrities, such as actor/director Clint Eastwood, along with individuals many consider to be the future leaders of the party are brought before the public so the party can make its best case for being the one to direct the future of the country.[21] National party conventions culminate in the formal nomination of the party nominees for the offices of president and vice president, and they mark the official beginning of the presidential competition between the two parties. In the past, national conventions were often the sites of high drama and political intrigue. As late as 1968, the identities of the presidential and/or vice-presidential nominees were still unknown to the general public when the convention opened. It was also common for groups protesting key events and issues of the day to try to raise their profile by using the conventions to gain the media spotlight. National media outlets would provide “gavel to gavel” coverage of the conventions, and the relatively limited number of national broadcast channels meant most viewers were essentially forced to choose between following the conventions or checking out of the media altogether. Much has changed since the 1960s, however, and between 1960 and 2004, viewership of both the Democratic National Convention and the Republican National Convention had declined by half.[22] National conventions are not the spectacles they once were, and this fact is almost certainly having an impact on the profile of the national party organization. Both parties have come to recognize the value of the convention as a medium through which they can communicate to the average viewer. To ensure that they are viewed in the best possible light, the parties have worked hard to turn the public face of the convention into a highly sanitized, highly orchestrated media event. Speakers are often required to have their speeches prescreened to ensure that they do not deviate from the party line or run the risk of embarrassing the eventual nominee—whose name has often been known by all for several months. And while protests still happen, party organizations have become increasingly adept at keeping protesters away from the convention sites, arguing that safety and security are more important than First Amendment rights to speech and peaceable assembly. For example, protestors were kept behind concrete barriers and fences at the Democratic National Convention in 2004.[23] With the advent of cable TV news and the growth of internet blogging, the major news outlets have found it unnecessary to provide the same level of coverage they once did. Between 1976 and 1996, ABC and CBS cut their coverage of the nominating conventions from more than fifty hours to only five. NBC cut its coverage to fewer than five hours.[24] One reason may be that the outcome of nominating conventions are also typically known in advance, meaning there is no drama. Today, the nominee’s acceptance speech is expected to be no longer than an hour, so it will not take up more than one block of prime-time TV programming. This is not to say the national conventions are no longer important, or that the national party organizations are becoming less relevant. The conventions, and the organizations that run them, still contribute heavily to a wide range of key decisions in the life of both parties. The national party platform is formally adopted at the convention, as are the key elements of the strategy for contesting the national campaign. And even though the media is paying less attention, key insiders and major donors often use the convention as a way of gauging the strength of the party and its ability to effectively organize and coordinate its members. They are also paying close attention to the rising stars who are given time at the convention’s podium, to see which are able to connect with the party faithful. Most observers credit Barack Obama’s speech at the 2004 Democratic National Convention with bringing him to national prominence.[25] The Party-In-Government The Party-In-Government THE PARTY-IN-GOVERNMENT One of the first challenges facing the party-in-government, or the party identifiers who have been elected or appointed to hold public office, is to achieve their policy goals. The means to do this is chosen in meetings of the two major parties; Republican meetings are called party conferences and Democrat meetings are called party caucuses. Members of each party meet in these closed sessions and discuss what items to place on the legislative agenda and make decisions about which party members should serve on the committees that draft proposed laws. Party members also elect the leaders of their respective parties in the House and the Senate, and their party whips. Leaders serve as party managers and are the highest-ranking members of the party in each chamber of Congress. The party whip ensures that members are present when a piece of legislation is to be voted on and directs them how to vote. The whip is the second-highest ranking member of the party in each chamber. Thus, both the Republicans and the Democrats have a leader and a whip in the House, and a leader and a whip in the Senate. The leader and whip of the party that holds the majority of seats in each house are known as the majority leader and the majority whip. The leader and whip of the party with fewer seats are called the minority leader and the minority whip. The party that controls the majority of seats in the House of Representatives also elects someone to serve as Speaker of the House. People elected to Congress as independents (that is, not members of either the Republican or Democratic parties) must choose a party to conference or caucus with. For example, Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who ran for Senate as an independent candidate, caucuses with the Democrats in the Senate. One problem facing the party-in-government relates to the design of the country’s political system. The U.S. government is based on a complex principle of separation of powers, with power divided among the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches. The system is further complicated by federalism, which relegates some powers to the states, which also have separation of powers. This complexity creates a number of problems for maintaining party unity. The biggest is that each level and unit of government has different constituencies that the office holder must satisfy. The person elected to the White House is more beholden to the national party organization than are members of the House or Senate,because members of Congress must be reelected by voters in very different states, each with its own state-level and county-level parties. Some of this complexity is eased for the party that holds the executive branch of government. Executive offices are typically more visible to the voters than the legislature, in no small part because a single person holds the office. Voters are more likely to show up at the polls and vote if they feel strongly about the candidate running for president or governor, but they are also more likely to hold that person accountable for the government’s failures.[26] Members of the legislature from the executive’s party are under a great deal of pressure to make the executive look good, because a popular president or governor may be able to help other party members win office. Even so, partisans in the legislature cannot be expected to simply obey the executive’s orders. First, legislators may serve a constituency that disagrees with the executive on key matters of policy. If the issue is important enough to voters, as in the case of gun control or abortion rights, an officeholder may feel his or her job will be in jeopardy if he or she too closely follows the party line, even if that means disagreeing with the executive. A good example occurred when the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which desegregated public accommodations and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, was introduced in Congress. The bill was supported by Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson, both of whom were Democrats. Nevertheless, many Republicans, such as William McCulloch, a conservative representative from Ohio, voted in its favor while many southern Democrats opposed it.[27] A second challenge is that each house of the legislature has its own leadership and committee structure, and those leaders may not be in total harmony with the president. Key benefits like committee appointments, leadership positions, and money for important projects in their home district may hinge on legislators following the lead of the party. These pressures are particularly acute for the majority party, so named because it controls more than half the seats in one of the two chambers. The Speaker of the House and the Senate majority leader, the majority party’s congressional leaders, have significant tools at their disposal to punish party members who defect on a particular vote. Finally, a member of the minority party must occasionally work with the opposition on some issues in order to accomplish any of his or her constituency’s goals. This is especially the case in the Senate, which is a super-majority institution. Sixty votes (of the 100 possible) are required to get anything accomplished because Senate rules allow individual members to block legislation via holds and filibusters. The only way to block the blocking is to invoke cloture, a procedure calling for a vote on an issue, which takes 60 votes. Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas Cultural Background Of Political Parties In Texas The 19th-century culture of Texas was heavily influenced by the plantation culture of the Old South, dependent on African-American slave labor, as well as the patron system once prevalent (and still somewhat present) in northern Mexico and South Texas. In these societies, the government’s primary role was seen as being the preservation of social order. Solving individual problems in society was seen as a local problem with the expectation that the individual with wealth should resolve his or her own issues. Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party Historical Dominance Of The Democratic Party From 1848 until Richard M. Nixon’s victory in 1972, Texas voted for the Democrat candidate for president in every election except 1928, when it did not support Catholic Al Smith. A full century of Democratic Governors stretched between the departure of Republican Governor E.J. Davis (1874) and the election of Republican William P. Clements (1979). The state had a white majority and Democrats re-established their dominance after the Civil War. In the mid-20th century 1952 and 1956 elections, the state voters joined the landslide for Dwight D. Eisenhower. (Texas did not vote in 1864 and 1868 due to the Civil War and Reconstruction). In the post-Civil War era, two of the most important Republican figures in Texas were African Americans George T. Ruby and Norris Wright Cuney. Ruby was a black community organizer, director in the federal Freedmen’s Bureau, and leader of the Galveston Union League. His protégé Cuney was a mulatto whose wealthy, white planter father freed him and his siblings before the Civil War and arranged for his education in Pennsylvania. Cuney returned and settled in Galveston, where he became active in the Union League and the Republican party; he rose to the leadership of the party. He became influential in Galveston and Texas politics and is widely regarded as one of the most influential black leaders in the South during the 19th century. From 1902 through 1965, Texas had virtually disenfranchised most blacks and many Latinos and poor whites by imposing the poll tax and white primaries. Across the South, Democrats controlled congressional apportionment based on total population, although they had disenfranchised the black population. The Solid South exercised tremendous power in Congress, and Democrats gained important committee chairmanships by seniority. They gained federal funding for infrastructure projects in their states and the region, as well as support for numerous military bases, as two examples of how they brought federal investment to the state and region. In the post-Reconstruction era, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Republican Party became non-competitive in the South, due to Democrat-dominated legislatures’ disenfranchisement of blacks and many poor whites and Latinos. In Texas, the Democrat-dominated legislature excluded them by passing a poll tax and the white primary. Voter turnout in Texas declined dramatically following these disenfranchisement measures, and Southern voting turnout was far below the national average. Although blacks made up 20 percent of the state population at the turn of the century, they were essentially excluded from formal politics. Republican support in Texas had been based almost exclusively in the free black communities, particularly in Galveston, and in the so-called “German counties” – the rural Texas Hill Country inhabited by German immigrants and their descendants, who had opposed slavery in the antebellum period. The German counties continued to run Republican candidates. Harry M. Wurzbach was elected from the 14th district from 1920 to 1926, contesting and finally winning the election of 1928, and being re-elected in 1930. Some of the most important American political figures of the 20th century, such as President Lyndon B. Johnson, Vice-President John Nance Garner, Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn, and Senator Ralph Yarborough were Texas Democrats. But, the Texas Democrats were rarely united, being divided into conservative, moderate and liberal factions that vied with one another for power. Republicans Rising Republicans Rising Some analysts suggest that the rebirth of the Republican Party in Texas among white conservatives can be traced to 1952 when Democrat Governor Allan Shivers clashed with the Truman Administration over the federal claim on the Tidelands. He worked to help Texas native General Dwight D. Eisenhower to carry the state. Eisenhower was generally highly respected due to his role as Commander of the Allies in World War II and was popular nationally, winning the election. Beginning in the late 1960s, Republican strength increased in Texas, particularly among residents of the expanding “country club suburbs” around Dallas and Houston. The election, to Congress, of Republicans such as John Tower (who had shifted from the Democrat Party) and George H. W. Bush in 1961 and 1966, respectively, reflected this trend. Nationally, outside of the South, Democrats supported the civil rights movement and achieved important passage of federal legislation in the mid-1960s. In the South, however, Democrat leaders had opposed changes to bring about black voting or desegregated schools and public facilities and in many places exercised resistance. After passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, southern white Democrats began to leave the party and join the Republicans, a movement accelerated after the next year, when Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965, providing for federal enforcement of minorities’ constitutional right to vote. Voter registration and turnout increased among blacks and Latinos in Texas and other states. Unlike the rest of the South, however, Texas voters were never especially supportive of the various third-party candidacies of Southern Democrats. It was the only state in the former Confederacy to back Democrat Hubert Humphrey in the 1968 presidential election. During the 1980s, a number of conservative Democrats defected to the GOP, including Senator Phil Gramm, Congressman Kent Hance, and GOP Governor Rick Perry, who was a Democrat during his time as a state lawmaker. John Tower’s 1961 election to the U.S. Senate made him the first statewide GOP officeholder since Reconstruction and the disenfranchisement of black Republicans. Republican Governor Bill Clements and Senator Phil Gramm (also a former Democrat) were elected after him. Republicans became increasingly dominant in national elections in white-majority Texas. The last Democrat presidential candidate to win the state was Jimmy Carter in 1976. Previously, a Democrat had to win Texas to win the White House, but in the 1992 election, Bill Clinton won the Oval Office while losing Texas electoral votes. This result significantly reduced the power of Texas Democrats at the national level, as party leaders believed the state had become unwinnable. Republican Dominance Republican Dominance Republicans control all statewide Texas offices, both houses of the state legislature and have a majority in the Texas congressional delegation. This makes Texas one of the most Republican states in the U.S. Despite overall Republican dominance, Austin, the state capital, is primarily Democrat, as are El Paso, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio, and the Rio Grande Valley. However, the suburbs of these cities remain heavily Republican. What Does The Future Hold? What Does The Future Hold? The Hispanic population had continued to increase, based on both natural increase and continued immigration from Mexico. It accounted for 38.1% of the state’s population as of 2011 (compared to 44.8% for non-Hispanic whites). The state’s changing demographics may result in a change in its overall political alignment, as most Hispanic and Latino voters support the Democrat Party. Mark Yzaguirre questioned forecasts of Democrat dominance by highlighting Governor Rick Perry’s courting of 39% of Hispanics in his victory in the 2010 Texas Gubernatorial election. Analysts with Gallup suggest that low turnout among Texas Hispanics is all that enables continued Republican dominance. In addition to the descendants of the state’s former slave population, the African American population in Texas is also increasing due to the New Great Migration; the majority supporting the Democrat party. Notes Notes CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution - Larry Sabato and Howard R. Ernst. 2007. Encyclopedia of American Political Parties and Elections. New York: Checkmark Books, 151. ↵ - Saul Cornell. 2016. The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America. Chapel Hill, NC: UNC Press, 11. ↵ - James H. Ellis. 2009. A Ruinous and Unhappy War: New England and the War of 1812. New York: Algora Publishing, 80. ↵ - Alexander Keyssar. 2009. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States. New York: Basic Books. ↵ - R. R. Stenberg, “Jackson, Buchanan, and the “Corrupt Bargain” Calumny,” The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography58, no. 1 (1934): 61–85. ↵ - 2009. “Democratic-Republican Party,” In UXL Encyclopedia of U.S. History, eds. Sonia Benson, Daniel E. Brannen, Jr., and Rebecca Valentine. Detroit: UXL, 435–436; “Jacksonian Democracy and Modern America,” http://www.ushistory.org/us/23f.asp (March 6, 2016). ↵ - Virginia Historical Society. “Elections from 1789–1828.” http://www.vahistorical.org/collections-and-resources/virginia-history-explorer/getting-message-out-presidential-campaign-0 (March 11, 2016). ↵ - William G. Shade. 1983. “The Second Party System.” In Evolution of American Electoral Systems, eds. Paul Kleppner, et al. Westport, CT: Greenwood Pres, 77–111. ↵ - Jules Witcover. 2003. Party of the People: A History of the Democrats. New York: Random House, 3. ↵ - Daniel Walker Howe. 2007. What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848. New York: Oxford University Press, 330-34. ↵ - Sean Wilentz. 2006. The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln. New York: Norton. ↵ - Calvin Jillson. 1994. “Patterns and Periodicity.” In The Dynamics of American Politics: Approaches and Interpretations, eds. Lawrence C. Dodd and Calvin C. Jillson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 38–41. ↵ - Norman Pollack. 1976. The Populist Response to Industrial America: Midwestern Populist Thought. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 11–12. ↵ - 1985. Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to U.S. Elections. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly Inc., 75–78, 387–388. ↵ - “Platform of the States Rights Democratic Party,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25851 (March 12, 2016). ↵ - “Party Affiliation,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/15370/party-affiliation.aspx (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Jeffrey L. Jones, “Democratic, Republican Identification Near Historical Lows,” http://www.gallup.com/poll/188096/democratic-republican-identification-near-historical-lows.aspx (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Russ Choma, “Money Won on Tuesday, But Rules of the Game Changed,” 5 November 2014, http://www.opensecrets.org/news/2014/11/money-won-on-tuesday-but-rules-of-the-game-changed/ (March 1, 2016). ↵ - Elizabeth Lehman, “Trend Shows Generation Focuses Mostly on Social, National Issues,” http://www.thenewsoutlet.org/survey-local-millennials-more-interested-in-big-issues/ (March 15, 2016). ↵ - “Voter Turnout,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Abdullah Halimah, “Eastwood, the Empty Chair, and the Speech Everyone’s Talking About,” 31 August 2012, http://www.cnn.com/2012/08/31/politics/eastwood-speech/ (March 14, 2016). ↵ - “Influence of Democratic and Republican Conventions on Opinions of the Presidential Candidates,” http://journalistsresource.org/studies/politics/elections/personal-individual-effects-presidential-conventions-candidate-evaluations (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Timothy Zick, “Speech and Spatial Tactics,” Texas Law Review February (2006): 581. ↵ - Thomas E. Patterson, “Is There a Future for On-the-Air Televised Conventions?” http://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/vv_conv_paper1.pdf (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Todd Leopold, “The Day America Met Barack Obama,” http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/05/obama.meeting/index.html?iref=werecommend (March 14, 2016). ↵ - Sidney R. Waldman. 2007. America and the Limits of the Politics of Selfishness. New York: Lexington Books, 27. ↵ - Alicia W. Stewart and Tricia Escobedo, “What You Might Not Know About the 1964 Civil Rights Act,” 10 April 2014, http://www.cnn.com/2014/04/10/politics/civil-rights-act-interesting-facts/ (March 16, 2016). ↵	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.934129	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26340/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Linkage Institutions, Political Parties", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26272/overview	Texas in the American Civil War Overview Texas in the American Civil War Introduction Introduction The U.S. state of Texas declared its secession from the United States of America on February 1, 1861, and joined the Confederate States on March 2, 1861, after it replaced its governor, Sam Houston, when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. As with those of other States, the Declaration was not recognized by the United States government at Washington. Some Texan military units fought in the Civil War east of the Mississippi River, but Texas was most useful for supplying soldiers and horses for Confederate forces. Texas’ supply role lasted until mid-1863, after which time Union gunboats controlled the Mississippi River, making large transfers of men, horses or cattle impossible. Some cotton was sold in Mexico, but most of the crop became useless because of the Union naval blockade of Galveston, Houston, and other ports. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand Texas’ role in the American Civil War - Understand the influence the American Civil War had on Texas - Understand the continuing influence the American Civil has on contemporary Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand Texas’ role in the American Civil War - Understand the influence the American Civil War had on Texas - Understand the continuing influence the American Civil has on contemporary Texas Secession Secession In the late winter of 1860, Texan counties sent delegates to a special convention to debate the merits of secession. The convention adopted an “Ordinance of Secession” by a vote of 166 to 8, which was ratified by a popular referendum on February 23.1 Separately from the Ordinance of Secession, which was considered a legal document, Texas also issued a declaration of causes spelling out the rationale for declaring secession.2 The document specifies several reasons for secession, including its solidarity with its “sister slave-holding States,” the U.S. government’s inability to prevent Indian attacks, slave-stealing raids, and other border-crossing acts of banditry. It accuses northern politicians and abolitionists of committing a variety of outrages upon Texans. The bulk of the document offers justifications for slavery saying that remaining a part of the United States would jeopardize the security of the two. The declaration includes this extract praising slavery, in which the Union itself is referred to as the “confederacy”: We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. — Texas Secession Convention, A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union, (February 1861).3 At this time, African Americans comprised 30 percent of the state’s population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved. According to one Texan, keeping them enslaved was the primary goal of the state in joining the Confederacy: Independence without slavery, would be valueless… The South without slavery would not be worth a mess of pottage. — Caleb Cutwell, letter to the Galveston Tri-Weekly, (February 22, 1865).4 Secession Convention and the Confederacy Secession Convention and the Confederacy Following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860, public opinion in the cotton states of the Lower South (South Carolina through Texas) swung in favor of secession. By February 1861, the other six states of the sub-region had separately passed ordinances of secession. However, events in Texas were delayed, largely due to the resistance of Southern Unionist governor, Sam Houston. Unlike the other “cotton states”‘ chief executives, who took the initiative in secessionist efforts, Houston refused to call the Texas Legislature into special session to consider the question, relenting only when it became apparent citizens were prepared to act without him. In early December 1860, before South Carolina even seceded, a group of State officials published via newspaper a call for a statewide election of convention delegates on January 8, 1861. This election was highly irregular, even for the standards of the day. It often relied on voice vote at public meetings, although “viva voce” (voice) voting for popular elections had been used since at least March 1846, less than three months after statehood.5 Unionists were often discouraged from attending or chose not to participate. This resulted in lopsided representation of secessionists delegates.6 The election call had stipulated for the delegates to assemble in convention on January 28. Houston called the Legislature into session, hoping that the elected body would declare the unauthorized convention illegal.7 On January 21, 1861, the Legislature met in Austin and was addressed by Houston. Calling Lincoln’s election “unfortunate,” he nonetheless emphasized, in a reference to the upcoming meeting of the secession convention, it was no justification for “rash action”. However, the Texas Legislature voted the delegates’ expense money and supplies and—over Houston’s veto—made a pledge to uphold the legality of the Convention’s actions. The only stipulation was that the people of Texas have the final say in referendum. With gubernatorial forces routed, the Secession Convention convened on January 28 and, in the first order of business, voted to back the legislature 140–28 in that an ordinance of secession, if adopted, be submitted for statewide consideration. The following day, convention president Oran Roberts introduced a resolution suggesting Texas leave the Union. The ordinance was read on the floor the next day, citing the failures of the federal government to protect the lives and property of Texas citizens and accusing the Northern states of using the same as a weapon to “strike down the interests and prosperity”8 of the Southern people. After the grievances were listed, the ordinance repealed the one of July 4, 1845, in which Texas approved annexation by the United States and the Constitution of the United States, and revoked all powers of, obligations to, and allegiance to, the U.S. federal government and the U.S. Constitution.9 In the interests of historical significance and posterity, the ordinance was written to take effect on March 2, the date of Texas Declaration of Independence (and, coincidentally, Houston’s birthday). On February 1, members of the Legislature, and a huge crowd of private citizens, packed the House galleries and balcony to watch the final vote on the question of secession. Seventy “yea” votes were recorded before there was a single “nay.” One of the negative votes is enshrined in Texas history books. James Webb Throckmorton, from Collin County in North Texas, in response to the roar of hisses and boos and catcalls which greeted his decision, retorted, “When the rabble hiss, well may patriots tremble.” Appreciating his style, the crowd afforded him a grudging round of applause (like many Texans who initially opposed secession, Throckmorton accepted the result and served his state, rising to the rank of brigadier-general in the Confederate army).10 The final tally for secession was 166–7, a vote whose legality was upheld by the Texas Legislature on February 7. Other than in South Carolina, where the vote was unanimous, this was the highest percentage of any other state of the Lower South. On February 7, the Legislature ordered a referendum to be held on the ordinance under the direction of the convention.11 The decision was further affirmed on February 23 when a statewide referendum resulted in Texas voters approving the measure, 46,129 to 14,697. The last order of business was to appoint a delegation to represent Texas in Montgomery, Alabama, where their counterparts from the other six seceding states were meeting to form a new Confederacy. On March 4, the convention assembled again to formally declare Texas out of the Union and to approve the “Constitution of the Confederate States of America”, which had been drawn up by its “Provisional Congress” (as it turned out, Texas had already been admitted into the fold on March 1). In March, George Williamson, the Louisianan state commissioner, addressed the Texan secession convention, where he called upon Texas and the slave states of the U.S. to declare secession from the Union in order to continue the institution of slavery: With the social balance wheel of slavery to regulate its machinery, we may fondly indulge the hope that our Southern government will be perpetual… Louisiana looks to the formation of a Southern confederacy to preserve the blessings of African slavery… — George Williamson, speech to the Texan secession convention, (March 1861).12 Governor Sam Houston accepted secession but asserted that the Convention had no power to link the state with the new Southern Confederacy. Instead, he urged that Texas revert to its former status as an independent republic and stay neutral. Houston took his seat on March 16, the date state officials were scheduled to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy. He remained silent as his name was called out three times and, after failing to respond, the office of governor was declared vacant and Houston was deposed from office. Seizure of Federal Property and Arms Seizure of Federal Property and Arms After Texas passed its Ordinance of Secession, the state government appointed four men as “Commissioners of Public Safety” to negotiate with the federal government for the safe transfer of military installations and bases in Texas to the Confederates. Along with land baron Samuel A. Maverick and Thomas J. Devine, Dr. Philip N. Luckett met with U.S. Army General David E. Twiggs on February 8, 1861, to arrange the surrender of the federal property in San Antonio, including the military stores being housed in the old Alamo mission. As a result of the negotiations, Twiggs delivered his entire command and its associated Army property (10,000 rifled muskets) to the Confederacy, an act that brought cries of treason from Unionists throughout the state.[13 Almost immediately, Twiggs was dismissed from the U.S. Army by President Buchanan for “treachery to the flag of his country.” Shortly afterwards, he accepted a commission as general in the Confederate Army but was so upset by being branded a traitor that he wrote a letter to Buchanan stating the intention to call upon him for a “personal interview” (then a common euphemism to fight a duel).[14 Future Confederate general Robert E. Lee, then still a colonel in the U.S. Army, was in San Antonio at the time and when he heard the news of the surrender to Texas authorities, responded, “Has it come so soon as this?”[15] Unionist Sentiment and Opposition to the Confederacy Unionist Sentiment and Opposition to the Confederacy Despite the prevailing view of the vast majority of the state’s politicians and the delegates to the Secession Convention, there were a significant number of Texans who opposed secession. The referendum on the issue indicated that some 25% favored remaining in the Union at the time the question was originally considered. The largest concentration of anti-secession sentiment was among the German Texan population in the Texas Hill Country, and in some of the counties of North Texas. In the latter region, most of the residents were originally from states of the Upper South. Some of the leaders initially opposed to secession accepted the Confederate cause once the matter was decided, some withdrew from public life, others left the state, and a few even joined the Union army.[16] Confederate conscription laws forced most men of military age into the Confederate army, regardless of their sentiment. However, at least 2000 Texans joined the Union ranks.[17] Many Unionists were executed.[18] Conscription into the Confederate Army was unacceptable to many Unionists and some attempted to flee from Texas. Capt. James Duff, Confederate provost marshal for the Hill Country, executed two Unionists, prompting flight.[19] In August 1862, Confederate soldiers under Lt. Colin D. McRae tracked down a band of German Texans headed out of state and attacked their camp in a bend of the Nueces River. After a pitched battle that resulted in the deaths of two Confederates and the wounding of McRae and eighteen of his men, the Unionists were routed. Approximately 19 Unionists were killed in the fighting.[20] After the battle 9 to 11 of the wounded Unionists were murdered with shots to the head in what became known as the Nueces massacre. Another nine Unionists were pursued and executed in the following weeks.[21] Future Republican congressman Edward Degener was the father of two men who were murdered in the massacre.[22] The German population around Austin County, led by Paul Machemehl, was successful in reaching Mexico. In October 1862, approximately 150 settlers in and around Cooke County on the Red River were arrested by the 11th Texas Cavalry led by Colonel William C. Young on the orders of Colonel James Bourland, Confederate Provost Marshal for northern Texas. A court was convened in Gainesville to try them for allegedly plotting to seize the arsenals at Sherman and Gainesville and to kill their Confederate neighbors, seize their property, and to cooperate with Union army forces poised to invade northern Texas from Arkansas and/or Indian Territory. Several of the settlers were hanged in what is now downtown Gainesville during the first week of October. Nineteen additional men were found guilty and hanged before the end of the month. A total of about forty Unionists were hanged in Gainesville, two were shot while trying to escape, and two more were hanged elsewhere after being turned over to a military tribunal. Under the primitive conditions on the Texas frontier during the Civil War, evidence against the accused was questionable, and the legal proceedings were highly imperfect. A granite monument in a small park marks the spot where the hangings took place.[23] The Confederacy’s conscription act proved controversial, not only in Texas but all across the South. Despite the referendum result, some opponents argued that the war was being fought by poor people on behalf of a few wealthy slave owners. The Act exempted from the draft men who owned fifteen or more slaves.[24] Draft resistance was widespread especially among Texans of German or Mexican descent; many of the latter went to Mexico. Potential draftees went into hiding, Confederate officials hunted them down, and many were shot or captured and forced into the army.[25] Sam Houston Sam Houston Sam Houston was the premier Southern Unionist in Texas. While he argued for slave property rights and deplored the election of the Lincoln Administration, he considered secession unconstitutional and thought secession at that moment in time was a “rash action” that was certain to lead to a conflict favoring the industrial and populated North. He predicted: “Let me tell you what is coming. After the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it. I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South.”[26] Houston rejected the actions of the Texas Secession Convention, believing it had overstepped its authority in becoming a member state of the newly formed Confederacy. He refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy and was deposed from office. In a speech he wrote, but did not deliver, he said: Fellow-Citizens, in the name of your rights and liberties, which I believe have been trampled upon, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the nationality of Texas, which has been betrayed by the Convention, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of the Constitution of Texas, I refuse to take this oath. In the name of my own conscience and manhood, which this Convention would degrade by dragging me before it, to pander to the malice of my enemies, I refuse to take this oath. I deny the power of this Convention to speak for Texas….I protest….against all the acts and doings of this convention and I declare them null and void.[27] After his ouster from the governor’s office, Houston maintained a low public profile until his death in July 1863. Before he died, Houston wrote a friend: “There comes a time a man’s section is his country…I stand with mine. I was a conservative citizen of the United States…I am now a conservative citizen of the Southern Confederacy.”[28] Military Recruitment Military Recruitment Over 70,000 Texans served in the Confederate army and Texas regiments fought in every major battle throughout the war. Some men were veterans of the Mexican–American War; a few had served in the earlier Texas Revolution. The state furnished the Confederacy with 45 regiments of cavalry, 23 regiments of infantry, 12 battalions of cavalry, 4 battalions of infantry, 5 regiments of heavy artillery, and 30 batteries of light artillery. The state maintained at its own expense some additional troops that were for home defense. These included 5 regiments and 4 battalions of cavalry, and 4 regiments and one battalion of infantry. In 1862 the Confederate Congress in Richmond, Virginia, passed a conscription law that ordered all men from 18 to 45 years of age to be placed into military service except ministers, state, city, county officers, and certain slave owners; all persons holding 20 slaves or more were exempt from Confederate conscription under the “Twenty Negro Law.”[29] When the first companies of Texas soldiers reached Richmond, Virginia, Confederate President Jefferson Davis greeted them with the words: “Texans! The troops of other states have their reputations to gain, but the sons of the defenders of the Alamo have theirs to maintain. I am assured that you will be faithful to the trust.”[30] “The Texas Brigade” (also known as “Hood’s Brigade”) was a unit composed of the 1st, 4th and 5th Texas infantry regiments augmented at times by the 18th Georgia Infantry and Hampton’s (South Carolina) Legion until they were permanently teamed with the 3rd Arkansas Infantry. Often serving as “shock troops” of General Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia, the Texas Brigade was “always favorites” of General Lee and on more than one occasion Lee praised their fighting qualities, remarking that none had brought greater honor to their native state than “my Texans.” Hood’s men suffered severe casualties in a number of fights, most notably at the Battle of Antietam, where they faced off with Wisconsin’s Iron Brigade, and at Gettysburg, where they assaulted Houck’s Ridge and then Little Round Top. “Walker’s Greyhound Division” was a division composed of four brigades with Texan units; the only division in the Confederate States Army that maintained its single-state composition throughout the War. Formed in 1862 under command of Major General John George Walker it fought in the Western Theater and the Trans-Mississippi Department, and was considered an elite backbone of the army. Detached from the division in 1863, the 4th brigade fought at the Battle of Arkansas Post, where it became isolated and was forced to surrender. A new fourth brigade was added the division in 1865. Among the most famous mounted units were Terry’s Texas Rangers, a militia of former rangers and frontiersmen, many of whom later became peacekeepers in the Old West; and the 33rd Texas Cavalry Regiment of Colonel Santos Benavides, which guarded the Confederate cotton trade lines from Texas into northern Mexico. Over 2,000 Texas men joined the Union Army. Notable among them was future Texas governor Edmund J. Davis who initially commanded the Union Army’s 1st Texas Cavalry and rose to the rank of brigadier general. Texas’s relatively large German population around Austin County led by Paul Machemehl tried to remain neutral in the War but eventually left Confederate Texas for Mexico. East Texas gave the most support to secession, and the only East Texas counties in which significant numbers of people opposed secession were Angelina County, Fannin County, and Lamar County, although these counties supplied many men to Texas regiments, including the 9th Texas Infantry Regiment; the 1st Partisan Rangers; 3rd, 4th, 9th, 27th, and 29th Texas Cavalry; and the 9th Texas Field Battery. In 1862, Abraham Lincoln named a former United States Congressman, Andrew J. Hamilton, as the Military Governor of Texas. Hamilton held the title throughout the War. During the early stages of Reconstruction Hamilton was named as the first provisional civilian governor. For a time thereafter, active-duty U.S. Army officers served as military governors of Texas. Years into the war, one Confederate soldier from Texas gave his reasons for fighting for the Confederacy, stating that “we are fighting for our property”, whereas Union soldiers were fighting for the “flimsy and abstract idea that a negro is equal to an Anglo.”[31] Battles in Texas Battles in Texas Texas did not experience many significant battles. However, the Union mounted several attempts to capture the “Trans-Mississippi” regions of Texas and Louisiana from 1862 until the war’s end. With ports to the east captured or under blockade, Texas in particular became a blockade-running haven. Referred to as the “backdoor” of the Confederacy, Texas and western Louisiana continued to provide loads of harvested cottonthat were transported overland to the Mexican border town of Matamoros, Tamaulipas and shipped to Europe in exchange for supplies. Determined to shut off this trade, the Union mounted several attacks, each of them unsuccessful. Texas Occupation Texas Occupation The U.S. Navy blockaded the principal seaport, Galveston, for four years, and federal infantry occupied the city for three months in late 1862. Confederate troops under Gen. John B. Magruder recaptured the city on January 1, 1863 and it remained in Confederate hands until the end of the war. A few days later the Confederate raider CSS Alabama attacked and sank the USS Hatteras in a naval engagement off the coast of Galveston. A few other cities also fell to Union troops at times during the war, including Port Lavaca, Indianola, and Brownsville. Federal attempts to seize control of Laredo, Corpus Christi, and Sabine Pass failed. By the end of the war no territory but Brazos Island and El Paso was in Union hands. The California Column occupied the region around El Paso from 1862 to the end of the war. The most notable military battle in Texas during the war happened on September 8, 1863. At the Second Battle of Sabine Pass, a small garrison of 46 Confederates from the mostly-Irish Davis Guards under Lt. Richard W. Dowling, 1st Texas Heavy Artillery, defeated a much larger Union force from New Orleans under Gen. William B. Franklin. Skilled gunnery by Dowling’s troops disabled the lead ships in Franklin’s flotilla, prompting the remainder—4,000 men on 27 ships—to retreat back to New Orleans. This victory against such overwhelming odds resulted in the Confederate Congress passing a special resolution of recognition, and the only contemporary military decoration of the South, the Davis Guard Medal. CSA President Jefferson Davis stated, “Sabine Pass will stand, perhaps for all time, as the greatest military victory in the history of the world.” In 1864, many Texas forces, including a division under Camille de Polignac, a French prince and Confederate general, moved into Northwestern Louisiana to stall Union Maj. Gen. Nathaniel Banks’ Red River Campaign, which was intended to advance into Texas from its eastern border. Confederate forces halted the expedition at the Battle of Mansfield, just east of the Texas border. Union forces from Brazos Island launched the Brazos Santiago Expedition, leading to the last battle of the Civil War, the Battle of Palmito Ranch, fought in Texas on May 12, 1865, well after Robert E. Lee’s surrender on April 9, 1865, at Old Appomattox Court House, Virginia. Collapse of Confederate Authority in Texas Collapse of Confederate Authority in Texas In the spring of 1865, Texas contained over 60,000 soldiers of the Army of the Trans-Mississippi under General Edmund Kirby Smith. As garrison troops far removed from the main theaters of the war, morale had deteriorated to the point of frequent desertion and thievery. News of the surrender of Lee and other Confederate generals east of the Mississippi finally reached Texas around April 20. Local Confederate authorities had mixed opinions on their future course of action. Most senior military leaders vowed to press on with the war, including commanding general Kirby Smith. Many soldiers, however, greeted frequent speeches whose theme was “fight on, boys” with derision, or simply failed to attend them. The month of May brought increasing rates of desertion. News of Joseph E. Johnston’s and Richard Taylor’s surrenders confirmed that Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas were now essentially alone to continue the Confederate cause. On May 14, troops in Galveston briefly mutinied, but were persuaded to remain under arms. However, morale continued to sink. Generals John B. Magruder and Kirby Smith (who had already corresponded with Union Maj. Gen. John Pope regarding surrender terms on May 9) no longer sought to rally their demoralized troops, but rather began discussing the distribution of Confederate government property. Magruder pleaded that the rapid disbanding of the army would prevent depredations by disgruntled soldiers against the civilian population. The haste to disband the army, combined with the pressing need to protect Confederate property from Union confiscation, created general mayhem. Soldiers began openly pillaging the Galveston quartermasters stores on May 21. Over the next few days, a mob demanded that a government warehouse be opened to them, and soldiers detained and plundered a train. Several hundred civilians sacked the blockade runner Lark when it docked on May 24, and troops sent to pacify the crowd soon joined in the plunder. On May 23, residents in Houston sacked the ordnance building and the clothing bureau. Riots continued in the city until May 26. Both government and private stores were raided extensively in Tyler, Marshall, Huntsville, Gonzales, Hempstead, La Grange, and Brownsville. In Navasota, a powder explosion cost eight lives and flattened twenty buildings. In Austin, the State Treasury was raided and $17,000 in gold was stolen. By May 27, half of the original confederate forces in Texas had deserted or been disbanded, and formal order had disappeared into lawlessness in many areas of Texas. The formal remnants of Kirby Smith’s army had finally disintegrated by the end of May. Upon his arrival in Houston from Shreveport, the general called a court of inquiry to investigate the “causes and manner of the disbandment of the troops in the District of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona.” The May 30 findings laid the blame primarily on the civilian population. Kirby Smith addressed his few remaining soldiers and condemned those that had fled for not struggling to the last and leaving him “a commander without an army– a General without troops.” On June 2, he formally surrendered what was left of the Army of the “Trans-Mississippi.” Notable Civil War Leaders From Texas Notable Civil War Leaders From Texas A number of notable leaders were associated with Texas during the Civil War. John Bell Hood gained fame as the commander of the Texas Brigade in the Army of Northern Virginia and played a prominent role as an army commander late in the war. “Sul” Ross was a significant leader in a number of “Trans-Mississippi” Confederate armies. Felix Huston Robertson was the only native Texan Confederate general. Capt. TJ Goree was one of Lt. General James Longstreet’s most trusted aides. John H. Reagan was an influential member of Jefferson Davis’s cabinet. Col. Santos Benavides was a Confederate colonel during the American Civil War. Benavides was the highest-ranking Tejano soldier to serve in the Confederate military. The office of Governor of Texas was in flux throughout the war, with several men in power at various times. Sam Houston was governor when Texas seceded from the United States, but refused to declare any loyalty to the new Confederacy. He was replaced by Lieutenant Governor Edward Clark. Clark filled the rest of Houston’s term in 1861, and narrowly lost re-election by just 124 votes to Francis Lubbock. During his tenure, Lubbock supported Confederate conscription, working to draft all able-bodied men, including resident aliens, into the Confederate army. When Lubbock’s term ended in 1863, he joined the military. Ardent secessionist Pendleton Murrah replaced him in office. Even after Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, Murrah encouraged Texans to continue the revolution, and he and several supporters fled to Mexico. Lingering Effects Lingering Effects The effects of the American Civil War linger even after 150 years have passed. It’s not uncommon to see the Confederate flag (especially the “Confederate Battle Flag”) and there are dozens of statues, monuments, and schools named after Confederate leaders. The controversy over these elements rages today. Notes Notes - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union". Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 2008. - "A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union". Avalon Project. Yale Law School. 2008. - Cutwell, Caleb (February 22, 1865). "Letter to the Galveston Tri-Weekly". Civil War Talk. Texas. Retrieved September 13, 2015. - An Act to direct the mode of voting in all popular elections, approved March 19, 1846. Gammel, H.P.N., ed. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822-1897. 2. University of North Texas. p. 1318. - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - Buenger, Walter L. (March 8, 2011). "Secession Convention". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - "An Ordinance: To dissolve the union between the State of Texas and the other States, united under the compact styled "The Constitution of the United States of America." Adopted in Convention, at Austin City, the first day of February, A.D. 1861." Narrative History of Texas Secessionand Readmission to the Union. Austin. August 24, 2011. - "An Ordinance: To dissolve the union between the State of Texas and the other States, united under the compact styled "The Constitution of the United States of America." Adopted in Convention, at Austin City, the first day of February, A.D. 1861." Narrative History of Texas Secessionand Readmission to the Union. Austin. August 24, 2011. - Minor, David (November 1, 2011). "Throckmorton, James Webb". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - An Act to provide for submitting the Ordinance of Secession to a vote of the People, approved February 7, 1861. Gammel, H.P.N., ed. (1898). The Laws of Texas, 1822-1897. 5. University of North Texas. pp. 347–348. - Winkler, E.W. (1861). Journal of the Secession Convention of Texas. Texas. Retrieved September 8, 2015. - Roberts, O.M. (1899). Evans, Clement A., ed. Texas. Confederate Military History. XI. Atlanta, Georgia: Confederate Publishing Company. pp. 20–22. - "General Twiggs and Buchanan". The New York Times. May 13, 1861. - Freeman, Douglas S. (1934). "R. E. Lee, A Biography". Charles Scribner's Sons. Retrieved May 20, 2008. - Enter your footnote content here. - "Civil War". Texas Military Forces Museum. Retrieved November 5, 2015. - Wooster, Ralph A. (March 4, 2011). "Civil War". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. - McGowen, Stanley S. (July 2000). "Battle or Massacre? The Incident on the Nueces, August 10, 1862". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 104 (1): 64–86. JSTOR 30241669. - Campbell, Randolph B. (2003). Gone to Texas: A History of the Lone Star State. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-1998-8138-3. - "Lamar W. Henkins: German Freethinkers and the Massacre at the Nueces". The Rag Blog. August 15, 2012. - Foner, Eric (March 1989). "The South's Inner Civil War: The more fiercely the Confederacy fought for its independence, the more bitterly divided it became. To fully understand the vast changes the war unleashed on the country, you must first understand the plight of the Southerners who didn't want secession". American Heritage. Vol. 40 no. 2. American Heritage Publishing Company. p. 5. Archived from the original on January 3, 2015. Retrieved December 18, 2013. - McCaslin, Richard B. (June 15, 2010). "Great Hanging at Gainesville". Handbook of Texas Online. Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 22 November 2014. - Texas in the Civil War: A Capsule History Archived August 20, 2006, at the Wayback Machine. - Elliott, Claude (1947). "Union Sentiment in Texas 1861-1865". Southwestern Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 50 (4): 449–477. JSTOR 30237490. - Williams, Alfred Mason (1893). Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas. Houghton, Mifflin and Company. p. 354. - Haley, James l. (2004). Sam Houston. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 390–391. ISBN 978-0-8061-5214-1. - Houston, General (June 2, 1861). "Gen. Houston's Position". The New York Times. Retrieved July 11, 2011. - Loewen, James W. (2007). Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong. New York: The New Press. pp. 224–226. ISBN 978-1-56584-100-0. OCLC 29877812. Retrieved January 19, 2016. - McComb, David G. (1989). Texas, a modern history. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-292-74665-2. - McPherson, James M. (1997). For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War. New York City, New York: Oxford University Press, Inc. p. 117. ISBN 0-19-509-023-3. OCLC 34912692. Retrieved March 8, 2016. - Clampitt, Brad R. (April 2005). "The Breakup: The Collapse of the Confederate Trans-Mississippi Army in Texas, 1865". Southwest Historical Quarterly. Texas State Historical Association. 108 (4). JSTOR 30240424. - "An Act to admit the State of Texas to Representation in the Congress of the United States". Texas State Archives and Library Commission. Retrieved August 24, 2011.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:29.978204	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26272/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas History and Culture, Texas in the American Civil War", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26341/overview	Party Identification Overview Party Identification Introduction Introduction Party identification refers to the political party with which an individual identifies. Party identification is loyalty to a political party. Party identification is typically determined by the political party that an individual most commonly supports (by voting or other means). This section explores this phenomenon. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Define party identification - Understand how party identification is measured - Understand the importance of party identification - Understand the distribution of party identification in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define party identification - Understand how party identification is measured - Understand the importance of party identification - Understand the distribution of party identification in Texas Party Identification Party Identification Some researchers view party identification as “a form of social identity,” or a psychological attachment in the same way that a person identifies with a religious or ethnic group. This identity develops early in a person’s life mainly through family and social influences. This description would make party identification a stable perspective, which develops as a consequence of personal, family, social and environmental factors. Other researchers consider party identification to be more flexible and more of a conscious choice. They see it as a position and a choice based on the continued assessment of the political, economic and social environment. Party identification can increase or even shift by motivating events or conditions in the country, A number of studies have found that a partisan lens affects how a person perceives the world. Partisan voters judge character flaws more harshly in rival candidates than their own, believe the economy is doing better if their own side is in power, and underplay scandals and failures of their own side. Measuring Party Identification Measuring Party Identification It is important to measure party identification in order to determine its strengths and weaknesses. Political scientists have developed many ways to measure party identification in order to examine and evaluate it. One method of measuring party identification uses the Likert Scale, a 7-point scale to measure party identification, with Strong Democrat on one extreme and Strong Republican at the other. In between the two extremes are the classifications of “Lean Democrat/Republican” and “Weak Democrat/Republican.” The Importance of Party Identification The Importance of Party Identification Political scientists often refer to party identification as a “vote determinant.” Those people who identify with a party tend to vote for their party’s candidate for various offices in high percentages. Those who consider themselves to be strong partisans, strong Democrats and strong Republicans respectively, tend to be the most faithful in voting for their party’s nominee for office. In the case of voting for president, since the 1970s, party identification on voting behavior has been increasing significantly. By the late 1990s, party identification on voting behavior was at the highest level of any election since the 1950s. When voting in congressional elections, the trend is similar. Strong party identifiers voted overwhelmingly for their party’s nominee in the general election. It is important to note that each party respectively in certain elections, would have stronger voting behavior of their strongest party identifiers. For instance, in the years the Democrats dominated House and Senate elections in the 1970s and 1980s, it can be explained that their strong party identifiers were more loyal in voting for their party’s nominee for Congress than the Republicans were. The same level of voting behavior can also be applied to state and local levels. While straight-ticket voting has declined among the general voting population, it is still prevalent in those who are strong Republicans and strong Democrats. According to Paul Allen Beck and colleagues, “the stronger an individual’s party identification was, the more likely he or she was to vote a straight ticket.” The Distribution Of Party Identification In Texas The Distribution Of Party Identification In Texas Using the methodology described above, the University of Texas/Texas Tribune’s February 2018 Poll asked respondents about their party identification. The graphic below relays the results.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.000413	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26341/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Linkage Institutions, Party Identification", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview	Elections Overview Elections Introduction Introduction The Texas Secretary of State serves as Chief Election Officer for Texas, assisting county election officials and ensuring the uniform application and interpretation of election laws throughout Texas. This section explore Texas' elections. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses four types of elections: - Primary Elections - Runoff Elections - General Elections - Special Elections Primary Elections A primary election is an election used either to narrow the field of candidates for a given elective office or to determine the nominees for political parties in advance of a general election. State law, not federal, regulates most aspects of primary (as well as general) elections, and local election officials (county, city, and township) are predominantly responsible for administering them. Runoff Elections A runoff election is held when no candidate gets 50 percent plus one vote in the primary election. Primary elections often have multiple candidates vying to represent a party in the general election and it’s not uncommon that a single candidate fails to win 50 percent plus one vote. In such a case there is a runoff election between the top two vote-getters. General Elections General elections are elections held at any level (e.g. city, county, congressional district, state) that involve competition between at least two parties. General elections determine the final winner–the candidate to take office. The candidate obtaining the most votes (even if not necessarily a majority of votes) wins. Special Elections Special elections are used for constitutional amendments or to fill elected offices that have become vacant between general elections. In most cases, these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office. Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature. Types of Primaries Types of Primaries Among the fifty states, there are several different types of primary elections: - Closed primary. People may vote in a party’s primary only if they are registered members of that party prior to election day. Independents cannot participate. Note that because some political parties name themselves independent, the terms “non-partisan” or “unaffiliated” often replace “independent” when referring to those who are not affiliated with a political party. Eleven states – Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, District of Columbia, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming – have closed primaries. - Semi-closed. As in closed primaries, registered party members can vote only in their own party’s primary. Semi-closed systems, however, allow unaffiliated voters to participate as well. Depending on the state, independents either make their choice of party primary privately, inside the voting booth or publicly, by registering with any party on Election Day. Thirteen states – Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and West Virginia – have semi-closed primaries that allow voters to register or change party preference on election day. - Open primary. A registered voter may vote in any party primary regardless of his or her own party affiliation. Eleven states – Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Vermont, and Wisconsin – have open primaries. When voters do not register with a party before the primary, it is called a pick-a-party primary because the voter can select which party’s primary he or she wishes to vote in on election day. Because of the open nature of this system, a practice known as raiding may occur. Raiding consists of voters of one party crossing over and voting in the primary of another party, effectively allowing a party to help choose its opposition’s candidate. The theory is that opposing party members vote for the weakest candidate of the opposite party in order to give their own party the advantage in the general election. - Semi-open. A registered voter need not publicly declare which political party’s primary that they will vote in before entering the voting booth. When voters identify themselves to the election officials, they must request a party’s specific ballot. Only one ballot is cast by each voter. In many states with semi-open primaries, election officials or poll workers from their respective parties record each voter’s choice of party and provide access to this information. The primary difference between a semi-open and open primary system is the use of a party-specific ballot. In a semi-open primary, a public declaration in front of the election judges is made and a party-specific ballot given to the voter to cast. Certain states that use the open-primary format may print a single ballot and the voter must choose on the ballot itself which political party’s candidates they will select for a contested office. - Blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party. - Nonpartisan blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, where the top two candidates advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. Louisiana has famously operated under this system, which has been nicknamed the “jungle primary.” California has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2012 after passing Proposition 14 in 2010, and the state of Washington has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2008. Classifying Texas' Primaries Classifying Texas' Primaries Texas’ primaries are difficult to classify–they are somewhere between open and semi-open. Voters in Texas don’t register under a party label and may choose to vote in either party’s primary (but not both). Voters who cast ballots in one of the major party primary elections may only vote in the runoff election for the same party in which they cast their primary ballot. Voters who did not cast a ballot in primary elections are free to choose either party’s runoff ballot, but may only vote in one party’s runoff election. Notes Notes Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.022491	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting, Elections", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26278/overview	Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas Overview Introduction Introduction Introduction A constitution is a body of fundamental principles or established precedents according to which a state or other organization is acknowledged to be governed. What distinguishes Texas from other states is its unique history as an entity—a state, a republic, a nation—and the documents that created Texas as we know it today. Between the years of 1824 and 1876, Texas was at times a part of the United States of Mexico, an independent republic, a state within the Confederate States of America, and a state within the United States of America. Beginning in 1824, what we now know as Texas passed through many iterations—each with its own foundational documents. These founding documents legally established the entity of Texas, set forth the rights and responsibilities of its people, and defined the scope and powers of its government. This chapter discusses those constitutions and introduces the Constitution of 1876–Texas’ current constitution. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Define a constitution - Discuss the various constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Define a constitution - Discuss the various constitutions of Texas - Describe the current constitution of Texas	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.039056	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26278/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Introduction: The Constitutions of Texas", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26283/overview	Constitution of 1861 Overview Texas Government: Constitution of 1861 Constitution of 1861 Constitution of 1861 After the Texas voters ratified secession from the Union on February 23, 1861, the Secession Convention reconvened. Convention delegates believed it their duty to direct the transition of Texas from a state in the United States to one of the Confederate States of America. As part of that duty they amended the Constitution of 1845. In most instances the wording of the older constitution was kept intact, but some changes were required to meet new circumstances. The words United States of America were replaced with Confederate States of America. Slavery and states’ rights were more directly defended. A clause providing for emancipation of slaves was eliminated, and the freeing of slaves was declared illegal. All current state officials were required to take an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy, and all existing laws not in conflict with the constitutions of Texas or the Confederate States were declared valid. Amending the constitution was also made easier. This constitution was as remarkable for what it did not do as for what it did. It did not legalize the resumption of the African slave trade, a move advocated by some leaders of the secession movement. It did not take an extreme position on the issue of states’ rights. It did not substantially change any important law. It was a conservative document partly designed to allay fears of the radical nature of the secessionists and to ease the transition of Texas into the Confederacy. For More Information For More Information More information on the Constitution of the State of Texas (1861) may be found at the Texas Constitutions 1824-1876 project of the Tarlton Law Library, Jamail Center for Legal Research at the University of Texas School of Law, The University of Texas at Austin. The project includes digitized images and searchable text versions of the constitutions.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.054653	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26283/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Texas' Constitution, Constitution of 1861", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26310/overview	Structure Of The Texas Court System Overview Structure Of The Texas Court System Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the structure of the Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System Structure Of The Texas Court System The Texas court system is a bifurcated system, meaning there are two highest courts of appeals for criminal and civil cases. The table below depicts the structure of the Texas court system with some additional jurisdiction and court information. Note that Juvenile Courts preside in the District Courts- In Texas a juvenile is defined as young as 10 years old, and a juvenile can be convicted as an adult as young as 14 years old. [1] Structure of the Texas Court System CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Court Organization. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution Trial Courts Trial Courts In trial courts: - Witnesses are heard; - Testimony is received; - Exhibits are offered into evidence; and - A verdict is rendered. The trial court structure in Texas has several different levels, each level handling different types of cases, with some overlap. The state trial court of general jurisdiction is known as the district court. The county-level courts consist of the constitutional county courts, statutory county courts, and statutory probate courts. In addition, there is at least one justice court located in each county, and there are municipal courts located in each incorporated city. Municipal Courts Municipal Courts Under its constitutional authority to create “such other courts as may be provided by law,” the Legislature has created municipal courts in each incorporated municipality in the state. In lieu of a municipal court created by the Legislature, municipalities may choose to establish municipal courts of record. The jurisdiction of municipal courts is provided in Chapters 29 and 30 of the Texas Government Code. Municipal courts have: - Original and exclusive jurisdiction over criminal violations of certain municipal ordinances and airport board rules, orders, or resolutions that do not exceed $2,000 in some instances and $500 in others; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in certain misdemeanor criminal cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. In addition to the jurisdiction of a regular municipal court, municipal courts of record also have jurisdiction over criminal cases arising under ordinances authorized by certain provisions of the Local Government Code. The municipality may also provide by ordinance that a municipal court of record have additional jurisdiction in certain civil and criminal matters. Municipal judges also serve in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the municipal judge may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. Trials in municipal courts are not generally “of record;” many appeals go to the county court, county court at law, or district court by a trial de novo. Appeals from municipal courts of record are generally heard in the county criminal courts, county criminal courts of appeal or municipal courts of appeal. If none of these courts exist in the county or municipality, appeals are to a county court at law. Justice Courts Justice Courts As amended in November 1983, the Texas Constitution provides that each county is to be divided, according to population, into at least one, and not more than eight, justice precincts, in each of which is to be elected one or more justices of the peace. Generally, the justice courts have: - Original jurisdiction in misdemeanor criminal cases where punishment upon conviction may be by fine only; - Exclusive jurisdiction over civil matters when the amount in controversy does not exceed $200; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the county courts when the amount in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Exclusive jurisdiction over forcible entry and detainer (eviction) cases; - Concurrent jurisdiction over repair and remedy cases; and - Concurrent jurisdiction over truancy cases. Trials in justice courts are not “of record.” Appeals from these courts are by trial de novo in the constitutional county court, the county court at law, or the district court. The justice of the peace also serves in the capacity of a committing magistrate, with the authority to issue warrants for the apprehension and arrest of persons charged with the commission of felony or misdemeanor offenses. As a magistrate, the justice of the peace may hold preliminary hearings, reduce testimony to writing, discharge the accused, or remand the accused to jail and set bail. In addition, the justice of the peace serves as the coroner in those counties where there is no provision for a medical examiner, serves as an ex officio notary public, and may perform marriage ceremonies for additional compensation. County-Level Courts County-Level Courts Constitutional County Courts The Texas Constitution provides for a county court in each of the 254 counties of the state, though all such courts do not exercise judicial functions. In populous counties, the “county judge” may devote his or her full attention to the administration of county government. Generally, the constitutional county courts have: - Concurrent jurisdiction with justice courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $200 but does not exceed $10,000; - Concurrent jurisdiction with the district courts in civil cases where the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $5,000; - General jurisdiction over probate and guardianship cases; - Juvenile jurisdiction; and - Exclusive original jurisdiction over misdemeanors, other than those involving official misconduct, where punishment for the offense is by fine exceeding $500 or a jail sentence not to exceed one year. County courts generally have appellate jurisdiction (usually by trial de novo) over cases tried originally in the justice and municipal courts. Original and appellate judgments of the county courts may be appealed to the courts of appeals. In 36 counties, the county court, by special statute, has been given concurrent jurisdiction with the justice courts in all civil matters over which the justice courts have jurisdiction. In counties with a population of 1.75 million or more, the county court has jurisdiction over truancy cases. Statutory County Courts And Probate Courts Under its constitutional authorization to “...establish such other courts as it may deem necessary... [and to] conform the jurisdiction of the district and other inferior courts thereto,” the Legislature created the first statutory county court in 1907 to relieve the county judge of some or all of the judicial duties of office. Statutory County Courts include: - County courts at law - County civil courts at law - County criminal courts at law - County criminal courts - County criminal courts of appeal Section 25.003 of the Texas Government Code provides statutory county courts with jurisdiction over all causes and proceedings prescribed by law for constitutional county courts. In general, statutory county courts that exercise civil jurisdiction concurrent with the constitutional county court also have concurrent civil jurisdiction with the district courts in: 1) civil cases in which the matter in controversy exceeds $500 but does not exceed $200,000, and 2) appeals of final rulings and decisions of the Texas Workers’ Compensation Commission. However, the actual jurisdiction of each statutory county court varies considerably according to the statute under which it was created. A few statutory county courts even hear felony cases. In addition, some of these courts have been established to exercise subject-matter jurisdiction in only limited fields, such as civil, criminal, or appellate cases (from justice or municipal courts). In general, statutory probate courts have general jurisdiction provided to probate courts by the Texas Estates Code, as well as the jurisdiction provided by law for a county court to hear and determine cases and matters instituted under various sections and chapters of the Texas Health and Safety Code. District Courts District Courts District courts are the primary trial courts in Texas. The Constitution of the Republic provided for not less than three or more than eight district courts, each having a judge elected by a joint ballot of both houses of the Legislature for a term of four years. Most constitutions of the state continued the district courts but provided that the judges were to be elected by the qualified voters. (The exceptions were the Constitutions of 1845 and 1861 which provided for the appointment of judges by the Governor with confirmation by the Senate). All constitutions have provided that the judges of these courts must be chosen from defined districts (as opposed to statewide election). In many locations, the geographical jurisdiction of two or more district courts is overlapping. District courts are courts of general jurisdiction. Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution extends a district court’s potential jurisdiction to “all actions” but makes such jurisdiction relative by excluding any matters in which exclusive, appellate, or original jurisdiction is conferred by law upon some other court. For this reason, while one can speak of the “general” jurisdiction of a district court, the actual jurisdiction of any specific court will always be limited by the constitutional or statutory provisions that confer exclusive, original, or appellate jurisdiction on other courts serving the same county or counties. With this caveat, it can be said that district courts generally have the following jurisdiction: - Original jurisdiction in all criminal cases of the grade of felony and misdemeanors involving official misconduct; - Cases of divorce or other family law disputes; - Suits for title to land or enforcement of liens on land; - Contested elections; - Suits for slander or defamation; and - Suits on behalf of the State for penalties, forfeitures and escheat. Most district courts exercise criminal and civil jurisdiction, but in the metropolitan areas there is a tendency for the courts to specialize in civil, criminal, juvenile or family law matters. Thirteen district courts are designated “criminal district courts” but have general jurisdiction. A limited number of district courts also exercise the subject-matter jurisdiction normally exercised by county courts. The district courts also have jurisdiction in civil matters with a minimum monetary limit but no maximum limit. The amount of the lower limit has for many years been the subject of controversy, with differing opinions from the courts of appeal. House Bill 79 from the 82nd Legislature, 1st Called Session (2011), included a provision in Section 24.007(b) of the Government Code which was intended to resolve the dispute and to set the minimum jurisdiction of district courts at $500. However, there is still a potential conflict between Article V, Section 8 of the Texas Constitution (which gives the district courts jurisdiction of all actions…except in cases where exclusive) and the amendment. Therefore, there are still differing opinions as to whether the minimum monetary jurisdiction of the district courts is $200.01 or $500. In counties having statutory county courts, the district courts generally have exclusive jurisdiction in civil cases where the amount in controversy is $200,000 or more, and concurrent jurisdiction with the statutory county courts in cases where the amount in controversy exceeds $500 but is less than $200,000. The district courts may also hear contested matters in probate and guardianship cases and have general supervisory control over commissioners courts. In addition, district courts have the power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, injunction, certiorari, sequestration, attachment, garnishment, and all writs necessary to enforce their jurisdiction. Appeals from judgments of the district courts are to the courts of appeals (except appeals of death sentences). A 1985 constitutional amendment established the Judicial Districts Board to reapportion Texas judicial districts, subject to legislative approval. The same amendment also allows for more than one judge per judicial district. Appellate Courts Appellate Courts The appellate courts of the Texas Judicial System are: - The Supreme Court, the highest state appellate court for civil and juvenile cases; - The Court of Criminal Appeals, the highest state appellate court for criminal cases; and - The courts of appeals, the intermediate appellate courts for civil and criminal appeals from the trial courts. Appellate courts do not try cases, have juries, or hear witnesses. Rather, they review actions and decisions of the lower courts on questions of law or allegations of procedural error. In carrying out this review, the appellate courts are usually restricted to the evidence and exhibits presented in the trial court. The Courts of Appeals The Courts of Appeals The first intermediate appellate court in Texas was created by the Constitution of 1876, which created a Court of Appeals with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in all civil cases originating in the county courts. In 1891, an amendment was added to the Constitution authorizing the Legislature to establish intermediate courts of civil appeals located at various places throughout the state. The purpose of this amendment was to preclude the large quantity of civil litigation from further congesting the docket of the Supreme Court, while providing for a more convenient and less expensive system of intermediate appellate courts for civil cases. In 1980, a constitutional amendment extended the appellate jurisdiction of the courts of civil appeals to include criminal cases and changed the name of the courts to the “courts of appeals.” Each court of appeals has jurisdiction over appeals from the trial courts located in its respective district. The appeals heard in these courts are based upon the “record” (a written transcription of the testimony given, exhibits introduced, and the documents filed in the trial court) and the written and oral arguments of the appellate lawyers. The courts of appeals do not receive testimony or hear witnesses in considering the cases on appeal, but they may hear oral argument on the issues under consideration. The Legislature has divided the state into 14 court of appeals districts and has established a court of appeals in each. One court of appeals is currently located in each of the following cities: - Amarillo - Austin - Beaumont - Corpus Christi/Edinburg - Dallas - Eastland - El Paso - Fort Worth - San Antonio - Texarkana - Tyler - Waco - Houston (2) Each of the courts of appeals has at least three justices—a chief justice and two associate justices. While 80 justices currently serve on the courts of appeals, the Legislature is empowered to increase this number whenever the workload of an individual court requires additional justices. The Supreme Court The Supreme Court In most civil and juvenile cases, the Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court of Texas was first established in 1836 by the Constitution of the Republic of Texas, which vested the judicial power of the Republic in “...one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as the Congress may establish.” This court was re-established by each successive constitution adopted throughout the course of Texas history and currently consists of one chief justice and eight justices. The Supreme Court has statewide, final appellate jurisdiction in most civil and juvenile cases. Its caseload is directly affected by the structure and jurisdiction of Texas’ appellate court system, as the courts of appeals handle most of the state’s criminal and civil appeals from the district and county-level courts, and the Court of Criminal Appeals handles all criminal appeals beyond the intermediate courts of appeals. The Supreme Court’s caseload can be broken down into three broad categories: - Determining whether to grant review of the final judgment of a court of appeals (i.e., to grant or not grant a petition for review); - Disposition of regular causes (i.e., granted petitions for review, accepted petitions for writs of mandamus or habeas corpus, certified questions, accepted parental notification appeals, and direct appeals); and - Disposition of numerous motions related to petitions and regular causes. Much of the Supreme Court’s time is spent determining which petitions for review will be granted, as it must consider all petitions for review that are filed. However, the Court exercises some control over its caseload in deciding which petitions will be granted. The Court usually takes only those cases that present the most significant Texas legal issues in need of clarification. The Supreme Court also has jurisdiction to answer questions of state law certified from a federal appellate court; has original jurisdiction to issue writs and to conduct proceedings for the involuntary retirement or removal of judges; and reviews cases involving attorney discipline upon appeal from the Board of Disciplinary Appeals of the State Bar of Texas. In addition, the Court: - Promulgates all rules of civil trial practice and procedure, evidence, and appellate procedure; - Promulgates rules of administration to provide for the efficient administration of justice in the state; - Monitors the caseloads of the courts of appeals and orders the transfer of cases between the courts in order to make the workloads more equal; and - With the assistance of the Texas Equal Access to Justice Foundation, administers funds for the Basic Civil Legal Services Program, which provides basic civil legal services to the indigent. The Court of Criminal Appeals The Court of Criminal Appeals To relieve the Supreme Court of some of its caseload, the Constitution of 1876 created the Court of Appeals, composed of three elected judges, with appellate jurisdiction in all criminal cases and in those civil cases tried by the county courts. In 1891, a constitutional amendment: - Changed the name of this court to the Court of Criminal Appeals; - Limited its jurisdiction to appellate jurisdiction in criminal cases only; and - Increased the number of judges to nine: one presiding judge and eight associate judges. The Court of Criminal Appeals is the highest state court for criminal appeals. Its caseload consists of both mandatory and discretionary matters. All cases that result in the death penalty are automatically directed to the Court of Criminal Appeals from the trial court level. A significant portion of the Court’s workload also involves the mandatory review of applications for post-conviction habeas corpus relief in felony cases without a death penalty, over which the Court has sole authority. In addition, decisions made by the intermediate courts of appeals in criminal cases may be appealed to the Court of Criminal Appeals by petition for discretionary review, which may be filed by the State, the defendant, or both. However, the Court may also review a decision on its own motion. In conjunction with the Supreme Court of Texas, the Court of Criminal Appeals promulgates rules of appellate procedure and rules of evidence for criminal cases. The Court of Criminal Appeals also administers public funds that are appropriated for the education of judges, prosecuting attorneys, criminal defense attorneys who regularly represent indigent defendants, clerks and other personnel of the state’s appellate, district, county-level, justice, and municipal courts.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.089083	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26310/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Structure Of The Texas Court System", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26312/overview	Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Overview Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Discuss the steps in the Texas Criminal Justice process Texas’ Criminal Justice Process Texas’ Criminal Justice Process The Texas court systems have two conflicting goals: they must protect the people and the accused. Therefore the state of Texas must ensure that every person is treated equally in legal matters- this is known as due process. The steps in the Texas criminal justice process are: 1. Arrest, 2. Indictment, 3. Plea bargaining, 4. Trial, and 5. Post-trial. - Arrest. One aspect pertinent to arrest are the Miranda Rights. Miranda Rights derived from the landmark U.S. Supreme Court case Miranda vs. Arizona (1966). During the Miranda case the question was whether or not procedures must be utilized by law enforcement officials to ensure that an individual’s 5th Amendment Self-incrimination rights are not violated. The United States Supreme Court ruled that a person must be made aware of their rights prior to being questioned. [1] Once an arrest is made, the defendant is arraigned and bond is set. Arraignment is when a defendant is formally charged and made aware of their rights. After this the defendant may receive bail, although bail is not guaranteed (Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 11 & 11a-b). - Indictment. If the charge is a felony, than an indictment must occur for the process to continue. A grand jury is in charge of determining whether there is enough evidence to move forward with the charge- 9 out of 12 grand jury members must agree that the process can move forward. If this occurs it is knows as a “true bill” (indictment), if not it is known as a “No bill.” - Plea bargaining. Due to the fact that there are overcrowded dockets, plea bargaining is the most common method for resolving criminal cases in Texas. Plea bargaining is when the defendant and the prosecutor negotiate a deal to avoid having to go to trial- the concept is that this saves time and money. - Trial. If the case reaches trial, the defendant may choose to have a trial by jury (guaranteed by the Texas Constitution Article 1, Section 15); or waive that right and choose trial by a presiding judge. Texas utilizes an adversary system, which means the two sides will attempt to convince the jury or judge why they are correct. - Post Trial. Post trial is the final step where the defendant, if found guilty, will receive a form of rehabilitation or punishment. Some examples of rehabilitation or punishment are prison time, probation, parole, house arrest, and fines. - http://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/facts-and-case-summary-miranda-v-arizona ↵ CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Texas Criminal Justice Process. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.107828	07/26/2018	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26312/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Judicial Branch, Texas’ Criminal Justice Process", "author": "Kris Seago" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/12083/overview	SimilaritySim Overview A no-tech card game designed to give learners an insight into how assessors and examiners use Turnitin's originality checking service to identify potential plagiarism. The game uses two decks of cards. The first simulates the decision making process, presenting a series of extracts from Turnitin reports and asking students to judge whether they show examples of plagiarism or not. These are then compared to a model answer (which is open to debate - many of the examples are borderline) and students asked to reflect on and challenge any disagreement. The second deck of cards is introduced, these show descriptions which match up to the first deck, and provide a competitive element as groups compete to solve a word puzzle by correctly matching the pairs of cards. This emphasises how nuanced the inferences that can be drawn from the report are. Uses of the resource SimilaritySim can be used in several ways. Teaching how to understand Turnitin reports Where learners are given access to reports on their own work, this activity can be used as part of a session introducing them to how the reports are interpreted, and how to avoid common mistakes (eg paying too much attention to the % score). It can also be valuable in staff development sessions, to train staff who will be interpreting the reports in a scaffolded way that can be more engaging than simply showing examples on a screen. Academic integrity training SimilaritySim can be used to show students the range of types of unoriginal work which Turnitin can detect, which can help them to understand the difference between switching out a couple of words and proper paraphrasing. (Although care should be taken the importance of not plagiarising, rather than merely beating Turnitin). Reducing anxiety Some learners are quite nervous about submitting high stakes work to Turnitin, mainly due to misunderstanding the way in which Turnitin is used. This activity shows them that their assessor will need to spend considerable time working with the report, rather than it being a "computer says no" scenario. Preparation Download the game cards and facilitator notes from Section 1 A no-tech card game designed to give learners an insight into how assessors and examiners use Turnitin's originality checking service to identify potential plagiarism. The game uses two decks of cards. The first simulates the decision making process, presenting a series of extracts from Turnitin reports and asking students to judge whether they show examples of plagiarism or not. These are then compared to a model answer (which is open to debate - many of the examples are borderline) and students asked to reflect on and challenge any disagreement. The second deck of cards is introduced, these show descriptions which match up to the first deck, and provide a competitive element as groups compete to solve a word puzzle by correctly matching the pairs of cards. This emphasises how nuanced the inferences that can be drawn from the report are. Uses of the resource SimilaritySim can be used in several ways. Teaching how to understand Turnitin reports Where learners are given access to reports on their own work, this activity can be used as part of a session introducing them to how the reports are interpreted, and how to avoid common mistakes (eg paying too much attention to the % score). It can also be valuable in staff development sessions, to train staff who will be interpreting the reports in a scaffolded way that can be more engaging than simply showing examples on a screen. Academic integrity training SimilaritySim can be used to show students the range of types of unoriginal work which Turnitin can detect, which can help them to understand the difference between switching out a couple of words and proper paraphrasing. (Although care should be taken the importance of not plagiarising, rather than merely beating Turnitin). Reducing anxiety Some learners are quite nervous about submitting high stakes work to Turnitin, mainly due to misunderstanding the way in which Turnitin is used. This activity shows them that their assessor will need to spend considerable time working with the report, rather than it being a "computer says no" scenario.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.127131	12/02/2016	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/12083/overview", "title": "SimilaritySim", "author": "Steve Bentley" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117777/overview	Theatre Warm-Up Exercises_Tongue Twisters Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups (Part 2): Tongue Twisters Overview A tongue-twister activity for theatre students. Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups: Tongue Twisters (Part 2) Theatre Warm-Up Exercise: Tongue Twisters OBJECTIVE Improve your articulation and diction through the use of tongue twisters. INSTRUCTIONS Start Slowly: Begin each tongue twister at a slow pace, ensuring that you enunciate each word clearly. Increase Speed Gradually: Once you are comfortable with the tongue twister, gradually increase your speed while maintaining clear enunciation. Focus on Precision: Pay attention to not drifting off or dropping the ends of words. Your goal is clarity, even at a faster pace. Warm-Up with These Tongue Twisters Very furry frogs are very rare Budda gudda budda gudda boo Crispy cookies crumble and they crunch Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, A peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked. If Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers, Where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked? Mommy made me mash my M&M's Princess Pippa picked a purple pig A noisy noise annoys an oyster To sit in solemn silence in a dull dark dock, in a pestilential prison with a life long lock, awaiting the sensation of a short sharp shock from a cheap and chippy chopper on a big black block. Lovely lemon liniment Twelve twins twirled twelve twigs Unique New York, Unique New York I slit a sheet; a sheet I slit, upon the slitted sheet I sit Humphrey Hunchback had a hundred Hedgehogs, Did Humphrey Hunchback have a hundred Hedgehogs? If Humphrey Hunchback had a hundred Hedgehogs, Where's the hundred Hedgehogs Humphrey Hunchback had? A proper cup of coffee in a copper coffee pot She sells seashells by the seashore I saw Susie sitting in a shoeshine shop Where she sits she shines, and where she shines she sits Can you can a can as a canner can can a can? Clean clams crammed in clean cans Six sick hicks nick six slick bricks with picks and sticks Rudder valve reversals He threw three free throws The seething sea ceaseth and thus the seething sea sufficeth us Amid the mists and coldest frosts With stoutest wrists and loudest boasts He thrusts his fists against the posts And still insists he sees the ghosts She stood in the doorway of Burgess’s fish store shop inexplicably mimicking him and welcoming him in CHALLENGE Use these tongue twisters in conjunction with enunciation exercises to maximize your articulation skills. For more practice, explore tongue twisters on the International Collection of Tongue Twisters website. adapted from Voice Acting/Tongue Twisters / CC BY-SA; This work is licensed CC BY-SA Cover image: Theatreland Masks by Garry Knight licensed CC BY 2.0/ *All twisters are in the Public Domain	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.151069	07/10/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/117777/overview", "title": "Acting Exercises & Warm-Ups (Part 2): Tongue Twisters", "author": "Red Rocks CC" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101145/overview	History of the United States 1865-1990 Overview This text discusses modern U.S. history (1865-1990), with a lean toward foreign policy and international relations. It is written for a 100-level college course. This text can be used to supplement and support lectures, especially for instructions who have a foreign relations focus. It can be used as a textbook, a reader or both. History 102 Text and Reader History of the United State 1865-1990 An Introduction to Modern U.S. History with a Focue on Foreign Relations. With Primary Sources and Recommended Secondary Source Readings. Kristen Marjanovic Associate Professor of History, Palomar College San Marcos, CA CC-BY-SA	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.168953	02/19/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/101145/overview", "title": "History of the United States 1865-1990", "author": "Kristen Marjanovic" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102399/overview	OER & Library Information for Student Success Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I want to create bite-size information that assists our campus instructors in navigating information resources that will be useful to their students. We have a wealth of resources that are not being used and I think creating explanatory resources migh have instructors to inbed them in their classes. My Audience: The audience is instructors. I think most people gravitate toward information that is simple and shows obvious benefit. I would want content that guides an instructor to use several different resources, including OER. My Team: Our design staff and other librarians. Higher education is often divided into those who instruct and those who support instructional endeavors, so I would like to unify the support side in designing this information. Our campus has one person who handles professional development and they would be a key person to add to this project. Existing Resources: There were some wonderful information literacy resources that would be for advanced information. I am hoping to start a bit smaller at first. One of these advanced information literacy slides has been saved for future use. New Resources: At the moment I would suggest adding some form of review. I anticipate creating new content and would want a review and revision stage to be included to make sure it's as simple as possible. Supports Needed: Time. I really think one of the biggest problems for anyone working in this area is the time to research and develop their content. I am concerned that there isn't enough time to add this commitment to what is already needed. I think research into the audience and how they might appreciate information would be great to add. Our Timeline: Right now, I don't think there is a deadline. OER Item This OER content is not associated with a current class or course. Reflection This process has been very insightful. I discovered how many people were working through OER creation issues on their campuses. I really appreciated hearing what other schools and other similar educators were doing. I discovered that there is a tremendous amount of information that is already available and that there are a lot of different approaches to using OER. Even though, I don't teach a class, there are ways that OER creation can be thought about and produced. My plan is two-fold: more library support and OER creation activities on my campus and creating library information for campus.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.189408	03/31/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102399/overview", "title": "OER & Library Information for Student Success", "author": "Tammy Powers" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68507/overview	Alaska Native Language Center Alaska Native Language Revitalization Assistive Technology to support literacy Dena'ina Qenaga Writing Formative Assessment-Personalized Assessment From Visual Symbols to Word Recognition How to read and comprehend Language Acquisition Theories Language and Literacy:Teaching Students in the 21st Century Literacy in a Digital World Scholarly article on Benefits to Bilingual Education Steps to Succeed: Chapter 8 pages 108-120 (12 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 12 pages 173-187 (14 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 13 pages 191-207 (16 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 1 (pages 1-8) Steps to Success: Chapter 4 pages 43-58 (15 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 5 pages 59-72 (13 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 6 pages 75-86 (11 pages) Steps to Success: Chapter 7 pages 90-104 Steps to Success: Chapter 9 pages 125-139 Steps to Success.....Read Chapter 3 pages 27-40 (13 pages) Strategies for Supporting English Limited Language Learners Developing Children as Readers and Writers Overview This course will instruct paraeducators on how to assist teachers in assessing students’ reading and writing skills, especially in rural Alaska. Students will also learn techniques and develop an understanding of how to create environments that inspire children as readers and writers using a variety of indigenous authors. A Brief Introduction to Literacy - Read pages 1-8 Titled: A Brief Introduction to Literacy - Write Down Key Terms/vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 5 activities on page 8 to complete and submit on Populi Word Recognition Skills: One of Two Essential Components of Reading Comprehension - Read Pages 27-40 (13 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 40 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Language Comprehension Ability - Read Pages 43-58 (15 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 56 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Types of Literacy Assessment - Read Pages 59-72 (13 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 72 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to assignment in Populi for expectations) Approaches to Writing Instruction in Elementary Classrooms - Read Pages 75-86 (11 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 86/87 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Influence of the Digital Age on Children's Literature and Its use in the Classroom - Read Pages 90-104 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 6 activities on page 104/105 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Helping English Language Learners Develop Literacy Skills and Succeed Academically - Read Pages 108-120 (12 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 7 activities on page 120/121 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Literacy Instruction for Students with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities - Read Pages 125-139 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 139 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) Culturally Responsive Disciplinary Literacy Strategies Instruction - Read Pages 173-187 (14 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 187 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations) World Language and Literacy - Read Pages 191-207 (16 pages) - Write Down Key Terms/Vocabulary throughout the chapter - Select 1 of the 4 activities on page 207/208 to complete and submit on Populi prior to the last day of class for discussion (see rubric attached to the assignment in Populi for expectations)	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.233490	06/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/68507/overview", "title": "Developing Children as Readers and Writers", "author": "Katie Olson" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116982/overview	Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity Overview The OER course "Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity" is an interactive online course designed using the H5P tool. The course aims to raise understanding and awareness of landscape conservation and biodiversity connectivity in Europe. Course description The course will present various case studies and initiatives focusing on landscape restoration and biodiversity promotion. Through interactive elements such as quizzes, videos and other H5P modules, participants will be actively involved in the learning process. Learning objectives Participants will acquire a sound knowledge of the importance of nature conservation, the challenges and solutions in landscape restoration and the role of transboundary projects in biodiversity conservation. Methodology By using H5P, the learning content is delivered in an engaging and interactive way, enabling effective and sustainable learning. This course provides a comprehensive and interactive learning experience that raises awareness of the importance of landscape conservation and biodiversity in Europe and identifies practical solutions to address current challenges. Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity Literature Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland e.V.: European Green Belt. Available online at https://www.bund.net/fileadmin/user_upload_bund/publikationen/gruenes_band/European_Green_Belt_2020_Gesamt_Eng.pdf, checked on 5/23/2024. EuroNatur (2024): Green Belt Europe: Europe's largest nature conservation initiative. EuroNatur. Available online at https://www.euronatur.org/en/what-we-do/european-green-belt, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. European Beech Forests (2024): Globally unique. Available online at https://www.europeanbeechforests.org/europes-wilderness/globally-unique, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. European Green Belt (2024): Home. EuroNatur. Available online at https://www.europeangreenbelt.org/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. Interreg Danube (2024): ForestConnect \| Homepage. Available online at https://interreg-danube.eu/projects/forestconnect, updated on 5/24/2024, checked on 5/24/2024. UNESCO World Heritage (2024): Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe. Available online at https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1133/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. World Natural Heritage Beech Forests (2024): UNESCO World Heritage Beech Forests. Available online at https://www.weltnaturerbe-buchenwaelder.at/unesco-world-heritage-beech-forests/, updated on 5/23/2024, checked on 5/23/2024. Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe: The designation of the ancient beech forests as UNESCO World Heritage Sites not only underscores their outstanding significance as natural heritage but also their unique role as living archives, providing deep insights into the evolution of beech trees. These forests not only serve as outstanding examples of terrestrial ecosystem recolonization since the last Ice Age but also as significant evidence of nature's adaptability and resilience to environmental changes. Green Belt Initiative: The European Green Belt, a historic symbol of the Iron Curtain, spans 24 countries and 12,500 kilometers, offering vital biodiversity and serving as a cornerstone of Europe's green infrastructure. The initiative seeks to balance human activities with nature, promoting local development while preserving ecological harmony. Forest Connect: ForestConnect, part of the transnational Interreg Danube programme, is dedicated to the protection of ecological corridors for large carnivores in the Carpathians, the Balkans and the Dinarides. The programme operates in key areas and addresses the challenges of sustainability and climate change. The main objective is to create resilient forest corridors for large carnivores by promoting co-operation between stakeholders, developing monitoring tools and improving forest connectivity. Outcomes include shared monitoring resources, conservation guidelines and strategies for climate-resilient forest management. Using a collaborative approach, the project engages different stakeholders to ensure sustainability and knowledge transfer after the project to strengthen biodiversity conservation in the Danube region.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.253998	06/19/2024	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/116982/overview", "title": "Conservation Across Borders: Case Studies in European Landscape Restoration and Biodiversity Connectivity", "author": "Elisabeth Wiegele" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93203/overview	Syllabus SOC 204A Mass Media and Popular Culture Syllabus: Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture Overview This syllabus is for a 200 level Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture course, that uses a combination of open-access and library licensed material. The course explores two of the most transformational and interconnected social institutions in contemporary society, mass media and popular culture. Material is included to analyze the social impact of music, film, television, social media, gaming, sport and related topics. The material also includes and annotated list of additional resournces and readings to help professors adapt this course to their own needs. Syllabus and Resources This syllabus is for a 200 level Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture course, that uses a combination of open-access and library licensed material. The course explores two of the most transformational and interconnected social institutions in contemporary society, mass media and popular culture. Material is included to analyze the social impact of music, film, television, social media, gaming, sport and related topics. The material also includes and annotated list of additional resournces and readings to help professors adapt this course to their own needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.272689	Alecea Standlee	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/93203/overview", "title": "Syllabus: Sociology of Mass Media and Popular Culture", "author": "Lesson Plan" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102310/overview	OER Item Sharing Template Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: I have learned about the variety of tools that are available for reducing textbook costs and creating more tailored materials. OER is one piece of that and I feel more confident about the entire OEAR (Open Educational and Affordable Resources) landscape. My Audience: My OER item is designed for administrators who can benefit from an OER process document that is closely tied to instructional design best practices. My Team: This would be helpful for deans, librarians, etc. It starts with needs analysis, which is ALWAYS the correct starting point and considers the possibility that building an OER from scratch is not always the best solution to the defined problem that is being solved. As I always say, OERs are great, but they are not the only answer. Existing Resources: New Resources: Supports Needed: Our Timeline: OER Item - ADDIE Backwards Designed Checklist for OER Adoption/Adaption/Builds ADDIE Backwards-Designed Checklist for OERs Analyze, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate Step One: Analysis – Does OER Meet Course Needs? \| \|\| \| 1A. Discuss your OER Project with your Division Dean, Department Chair and peers to determine whether your OER ideas and plans fit into program and department level-needs. What problem are you trying to solve? \| \| \| 1B. Determine If Course Needs are being/can be met with other options. OERs can be complex and time-consuming. Sometimes they are not the best answer and are often confused with other types of low-cost materials. \| \| \| Affordable Course Content (ACC) No > Consider using Library-Licensed Materials. \| \| Library Licensed Materials (LLM) Yes > Work with Dean & Electronic Librarian to source, serve, & negotiate fees. No > Consider using Open Access Materials. \| \| \| Open Access Materials (OA) No > Consider adopting, remixing, and creating OER Materials in that order. \| \| Step Two: Backwards Design Plan – Are Objectives & Assessments Adequate? \| \|\| \| 2A. Verify Course Objectives and Learning Outcomes are current, approved and acceptable to you. You must locate/develop OERs based on them. Yes > Proceed to Course Assessments Not Sure > Consult with FSC Curriculum Development Manager No > Discuss concerns with division dean / department chair / peer instructors and rework them within Cochise College course change policies. \| \| \| 2B. Revisit Course Assessments to make sure they align clearly with course learning objectives and outcomes and to be sure you are confident they tell you everything you need to know about student achievement. Yes > Proceed to Skills to Materials Mapping Not Sure > Consult with FSC Instructional Designer No > Discuss concerns with division dean / department chair / peer instructors and develop a plan to rewrite/add major assessments. \| \| \| 2C. Map Skills to Materials Needs by determining knowledge & skills learners need to perform successfully on assessments and identifying existing materials gaps, inadequacies, replacement needs, additions and eliminations. Use resulting list to search for OER materials to adopt, adapt/remix and develop materials, open source textbooks and/or OER courses in that order. \| \| Step Three: Develop - Find / Modify / Create OERs \| \|\| \| 3A. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create OER Course Materials by searching vetted OER materials databases for content that you can effectively use or modify. \| \| \| Are There Existing OER Course Materials to Adopt? \| \| Are There Existing OER Course Materials That Can Be Adapted/Remixed? No > Consider creating new materials under Creative Commons license. \| \| \| If OER Course Materials need to be developed… \| \| \| \| 3B. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create Open Source Textbooks by searching vetted Open Textbook databases. \| \| \| Are There Existing Open Source Textbooks to Adopt? No > Consider adapting/remixing elements of OER open source textbooks. \| \| Are There Existing Open Source Textbooks You Can Adapt/Remix? No > Consider creating a new OER open source textbook. \| \| \| If an Open Source Textbook needs to be developed… \| \| \| All adopted, adapted/remixed and developed open source textbooks must clearly align with existing approved course outcomes. If the selected OER will significantly alter your course, discuss this with the Faculty Support Center Curriculum Development Manager. Such changes may necessitate you to go throughh the curriculum development process to insure the course is compliant and transferrable. \| \|\| \| \|\| \| 3C. Adopt, Adapt/Remix or Create an OER Course beginning with Curriculum Scope & Sequence Mapping from learning objectives and assessments with an eye to program articulation, logical progression, transitions, progressive information spiraling, etc. Before OER course development, make sure you fully clear on how it fits into, drives, and/or support the curriculum? \| \| \| Is there an existing OER course that meets curricular and accreditation needs? \| \| Is/Are there existing OER course(s) close to what you need that could be reworked or combined for your purposes? Is it/Are they licensed under a Creative Commons that allows remixing and redistribution? No > Consider creating a new OER course. \| \| \| If an OER course needs to be developed… \| \| Step Four: Implement – Review, License, Store, & Distribute OERs \| \|\| \| 4A. Conduct Subject Matter Expert Review to vet chosen, modified, and created materials/textbooks/courses. Have your materials been adequately vetted using external and/or internal reviewers? No > Discuss with Division Dean and/or department chair. Instructional Designer can assist with resources and/or performing/assisting with logistics. \| \| \| 4B. Ensure Copyright & Licensing Compliance by making sure all adopted, adapted/remixed and created materials are stored, accessed, and distributed according to appropriate copyright licensing conventions. All OERs in use at Cochise College need to have an Excel sheet on file in the College’s OER Database (we need to develop this) listing materials used, source locations, and creative commons licensing conventions. \| \| \| All Adopted Materials released for use AND redistribution under Public Domain, Fair Use, and/or Creative Commons licensing? \| \| All Adapted/Remixed Materials based on original materials that allow for adaptation, remixing, AND redistribution as part of their licensing conventions? (Make sure materials from different creative commons licensing categories are not mixed together if any of their licensing conventions prohibit remixing.) \| \| \| All Developed Materials have a correctly worded Creative Commons license that allows for free use, remixing and redistribution? In the case of materials paid for by Cochise College, do the materials contain a Creative Commons Attribution License CC-BY Cochise College as per Policy 3015? In the case of grant-funded materials, does the Creative Commons license assigned to the materials fall within those guidelines and no conflict present? \| \| \| \| 4C. Assign Content Hosting and Distribution to make materials accessible according to licensing. True OERS (print or electronic media) can be hosted anywhere and distributed to anybody with proper attribution as per CC license. No > Discuss with Electronic Librarian and/or Instructional Designer. The Library can assist with access to web-based materials, databases, multi-media, etc. The Faculty Support Center Moodle team can also provide dedicated shells for materials as long licensing requirements are met. \| Step Five: Evaluate - Perform Ongoing Quality Assurance & Revision \| \|\| \| 5A. Plan for Quality Assurance & Revision by determining timeline for OER review and revision based on norms of your discipline and a procedure for suggesting and adopting changes at least every five years. No > Discuss with Faculty Support Center instructional designer for quality control models and/or assistance building your own. \| \| Author: Wendy Ashby, Ph.D. Date: December 8, 2022 I hereby release these materials under Creative Commons 4.0 Attribution International license. You are free to: Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially. Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Reflection I have not really been able to use it. As with most course and materials builds, ADDIE as an actual best practice standard is a hard sell. Everybody just wants to jump in making materials. It is almost impossible to get people to sit back, think about the needs analysis, think about the evaluation tools, map objectives, analyze existing materials to identify needed edits, source approaprate materials to fill gaps, etc. Everybody wants to be a poet/artist/author. Absent any intention on the part of my institution to require an Instructional Designer consult - let alone listening to one - we continue to have "look at me - I'm a creator" instead of "look at the student - I am a curator".	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.344927	03/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102310/overview", "title": "OER Item Sharing Template", "author": "Wendy Ashby" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102316/overview	AI, Smart Education and the Edu-Metaverse Overview OER Fundamentals are invited to remix this course planning template to design and share their OER project plans, course information and syllabus, and reflection. How To Remix This Template - Make sure you are logged in by looking at the top right of the platform for your Avatar. - Click the "Remix" button on this resource to make your own version of this template. (You might want to "right-click" and choose "Open in a New Tab".) - Change the title to describe your project and add text, videos, images, and attachments to the sections below. - Delete this section (Section One) and any instructions in the other sections before publishing. - When you are ready to publish, click "Next" to update the overview, license, and description of your resource, and then click Publish. Project Planning My OER Goals & Purpose: What have you discovered during this OER Series and what are you planning to accomplish next? This OER thing is way more manageable and understandable than I thought. My Audience: Who are you designing this OER item for and what are their learning needs and preferences? I haven't been able to find any AI or metaverse materials, so I am providing some resources My Team: Who else might support your OER item and what are their roles and responsibilities? ChatGPT is my friend in the creation of this particular materials I am creating. I ask the questions and it spits back the answers. Existing Resources: What existing resources can you utilize for your OER item? You can curate these resources in our Group Folders. While there are no OER resources in the commons for this, there is plenty out there on the WWW. New Resources: What new resources will you need for your OER item's next steps? I have generated some AI iimages for this as well. I am not sure all I will need, but I plan to use AI to help me make this whole thing. What new AI will be developed. And when can I get into the meta-verse. Supports Needed: What additional supports do you need to complete your OER item? Do you need to gather more research and data to inform the design of your OER item? ChatGPT has its intricacies. Learning how to ask the right questions in the right way to evoke the response that one is looking for is a task and somehting to learn. Our Timeline: What deadlines do you have for your OER item deliverables? This work will be an ever changing item. It will always have a moving timeline target. OER Item Add your OER item here including the course name and number and any aligned learning outcomes. To add content in this section: - Add any text, images or videos by using this editing pane. - Include any external links in this editing pane by using the hyperlink button above or the command "Control" + "K" - Attach any documents or files to this section by using "Attach Section..." paperclip image below, then choose the correct file from your computer and save. Please check any sharing settings to external links (like Google Docs) to ensure others can access your resources. This is a link to the OER resource in build. It is published and subject to constant flux. Exploring the Possibilities of Smart Education in Edu-Metaverse Reflection Please reflect and share any observations and insights you noticed as a result of this OER Item, such as changes in your own practice, impact on colleagues or student engagement and impact.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.363123	03/29/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/102316/overview", "title": "AI, Smart Education and the Edu-Metaverse", "author": "Robyn Bryce" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97121/overview	ERROR: type should be string, got "https://www.edutopia.org/blog/film-fest-ell-video-resources\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/authoring/8298-helpful-websites-for-ell-students\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/courses/classroom-videos\nhttps://www.oercommons.org/courses/what-works-teaching-literacy-skills-to-english-language-learners\nhttps://youtu.be/IqnUiXiGcZk\npiggy bank\nWhat is an Emergent Bilingual?\nOverview\nThis module is about Emergent Bilingual students, Professional Development for Teachers, and FREE resources available for students and teachers.\nIntroduction for Emergent Bilingual Students and Professional Development for Teachers.\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nEmergent Bilingual might be a new term, but we have known it for many years as English Language Learners (ELL), English Second Language (ESL), Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD), and many others. Although you may think this should be automatically funded and provided the truth is many schools are not able to provide the program to their students. Here we will provide information on how to apply appropriate and quality resources for the students, and the Teachers for their professional development.\nFederal School Budget\nAttribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0)\nIn the article New Federal Equity Agenda for Dual Language Leanrners it talks about how more than 10 percent of US Pre-K-12 students are English Language Learners. Children under the age of 8 have at least one parent who speaks a non-English language. States and Schools districts have treated English Language linguistic diversity as an obstacle. English “only” approaches have denied many students of their emerging bilingual status and have failed to help them with their academic or professional success. In order to help these students meet requirements to be reclassified as English Proficient. Research has shown that developing bilingual proficiencies can help with cognitive benefits to young bilingual students.\nSchool districts have a low budget for English Learners. It is estimated that 10.5 percent of children in the United States can be considered English language learners. English learners are the fastest growing segment of the nation’s students. According to the U.S. Department of Education’s website, Doing What Works, “In the last two decades, the population of students who are limited English proficient has grown by 169 percent, while the general school population has grown only 12 percent.”\nDWW is a FREE website library sponsored by the U.S. Department of Education. Its content is primarily based on the Institute of Educational Sciences (IES) What Works Clearinghouse, which evaluates research on practices and interventions. On the WestEd.org website, educators can order FREE professionaldevelopment packages using DWW materials. The IES Practice Guide “Effective Literacy and English Language Instruction for English Learners in the Elementary Grades” (2007) recommends five essential practices in teaching young English language learners:\n1. Screen for reading problems and monitor progress\nusing English language measures of phonological processing, letter knowledge,\nand word and text reading\n2. Provide intensive small-group reading\ninterventions for at-risk learners\n3. Provide extensive and varied vocabulary\ninstruction daily\n4. Develop academic English, beginning in the primary\ngrades\n5. Schedule regular peer-assisted learning\nopportunities (approximately 90 minutes per week)\nThe Doing What Works home page contains information about early\nchildhood education, English language learners, and math and science. The\nresources discussed in this article are found on the Teaching Literacy in\nEnglish to K-5 English Learners page. Remember, it is FREE!\nProfessional Development for Teachers\nThis video it talks about how to prepare teachers for Professional Development of English Language Learners. Many opportunities were shown how to help teachers with the experience of the five core principles. Which are Heterogeneity & Collaboration, Experiential Learning, Language & Content Integration, Localized Autonomy & Responsibility, One Learning Model for All. In order to prepare the teachers they attend a workshop with hands-on learning activities that show what the teacher should integrate into their own classroom. The workshops help the teachers to come up with ideas for scaffolding and adapting texts, adopting trauma-informed practices, and deploying project based learning activities.\nBeing able to use videos that will help with professional development is key. These resources provide many ways for a teacher to be helpful with their students, especially emergent bilinguals. In these two resources you can find different classroom settings. Some cases show that schools have no fundings to provide extra resources for the emergent bilingual program, and many have never dealt with emergent bilingual students or even students with disabilities. So, it is vital that we can provide great resources for the teacher that is free and effective in their professional development. Not only are these resources wonderful for your emergent bilingual students but also for students with disabilities.\nHelpful Websites for Emergent Bilingual Students\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nAs a future educator I really appreciate how there are so many resources we can use for free. A couple of the resources provided below have information that can be shared with many students as a read along guide. This can be beneficial not only for Emergent Bilinguals but also for many students with disabilities. These resources can be really helpful as well for school districts that may not have enough funding for the Emergent Bilingual program. As there may be so many other programs here are a couple that may help.\nQuick Look\nAttribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)\nHere is an overview of all the sections. We will review the key points and provide a further understanding of the sections.\nWhat is an Emergent Bilingual?\nOver the last few decades, Emergent Bilingual students have had various names like English Language Learners (ELL), Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CLD), and many others. An Emergent Bilingual student is any student who is continuing to learn their mother or father tongue while also learning a second or new language.\nFederal School Budget\nAccording the article New Federal Equity Agenda for Dual Language Learners, more than 10% of U.S grade school through high school age students are English Language Learners. Most children under the age of 8 will have at least one parent who speaks a foreign language other than English. Unfortunately for these students, the states and school districts have treated them as obstacles. If teachers only use English teaching methods, English Language Learners will be left confused and intimated by the teacher rather than feeling safe or wanting to learn.\nNot only that but these approaches limit and\nNeglected ELL students of their emerging bilingual status and have failed to help them with their academic or professional success. To help young bilingual students become English Proficient, research has shown that nurturing bilingual abilities provides young bilingual kids with cognitive growth.\nProfessional Development for Teachers\nIn the Professional Development for Teachers of English Language video, English Language Learner teachers receive preparation for professional development. The video mentioned the five core principles that help teachers further advance their teaching skills to meet the needs of Emergent Bilingual students. The five core principles are Heterogeneity & Collaboration, Experiential Learning, Language & Content Integration, Localized Autonomy & Responsibility, and One Learning Model for All. Teachers attend training sessions with hands-on learning activities to prepare them for their classes. The workshops help the teachers develop ideas for scaffolding and adapting texts, adopting trauma-informed practices, and deploying project-based learning activities.\nResources Used\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nEnglishwsheets.com. (n.d.). Adjectives ESL printable worksheets and exercises. ESL Worksheets English Exercises. https://www.englishwsheets.com/adjectives.html\nExplore. create. collaborate. OER Commons. (n.d.). https://www.oercommons.org/\nFerlazzo, L. (2015, November 20). 5-Minute Film Festival: 7 videos for Ell Classrooms. Edutopia. From https://www.edutopia.org/blog/film-fest-ell-video-resources\nNewAmericaFoundation. (2020, March 2). Professional development for teachers of English learners: The internationals approach. YouTube.From https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqnUiXiGcZk\nWilliams, — C. P., Fellow, C. P. W. S., Williams, C. P., Fellow, S., Hinds, — B. C., — By Mark Zuckerman and Robert Shireman, Hart, — B. J., Foundation, — B. T. C., Potter, — B. H., & Hamilton, — B. L. T. (2022, March 23). A new federal equity agenda for Dual Language Learners and English learners. The Century Foundation. From https://tcf.org/content/report/new-federal-equity-agenda-dual-language-learners-english-learners/\nConclusion\nCC0 1.0 Universal (CC0 1.0) Public Domain Dedication\nWhat we have learned is how Emergent Bilingual students have limited resources in order to help them be successful in learning a new language. We also learned how Professional Development is important for teachers who are learning how to teach to Emergent Bilingual’s in a way that they will be able to comprehend and understand. With Professional Development the teacher’s are also learning new techniques. The most important thing for Emergent Bilingual students is having access to resources outside of the classroom that they can use."	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.399109	Module	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/97121/overview", "title": "What is an Emergent Bilingual?", "author": "Activity/Lab" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94722/overview	Literary Agents: The Why and How Overview The following is a PowerPoint on literary agents for creative writers. The goal is to give writers an overview of an agent and some advice for working with an agent. The PowerPoint covers the basics, An Overview of Literary Agents A literary agent can be very beneficial for a writer who is pursing traditional publishing for two main reasons. 1. Agents can add prestige to a writer, giving the writer's manuscript a better chance of being reviewed by publishing houses. - Some large publishing houses will ONLY look at a manuscript if the writer has an agent. 2. Agents help with negotiating a contract. - Generally, an agent does not get paid unless the writer gets paid, and agents typically get about 15% of what the writer makes from a deal. Therefore, the agent has the writer's best financial interest at heart. Agents are also very familiar with book contracts and can spot tricky language. For more information about agents, click the file below to download the PowerPoint guide.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.417047	06/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/94722/overview", "title": "Literary Agents: The Why and How", "author": "Molly Hamilton" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105272/overview	Conduct Competency Assessment Overview Conducting a competency assessment refers to the process of evaluating an individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities in a particular area or job role. It involves assessing whether a person possesses the required competencies to perform their duties effectively. Competency assessments are commonly used in various contexts, including education, employment, and professional development. They help determine an individual's proficiency level and identify areas for improvement or training needs. Ed 227 Assessment in Learning 2 with Emphasis in Trainer Methodology I & II Conducting a competency assessment refers to the process of evaluating an individual's knowledge, skills, and abilities in a particular area or job role. It involves assessing whether a person possesses the required competencies to perform their duties effectively. Competency assessments are commonly used in various contexts, including education, employment, and professional development. They help determine an individual's proficiency level and identify areas for improvement or training needs.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.435402	06/14/2023	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/105272/overview", "title": "Conduct Competency Assessment", "author": "Kent Rodriguez" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26294/overview	Introduction: The Texas State Legislature Overview This chapter explores the law-making branch of Texas government–the Texas State Legislature. Introduction: The Texas State Legislature Chapter Introduction: The Texas State Legislature This chapter explores the law-making branch of Texas government–the Texas State Legislature. Structure At the end of this module, students will be able to: - Understand the structure of the Texas State Legislature Learning Objectives At the end of this section you’ll be able to: - Understand the structure of the Texas State Legislature Article 3 of the Texas Constitution describes the legislative department (branch) of Texas. The Texas Legislature is a bicameral (two branches or chambers) system with the Texas Senate being the upper house, and the Texas House of Representatives the lower house. There are a total of 181 members of the Texas Legislature: 31 Senators, and 150 members of the House. Duties and Role At the end of this module, students will be able to: - Understand the duties and role of the Texas State Legislature Learning Objectives At the end of this section you’ll be able to: - Understand the duties and role of the Texas State Legislature The Texas State Legislature meets at the Capitol in Austin. It is a powerful arm of the Texas government not only because of its power of the purse to control and direct the activities of state government and the strong constitutional connections between it and the Lieutenant Governor of Texas, but also due to Texas’s plural executive. The duties of the Legislature include consideration of proposed laws and resolutions, consideration of proposed constitutional amendments for submission to the voters, and appropriation of all funds for the operation of state government. All bills for raising revenue considered by the Legislature must originate in the House of Representatives. The House alone can bring impeachment charges against a statewide officer, impeachment charges are tried by the Senate. The Legislature is the constitutional successor of the Congress of the Republic of Texas since Texas’s 1845 entrance into the Union. The Legislature held its first regular session from February 16 to May 13, 1846.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.452275	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26294/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26295/overview	Legislative Sessions Overview This section describes Texas' legislative sessions. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: Understand the cycle and length of Regular legislative sessions Understand the nature of Special Sessions Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the cycle and length of Regular legislative sessions - Understand the nature of Special Sessions Regular Sessions This step describes Regular Sessions. REGULAR SESSIONS A legislative session is the period of time in which a legislature is convened for purpose of lawmaking, This section describes the legislative sessions used by the Texas Legislature. Texas Legislature uses biennial sessions which means they meet every two years on odd numbered years, for 140 days. The Texas Legislature meets in regular session on the second Tuesday in January of each odd-numbered year. The Texas Constitution limits the regular session to 140 calendar days. Special Sessions This step describes Special Sessions SPECIAL SESSIONS Only the Governor may call the Legislature into special sessions, unlike other states where the legislature may call itself into session. The governor may call as many sessions as he or she desires. For example, Governor Rick Perry called three consecutive sessions to address the 2003 Texas congressional redistricting. The Texas Constitution limits the duration of each special session to 30 days; lawmakers may consider only those issues designated by the governor in his “call,” or proclamation convening the special session (though other issues may be added by the Governor during a session).	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.468780	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26295/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26296/overview	Qualifications for Service and Terms of Office Overview This section describes the aualifications for service and terms of office for Texas State Legislators. Learning Objectives Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State House of Representatives - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State Senate - Understand the terms of office for the Texas House and Senate - Understand the special nature of Senate elections at the beginning of a new decade Learning Objectives By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State House of Representatives - Understand the qualifications to be a member of Texas State Senate - Understand the terms of office for the Texas House and Senate - Understand the special nature of Senate elections at the beginning of a new decade Qualifications These are the qualifcations to be a member of the Texas House of Representatives or Senate. QUALIFICATIONS The following are the legal requirements in order for someone to meet the qualifications to become a member of the Texas Legislature. - Texas Representative (House) - U.S. Citizen - 2 years as a resident of Texas - 12 months as a resident of their District - At least 21 years old - A qualified elector (eligible to vote) - 2 year terms with unlimited term limit - Texas Senator - U.S. Citizen - 5 years as a resident of Texas - 12 months as a resident of their District - At least 26 years old - A qualified elector (eligible to vote) - 4 year terms with unlimited term limit Senate Elections at the Beginning of a New Decade This describes the special case of Senate Elections at the beginning of a new decade. SENATE ELECTIONS AT THE BEGINNING OF A NEW DECADE Each senator serves a four-year term and one-half of the Senate membership is elected every two years in even-numbered years, with the exception that all the Senate seats are up for election for the first legislature following the decennial census in order to reflect the newly redrawn districts. After the initial election, the Senate is divided by lot into two classes, with one class having a re-election after two years and the other having a re-election after four years. This process protects the Senate’s membership and the Senate as an institution serving as the more elite legislative chamber during normal (i.e., not at the beginning of new decade) election cycles.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.486787	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26296/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26297/overview	Composition Overview This section discusses the composition of the Texas State Legislature. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the partisan make up of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the gender makeup of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the racial makeup of the Texas State Legislature By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the partisan make up of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the gender makeup of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the racial makeup of the Texas State Legislature Pale, Male, and Stale Pale, Male, and Stale It’s often been said the Texas State Legislature is “pale, male, and stale.” This may not be quite as accurate as in the past, but the Texas State Legislature is prodominantly white, male, and middle aged. Partisan Compostion Partisan composition The Republican Party controls both the Texas State House of Representatives and the Texas State Senate: - The Texas State House of Representatives currently has 93 Republicans, 56 Democrats, and one vacancy. - The Texas State Senate currently has 20 Republicans and 11 Democrats Gender Composition Gender composition The Texas State Legislature is predominantly male. - Approximately 81% of the Texas State House of Representatives is male (121 males, 29 females) - Approximately 74% of the Texas State Senate is male (23 males, 8 females) - Take together, almost 80% of the total membership of the Texas State Legislature is male (144 of 181 total members Racial Composition Racial composition Approximately two-thirds of the Texas State Legislature is white. The 84th Legislature (beginning 2015) was composed as follows: - 115 White members - 41 Hispanic members - 19 African-American members - 3 Asian members	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.505170	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26297/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26298/overview	Compensation Overview This section discusses the compensation (salary and retirement) for Texas State legislators. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the salary received by Texas State Legislators - Understand the retirement available to Texas State Legislators By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the salary received by Texas State Legislators - Understand the retirement available to Texas State Legislators Salary Salary State legislators in Texas make $600 per month, or $7,200 per year, plus a per diem of $190 for every day the Legislature is in session (also including any special sessions). That adds up to $33,800 a year for a regular session (140 days), with the total pay for a two-year term being $41,000. Retirement Retirement Legislators receive a pension after eight years of service, starting at age 60.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.520834	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26298/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26299/overview	Organization and Leadership Overview Organization and leadership of the Texas State Legislature. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand how the Texas State Legislature is organized - Understand the Committee structure - Understand the presiding officers of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the roles played by the presiding officers By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand how the Texas State Legislature is organized - Understand the Committee structure - Understand the presiding officers of the Texas State Legislature - Understand the roles played by the presiding officers Organization Organization Although members are elected on partisan ballots, both houses of the Legislature are officially organized on a nonpartisan basis, with members of both parties serving in leadership positions such as committee chairmanships. As of 2018, a majority of the members of each chamber are members of the Republican Party. Committees Committees A committee is a group of legislators appointed by the presiding officer of the house or the senate to which proposed legislation is referred or a specific task is assigned. The size of the legislature and the volume of work confronting it each session make lengthy deliberation on all proposed measures by the entire membership a difficult task. For this reason, the basic business in both chambers is conducted according to the committee system. Committees to consider introduced bills and advise on their disposition are created in the rules of procedure of the respective chambers. Although nearly all bills are referred to a committee, a large number of bills are never reported out of committee. Thus, committee action is a crucial step in the process by which a bill becomes law. The presiding officers (the Speaker of the House and the Lieutenant Governor) have substantial power over the committee process. The Lieutenant Governor appoints all chairs and members of Senate committees, and refers all bills to committee. The lieutenant governor also schedules most bills for consideration on the Senate floor. Bills that are local or uncontested are scheduled by the Senate Administration Committee. The speaker appoints chairs and members of all House committees and refers all bills to a committee. Bills are scheduled for consideration on the House floor by the Calendars Committee. Types of Committees Types of Committees There are six types of Committees in the Texas State Legislature: - Standing: Peramanent--existing from one regular session to the next - Substantive: Work on legislation, rather than process (rules), calendars, or administration - Procedural: Work on the chamber process (rules), calendars or administration - Special (aka Ad Hoc): Temporary - Interim: Work between regular sessions - Conference (aka Joint): Comprised of members from the house and senate Committees of the Texas State Legislature Committees There are a total of 55 standing committees in the Texas State Legislature. There is 1 joint standing committee. The Texas Senate has 18 standing committees. The Texas House has 36 standing committees. These are the Committees of the Texas House of Representative and the Texas Senate: House - Agriculture and Livestock Committee, Texas House - Appropriations Committee, Texas House - Border & Intergovernmental Affairs Committee, Texas House - Business & Industry Committee, Texas House - Calendars Committee, Texas House - Corrections Committee, Texas House - County Affairs Committee, Texas House - Criminal Jurisprudence Committee, Texas House - Culture, Recreation, & Tourism Committee, Texas House - Defense & Veterans' Affairs Committee, Texas House - Elections Committee, Texas House - Economic & Small Business Development Committee, Texas House - Energy Resources Committee, Texas House - Environmental Regulation Committee, Texas House - General Investigating & Ethics Committee, Texas House - Government Efficiency & Reform Committee, Texas House - Higher Education Committee, Texas House - Homeland Security & Public Safety Committee, Texas House - House Administration Committee, Texas House - Human Services Committee, Texas House - Insurance Committee, Texas House - Judiciary & Civil Jurisprudence Committee, Texas House - Land & Resource Management Committee, Texas House - Licensing & Administrative Procedures Committee, Texas House - Local & Consent Calendars Committee, Texas House - Natural Resources Committee, Texas House - Pensions, Investments & Financial Services Committee, Texas House - Public Education Committee, Texas House - Public Health Committee, Texas House - Redistricting Committee, Texas House - Rules & Resolutions Committee, Texas House - State Affairs Committee, Texas House - Technology Committee, Texas House of Representatives - Transportation Committee, Texas House - Urban Affairs Committee, Texas House - Ways & Means Committee, Texas House Senate - Administration Committee - Agriculture & Rural Affairs Committee - Business & Commerce Committee - Criminal Justice Committee - Economic Development Committee - Education Committee - Finance Committee - Government Organization Committee - Health & Human Services Committee - Higher Education Committee - Intergovernmental Relations Committee - International Relations and Trade Committee - Jurisprudence Committee - Natural Resources Committee - Nominations Committee - State Affairs Committee - Transportation & Homeland Security Committee - Veteran Affairs & Military Installations Committee Presiding Officers Presiding officers The presiding officeres have wide latitude in choosing committee membership in their respective chambers and have a large impact on lawmaking in the state. Texas Senate Leadership: The Lieutenant Governor As presiding officer of the Senate, the lieutenant governor is officially called the President of the Senate. The lieutenant governor is elected by a statewide popular vote to serve a four year term of office. The lieutenant governor is not a member of the Senate, and votes only in case of a tie. The lieutenant governor appoints all chairs and members of Senate committees, and refers all bills to committee. The lieutenant governor also schedules most bills for consideration on the Senate floor. The current Lieutenant Governor is Dan Patrick. Texas House of Representatives Leadership: The Speaker of the House The speaker of the House is the presiding officer, elected by a majority of House members. The speaker appoints chairs and members of all House committees and refers all bills to a committee. The current Speaker of the House is Joe Strauss.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.547461	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26299/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26300/overview	Redistricting Overview Redistricting Tips for using the DistrictViewer software. Learning Objectives At the end of this section, students will be able to - Understand what redistricting is - Understand why Texas must redistrict - Understand how Texas redistricts - Understand some current controversiies in Texas’ redistricting - Know where to find current district maps At the end of this section, you’ll be able to - Understand what redistricting is - Understand why Texas must redistrict - Understand how Texas redistricts - Understand some current controversiies in Texas’ redistricting - Know where to find current district maps What is redistricting? What is redistricting? Redistricting is the process by which new congressional and state legislative district boundaries are drawn. Each of Texas’ 36 United States Representatives and 181 state legislators are elected from political divisions called districts. United States Senators are not elected by districts, but by the states at large. District lines are redrawn every 10 years following completion of the United States census. The federal government stipulates that districts must have nearly equal populations and must not discriminate on the basis of race or ethnicity. Why does Texas have to redistrict? Why does Texas have to redistrict? The federal constitution calls for reapportionment of congressional seats according to population from a decennial census (Section 2, Article I). Reapportionment is the division of a set number of districts among established units of government. For example, the 435 congressional seats are reapportioned among the 50 states after each decennial census according to the method of equal proportions. The boundaries of the congressional districts are then redrawn by state legislatures in accordance with state and federal law. Redistricting is the revision or replacement of existing districts, resulting in new districts with different geographical boundaries. The basic purpose of decennial redistricting is to equalize population among electoral districts after publication of the United States census indicates an increase or decrease in or shift of population. The Texas Constitution requires the legislature to redistrict Texas house and senate seats during its first regular session following publication of each United States decennial census (Section 28, Article III). After each census, State Board of Education seats also must be redistricted to bring them into compliance with the one-person, one-vote requirement. Although the formal redistricting process under the Texas Constitution may remain the same, every decade sees a different, often unpredictable, path for state redistricting plans, depending on legislative, gubernatorial, Legislative Redistricting Board, and judicial action. The history of the redistricting process during the 1980s, 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s illustrates some of the different courses decennial redistricting can take. The timing and legal requirements, however, dictate that the basic process generally takes the following course, which is described in more detail in the associated sections. Federal census population data is delivered to the legislature no later than April 1 of the year following the decennial census, and the data is usually provided several weeks earlier. As soon as the census data is verified and loaded in the computer systems, the members of the legislature and other interested parties begin drawing plans. Bills to enact new state redistricting plans follow the same path through the legislature as other legislation. If Texas senate or house districts are not enacted during the first regular session following the publication of the decennial census, the Texas Constitution requires that the Legislative Redistricting Board (LRB), a five-member body of state officials including the lieutenant governor and speaker, meet and adopt its own plan. The LRB has jurisdiction only in the months immediately following that regular session. If congressional or State Board of Education districts are not enacted during the regular session, the governor may call a special session to consider the matter. If the governor does not call a special session, then a state or federal district court likely will issue court-ordered plans. Similarly, if the legislature and LRB fail to adopt a state senate or state house plan, a court will likely issue a plan to fill the void. A suit challenging an adopted redistricting plan may be brought at any time under the federal or state constitution or federal law. Before 2013, Texas and certain other states were required to obtain federal preclearance of any redistricting plans before they could be implemented. In 2013, the applicable provision of the federal Voting Rights Act was held invalid by the U.S. Supreme Court. The filing deadline for primary elections established by the Texas Election Code allows approximately six and one half months from the end of the regular legislative session for the governor to act on any redistricting legislation passed, for the LRB to meet if necessary, for any special session called to consider redistricting if necessary, for court action, and for counties to make necessary changes in county election precincts. Controversies Controversies There are conflicting opinions regarding the correlation between partisan gerrymandering and electoral competitiveness. In 2012, Jennifer Clark, a political science professor at the University of Houston, said, “The redistricting process has important consequences for voters. In some states, incumbent legislators work together to protect their own seats, which produces less competition in the political system. Voters may feel as though they do not have a meaningful alternative to the incumbent legislator. Legislators who lack competition in their districts have less incentive to adhere to their constituents’ opinions.” Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 mandates that electoral district lines cannot be drawn in such a manner as to “improperly dilute minorities’ voting power.” No voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure shall be imposed or applied by any State or political subdivision to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color. States and other political subdivisions may create majority-minority districts in order to comply with Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act. A majority-minority district is a district in which minority groups compose a majority of the district’s total population. As of 2015, Texas was home to 18 congressional majority-minority districts. Proponents of majority-minority districts maintain that these districts are a necessary hindrance to the practice of cracking, which occurs when a constituency is divided between several districts in order to prevent it from achieving a majority in any one district. In addition, supporters argue that the drawing of majority-minority districts has resulted in an increased number of minority representatives in state legislatures and Congress. Critics, meanwhile, contend that the establishment of majority-minority districts can result in packing, which occurs when a constituency or voting group is placed within a single district, thereby minimizing its influence in other districts. Because minority groups tend to vote Democratic, critics argue that majority-minority districts ultimately present an unfair advantage to Republicans by consolidating Democratic votes into a smaller number of districts. Current District Maps Current District Maps You may view current district maps at the Texas Legislative Council’s section on Texas Redisticting where you can use the DistrictViewer software.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.568355	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26300/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26301/overview	How A Bill Becomes a Law in Texas Overview How a bill becomes a law in Texas. Learning Objectives At the end of this section, students will be able to - Understand the process for a bill becoming a law in Texas - Understand the process for amending the Texas constitution - Know when laws become enacted At the end of this section, you’ll be able to - Understand the process for a bill becoming a law in Texas - Understand the process for amending the Texas constitution - Know when laws become enacted Preliminary Steps Preliminary steps The legislature meets every odd-numbered year to write new laws and to find solutions to the problems facing the state. This meeting time, which begins on the second Tuesday in January and lasts 140 days, is called the regular session. The governor can direct the legislature to meet at other times also. These meetings, called special sessions, can last no more than 30 days and deal only with issues chosen by the governor. On the first day of each regular session, the 150 members of the house of representatives choose one of their members to be the speaker of the house. The speaker is the presiding officer of the house. He or she maintains order, recognizes members to speak during debate, and rules on procedural matters. The speaker also appoints the chairs and vice chairs of the committees that study legislation and decides which other representatives will serve on those committees, subject to seniority rules. There are 31 committees, each of which deals with a different subject area, and five committees that deal with procedural or administrative matters for the house. Most members serve on two or three different committees. In the senate, the presiding officer is the lieutenant governor, who is not actually a member of the senate. The lieutenant governor is the second-highest ranking officer of the executive branch of government and, like the governor, is chosen for a four-year term by popular vote in a statewide election. The first thing that the speaker of the house and the lieutenant governor ask their respective houses of the legislature to do is to decide on the rules that the legislators will follow during the session. Some legislative procedures are provided for in the state constitution, but additional rules can be adopted by a house of the legislature if approved by a majority vote of its members. Once rules have been adopted, the legislature begins to consider bills. Introducing a Bill Introducing a Bill A representative or senator gets an idea for a bill by listening to the people he or she represents and then working to solve their problem. A bill may also grow out of the recommendations of an interim committee study conducted when the legislature is not in session. The idea is researched to determine what state law needs to be changed or created to best solve that problem. A bill is then written by the legislator, often with legal assistance from the Texas Legislative Council, a legislative agency which provides bill drafting services, research assistance, computer support, and other services for legislators. Once a bill has been written, it is introduced by a member of the house or senate in the member’s own chamber. Sometimes, similar bills about a particular issue are introduced in both houses at the same time by a representative and senator working together. However, any bill increasing taxes or raising money for use by the state must start in the house of representatives. House members and senators can introduce bills on any subject during the first 60 calendar days of a regular session. After 60 days, the introduction of any bill other than a local bill or a bill related to an emergency declared by the governor requires the consent of at least four-fifths of the members present and voting in the house or four-fifths of the membership in the senate. After a bill has been introduced, a short description of the bill, called a caption, is read aloud while the chamber is in session so that all of the members are aware of the bill and its subject. This is called the first reading, and it is the point in the process where the presiding officer assigns the bill to a committee. This assignment is announced on the chamber floor during the first reading of the bill. The Committee Process The Committee Process The chair of each committee decides when the committee will meet and which bills will be considered. The house rules permit a house committee or subcommittee to meet: (1) in a public hearing where testimony is heard and where official action may be taken on bills, resolutions, or other matters; (2) in a formal meeting where the members may discuss and take official action without hearing public testimony; or (3) in a work session for discussion of matters before the committee without taking formal action. In the senate, testimony may be heard and official action may be taken at any meeting of a senate committee or subcommittee. Public testimony is almost always solicited on bills, allowing citizens the opportunity to present arguments on different sides of an issue. A house committee or subcommittee holding a public hearing during a legislative session must post notice of the hearing at least five calendar days before the hearing during a regular session and at least 24 hours in advance during a special session. For a formal meeting or a work session, written notice must be posted and sent to each member of the committee two hours in advance of the meeting or an announcement must be filed with the journal clerk and read while the house is in session. A senate committee or subcommittee must post notice of a meeting at least 24 hours before the meeting. After considering a bill, a committee may choose to take no action or may issue a report on the bill. The committee report, expressing the committee’s recommendations regarding action on a bill, includes a record of the committee’s vote on the report, the text of the bill as reported by the committee, a detailed bill analysis, and a fiscal note or other impact statement, as necessary. The report is then printed, and a copy is distributed to every member of the house or senate. In the house, a copy of the committee report is sent to either the Committee on Calendars or the Committee on Local and Consent Calendars for placement on a calendar for consideration by the full house. In the senate, local and noncontroversial bills are scheduled for senate consideration by the Senate Administration Committee. All other bills in the senate are placed on the regular order of business for consideration by the full senate in the order in which the bills were reported from senate committee. A bill on the regular order of business may not be brought up for floor consideration unless the senate sponsor of the bill has filed a written notice of intent to suspend the regular order of business for consideration of the bill. Floor Action Floor Action When a bill comes up for consideration by the full house or senate, it receives its second reading. The bill is read, again by caption only, and then debated by the full membership of the chamber. Any member may offer an amendment, but it must be approved by a majority of the members present and voting to be adopted. The members then vote on whether to pass the bill. The bill is then considered by the full body again on third reading and final passage. A bill may be amended again on third reading, but amendments at this stage require a two-thirds majority for adoption. Although the Texas Constitution requires a bill to be read on three separate days in each house before it can have the force of law, this constitutional rule may be suspended by a four-fifths vote of the house in which the bill is pending. The senate routinely suspends this constitutional provision in order to give a bill an immediate third reading after its second reading consideration. The house, however, rarely suspends this provision, and third reading of a bill in the house normally occurs on the day following its second reading consideration. In either house, a bill may be passed on a voice vote or a record vote. In the house, record votes are tallied by an electronic vote board controlled by buttons on each member’s desk. In the senate, record votes are taken by calling the roll of the members. If a bill receives a majority vote on third reading, it is considered passed. When a bill is passed in the house where it originated, the bill is engrossed, and a new copy of the bill which incorporates all corrections and amendments is prepared and sent to the opposite chamber for consideration. In the second house, the bill follows basically the same steps it followed in the first house. When the bill is passed in the opposite house, it is returned to the originating chamber with any amendments that have been adopted simply attached to the bill. Action on the Other House’s Amendments and Conference Committees Action on the Other House’s Amendments and Conference Committees If a bill is returned to the originating chamber with amendments, the originating chamber can either agree to the amendments or request a conference committee to work out differences between the house version and the senate version. If the amendments are agreed to, the bill is put in final form, signed by the presiding officers, and sent to the governor. Conference committees are composed of five members from each house appointed by the presiding officers. Once the conference committee reaches agreement, a conference committee report is prepared and must be approved by at least three of the five conferees from each house. Conference committee reports are voted on in each house and must be approved or rejected without amendment. If approved by both houses, the bill is signed by the presiding officers and sent to the governor. Governor's Action Governor's Action Upon receiving a bill, the governor has 10 days in which to sign the bill, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. If the governor vetoes the bill and the legislature is still in session, the bill is returned to the house in which it originated with an explanation of the governor’s objections. A two-thirds majority in each house is required to override the veto. If the governor neither vetoes nor signs the bill within 10 days, the bill becomes a law. If a bill is sent to the governor within 10 days of final adjournment, the governor has until 20 days after final adjournment to sign the bill, veto it, or allow it to become law without a signature. Constitutional Amendments Constitutional Amendments Proposed amendments to the Texas Constitution are in the form of joint resolutions instead of bills and require a vote of two-thirds of the entire membership in each house for adoption. Joint resolutions are not sent to the governor for approval, but are filed directly with the secretary of state. A joint resolution proposing an amendment to the Texas Constitution does not become effective until it is approved by Texas voters in a general election. Enactment (when laws go into effect) Enactment (when laws go into effect) Any bill passed by the Legislature takes effect 90 days after its passage unless two-thirds of each house votes to give the bill either immediate effect or earlier effect. The Legislature may provide for an effective date that is after the 90th day. Under current legislative practice, most bills are given an effective date of September 1 in odd-numbered years (September 1 is the start of the state’s fiscal year). Visual Representation Visual Representation For More Information For More Information The Texas Legislative Council has provided a detailed description of the legislative process in Texas. You may research past and current legisation at the Texas Legislature Online.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.594698	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26301/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26302/overview	Legislative Immunities Overview Legislative Immunities Learning Objectives By the end of this section students will be able to - Understand the speech and debate immunities granted Texas legislators - Understand the arrrest immunities granted Texas legislators By the end of this section you’ll be able to - Understand the speech and debate immunities granted Texas legislators - Understand the arrrest immunities granted Texas legislators Types of Immunities Types of Immunities The Texas Constitution grants two types of immunities to Texas steate legislators. One protects speech and debate. The other prevents or limits arrest during the legislative session. Speech and debate immunities The Texas Constitution (Article III, Section 21) grants Texas state legislators a fundamental protection of free speech and debate. This immunity protects legislators from punitive executive or judicial action. The intent is to allow lawmakers to work independently and unimpeded by the threat of intervention from the other branches of government in the discharge of their legislative duties. Arrest Immunities Texas state legislators are also protected from arrest traveling to and from and during legislative sessions. Exceptions include treason, felony, or breach of the peace.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.610978	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26302/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, The Legislative Branch", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview	Elections Overview Elections Introduction Introduction The Texas Secretary of State serves as Chief Election Officer for Texas, assisting county election officials and ensuring the uniform application and interpretation of election laws throughout Texas. This section explore Texas' elections. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Understand the four types of elections used in Texas - Understand the type of primaries used in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Types of Elections in Texas Texas uses four types of elections: - Primary Elections - Runoff Elections - General Elections - Special Elections Primary Elections A primary election is an election used either to narrow the field of candidates for a given elective office or to determine the nominees for political parties in advance of a general election. State law, not federal, regulates most aspects of primary (as well as general) elections, and local election officials (county, city, and township) are predominantly responsible for administering them. Runoff Elections A runoff election is held when no candidate gets 50 percent plus one vote in the primary election. Primary elections often have multiple candidates vying to represent a party in the general election and it’s not uncommon that a single candidate fails to win 50 percent plus one vote. In such a case there is a runoff election between the top two vote-getters. General Elections General elections are elections held at any level (e.g. city, county, congressional district, state) that involve competition between at least two parties. General elections determine the final winner–the candidate to take office. The candidate obtaining the most votes (even if not necessarily a majority of votes) wins. Special Elections Special elections are used for constitutional amendments or to fill elected offices that have become vacant between general elections. In most cases, these elections occur after the incumbent dies or resigns, but they also occur when the incumbent becomes ineligible to continue in office. Special elections are called by the Texas Legislature. Types of Primaries Types of Primaries Among the fifty states, there are several different types of primary elections: - Closed primary. People may vote in a party’s primary only if they are registered members of that party prior to election day. Independents cannot participate. Note that because some political parties name themselves independent, the terms “non-partisan” or “unaffiliated” often replace “independent” when referring to those who are not affiliated with a political party. Eleven states – Delaware, Florida, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, District of Columbia, Nebraska, New Mexico, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wyoming – have closed primaries. - Semi-closed. As in closed primaries, registered party members can vote only in their own party’s primary. Semi-closed systems, however, allow unaffiliated voters to participate as well. Depending on the state, independents either make their choice of party primary privately, inside the voting booth or publicly, by registering with any party on Election Day. Thirteen states – Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, Kansas, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, North Carolina, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and West Virginia – have semi-closed primaries that allow voters to register or change party preference on election day. - Open primary. A registered voter may vote in any party primary regardless of his or her own party affiliation. Eleven states – Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Hawaii, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, North Dakota, Vermont, and Wisconsin – have open primaries. When voters do not register with a party before the primary, it is called a pick-a-party primary because the voter can select which party’s primary he or she wishes to vote in on election day. Because of the open nature of this system, a practice known as raiding may occur. Raiding consists of voters of one party crossing over and voting in the primary of another party, effectively allowing a party to help choose its opposition’s candidate. The theory is that opposing party members vote for the weakest candidate of the opposite party in order to give their own party the advantage in the general election. - Semi-open. A registered voter need not publicly declare which political party’s primary that they will vote in before entering the voting booth. When voters identify themselves to the election officials, they must request a party’s specific ballot. Only one ballot is cast by each voter. In many states with semi-open primaries, election officials or poll workers from their respective parties record each voter’s choice of party and provide access to this information. The primary difference between a semi-open and open primary system is the use of a party-specific ballot. In a semi-open primary, a public declaration in front of the election judges is made and a party-specific ballot given to the voter to cast. Certain states that use the open-primary format may print a single ballot and the voter must choose on the ballot itself which political party’s candidates they will select for a contested office. - Blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party. - Nonpartisan blanket primary. A primary in which the ballot is not restricted to candidates from one party, where the top two candidates advance to the general election regardless of party affiliation. Louisiana has famously operated under this system, which has been nicknamed the “jungle primary.” California has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2012 after passing Proposition 14 in 2010, and the state of Washington has used a nonpartisan blanket primary since 2008. Classifying Texas' Primaries Classifying Texas' Primaries Texas’ primaries are difficult to classify–they are somewhere between open and semi-open. Voters in Texas don’t register under a party label and may choose to vote in either party’s primary (but not both). Voters who cast ballots in one of the major party primary elections may only vote in the runoff election for the same party in which they cast their primary ballot. Voters who did not cast a ballot in primary elections are free to choose either party’s runoff ballot, but may only vote in one party’s runoff election. Notes Notes Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.631192	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26292/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26293/overview	Voting Overview Voting Introduction Introduction A vote is a formal expression of an individual's choice for or against some motion (for example, a proposed resolution); for or against some ballot question; or for a certain candidate, selection of candidates, or political party. This section explores voting in Texas. Learning Objectives By the end of this section, students will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision - Understand voter registration rates in Texas - Understand voter turnout in Texas By the end of this section, you will be able to: - Identify ways the U.S. government has promoted voter rights and registration - Summarize similarities and differences in states’ voter registration methods - Analyze ways states increase voter registration and decrease fraud - Discuss the voting requirements in Texas - Understand the factors that affect voter turnout - Analyze the factors that typically affect a voter’s decision - Understand voter registration rates in Texas - Understand voter turnout in Texas Registration Registration Before most voters are allowed to cast a ballot, they must register to vote in their state. This process may be as simple as checking a box on a driver’s license application or as difficult as filling out a long form with complicated questions. Registration allows governments to determine which citizens are allowed to vote and, in some cases, from which list of candidates they may select a party nominee. Ironically, while government wants to increase voter turnout, the registration process may prevent various groups of citizens and non-citizens from participating in the electoral process. Registration Across The United States Registration Across The United States Elections are state-by-state contests. They include general elections for president and statewide offices (e.g., governor and U.S. senator), and they are often organized and paid for by the states. Because political cultures vary from state to state, the process of voter registration similarly varies. For example, suppose an 85-year-old retiree with an expired driver’s license wants to register to vote. He or she might be able to register quickly in California or Florida, but a current government ID might be required prior to registration in Texas or Indiana. The varied registration and voting laws across the United States have long caused controversy. In the aftermath of the Civil War, southern states enacted literacy tests, grandfather clauses, and other requirements intended to disenfranchise black voters in Alabama, Georgia, and Mississippi. Literacy tests were long and detailed exams on local and national politics, history, and more. They were often administered arbitrarily with more blacks required to take them than whites.[1] Poll taxes required voters to pay a fee to vote. Grandfather clauses exempted individuals from taking literacy tests or paying poll taxes if they or their fathers or grandfathers had been permitted to vote prior to a certain point in time. While the Supreme Court determined that grandfather clauses were unconstitutional in 1915, states continued to use poll taxes and literacy tests to deter potential voters from registering.[2] States also ignored instances of violence and intimidation against African Americans wanting to register or vote.[3] The ratification of the Twenty-Fourth Amendment in 1964 ended poll taxes, but the passage of the Voting Rights Act (VRA) in 1965 had a more profound effect. The act protected the rights of minority voters by prohibiting state laws that denied voting rights based on race. The VRA gave the attorney general of the United States authority to order federal examiners to areas with a history of discrimination. These examiners had the power to oversee and monitor voter registration and elections. States found to violate provisions of the VRA were required to get any changes in their election laws approved by the U.S. attorney general or by going through the court system. However, in Shelby County v. Holder (2013), the Supreme Court, in a 5–4 decision, threw out the standards and process of the VRA, effectively gutting the landmark legislation.[4] The effects of the VRA were visible almost immediately. In Mississippi, only 6.7 percent of blacks were registered to vote in 1965; however, by the fall of 1967, nearly 60 percent were registered. Alabama experienced similar effects, with African American registration increasing from 19.3 percent to 51.6 percent. Voter turnout across these two states similarly increased. Mississippi went from 33.9 percent turnout to 53.2 percent, while Alabama increased from 35.9 percent to 52.7 percent between the 1964 and 1968 presidential elections.[5] Following the implementation of the VRA, many states have sought other methods of increasing voter registration. Several states make registering to vote relatively easy for citizens who have government documentation. Oregon has few requirements for registering and registers many of its voters automatically. North Dakota has no registration at all. In 2002, Arizona was the first state to offer online voter registration, which allowed citizens with a driver’s license to register to vote without any paper application or signature. The system matches the information on the application to information stored at the Department of Motor Vehicles, to ensure each citizen is registering to vote in the right precinct. Citizens without a driver’s license still need to file a paper application. More than eighteen states have moved to online registration or passed laws to begin doing so. The National Conference of State Legislatures estimates, however, that adopting an online voter registration system can initially cost a state between $250,000 and $750,000.[6] Other states have decided against online registration due to concerns about voter fraud and security. Legislators also argue that online registration makes it difficult to ensure that only citizens are registering and that they are registering in the correct precincts. As technology continues to update other areas of state recordkeeping, online registration may become easier and safer. In some areas, citizens have pressured the states and pushed the process along. A bill to move registration online in Florida stalled for over a year in the legislature, based on security concerns. With strong citizen support, however, it was passed and signed in 2015, despite the governor’s lingering concerns. In other states, such as Texas, both the government and citizens are concerned about identity fraud, so traditional paper registration is still preferred. How Does a Citizen Register to Vote? How Does a Citizen Register to Vote? The National Commission on Voting Rights completed a study in September 2015 that found state registration laws can either raise or reduce voter turnout rates, especially among citizens who are young or whose income falls below the poverty line. States with simple voter registration had more registered citizens.[7] In all states except North Dakota, a citizen wishing to vote must complete an application. Whether the form is online or on paper, the prospective voter will list his or her name, residence address, and in many cases party identification (with Independent as an option) and affirm that he or she is competent to vote. States may also have a residency requirement, which establishes how long a citizen must live in a state before becoming eligible to register: it is often 30 days. Beyond these requirements, there may be an oath administered or more questions asked, such as felony convictions. If the application is completely online and the citizen has government documents (e.g., driver’s license or state identification card), the system will compare the application to other state records and accept an online signature or affidavit if everything matches up correctly. Citizens who do not have these state documents are often required to complete paper applications. States without online registration often allow a citizen to fill out an application on a website, but the citizen will receive a paper copy in the mail to sign and mail back to the state. Another aspect of registering to vote is the timeline. States may require registration to take place as much as thirty days before voting, or they may allow same-day registration. Maine first implemented same-day registration in 1973. Fourteen states and the District of Columbia now allow voters to register the day of the election if they have proof of residency, such as a driver’s license or utility bill. Many of the more populous states (e.g., Michigan and Texas), require registration forms to be mailed thirty days before an election. Moving means citizens must re-register or update addresses. College students, for example, may have to re-register or update addresses each year as they move. States that use same-day registration had a 4 percent higher voter turnout in the 2012 presidential election than states that did not.[8] Some attempts have been made to streamline voter registration. The National Voter Registration Act (1993), often referred to as Motor Voter, was enacted to expedite the registration process and make it as simple as possible for voters. The act required states to allow citizens to register to vote when they sign up for driver’s licenses and Social Security benefits. On each government form, the citizen need only mark an additional box to also register to vote. Unfortunately, while increasing registrations by 7 percent between 1992 and 2012, Motor Voter did not dramatically increase voter turnout.[9] In fact, for two years following the passage of the act, voter turnout decreased slightly.[10] It appears that the main users of the expedited system were those already intending to vote. One study, however, found that preregistration may have a different effect on youth than on the overall voter pool; in Florida, it increased turnout of young voters by 13 percent.[11] In 2015, Oregon made news when it took the concept of Motor Voter further. When citizens turn eighteen, the state now automatically registers most of them using driver’s license and state identification information. When a citizen moves, the voter rolls are updated when the license is updated. While this policy has been controversial, with some arguing that private information may become public or that Oregon is moving toward mandatory voting, automatic registration is consistent with the state’s efforts to increase registration and turnout.[12] Oregon’s example offers a possible solution to a recurring problem for states—maintaining accurate voter registration rolls. During the 2000 election, in which George W. Bush won Florida’s electoral votes by a slim majority, attention turned to the state’s election procedures and voter registration rolls. Journalists found that many states, including Florida, had large numbers of phantom voters on their rolls, voters had moved or died but remained on the states’ voter registration rolls.[13] The Help America Vote Act of 2002 (HAVA) was passed in order to reform voting across the states and reduce these problems. As part of the Act, states were required to update voting equipment, make voting more accessible to the disabled, and maintain computerized voter rolls that could be updated regularly.[14] Over a decade later, there has been some progress. In Louisiana, voters are placed on ineligible lists if a voting registrar is notified that they have moved or become ineligible to vote. If the voter remains on this list for two general elections, his or her registration is cancelled. In Oklahoma, the registrar receives a list of deceased residents from the Department of Health.[15] Twenty-nine states now participate in the Interstate Voter Registration Crosscheck Program, which allows states to check for duplicate registrations.[16] At the same time, Florida’s use of the federal Systematic Alien Verification for Entitlements (SAVE) database has proven to be controversial, because county elections supervisors are allowed to remove voters deemed ineligible to vote.[17] Despite these efforts, a study commissioned by the Pew Charitable Trust found twenty-four million voter registrations nationwide were no longer valid. [18] Pew is now working with eight states to update their voter registration rolls and encouraging more states to share their rolls in an effort to find duplicates.[19 Who Is Allowed To Register? Who Is Allowed To Register? In order to be eligible to vote in the United States, a person must be a citizen, resident, and eighteen years old. But states often place additional requirements on the right to vote. The most common requirement is that voters must be mentally competent and not currently serving time in jail. Some states enforce more stringent or unusual requirements on citizens who have committed crimes. Florida and Kentucky permanently bar felons and ex-felons from voting unless they obtain a pardon from the governor, while Mississippi and Nevada allow former felons to apply to have their voting rights restored.[20] On the other end of the spectrum, Vermont does not limit voting based on incarceration unless the crime was election fraud.[21] Maine citizens serving in Maine prisons also may vote in elections. Beyond those jailed, some citizens have additional expectations placed on them when they register to vote. Wisconsin requires that voters “not wager on an election,” and Vermont citizens must recite the “Voter’s Oath” before they register, swearing to cast votes with a conscience and “without fear or favor of any person.”[22] Deciding How to Vote Deciding How to Vote When citizens do vote, how do they make their decisions? The election environment is complex and most voters don’t have time to research everything about the candidates and issues. Yet they will need to make a fully rational assessment of the choices for an elected office. To meet this goal, they tend to take shortcuts. One popular shortcut is simply to vote using party affiliation. Many political scientists consider party-line voting to be rational behavior because citizens register for parties based upon either position preference or socialization. Similarly, candidates align with parties based upon their issue positions. A Democrat who votes for a Democrat is very likely selecting the candidate closest to his or her personal ideology. While party identification is a voting cue, it also makes for a logical decision. Citizens also use party identification to make decisions via straight-ticket voting—choosing every Republican or Democratic Party member on the ballot. In some states, such as Texas or Michigan, selecting one box at the top of the ballot gives a single party all the votes on the ballot. Straight-ticket voting does cause problems in states that include non-partisan positions on the ballot. In Michigan, for example, the top of the ballot (presidential, gubernatorial, senatorial and representative seats) will be partisan, and a straight-ticket vote will give a vote to all the candidates in the selected party. But the middle or bottom of the ballot includes seats for local offices or judicial seats, which are non-partisan. These offices would receive no vote because the straight-ticket votes go only to partisan seats. In 2010, actors from the former political drama The West Wing came together to create an advertisement for Mary McCormack’s sister Bridget, who was running for a non-partisan seat on the Michigan Supreme Court. The ad reminded straight-ticket voters to cast a ballot for the court seats as well; otherwise, they would miss an important election. McCormack won the seat. Straight-ticket voting does have the advantage of reducing ballot fatigue. Ballot fatigue occurs when someone votes only for the top or important ballot positions, such as president or governor, and stops voting rather than continue to the bottom of a long ballot. In 2012, for example, 70 percent of registered voters in Colorado cast a ballot for the presidential seat, yet only 54 percent voted yes or no on retaining Nathan B. Coats for the state supreme court.[23] Voters make decisions based upon candidates’ physical characteristics, such as attractiveness or facial features.[24] They may also vote based on gender or race because they assume the elected official will make policy decisions based on a demographic shared with the voters. Candidates are very aware of voters’ focus on these non-political traits. In 2008, a sizable portion of the electorate wanted to vote for either Hillary Clinton or Barack Obama because they offered new demographics—either the first woman or the first black president. Demographics hurt John McCain that year because many people believed that at 71 he was too old to be president.[25] Hillary Clinton was criticized in 2008 on the grounds that she had not aged gracefully and wore pantsuits. In essence, attractiveness can make a candidate appear more competent, which in turn can help him or her ultimately win.[26] Aside from party identification and demographics, voters will also look at issues or the economy when making a decision. For some single-issue voters, a candidate’s stance on abortion rights will be a major factor, while other voters may look at the candidates’ beliefs on the Second Amendment and gun control. Single-issue voting may not require much more effort by the voter than simply using party identification; however, many voters are likely to seek out a candidate’s position on a multitude of issues before making a decision. They will use the information they find in several ways. Retrospective voting occurs when the voter looks at the candidate’s past actions and the past economic climate and makes a decision only using these factors. This behavior may occur during economic downturns or after political scandals when voters hold politicians accountable and do not wish to give the representative a second chance. Pocketbook voting occurs when the voter looks at his or her personal finances and circumstances to decide how to vote. Someone having a harder time finding employment or seeing investments suffer during a particular candidate or party’s control of government will vote for a different candidate or party than the incumbent. Prospective voting occurs when the voter applies information about a candidate’s past behavior to decide how the candidate will act in the future. For example, will the candidate’s voting record or actions help the economy and better prepare him or her to be president during an economic downturn? The challenge of this voting method is that the voters must use a lot of information, which might be conflicting or unrelated, to make an educated guess about how the candidate will perform in the future. Voters do appear to rely on prospective and retrospective voting more often than on pocketbook voting. In some cases, a voter may cast a ballot strategically. In these cases, a person may vote for a second- or third-choice candidate, either because his or her preferred candidate cannot win or in the hope of preventing another candidate from winning. This type of voting is likely to happen when there are multiple candidates for one position or multiple parties running for one seat.[27] In Florida and Oregon, for example, Green Party voters (who tend to be liberal) may choose to vote for a Democrat if the Democrat might otherwise lose to a Republican. Similarly, in Georgia, while a Libertarian may be the preferred candidate, the voter would rather have the Republican candidate win over the Democrat and will vote accordingly.[28] One other way voters make decisions is through incumbency. In essence, this is retrospective voting, but it requires little of the voter. In congressional and local elections, incumbents win reelection up to 90 percent of the time, a result called the incumbency advantage. What contributes to this advantage and often persuades competent challengers not to run? First, incumbents have name recognition and voting records. The media is more likely to interview them because they have advertised their name over several elections and have voted on legislation affecting the state or district. Incumbents also have won election before, which increases the odds that political action committees and interest groups will give them money; most interest groups will not give money to a candidate destined to lose. Incumbents also have franking privileges, which allows them a limited amount of free mail to communicate with the voters in their district. While these mailings may not be sent in the days leading up to an election—sixty days for a senator and ninety days for a House member—congressional representatives are able to build a free relationship with voters through them.[29] Moreover, incumbents have exiting campaign organizations, while challengers must build new organizations from the ground up. Lastly, incumbents have more money in their war chests than most challengers. Another incumbent advantage is gerrymandering, the drawing of district lines to guarantee a desired electoral outcome. Every ten years, following the U.S. Census, the number of House of Representatives members allotted to each state is determined based on a state’s population. If a state gains or loses seats in the House, the state must redraw districts to ensure each district has an equal number of citizens. States may also choose to redraw these districts at other times and for other reasons.[30] If the district is drawn to ensure that it includes a majority of Democratic or Republican Party members within its boundaries, for instance, then candidates from those parties will have an advantage. Gerrymandering helps local legislative candidates and members of the House of Representatives, who win reelection over 90 percent of the time. Senators and presidents do not benefit from gerrymandering because they are not running in a district. Presidents and senators win states, so they benefit only from war chests and name recognition. This is one reason why senators running in 2014, for example, won reelection only 82 percent of the time.[31] Texas' Voter Requirements Texas' Voter Requirements Texas voter requirements are:[32] - Must be a U.S. citizen - Must be a resident of the county - Must be at least 18 years old (a person may register to vote at 17 years and 10 months) - Not a convicted felon (Eligible to vote once the person’s sentence is complete) - Not declared mentally incapacitated by a court of law - Must present an acceptable form of photo identification Texas also has absentee voting (where an individual does not need to be physically present at the poll to cast their ballot), and early voting (17 days before and 4 days until the regular election). Voter Registration Rates In Texas Voter Registration Rates In Texas Texas fares poorly in recent comparisons of registration rates among states. In the 2016 elections, Texas ranked 46 out of 51 (including the District of Columbia) for the percentage of eligible population (excluding non-citizens for instance). Voter Turnout In Texas Voter Turnout In Texas Similarly, Texas ranked 48 out of 51 for the percentage of eligible population who turned out to vote in the 2016 elections. Notes Notes - Stephen Medvic. 2014. Campaigns and Elections: Players and Processes, 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. ↵ - Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915). ↵ - Medvic, Campaigns and Elections. ↵ - Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. ___ (2013). ↵ - Bernard Grofman, Lisa Handley, and Richard G. Niemi. 1992. Minority Representation and the Quest for Voting Equality. New York: Cambridge University Press, 25. ↵ - “The Canvass,” April 2014, Issue 48, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/states-and-election-reform-the-canvass-april-2014.aspx. ↵ - Tova Wang and Maria Peralta. 22 September 2015. “New Report Released by National Commission on Voting Rights: More Work Needed to Improve Registration and Voting in the U.S.” http://votingrightstoday.org/ncvr/resources/electionadmin. ↵ - Ibid. ↵ - Royce Crocker, “The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects,” Congressional Research Service, CRS Report R40609, September 18, 2013, https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf. ↵ - “National General Election VEP Turnout Rates, 1789–Present,” http://www.electproject.org/national-1789-present (November 4, 2015). ↵ - John B. Holbein, D. Sunshine Hillygus. 2015. “Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout.” American Journal of Political Science (March). doi:10.1111/ajps.12177. ↵ - Russell Berman, “Should Voter Registration Be Automatic?” Atlantic, 20 March 2015; Maria L. La Ganga, “Under New Oregon Law, All Eligible Voters are Registered Unless They Opt Out,” Los Angeles Times, 17 March 2015. ↵ - “‘Unusable’ Voter Rolls,” Wall Street Journal, 7 November 2000. ↵ - “One Hundred Seventh Congress of the United States of America at the Second Session,” 23 January 2002. http://www.eac.gov/assets/1/workflow_staging/Page/41.PDF. ↵ - “Voter List Accuracy,”11 February 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-list-accuracy.aspx↵ - Brad Bryant and Kay Curtis, eds. December 2013. “Interstate Crosscheck Program Grows,” http://www.kssos.org/forms/communication/canvassing_kansas/dec13.pdf. ↵ - Troy Kinsey, “Proposed Bills Put Greater Scrutiny on Florida’s Voter Purges,” Bay News, 9 November 2015. ↵ - Pam Fessler, “Study: 1.8 Million Dead People Still Registered to Vote,” National Public Radio, 14 February 2013; “Report: Inaccurate, Costly, an Inefficient,” The Pew Charitable Trusts, February 14, 2012. ↵ - Fessler, “Study: 1.8 Million Dead People Still Registered to Vote.” ↵ - “Felon Voting Rights,” 15 July 2014. http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/felon-voting-rights.aspx. ↵ - Wilson Ring, “Vermont, Maine Only States to Let Inmates Vote,” Associated Press, 22 October 2008. ↵ - “Voter’s Qualifications and Oath,” https://votesmart.org/elections/ballot-measure/1583/voters-qualifications-and-oath#.VjQOJH6rS00 (November 12, 2015). ↵ - “Presidential Electors,” http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/president.html (July 15, 2015); “Judicial Retention–Supreme Court,” http://www.sos.state.co.us/pubs/elections/Results/Abstract/2012/general/retention/supremeCourt.html (July 15, 2015). ↵ - Lasse Laustsen. 2014. “Decomposing the Relationship Between Candidates’ Facial Appearance and Electoral Success,” Political Behavior 36, No. 4: 777–791. ↵ - Alan Silverleib. 15 June 2008. “Analysis: Age an Issue in the 2008 Campaign?” http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/06/15/mccain.age/index.html?iref=newssearch. ↵ - Laustsen. “Decomposing the Relationship,” 777–791. ↵ - R. Michael Alvarez and Jonathan Nagler. 2000. “A New Approach for Modelling Strategic Voting in Multiparty Elections,” British Journal of Political Science 30, No. 1: 57–75. ↵ - Nathan Thomburgh, “Could Third-Party Candidates Be Spoilers?” Time, 3 November 2008. ↵ - Matthew E. Glassman, “Congressional Franking Privilege: Background and Current Legislation,” Congressional Research Service, CRS Report RS22771, December 11, 2007, http://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS22771.pdf. ↵ - League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006). ↵ - “Reelection Rates of the Years,” https://www.opensecrets.org/bigpicture/reelect.php (November 2, 2015). ↵ - http://www.votetexas.gov/register-to-vote/need-id CC LICENSED CONTENT, ORIGINAL - Revision and Adaptation. License: CC BY: Attribution - Texas Voter Requirements. Authored by: Daniel M. Regalado. License: CC BY: Attribution	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.670897	null	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/26293/overview", "title": "Texas Government 1.0, Elections and Voting", "author": null }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113299/overview	Introduction and Nazi Germany Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 14, Lesson 1 A discussion of the build up to WWII with the rise of Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. It covers Hitler's consolidation of power, the persecution of Jews, and the lead up to the Holocaust, as well as Stalin's rise and policies in the Soviet Union. Fought from 1939-1945, World War II was the bloodiest war in world history. Fought in theaters stretching from the frozen fields of Russia to the sweltering jungles of Myanmar, the Second World War witnessed the defeat and division of Germany, the use of nuclear weapons on Japan, the expansion of Soviet-style communism throughout Eastern Europe, the emergence of the United States as a superpower, and the decline of colonial empires around the world. Nazi Germany Having seized control of the German political system, Hitler turned next to stifling dissent within his own ranks. During his rise to power, Hitler had used the Nazi party to formally agitate for more power. However, behind the scenes he relied upon a group of paramilitary party members known as the Sturmabteilung (storm battalion), informally known as the SA or the “Brownshirts” due to their habit of dressing in brown shirts complete with ties. Hitler used the Brownshirts to intimidate, beat or even kill political rivals. Although many Brownshirts were World War I veterans completely loyal to Hitler, they were also a well-trained and well-armed group that could at times prove difficult to rein in. In June 1930, Hitler received word of a rumor that SA leader Ernst Röhm (1887-1934) planned to launch a coup against him. On June 30 to July 2, Hitler ordered a group of handpicked Brownshirts and Gestapo (secret police) agents to purge Röhm and his followers. Hitler used his emergency powers to suspend all political and civil rights, to arrest anyone suspicious of agitating against the government, and keep them in prison indefinitely without fair trials or due process. As only Nazi Party members could now become judges, Hitler’s regime controlled what judicial processes remained in Germany. The Nazis reorganized Germany into Gaue, or districts, and put them under the command of Gauleiters (district leaders). Each town was also divided into smaller units called Viertels (quarters). Each quarter had its own warden who would monitor his section and investigate suspicious individuals. The warden was the direct link to the Nazi Party. People were encouraged to report their families, neighbors and friends if they were not in full support of Hitler and the Nazi Party. Within the state, all cultural activities were geared toward propagating the ideology of National Socialism. Many cultural events were organized to show open support for Hitler. Everything was strictly controlled, and non-monitored art and cultural activities were prohibited. The Nazis used an immense propaganda machine to support Hitler and the Nazi state. Joseph Goebbels (1897-1945) was put in charge of the Nazi propaganda programs, which were broadcasted through completely controlled radio stations, cinemas, speeches, parades and rallies, youth organizations and K-12 education. Given limited opportunities, women were told to concern themselves with “children, church, kitchen” (Kinder, Kirche, Küche). Hitler worked closely with Heinrich Himmler (1900- 1945), the head of the SS and the Gestapo. Himmler headed the Reich Security Main Office, which was charged with internal safety and security. He is also seen as the principal architect of the concentration and death camps. Concentration and death camps housed political opponents and were used to systematically murder people – most of them Jews. On September 15, 1935, the Nazi government announced the passage of a slew of laws that discriminated against Jewish people. These Nuremburg Laws, (the Reich Citizenship Law and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor) emphasized that Germans, but not Jewish people, belonged to the so- called Aryan race. According to these discriminatory laws, Jewish people threatened the purity of the German people and thus, the Nazis believed that they had to identify and separate Jews from German society. The law banned marriages and relationships with Jews and pushed Jews into ghettos. The rules also applied to the Sinti and Roma communities. The Reich Citizenship Law underscored that only racially pure people could hold German citizenship, which meant that Jews could never be considered full German citizens. The situation worsened in 1938 when new laws were passed that prohibited Jews from any participation in public life. The regulations also highlighted if Jews were to emigrate that they would surrender their property to the German state. Furthermore, Jews had to publicly wear a yellow star embossed with the word “Jew” and obtain a “J” label on their passports. On November 9, 1938, during Kristallnacht (Night of the Broken Glass), over 7500 Jewish businesses and over 400 synagogues were destroyed, more than 90 Jews were killed, and over 30,000 arrested. Spotlight On \| KRISTALLNACHT Kristallnacht was a wave of state- sponsored terrorism directed against Germany’s Jews from November 9-10, 1938. In early November, Nazi officials expelled over 5,000 Jews of Polish descent from Germany. When learning that his parents had been among the deportees, 17-year-old Herschel Grynszpan (b. 1921) assassinated Ernest vom Rath (1909-1938), a German embassy official in Paris. Vom Rath died on November 9, the anniversary of Hitler’s 1923 attempted coup known as the “Beer Hall Putsch.” When Hitler’s propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels suggested that his followers begin a series of spontaneous demonstrations to protest the assassination of vom Rath, violence against Jewish synagogues, businesses and homes broke out across Germany, Austria and the Sudetenland. By the morning of November 10, over 7,500 Jewish businesses had been looted, and nearly a hundred victims lay dead. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin in 1942, Hitler suggested the Final Solution for the Jewish problem. Jews were collected from the ghettos and sent to the death camps in Poland. The Holocaust did not end until Germany’s defeat in 1945 and the end of World War II. By the time of their liberation, over 6 million Jews died in the Holocaust and another 6 million Romani, Slavs and other targeted groups had also been killed by the Nazis. Millions of prisoners of war, especially from the Soviet Union, also died at the hands of the Nazis. Many people blindly supported Hitler because he reduced unemployment. He built up the German weapon industry, which created many jobs and helped promote economic efficiency. Overall unemployment fell from 6 million in 1933 to below 1 million in 1939. The rearmament benefited big enterprises especially. Although the overall economy did not necessarily improve under Hitler’s leadership, the German people saw shrinking unemployment, vigorous social investment policies, and some prosperity. An increased industrial effort was centered on the armament industries and presupposed the coming of a war.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.690765	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113299/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, World War II, Introduction and Nazi Germany", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113315/overview	Decolonization in Africa Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 5 A discussion of decolonization in Africa, highlighting the Mau Mau Rebellion, the Rhodesian Bush War, the Algerian War for Independence, and the Libyan Revolution. These events illustrate the complex and often violent transition from European colonial rule to independent African nations. During the Second World War, Allied Powers such as Great Britain and the United States enjoyed tremendous support from their colonies and overseas territories. Indian Gurkhas, Australian and New Zealand “diggers,” and Filipino “hunters” all contributed to the Allied war effort with the hope of independence for their homelands when the war was over. The one recurrent theme that ran through the Atlantic Charter, Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam Declarations, and the Charter of the United Nations was that of national self-determination for all peoples including the developing world. From the 1940s to the 1970s, Great Britain, Germany, Italy, Japan, France, Spain, Portugal and the Netherlands were forced to grant independence to most, if not all, of their overseas empires. To be sure, many imperialists fought the loss of their overseas territories tooth and nail. As British Prime Minister Winston Churchill quipped in November 1942, “I have not become the King’s First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire.” However, not even a figure as formidable as Churchill could turn back the forces of decolonization in the developing world. Mau Mau Rebellion and the Rhodesian Bush War From the 1880s to the 1910s, many European nations competed in the “scramble for Africa.” By the eve of World War II, virtually the entire continent lay under the control of one European power or another. During World War II, 1.3 million Ghanese, Kenyan, South African, Botswanan, Malawian and Zambian troops served in the British forces and returned home with a sense of group solidarity and confidence. In 1960, British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan (1894-1986) gave a speech in Johannesburg, South Africa, in which he recognized “the wind of change blowing through the continent.” Although Britain’s leaders granted independence to many African colonies, they fought to keep Kenya and Rhodesia (current day Zimbabwe) in the empire. From 1952-1960, British troops ruthlessly suppressed the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya. The Mau Mau revolt began when poor Kikuyu people, having been forced off their traditional land, made war against British officials and upper-class, “Anglicized” members of their communities. Many Mau Mau adopted British Scout uniforms and merit badges to fool British soldiers into believing they were loyal Kenyans. Over time, the Mau Mau began to wear scout uniforms as symbols of resistance and pride. Kikuyu men and women who trained to become Mau Mau warriors often believed their initiation rituals would make them invincible to British bullets. As such, they fought ferociously in battle. British officials killed over 20,000 Mau Mau during the conflict and placed another 20,000 Kikuyu and other minorities into brutal “labor camps” that bore more than a passing resemblance to German concentration camps. Although British colonial forces defeated the largest Mau Mau army in 1956, they could not stop international pressure and local resistance. At the First Lancaster House Conference, held in 1960, British and Kenyan delegates worked out a roadmap for a transition government that provided complete independence for Kenya in 1963. Kenya’s experience provided a blueprint for other British colonies in Africa to seek their independence. In 1965, the governing white minority population of Rhodesia declared the region’s independence from the British Empire. This led to the Rhodesian Bush War (1964-1979), in which the white-dominated Rhodesian government fought against several African revolutionary groups. Placed in the position of peacemaker, the British government helped negotiate a cease-fire at the Second Lancaster House Conference in 1979. Under the terms of this agreement, white settlers agreed to share power with indigenous Africans in a new nation called Zimbabwe, which became fully independent in 1980. Algerian War for Independence During the Second World War, most of France’s overseas territories were occupied by Japanese, British, or American forces. This made France’s resumption of power in such areas tenuous at best. Nevertheless, under Charles De Gaulle (1890-1970), a former general and hero of two World Wars, the French government attempted to reconstitute its prewar empire. In 1830, French forces invaded and occupied Algeria. For the next century, thousands of French colonists, known as “pieds-noirs” (black feet), created enclaves throughout the region and introduced French technology, language and culture to the native Algerians. Following World War II, Messali Hadj’s (1898-1974) Movement for the Triumph of Liberal Democracies (MTDL) launched an independence movement against French rule. While the MTDL publicly campaigned for a peaceful end to French imperialism, a group of Algerian militants known as the Special Organization (SO) used ambushes, assassinations and bombings to take the fight directly to French soldiers and colonial administrators. Both groups joined together to form the National Liberation Front, which carried on the struggle for independence. After a decade of fighting and losing 36,000 soldiers and civilians, De Gaulle’s government finally agreed on a transition plan that resulted in Algerian independence in 1963. Spotlight On \| WOMEN IN THE ALGERIAN LIBERATION MOVEMENT Women such as Djmila Bouhired (b. 1935) played leading roles in the Algerian liberation movement. Born into a middle-class family in colonial Algeria, Bouhired ran into discipline problems in primary school for shouting “Algeria is our Mother” instead of the customary “France is our mother” at morning assemblies. Becoming an active demonstrator against French imperialism, the dedicated and determined Bouhired once endured 17 hours of torture at the hand of colonial officials without revealing any useful information. In July 1957, French authorities arrested Bouhired on charges of bombing a café that killed 11 people. French attorney Jacques Verges agreed to represent Bouhired at trial. In a sensational courtroom event that garnered international attention, Verges accused French colonial officials of carrying out the bombing. When a jury found Bouhired guilty and sentenced her to death by guillotine, protest groups campaigned on her behalf. Due to the personal intervention of Moroccan Princess Laila Ayesha, French President René Coty commuted Bouhired’s punishment to life imprisonment. After serving five years in a prison in Reims, she was released in 1962 as part of a general amnesty policy. Libyan Revolution adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC By-SA On November 21, 1949, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent, and on December 24, 1951, Libya declared its independence as the United Kingdom of Libya—a constitutional and hereditary monarchy—led by King Idris, Libya’s only monarch. The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled Libya, one of the world’s historically poorest nations, to establish an extremely wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government’s finances, resentment among some factions began to build over the increased concentration of the nation’s wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of Arab nationalism throughout North Africa and the Middle East, so while the continued presence of Americans, Italians, and British in Libya aided in the increased levels of wealth and tourism following WWII, it was seen by some as a threat. On September 1, 1969, a small group of military officers led by 27-year-old army officer Muammar Gaddafi staged a coup d’état against King Idris, launching the successful Libyan Revolution. On the birthday of Muhammad in 1973, Gaddafi delivered a “Five-Point Address.” He announced the suspension of all existing laws and the implementation of Sharia. He said that the country would be purged of the “politically sick”; a “people’s militia” would “protect the revolution”; and there would be an administrative revolution and a cultural revolution. Gaddafi set up an extensive surveillance system: 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for the Revolutionary committees, which monitored place in government, factories, and the education sector. Gaddafi executed dissidents publicly and the executions were often rebroadcast on state television channels. Additionally, he employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of critical refugees around the world. In 1977, Libya officially became the “Great Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.” Gaddafi officially passed power to the General People’s Committees and, henceforth, claimed to be no more than a symbolic figurehead, but domestic and international critics claimed the reforms gave him virtually unlimited power. Dissidents against the new system were not tolerated, with punitive actions including capital punishment authorized by Gaddafi himself. The new government he established was officially referred to as a form of direct democracy, though the government refused to publish election results. Gaddafi was ruler of Libya until the 2011 Libyan Civil War, when he was deposed with the backing of NATO. Since then, Libya has experienced instability.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.711669	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113315/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, Decolonization in Africa", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113324/overview	The Cold War in Latin America Overview Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History: Unit 15, Lesson 14 A discussion of the Cold War in Latin America, focusing on the United States' involvement in political conflicts in Nicaragua and El Salvador. The U.S. government's fear of the spread of communism led to interventions that had significant consequences for the people of those countries. Operation Condor adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC BY-SA Throughout the 1960s and early 1970s, the United States had become increasingly afraid of communism spreading throughout Latin America following the Cuban Revolution. To stop the spread of socialism and communism in Chile and Argentina, Nixon’s government supported a program known as Operation Condor. Operation Condor was a covert campaign of political repression and state terror carried out by right-wing dictatorships in South America from 1975 to 1983. It involved intelligence operations, coups, and assassinations aimed at eliminating left-wing sympathizers. Operation Condor had devastating effects in Chile and Argentina. Thousands of people were kidnapped, tortured, and murdered by the regimes. The campaign targeted not only suspected guerrillas but also students, labor leaders, intellectuals, and anyone deemed to be a threat to the ruling juntas. The widespread disappearances and extrajudicial killings created a climate of fear and severely damaged the social fabric of both countries, leaving lasting scars that continue to impact these nations today. Nicaragua and the Contras adapted from Statewide Dual Credit World History \| CC BY-SA With the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980, relations between the United States and the Sandinista regime in Nicaragua became an active front in the Cold War. The Sandinistas were a left-leaning political organization that had led a successful revolution against the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua in 1979. They implemented social programs aimed at improving literacy and healthcare, which garnered them popular support, especially among the poor. However, the Reagan administration insisted that the Sandinistas posed a Communist threat, reacting particularly to the support provided to them by Cuban president Fidel Castro, as well as the Sandinistas’ close military relations with the Soviets and Cubans. The Reagan administration also wished to protect U.S. interests in the region which were threatened by the policies of the Sandinista government. Regan’s government quickly suspended aid to Nicaragua and expanded the supply of arms and training to the Contras, Nicaraguan rebels who had fled to neighboring Honduras. American pressure against the Nicaraguan government escalated throughout 1983 and 1984. Meanwhile, the Contras began a campaign of economic sabotage and disrupted shipping by planting underwater mines in Nicaragua’s Port of Corinto, an action condemned by the International Court of Justice (ICJ) as illegal. The UN General Assembly also passed a resolution in order to pressure the U.S. to pay the fine. The U.S. refused to pay restitution and claimed that the ICJ was not competent to judge the case. On May 1, 1985, Reagan issued an executive order that imposed a full economic embargo on Nicaragua, which remained in force until March 1990. However, in 1982, legislation was enacted by the U.S. Congress to prohibit further direct aid to the Contras. Reagan’s officials attempted to illegally supply them out of the proceeds of arms sales to Iran and third-party donations, triggering the Iran-Contra Affair of 1986 – 87. Mutual exhaustion, Sandinista fears of Contra unity and military success, and mediation by other regional governments led to the Sapoa ceasefire between the Sandinistas and the Contras on March 23, 1988. Subsequent agreements were designed to reintegrate the Contras and their supporters into Nicaraguan society in preparation for general elections. El Salvador adapted from openstax.org/books/world-history-volume-2/ Many thousands of Salvadoran migrants have entered the United States each year, especially during and after the El Salvador Civil War. That war began in 1979 with a military coup supported by the United States, which feared that radical leftist elements in El Salvador were destabilizing the country and leading it in a direction contrary to U.S. Cold War interests. By supporting the coup with money, military training, and the sharing of intelligence reports, the United States hoped to return stability to El Salvador, but the opposite occurred. Many in El Salvador felt the military government was illegitimate and staged protests and resistance. The military responded with violence of its own, such as a deadly attack on demonstrators in 1980. There were also rightist paramilitary groups, often referred to as “death squads,” fighting against leftist guerrilla forces in the countryside and committing murders and massacres. As the country descended into chaos, many left and found refuge in the United States.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.730487	Constanze Weise	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/113324/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit Modern World History, Cold War and Decolonization of the World from 1950, The Cold War in Latin America", "author": "John Rankin" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/overview	Lesson 6 Section 2 Welfare Capitalism Lesson 6 Section 3 Mobilizing for Reform Lesson 6 Section 4 Women's Movements Lesson 6 Section 5 Targeting the Trusts Lesson 6 Section 6 Progressive Environmentalism Lesson 6 Section 7 Jim Crow and African American Life The Progressive Era Overview Link to student view Unit 1 Lesson 6 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 1 Lesson 6 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Ch-20.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction “Never in the history of the world was society in so terrific flux as it is right now,” Jack London wrote in The Iron Heel, his 1908 dystopian novel in which a corporate oligarchy comes to rule the United States. He wrote, “The swift changes in our industrial system are causing equally swift changes in our religious, political, and social structures. An unseen and fearful revolution is taking place in the fiber and structure of society. One can only dimly feel these things, but they are in the air, now, today.”1 The many problems associated with the Gilded Age—the rise of unprecedented fortunes and unprecedented poverty, controversies over imperialism, urban squalor, a near-war between capital and labor, loosening social mores, unsanitary food production, the onrush of foreign immigration, environmental destruction, and the outbreak of political radicalism—confronted Americans. Terrible forces seemed out of control and the nation seemed imperiled. Farmers and workers had been waging political war against capitalists and political conservatives for decades, but then, slowly, toward the end of the nineteenth century a new generation of middle-class Americans interjected themselves into public life and advocated new reforms to tame the runaway world of the Gilded Age. Widespread dissatisfaction with new trends in American society spurred the Progressive Era, named for the various progressive movements that attracted various constituencies around various reforms. Americans had many different ideas about how the country’s development should be managed and whose interests required the greatest protection. Reformers sought to clean up politics; Black Americans continued their long struggle for civil rights; women demanded the vote with greater intensity while also demanding a more equal role in society at large; and workers demanded higher wages, safer workplaces, and the union recognition that would guarantee these rights. Whatever their goals, reform became the word of the age, and the sum of their efforts, whatever their ultimate impact or original intentions, gave the era its name. Notes Title image From an undated William Jennings Bryan campaign print, “Shall the People Rule?” Library of Congress. 1. Jack London, The Iron Heel (New York: Macmillan, 1908), 104. Welfare Capitalism More information about Welfare Capitalism: http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/1332.html Welfare capitalism refers either to the combination of a capitalist economic system with a welfare state or, in the American context, to the practice of private businesses providing welfare-like services to employees. In this second form of welfare capitalism, also known as industrial paternalism, companies have a two-fold interest in providing these services. First, the companies act in a paternalistic manner, giving employees what managers think is best for them. Second, the companies recognize that providing workers with some minor benefits can forestall complaints about larger structural issues, such as unsafe conditions and long hours. Following this logic, in the nineteenth century, some manufacturing companies began offering new benefits for their employees. Companies sponsored sports teams, established social clubs, and provided educational and cultural activities for workers. Some companies even provided housing, such as the boarding houses provided for female employees of textile manufacturers in Lowell, Massachusetts. The mid-twentieth century marked the height of business provisions for employees, including benefits such as more generous retirement packages and health care. However, even at the peak of this form of welfare capitalism, not all workers enjoyed the same benefits. Business-led welfare capitalism was only common in American industries that employed skilled labor. Not all companies freely choose to provide even minor benefits to workers. As workers became frustrated with meager or nonexistent benefits, they appealed to government for help, giving rise to the first form of welfare capitalism: welfare provisions provided by the state within the context of a capitalist economy. In the United States, workers formed labor unions to gain greater collective bargaining power. In addition to directly challenging businesses, they lobbied the government to enact basic standards of labor. In the United States, the first two decades of the twentieth century—the Progressive Era—saw an increase in the number of protections the government was able to extend to workers. Yet by mid-century, many of these protections had been pushed back through the court system. Notes Curation and Revision. Provided by: Boundless.com. License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike Mobilizing for Reform The Anthracite Coal Strike (May-October 1902) began after mine operators refused to meet with representatives of the United Mine Workers of America. Anthracite—or hard coal—was solid and rich in carbon, ideal for industrial and domestic use. The strike began in eastern Pennsylvania, where almost all anthracite coal was mined at the time, on May 12, 1902, after the railroad companies which owned the mines refused to meet with representatives of the union. Workers’ requests for better wages, a shorter work week, and recognition of their union had also been denied. Coal prices doubled as production dropped. As the autumn began and negotiations between the owners and the miners were ineffective, President Theodore Roosevelt feared that a coal shortage would result in hardship to Americans during the winter. With the conflict unresolved, Henry Cabot Lodge, a senior Republican and close friend of Theodore Roosevelt, warned the president of the potentially disastrous consequences for the party if the anthracite strike dragged into November, when elections were to be held. Heeding Lodge's advice, Roosevelt worked behind the scenes to gather information and propose ways to settle the strike. In Washington on October 3, 1902, he met with presidents of the mine-owning railroads and union leaders. At that meeting the union president, John Mitchell, outlined the union's case while the railroad bosses asserted the impossibility of compromise. The conference disbanded without resolving the crisis and Roosevelt formed a commission to investigate the strike. Secretary of War Elihu Root and banker J. P. Morgan convinced railroad leaders to abide by the findings of the presidentially appointed commission. The union also accepted the commission and, on October 20, voted to end the anthracite strike. The anthracite-coal commission recommended in March 1903 increasing miners' pay by ten percent (one-half of their demand), reducing the working day from ten to nine hours, and other concessions. By negotiating with organized labor Roosevelt championed a new approach to relations between capital and labor, often cited as an example of his Square Deal.1 In 1911 the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory in Manhattan caught fire. The doors of the factory had been chained shut to prevent employees from taking unauthorized breaks (the managers who held the keys saved themselves, but left over two hundred women behind). A rickety fire ladder on the side of the building collapsed immediately. Women lined the rooftop and windows of the ten-story building and jumped, landing in a “mangled, bloody pulp.” Life nets held by firemen tore at the impact of the falling bodies. Among the onlookers, “women were hysterical, scores fainted; men wept as, in paroxysms of frenzy, they hurled themselves against the police lines.” By the time the fire burned itself out, 71 workers were injured and 146 had died.2 A year before, the Triangle workers had gone on strike demanding union recognition, higher wages, and better safety conditions. Remembering their workers’ “chief value,” the owners of the factory decided that a viable fire escape and unlocked doors were too expensive and called in the city police to break up the strike. After the 1911 fire, reporter Bill Shepherd reflected, “I looked upon the heap of dead bodies and I remembered these girls were shirtwaist makers. I remembered their great strike last year in which the same girls had demanded more sanitary conditions and more safety precautions in the shops. These dead bodies were the answer.”3 Former Triangle worker and labor organizer Rose Schneiderman said, “This is not the first time girls have been burned alive in this city. Every week I must learn of the untimely death of one of my sister workers . . . the life of men and women is so cheap and property is so sacred! There are so many of us for one job, it matters little if 140-odd are burned to death.”4 After the fire, Triangle owners Max Blanck and Isaac Harris were brought up on manslaughter charges. They were acquitted after less than two hours of deliberation. The outcome continued a trend in the industrializing economy that saw workers’ deaths answered with little punishment of the business owners responsible for such dangerous conditions. But as such tragedies mounted and working and living conditions worsened and inequality grew, it became increasingly difficult to develop justifications for this new modern order. Events such as the Triangle Shirtwaist fire convinced many Americans of the need for reform, but the energies of activists were needed to spread a new commitment to political activism and government interference in the economy. Politicians, journalists, novelists, religious leaders, and activists all raised their voices to push Americans toward reform. Reformers turned to books and mass-circulation magazines to publicize the plight of the nation’s poor and the many corruptions endemic to the new industrial order. Journalists who exposed business practices, poverty, and corruption—labeled by Theodore Roosevelt as “muckrakers”—aroused public demands for reform. Magazines such as McClure’s detailed political corruption and economic malfeasance. The muckrakers confirmed Americans’ suspicions about runaway wealth and political corruption. Ray Stannard Baker, a journalist whose reports on U.S. Steel exposed the underbelly of the new corporate capitalism, wrote, “I think I can understand now why these exposure articles took such a hold upon the American people. It was because the country, for years, had been swept by the agitation of soap-box orators, prophets crying in the wilderness, and political campaigns based upon charges of corruption and privilege which everyone believed or suspected had some basis of truth, but which were largely unsubstantiated.”5 Journalists shaped popular perceptions of Gilded Age injustice. In 1890, New York City journalist Jacob Riis published How the Other Half Lives, a scathing indictment of living and working conditions in the city’s slums. Riis not only vividly described the squalor he saw, he documented it with photography, giving readers an unflinching view of urban poverty. Riis’s book led to housing reform in New York and other cities and helped instill the idea that society bore at least some responsibility for alleviating poverty.6 In 1906, Upton Sinclair published The Jungle, a novel dramatizing the experiences of a Lithuanian immigrant family who moved to Chicago to work in the stockyards. Although Sinclair intended the novel to reveal the brutal exploitation of labor in the meatpacking industry, and thus to build support for the socialist movement, its major impact was to lay bare the entire process of industrialized food production. The growing invisibility of slaughterhouses and livestock production for urban consumers had enabled unsanitary and unsafe conditions. “The slaughtering machine ran on, visitors or no visitors,” wrote Sinclair, “like some horrible crime committed in a dungeon, all unseen and unheeded, buried out of sight and of memory.”7 Sinclair’s exposé led to the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. Of course, it was not only journalists who raised questions about American society. One of the most popular novels of the nineteenth century, Edward Bellamy’s 1888 Looking Backward, was a national sensation. In it, a man falls asleep in Boston in 1887 and awakens in 2000 to find society radically altered. Poverty and disease and competition gave way as new industrial armies cooperated to build a utopia of social harmony and economic prosperity. Bellamy’s vision of a reformed society enthralled readers, inspired hundreds of Bellamy clubs, and pushed many young readers onto the road to reform.8 It led countless Americans to question the realities of American life in the nineteenth century: “I am aware that you called yourselves free in the nineteenth century. The meaning of the word could not then, however, have been at all what it is at present, or you certainly would not have applied it to a society of which nearly every member was in a position of galling personal dependence upon others as to the very means of life, the poor upon the rich, or employed upon employer, women upon men, children upon parents.”9 But Americans were urged to action not only by books and magazines but by preachers and theologians, too. Confronted by both the benefits and the ravages of industrialization, many Americans asked themselves, “What Would Jesus Do?” In 1896, Charles Sheldon, a Congregational minister in Topeka, Kansas, published In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do? The novel told the story of Henry Maxwell, a pastor in a small Midwestern town one day confronted by an unemployed migrant who criticized his congregation’s lack of concern for the poor and downtrodden. Moved by the man’s plight, Maxwell preached a series of sermons in which he asked his congregation: “Would it not be true, think you, that if every Christian in America did as Jesus would do, society itself, the business world, yes, the very political system under which our commercial and government activity is carried on, would be so changed that human suffering would be reduced to a minimum?”10 Sheldon’s novel became a best seller, not only because of its story but because the book’s plot connected with a new movement transforming American religion: the social gospel. The social gospel emerged within Protestant Christianity at the end of the nineteenth century. It emphasized the need for Christians to be concerned for the salvation of society, and not simply individual souls. Instead of just caring for family or fellow church members, social gospel advocates encouraged Christians to engage society; challenge social, political, and economic structures; and help those less fortunate than themselves. Responding to the developments of the industrial revolution in America and the increasing concentration of people in urban spaces, with its attendant social and economic problems, some social gospelers went so far as to advocate a form of Christian socialism, but all urged Americans to confront the sins of their society. One of the most notable advocates of the social gospel was Walter Rauschenbusch. After graduating from Rochester Theological Seminary, in 1886 Rauschenbusch accepted the pastorate of a German Baptist church in the Hell’s Kitchen section of New York City, where he confronted rampant crime and stark poverty, problems not adequately addressed by the political leaders of the city. Rauschenbusch joined with fellow reformers to elect a new mayoral candidate, but he also realized that a new theological framework had to reflect his interest in society and its problems. He revived Jesus’s phrase, “the Kingdom of God,” claiming that it encompassed every aspect of life and made every part of society a purview of the proper Christian. Like Charles Sheldon’s fictional Rev. Maxwell, Rauschenbusch believed that every Christian, whether they were a businessperson, a politician, or a stay-at-home parent, should ask themselves what they could do to enact the kingdom of God on Earth.11 “The social gospel is the old message of salvation, but enlarged and intensified. The individualistic gospel has taught us to see the sinfulness of every human heart and has inspired us with faith in the willingness and power of God to save every soul that comes to him. But it has not given us an adequate understanding of the sinfulness of the social order and its share in the sins of all individuals within it. It has not evoked faith in the will and power of God to redeem the permanent institutions of human society from their inherited guilt of oppression and extortion. Both our sense of sin and our faith in salvation have fallen short of the realities under its teaching. The social gospel seeks to bring men under repentance for their collective sins and to create a more sensitive and more modern conscience. It calls on us for the faith of the old prophets who believed in the salvation of nations.”12 Glaring blind spots persisted within the proposals of most social gospel advocates. As men, they often ignored the plight of women, and thus most refused to support women’s suffrage. Many were also silent on the plight of African Americans, Native Americans, and other oppressed minority groups. However, the writings of Rauschenbusch and other social gospel proponents had a profound influence on twentieth-century American life. Most immediately, they fueled progressive reform. But they also inspired future activists, including Martin Luther King Jr., who envisioned a “beloved community” that resembled Rauschenbusch’s “Kingdom of God.” Notes - Theodore Roosevelt Center at Dickinson State University. (n.d.). Anthracite Coal Strike. Retrieved from https://www.theodorerooseveltcenter.org/Learn-About-TR/TR-Encyclopedia/Capitalism-and-Labor/Anthracite-Coal-Strike - Philip Foner, Women and the American Labor Movement: From Colonial Times to the Eve of World War I (New York: Free Press, 1979.). - Leon Stein, The Triangle Fire (Ithaca, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1962), 20. - Ibid., 144. - Ray Stannard Baker, American Chronicle: The Autobiography of Ray Stannard Baker (New York: Scribner, 1945), 183. - Jacob A. Riis, How the Other Half Lives: Studies Among the Tenements of New York (New York: Scribner, 1890). - Upton Sinclair, The Jungle (New York: Doubleday, 1906), 40. - Edward Bellamy, Looking Backward: 2000–1887 (Boston: Ticknor, 1888). - Ibid., 368. - Charles M. Sheldon, In His Steps: “What Would Jesus Do?” (Chicago: Advance, 1896), 273. - Walter Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social Gospel (New York: Macmillan, 1917). - Ibid., 5. Women's Movements Reform opened new possibilities for women’s activism in American public life and gave new impetus to the long campaign for women’s suffrage. Much energy for women’s work came from female “clubs,” social organizations devoted to various purposes. Some focused on intellectual development; others emphasized philanthropic activities. Increasingly, these organizations looked outward, to their communities and to the place of women in the larger political sphere. Women’s clubs flourished in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. In the 1890s women formed national women’s club federations. Particularly significant in campaigns for suffrage and women’s rights were the General Federation of Women’s Clubs (formed in New York City in 1890) and the National Association of Colored Women (organized in Washington, D.C., in 1896), both of which were dominated by upper-middle-class, educated, northern women. Few of these organizations were biracial, a legacy of the sometimes uneasy midnineteenth-century relationship between socially active African Americans and white women. Rising American prejudice led many white female activists to ban inclusion of their African American sisters. The segregation of Black women into distinct clubs nonetheless still produced vibrant organizations that could promise racial uplift and civil rights for all Black Americans as well as equal rights for women. Other women worked through churches and moral reform organizations to clean up American life. And still others worked as moral vigilantes. The fearsome Carrie A. Nation, an imposing woman who believed she worked God’s will, won headlines for destroying saloons. In Wichita, Kansas, on December 27, 1900, Nation took a hatchet and broke bottles and bars at the luxurious Carey Hotel. Arrested and charged with causing $3,000 in damages, Nation spent a month in jail before the county dismissed the charges on account of “a delusion to such an extent as to be practically irresponsible.” But Nation’s “hatchetation” drew national attention. Describing herself as “a bulldog running along at the feet of Jesus, barking at what He doesn’t like,” she continued her assaults, and days later she smashed two more Wichita bars.1 Few women followed in Nation’s footsteps, and many more worked within more reputable organizations. Nation, for instance, had founded a chapter of the Woman’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), but the organization’s leaders described her as “unwomanly and unchristian.” The WCTU was founded in 1874 as a modest temperance organization devoted to combating the evils of drunkenness. But then, from 1879 to 1898, Frances Willard invigorated the organization by transforming it into a national political organization, embracing a “do everything” policy that adopted any and all reasonable reforms that would improve social welfare and advance women’s rights. Temperance, and then the full prohibition of alcohol, however, always loomed large. Many American reformers associated alcohol with nearly every social ill. Alcohol was blamed for domestic abuse, poverty, crime, and disease. The 1912 Anti-Saloon League Yearbook, for instance, presented charts indicating comparable increases in alcohol consumption alongside rising divorce rates. The WCTU called alcohol a “home wrecker.” More insidiously, perhaps, reformers also associated alcohol with cities and immigrants, necessarily maligning America’s immigrants, Catholics, and working classes in their crusade against liquor. Still, reformers believed that the abolition of “strong drink” would bring about social progress, obviate the need for prisons and insane asylums, save women and children from domestic abuse, and usher in a more just, progressive society. Powerful female activists emerged out of the club movement and temperance campaigns. Perhaps no American reformer matched Jane Addams in fame, energy, and innovation. Born in Cedarville, Illinois, in 1860, Addams lost her mother by age two and lived under the attentive care of her father. At seventeen, she left home to attend Rockford Female Seminary. An idealist, Addams sought the means to make the world a better place. She believed that well-educated women of means, such as herself, lacked practical strategies for engaging everyday reform. After four years at Rockford, Addams embarked on a multiyear “grand tour” of Europe. She found herself drawn to English settlement houses, a kind of prototype for social work in which philanthropists embedded themselves among communities and offered services to disadvantaged populations. After visiting London’s Toynbee Hall in 1887, Addams returned to the United States and in 1889 founded Hull House in Chicago with her longtime confidant and companion Ellen Gates Starr.2 The Settlement … is an experimental effort to aid in the solution of the social and industrial problems which are engendered by the modern conditions of life in a great city. It insists that these problems are not confined to any one portion of the city. It is an attempt to relieve, at the same time, the overaccumulation at one end of society and the destitution at the other … It must be grounded in a philosophy whose foundation is on the solidarity of the human race, a philosophy which will not waver when the race happens to be represented by a drunken woman or an idiot boy.3 Hull House workers provided for their neighbors by running a nursery and a kindergarten, administering classes for parents and clubs for children, and organizing social and cultural events for the community. Reformer Florence Kelley, who stayed at Hull House from 1891 to 1899, convinced Addams to move into the realm of social reform.4 Hull House began exposing conditions in local sweatshops and advocated for the organization of workers. She called the conditions caused by urban poverty and industrialization a “social crime.” Hull House workers surveyed their community and produced statistics on poverty, disease, and living conditions. Addams began pressuring politicians. Together Kelley and Addams petitioned legislators to pass antisweatshop legislation that limited the hours of work for women and children to eight per day. Yet Addams was an upper-class white Protestant woman who, like many reformers, refused to embrace more radical policies. While Addams called labor organizing a “social obligation,” she also warned the labor movement against the “constant temptation towards class warfare.” Addams, like many reformers, favored cooperation between rich and poor and bosses and workers, whether cooperation was a realistic possibility or not.5 Addams became a kind of celebrity. In 1912, she became the first woman to give a nominating speech at a major party convention when she seconded the nomination of Theodore Roosevelt as the Progressive Party’s candidate for president. Her campaigns for social reform and women’s rights won headlines and her voice became ubiquitous in progressive politics.6 Addams’s advocacy grew beyond domestic concerns. Beginning with her work in the Anti-Imperialist League during the Spanish-American War, Addams increasingly began to see militarism as a drain on resources better spent on social reform. In 1907 she wrote Newer Ideals of Peace, a book that would become for many a philosophical foundation of pacifism. Addams emerged as a prominent opponent of America’s entry into World War I. She received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.7 In the early 20th century, at a time when matters surrounding family planning or women’s healthcare were not spoken in public, Margaret Sanger founded the birth control movement and became an outspoken and life-long advocate for women’s reproductive rights. In her later life, Sanger spearheaded the effort that resulted in the modern birth control pill by 1960. Born September 14, 1879, in Corning, New York, the sixth of eleven children, Sanger’s life course was shaped by the poverty of her childhood and the death of her mother at age 50, which Sanger understood resulted from the physical toll of eleven pregnancies. Sanger later became a nurse, married William Sanger, an architect, and moved to Hastings, New York, where the couple had three children. The Sangers moved to New York City in 1910, where they became involved with various Progressive Era activists and intellectuals. Sanger became a member of the Women’s Committee of the New York chapter of the Socialist Party, and participated in women’s labor protests. Sanger strongly believed that the ability to control family size was crucial to ending the cycle of women’s poverty. But it was illegal to distribute birth control information. Working as a visiting nurse, she frequented the homes of poor immigrants, often with large families and wives whose health was impaired by too many pregnancies, miscarriages, or in desperation botched abortions. Often, too, immigrant wives would ask her to tell them “the secret,” presuming that educated white women like Sanger knew how to limit family size. Sanger made it her mission to 1) provide women with birth control information and 2) repeal the federal Comstock Law, which prohibited the distribution of obscene materials through the mails, and regarded birth control information as such. In 1914, Sanger launched her own feminist publication, The Woman Rebel, advocating for birth control. She was charged with violating the Comstock laws and fled to England, though had friends share a pamphlet she authored on contraceptive techniques in her absence. She returned a year later to stand trial, but when her five-year-old daughter died unexpectedly, public pressure led to the charges against Sanger being dropped. In 1916, she opened the first birth control clinic in Brownsville, Brooklyn. Barely a week later, she was arrested and spent 30 days in jail. Sanger’s arrest garnered much media attention and brought her several affluent supporters. She appealed her conviction, and although she lost, the courts ruled that physicians could prescribe contraceptives to women for medical reasons, a loophole that allowed Sanger to open a clinic in 1923 staffed by female doctors and social workers, which would later become the Planned Parenthood Federation of America. Sanger and her husband divorced in 1914; she remarried James Noah Slow, an oil tycoon, in 1922, while continuing her advocacy work. Sanger launched the Birth Control Review in 1917 and founded the American Birth Control League in 1921 to gain support from social workers, medical professionals, and the public for birth control. In 1929, she formed the National Committee on Federal Legislation for Birth Control to lobby Congress for legislation that would permit doctors to prescribe birth control. Despite resistance from doctors and the Catholic Church throughout her activist career, over time, Sanger’s efforts led to the legalization and wide-spread usage of contraceptives in the United States. In 1936, the courts made it legal for doctors to prescribe birth control. In 1971 the Comstock laws finally ended, nearly a century after their passage. Sanger’s steadfast focus on birth control sometimes had unintended consequences. She spent time with the eugenics movement, which sought to “breed” out “undesirable” populations by limiting their ability to procreate through birth control and sterilization. Sanger saw the value of birth control science in preventing birth defects, and although she disagreed with the racial and class focus of the eugenics movement, her association with it tarnished her reputation. In the 1920s and 1930s, Sanger expanded her efforts internationally. Sanger retired in 1942, though she remained a passionate advocate for birth control. In the late 1950s, with funding from International Harvester heiress Katharine McCormick, Sanger recruited researcher Gregory Pincus to develop an oral contraceptive. The “pill” was approved by the Food and Drug Administration in 1960. Sanger died in 1966 at the age of 86.8 It would be suffrage, ultimately, that would mark the full emergence of women in American public life. Generations of women—and, occasionally, men—had pushed for women’s suffrage. Suffragists’ hard work resulted in slow but encouraging steps forward during the last decades of the nineteenth century. Notable victories were won in the West, where suffragists mobilized large numbers of women and male politicians were open to experimental forms of governance. By 1911, six western states had passed suffrage amendments to their constitutions. Women’s suffrage was typically entwined with a wide range of reform efforts. Many suffragists argued that women’s votes were necessary to clean up politics and combat social evils. By the 1890s, for example, the WCTU, then the largest women’s organization in America, endorsed suffrage. An alliance of working-class and middle- and upper-class women organized the Women’s Trade Union League (WTUL) in 1903 and campaigned for the vote alongside the National American Woman Suffrage Association, a leading suffrage organization composed largely of middle- and upper-class women. WTUL members viewed the vote as a way to further their economic interests and to foster a new sense of respect for working-class women. “What the woman who labors wants is the right to live, not simply exist,” said Rose Schneiderman, a WTUL leader, during a 1912 speech. “The worker must have bread, but she must have roses, too.”9 Many suffragists adopted a much crueler message. Some, even outside the South, argued that white women’s votes were necessary to maintain white supremacy. Many white American women argued that enfranchising white upper- and middle-class women would counteract Black voters. These arguments even stretched into international politics. But whether the message advocated gender equality, class politics, or white supremacy, the suffrage campaign was winning. The final push for women’s suffrage came on the eve of World War I. Determined to win the vote, the National American Woman Suffrage Association developed a dual strategy that focused on the passage of state voting rights laws and on the ratification of an amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Meanwhile, a new, more militant, suffrage organization emerged on the scene. Led by Alice Paul, the National Woman’s Party took to the streets to demand voting rights, organizing marches and protests that mobilized thousands of women. Beginning in January 1917, National Woman’s Party members also began to picket the White House, an action that led to the arrest and imprisonment of over 150 women.10 In January 1918, President Woodrow Wilson declared his support for the women’s suffrage amendment, and two years later women’s suffrage became a reality. After the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, women from all walks of life mobilized to vote. They were driven by the promise of change but also in some cases by their anxieties about the future. Much had changed since their campaign began; the United States was now more industrial than not, increasingly more urban than rural. The activism and activities of these new urban denizens also gave rise to a new American culture. Notes - John Kobler, Ardent Spirits: The Rise and Fall of Prohibition (Boston: Da Capo Press, 1993), 147. - Toynbee Hall was the first settlement house. It was built in 1884 by Samuel Barnett as a place for Oxford students to live while at the same time working in the house’s poor neighborhood. Daniel Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 1998), 64–65; Victoria Bissell Brown, The Education of Jane Addams (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004). - Jane Addams, Twenty Years at Hull House (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 125–126. - Allen Davis, American Heroine: The Life and Legend of Jane Addams (New York: Oxford University Press, 1979), 77. - Jane Addams, “The Settlement as a Factor in the Labor Movement,” reprinted in Hull-House Maps and Papers: A Presentation of Nationalities and Wages in a Congested District of Chicago Together with Comments and Essays on Problems Growing out of the Social Conditions (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2007), 145, 149. - Kathryn Kish Sklar, “‘Some of Us Who Deal with the Social Fabric’: Jane Addams Blends Peace and Social Justice, 1907–1919,” Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era 2, no. 1 (January 2003). - Karen Manners Smith, “New Paths to Power: 1890–1920,” in No Small Courage: A History of Women in the United States, ed. Nancy Cott (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 392. - Debra Michals, PhD. "Margaret Sanger." National Women's History Museum, 2017, https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/margaret-sanger. Accessed 29 March, 2022. - Sarah Eisenstein, Give Us Bread but Give Us Roses: Working Women’s Consciousness in the United States, 1890 to the First World War (New York: Routledge, 1983), 32. - Ellen Carol Dubois, Women’s Suffrage and Women’s Rights (New York: New York University Press, 1998). Targeting the Trusts In one of the defining books of the Progressive Era, The Promise of American Life, Herbert Croly argued that because “the corrupt politician has usurped too much of the power which should be exercised by the people,” the “millionaire and the trust have appropriated too many of the economic opportunities formerly enjoyed by the people.” Croly and other reformers believed that wealth inequality eroded democracy and reformers had to win back for the people the power usurped by the moneyed trusts. But what exactly were these “trusts,” and why did it suddenly seem so important to reform them?1 In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a trust was a monopoly or cartel associated with the large corporations of the Gilded and Progressive Eras who entered into agreements—legal or otherwise—or consolidations to exercise exclusive control over a specific product or industry under the control of a single entity. Certain types of monopolies, specifically for intellectual property like copyrights, patents, trademarks, and trade secrets, are protected under the Constitution “to promote the progress of science and useful arts,” but for powerful entities to control entire national markets was something wholly new, and, for many Americans, wholly unsettling. The rapid industrialization, technological advancement, and urban growth of the 1870s and 1880s triggered major changes in the way businesses structured themselves. The Second Industrial Revolution, made possible by available natural resources, growth in the labor supply through immigration, increasing capital, new legal economic entities, novel production strategies, and a growing national market, was commonly asserted to be the natural product of the federal government’s laissez faire, or “hands off,” economic policy. An unregulated business climate, the argument went, allowed for the growth of major trusts, most notably Andrew Carnegie’s Carnegie Steel (later consolidated with other producers as U.S. Steel) and John D. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company. Each displayed the vertical and horizontal integration strategies common to the new trusts: Carnegie first used vertical integration by controlling every phase of business (raw materials, transportation, manufacturing, distribution), and Rockefeller adhered to horizontal integration by buying out competing refineries. Once dominant in a market, critics alleged, the trusts could artificially inflate prices, bully rivals, and bribe politicians. Between 1897 and 1904, over four thousand companies were consolidated down into 257 corporate firms. As one historian wrote, “By 1904 a total of 318 trusts held 40% of US manufacturing assets and boasted a capitalization of $7 billion, seven times bigger than the US national debt.”2 With the twentieth century came the age of monopoly. Mergers and the aggressive business policies of wealthy men such as Carnegie and Rockefeller earned them the epithet robber barons. Their cutthroat stifling of economic competition, mistreatment of workers, and corruption of politics sparked an opposition that pushed for regulations to rein in the power of monopolies. The great corporations became a major target of reformers. Big business, whether in meatpacking, railroads, telegraph lines, oil, or steel, posed new problems for the American legal system. Before the Civil War, most businesses operated in a single state. They might ship goods across state lines or to other countries, but they typically had offices and factories in just one state. Individual states naturally regulated industry and commerce. But extensive railroad routes crossed several state lines and new mass-producing corporations operated across the nation, raising questions about where the authority to regulate such practices rested. During the 1870s, many states passed laws to check the growing power of vast new corporations. In the Midwest, farmers formed a network of organizations that were part political pressure group, part social club, and part mutual aid society. Together they pushed for so-called Granger laws that regulated railroads and other new companies. Railroads and others opposed these regulations because they restrained profits and because of the difficulty of meeting the standards of each state’s separate regulatory laws. In 1877, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld these laws in a series of rulings, finding in cases such as Munn v. Illinois and Stone v. Wisconsin that railroads and other companies of such size necessarily affected the public interest and could thus be regulated by individual states. In Munn, the court declared, “Property does become clothed with a public interest when used in a manner to make it of public consequence, and affect the community at large. When, therefore, one devoted his property to a use in which the public has an interest, he, in effect, grants to the public an interest in that use, and must submit to be controlled by the public for the common good, to the extent of the interest he has thus created.”3 Later rulings, however, conceded that only the federal government could constitutionally regulate interstate commerce and the new national businesses operating it. And as more and more power and capital and market share flowed to the great corporations, the onus of regulation passed to the federal government. In 1887, Congress passed the Interstate Commerce Act, which established the Interstate Commerce Commission to stop discriminatory and predatory pricing practices. The Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890 aimed to limit anticompetitive practices, such as those institutionalized in cartels and monopolistic corporations. It stated that a “trust . . . or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce . . . is declared to be illegal” and that those who “monopolize . . . any part of the trade or commerce . . . shall be deemed guilty.”4 The Sherman Anti-Trust Act declared that not all monopolies were illegal, only those that “unreasonably” stifled free trade. The courts seized on the law’s vague language, however, and the act was turned against itself, manipulated and used, for instance, to limit the growing power of labor unions. Only in 1914, with the Clayton Anti-Trust Act, did Congress attempt to close loopholes in previous legislation. Aggression against the trusts—and the progressive vogue for “trust busting”—took on new meaning under the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, a reform-minded Republican who ascended to the presidency after the death of William McKinley in 1901. Roosevelt’s youthful energy and confrontational politics captivated the nation.”5 Roosevelt was by no means antibusiness. Instead, he envisioned his presidency as a mediator between opposing forces, such as between labor unions and corporate executives. Despite his own wealthy background, Roosevelt pushed for antitrust legislation and regulations, arguing that the courts could not be relied on to break up the trusts. Roosevelt also used his own moral judgment to determine which monopolies he would pursue. Roosevelt believed that there were good and bad trusts, necessary monopolies and corrupt ones. Although his reputation as a trust buster was wildly exaggerated, he was the first major national politician to go after the trusts. “The great corporations which we have grown to speak of rather loosely as trusts,” he said, “are the creatures of the State, and the State not only has the right to control them, but it is in duty bound to control them wherever the need of such control is shown."6 His first target was the Northern Securities Company, a “holding” trust in which several wealthy bankers, most famously J. P. Morgan, used to hold controlling shares in all the major railroad companies in the American Northwest. Holding trusts had emerged as a way to circumvent the Sherman Anti-Trust Act: by controlling the majority of shares, rather than the principal, Morgan and his collaborators tried to claim that it was not a monopoly. Roosevelt’s administration sued and won in court, and in 1904 the Northern Securities Company was ordered to disband into separate competitive companies. Two years later, in 1906, Roosevelt signed the Hepburn Act, allowing the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate best practices and set reasonable rates for the railroads. Roosevelt was more interested in regulating corporations than breaking them apart. Besides, the courts were slow and unpredictable. However, his successor after 1908, William Howard Taft, firmly believed in court-oriented trust busting and during his four years in office more than doubled the number of monopoly breakups that occurred during Roosevelt’s seven years in office. Taft notably went after U.S. Steel, the world’s first billion-dollar corporation formed from the consolidation of nearly every major American steel producer. Trust busting and the handling of monopolies dominated the election of 1912. When the Republican Party spurned Roosevelt’s return to politics and renominated the incumbent Taft, Roosevelt left and formed his own coalition, the Progressive or “Bull Moose” Party. Whereas Taft took an all-encompassing view on the illegality of monopolies, Roosevelt adopted a New Nationalism program, which once again emphasized the regulation of already existing corporations or the expansion of federal power over the economy. In contrast, Woodrow Wilson, the Democratic Party nominee, emphasized in his New Freedom agenda neither trust busting nor federal regulation but rather small-business incentives so that individual companies could increase their competitive chances. Yet once he won the election, Wilson edged nearer to Roosevelt’s position, signing the Clayton Anti-Trust Act of 1914. The Clayton Anti-Trust Act substantially enhanced the Sherman Act, specifically regulating mergers and price discrimination and protecting labor’s access to collective bargaining and related strategies of picketing, boycotting, and protesting. Congress further created the Federal Trade Commission to enforce the Clayton Act, ensuring at least some measure of implementation.7 While the three presidents—Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson—pushed the development and enforcement of antitrust law, their commitments were uneven, and trust busting itself manifested the political pressure put on politicians by the workers, farmers, and progressive writers who so strongly drew attention to the ramifications of trusts and corporate capital on the lives of everyday Americans. Notes - Herbert Croly, The Promise of American Life (New York: Macmillan, 1911), 145. - Kevin P. Phillips, Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich (New York: Broadway Books, 2003), 307. - Munn v. Illinois, 94 U.S. 113 (1877). - Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. - The writer Henry Adams said that he “showed the singular primitive quality that belongs to ultimate matter—the quality that medieval theology assigned to God—he was pure act.” Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1918), 413. - Theodore Roosevelt, Addresses and Presidential Messages of Theodore Roosevelt, 1902–1904, 15. - The historiography on American progressive politics is vast. See, for instance, Michael McGerr, A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920 (New York: Free Press, 2003). Progressive Environmentalism The potential scope of environmental destruction wrought by industrial capitalism was unparalleled in human history. Professional bison hunting expeditions nearly eradicated an entire species, industrialized logging companies denuded whole forests, and chemical plants polluted an entire region’s water supply. As American development and industrialization marched westward, reformers embraced environmental protections. Historians often cite preservation and conservation as two competing strategies that dueled for supremacy among environmental reformers during the Progressive Era. The tensions between these two approaches crystalized in the debate over a proposed dam in the Hetch Hetchy Valley in California. The fight revolved around the provision of water for San Francisco. Engineers identified the location where the Tuolumne River ran through Hetch Hetchy as an ideal site for a reservoir. The project had been suggested in the 1880s but picked up momentum in the early twentieth century. But the valley was located inside Yosemite National Park. (Yosemite was designated a national park in 1890, though the land had been set aside earlier in a grant approved by President Lincoln in 1864.) The debate over Hetch Hetchy revealed two distinct positions on the value of the valley and on the purpose of public lands. John Muir, a naturalist, a writer, and founder of the Sierra Club, invoked the “God of the Mountains” in his defense of the valley in its supposedly pristine condition. Gifford Pinchot, arguably the father of American forestry and a key player in the federal management of national forests, meanwhile emphasized what he understood to be the purpose of conservation: “to take every part of the land and its resources and put it to that use in which it will serve the most people.” Muir took a wider view of what the people needed, writing that “everybody needs beauty as well as bread.”1 These dueling arguments revealed the key differences in environmental thought: Muir, on the side of the preservationists, advocated setting aside pristine lands for their aesthetic and spiritual value, for those who could take his advice to “[get] in touch with the nerves of Mother Earth.”2 Pinchot, on the other hand, led the charge for conservation, a kind of environmental utilitarianism that emphasized the efficient use of available resources, through planning and control and “the prevention of waste.”3 In Hetch Hetchy, conservation won out. Congress approved the project in 1913. The dam was built and the valley flooded for the benefit of San Francisco residents. While preservation was often articulated as an escape from an increasingly urbanized and industrialized way of life and as a welcome respite from the challenges of modernity (at least, for those who had the means to escape), the conservationists were more closely aligned with broader trends in American society. Although the “greatest good for the greatest number” was very nearly the catchphrase of conservation, conservationist policies most often benefited the nation’s financial interests. For example, many states instituted game laws to regulate hunting and protect wildlife, but laws could be entirely unbalanced. In Pennsylvania, local game laws included requiring firearm permits for noncitizens, barred hunting on Sundays, and banned the shooting of songbirds. These laws disproportionately affected Italian immigrants, critics said, as Italians often hunted songbirds for subsistence, worked in mines for low wages every day but Sunday, and were too poor to purchase permits or to pay the fines levied against them when game wardens caught them breaking these new laws. Other laws, for example, offered up resources to businesses at costs prohibitive to all but the wealthiest companies and individuals, or with regulatory requirements that could be met only by companies with extensive resources. But Progressive Era environmentalism addressed more than the management of American public lands. After all, reformers addressing issues facing the urban poor were also doing environmental work. Settlement house workers like Jane Addams and Florence Kelley focused on questions of health and sanitation, while activists concerned with working conditions, most notably Dr. Alice Hamilton, investigated both worksite hazards and occupational and bodily harm. The progressives’ commitment to the provision of public services at the municipal level meant more coordination and oversight in matters of public health, waste management, and even playgrounds and city parks. Their work focused on the intersection of communities and their material environments, highlighting the urgency of urban environmental concerns. While reform movements focused their attention on the urban poor, other efforts targeted rural communities. The Country Life movement, spearheaded by Liberty Hyde Bailey, sought to support agrarian families and encourage young people to stay in their communities and run family farms. Early-twentieth-century educational reforms included a commitment to environmentalism at the elementary level. Led by Bailey and Anna Botsford Comstock, the nature study movement took students outside to experience natural processes and to help them develop observational skills and an appreciation for the natural world. Other examples highlight the interconnectedness of urban and rural communities in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The extinction of the North American passenger pigeon reveals the complexity of Progressive Era relationships between people and nature. Passenger pigeons were actively hunted, prepared at New York’s finest restaurants and in the humblest of farm kitchens. Some hunted them for pay; others shot them in competitions at sporting clubs. And then they were gone, their ubiquity giving way only to nostalgia. Many Americans took notice at the great extinction of a species that had perhaps numbered in the billions and then was eradicated. Women in Audubon Society chapters organized against the fashion of wearing feathers—even whole birds—on ladies’ hats. Upper- and middle-class women made up the lion’s share of the membership of these societies. They used their social standing to fight for birds. Pressure created national wildlife refuges and key laws and regulations that included the Lacey Act of 1900, banning the shipment of species killed illegally across state lines. Examining how women mobilized contemporary notions of womanhood in the service of protecting birds reveals a tangle of cultural and economic processes. Such examples also reveal the range of ideas, policies, and practices wrapped up in figuring out what—and who—American nature should be for. Notes - Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 4th ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 167–168, 171, 165. - John Muir, Our National Parks (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1901). - Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (New York: Doubleday Page, 1910), 44. Jim Crow and African American Life America’s tragic racial history was not erased by the Progressive Era. In fact, in all too many ways, reform removed African Americans ever farther from American public life. In the South, electoral politics remained a parade of electoral fraud, voter intimidation, and race-baiting. Democratic Party candidates stirred southern whites into frenzies with warnings of “negro domination” and of Black men violating white women. The region’s culture of racial violence and the rise of lynching as a mass public spectacle accelerated. And as the remaining African American voters threatened the dominance of Democratic leadership in the South, southern Democrats turned to what many white southerners understood as a series of progressive electoral and social reforms—disenfranchisement and segregation. Just as reformers would clean up politics by taming city political machines, white southerners would “purify” the ballot box by restricting Black voting, and they would prevent racial strife by legislating the social separation of the races. The strongest supporters of such measures in the South were progressive Democrats and former Populists, both of whom saw in these reforms a way to eliminate the racial demagoguery that conservative Democratic party leaders had so effectively wielded. Leaders in both the North and South embraced and proclaimed the reunion of the sections on the basis of white supremacy. As the nation took up the “white man’s burden” to uplift the world’s racially inferior peoples, the North looked to the South as an example of how to manage nonwhite populations. The South had become the nation’s racial vanguard.1 The question was how to accomplish disfranchisement. The Fifteenth Amendment clearly prohibited states from denying any citizen the right to vote on the basis of race. In 1890, a Mississippi state newspaper called on politicians to devise “some legal defensible substitute for the abhorrent and evil methods on which white supremacy lies.”2 The state’s Democratic Party responded with a new state constitution designed to purge corruption at the ballot box through disenfranchisement. African Americans hoping to vote in Mississippi would have to jump through a series of hurdles designed with the explicit purpose of excluding them from political power. The state first established a poll tax, which required voters to pay for the privilege of voting. Second, it stripped suffrage from those convicted of petty crimes most common among the state’s African Americans. Next, the state required voters to pass a literacy test. Local voting officials, who were themselves part of the local party machine, were responsible for judging whether voters were able to read and understand a section of the Constitution. In order to protect illiterate whites from exclusion, the so-called “understanding clause” allowed a voter to qualify if they could adequately explain the meaning of a section that was read to them. In practice these rules were systematically abused to the point where local election officials effectively wielded the power to permit and deny suffrage at will. The disenfranchisement laws effectively moved electoral conflict from the ballot box, where public attention was greatest, to the voting registrar, where supposedly color-blind laws allowed local party officials to deny the ballot without the appearance of fraud.3 Between 1895 and 1908, the rest of the states in the South approved new constitutions including these disenfranchisement tools. Six southern states also added a grandfather clause, which bestowed suffrage on anyone whose grandfather was eligible to vote in 1867. This ensured that whites who would have been otherwise excluded through mechanisms such as poll taxes or literacy tests would still be eligible, at least until grandfather clauses were struck down by the Supreme Court in 1915. Finally, each southern state adopted an all-white primary and excluded Black Americans from the Democratic primary, the only political contests that mattered across much of the South.4 For all the legal double-talk, the purpose of these laws was plain. James Kimble Vardaman, later governor of Mississippi, boasted that “there is no use to equivocate or lie about the matter. Mississippi’s constitutional convention was held for no other purpose than to eliminate the nigger from politics; not the ignorant—but the nigger.”5 These technically color-blind tools did their work well. In 1900 Alabama had 121,159 literate Black men of voting age. Only 3,742 were registered to vote. Louisiana had 130,000 Black voters in the contentious election of 1896. Only 5,320 voted in 1900. Black people were clearly the target of these laws, but that did not prevent some whites from being disenfranchised as well. Louisiana dropped 80,000 white voters over the same period. Most politically engaged southern whites considered this a price worth paying to prevent the alleged fraud that plagued the region’s elections.6 At the same time that the South’s Democratic leaders were adopting the tools to disenfranchise the region’s Black voters, these same legislatures were constructing a system of racial segregation even more pernicious. While it built on earlier practice, segregation was primarily a modern and urban system of enforcing racial subordination and deference. In rural areas, white and Black southerners negotiated the meaning of racial difference within the context of personal relationships of kinship and patronage. An African American who broke the local community’s racial norms could expect swift personal sanction that often included violence. The crop lien and convict lease systems were the most important legal tools of racial control in the rural South. Maintaining white supremacy there did not require segregation. Maintaining white supremacy within the city, however, was a different matter altogether. As the region’s railroad networks and cities expanded, so too did the anonymity and therefore freedom of southern Black people. Southern cities were becoming a center of Black middle-class life that was an implicit threat to racial hierarchies. White southerners created the system of segregation as a way to maintain white supremacy in restaurants, theaters, public restrooms, schools, water fountains, train cars, and hospitals. Segregation inscribed the superiority of whites and the deference of Black people into the very geography of public spaces. As with disenfranchisement, segregation violated a plain reading of the Constitution—in this case the Fourteenth Amendment. Here the Supreme Court intervened, ruling in the Civil Rights Cases (1883) that the Fourteenth Amendment only prevented discrimination directly by states. It did not prevent discrimination by individuals, businesses, or other entities. Southern states exploited this interpretation with the first legal segregation of railroad cars in 1888. In a case that reached the Supreme Court in 1896, New Orleans resident Homer Plessy challenged the constitutionality of Louisiana’s segregation of streetcars. The court ruled against Plessy and, in the process, established the legal principle of separate but equal. Racially segregated facilities were legal provided they were equivalent. In practice this was almost never the case. The court’s majority defended its position with logic that reflected the racial assumptions of the day. “If one race be inferior to the other socially,” the court explained, “the Constitution of the United States cannot put them upon the same plane.” Justice John Harlan, the lone dissenter, countered, “Our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens. In respect of civil rights, all citizens are equal before the law.” Harlan went on to warn that the court’s decision would “permit the seeds of race hatred to be planted under the sanction of law.”7 In their rush to fulfill Harlan’s prophecy, southern whites codified and enforced the segregation of public spaces. Segregation was built on a fiction—that there could be a white South socially and culturally distinct from African Americans. Its legal basis rested on the constitutional fallacy of “separate but equal.” Southern whites erected a bulwark of white supremacy that would last for nearly sixty years. Segregation and disenfranchisement in the South rejected Black citizenship and relegated Black social and cultural life to segregated spaces. African Americans lived divided lives, acting the part whites demanded of them in public, while maintaining their own world apart from whites. This segregated world provided a measure of independence for the region’s growing Black middle class, yet at the cost of poisoning the relationship between Black and white. Segregation and disenfranchisement created entrenched structures of racism that completed the total rejection of the promises of Reconstruction. And yet many Black Americans of the Progressive Era fought back. Just as activists such as Ida Wells worked against southern lynching, Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois vied for leadership among African American activists, resulting in years of intense rivalry and debated strategies for the uplifting of Black Americans. Born into the world of bondage in Virginia in 1856, Booker Taliaferro Washington was subjected to the degradation and exploitation of slavery early in life. But Washington also developed an insatiable thirst to learn. Working against tremendous odds, Washington matriculated into Hampton University in Virginia and thereafter established a southern institution that would educate many Black Americans, the Tuskegee Institute, located in Alabama. Washington envisioned that Tuskegee’s contribution to Black life would come through industrial education and vocational training. He believed that such skills would help African Americans accomplish economic independence while developing a sense of self-worth and pride of accomplishment, even while living within the putrid confines of Jim Crow. Washington poured his life into Tuskegee, and thereby connected with leading white philanthropic interests. Individuals such as Andrew Carnegie, for instance, financially assisted Washington and his educational ventures. Washington became a leading spokesperson for Black Americans at the turn of the twentieth century, particularly after Frederick Douglass’s death in early 1895. Washington’s famous “Atlanta Compromise” speech from that same year encouraged Black Americans to “cast your bucket down” to improve life’s lot under segregation. In the same speech, delivered one year before the Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson decision that legalized segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine, Washington said to white Americans, “In all things that are purely social we can be as separate as the fingers, yet one as the hand in all things essential to mutual progress.”8 Washington was both praised as a race leader and pilloried as an accommodationist to America’s unjust racial hierarchy; his public advocacy of a conciliatory posture toward white supremacy concealed the efforts to which he went to assist African Americans in the legal and economic quest for racial justice. In addition to founding Tuskegee, Washington also published a handful of influential books, including the autobiography Up from Slavery (1901). Like Du Bois, Washington was also active in Black journalism, working to fund and support Black newspaper publications, most of which sought to counter Du Bois’s growing influence. Washington died in 1915, during World War I, of ill health in Tuskegee, Alabama. Speaking decades later, Du Bois said Washington had, in his 1895 “Compromise” speech, “implicitly abandoned all political and social rights. . . . I never thought Washington was a bad man . . . I believed him to be sincere, though wrong.” Du Bois would directly attack Washington in his classic 1903 The Souls of Black Folk, but at the turn of the century he could never escape the shadow of his longtime rival. “I admired much about him,” Du Bois admitted. “Washington . . . died in 1915. A lot of people think I died at the same time.”9 Du Bois’s criticism reveals the politicized context of the Black freedom struggle and exposes the many positions available to Black activists. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, in 1868, Du Bois entered the world as a free person of color three years after the Civil War ended. He was raised by a hardworking and independent mother; his New England childhood alerted him to the reality of race even as it invested the emerging thinker with an abiding faith in the power of education. Du Bois graduated at the top of his high school class and attended Fisk University. Du Bois’s sojourn to the South in 1880s left a distinct impression that would guide his life’s work to study what he called the “Negro problem,” the systemic racial and economic discrimination that Du Bois prophetically pronounced would be the problem of the twentieth century. After Fisk, Du Bois’s educational path trended back North. He attended Harvard, earned his second degree, crossed the Atlantic for graduate work in Germany, and circulated back to Harvard, and in 1895, he became the first Black American to receive a PhD there. Du Bois became one of America’s foremost intellectual leaders on questions of social justice by producing scholarship that underscored the humanity of African Americans. Du Bois’s work as an intellectual, scholar, and college professor began during the Progressive Era, a time in American history marked by rapid social and cultural change as well as complex global political conflicts and developments. Du Bois addressed these domestic and international concerns not only in his classrooms at Wilberforce University in Ohio and Atlanta University in Georgia but also in a number of his early publications on the history of the transatlantic slave trade and Black life in urban Philadelphia. The most well-known of these early works included The Souls of Black Folk (1903) and Darkwater (1920). In these books, Du Bois combined incisive historical analysis with engaging literary drama to validate Black personhood and attack the inhumanity of white supremacy, particularly in the lead-up to and during World War I. In addition to publications and teaching, Du Bois set his sights on political organizing for civil rights, first with the Niagara Movement and later with its offspring, the NAACP. Du Bois’s main work with the NAACP lasted from 1909 to 1934 as editor of The Crisis, one of America’s leading Black publications. Du Bois attacked Washington and urged Black Americans to concede to nothing, to make no compromises and advocate for equal rights under the law. Throughout his early career, he pushed for civil rights legislation, launched legal challenges against discrimination, organized protests against injustice, and applied his capacity for clear research and sharp prose to expose the racial sins of Progressive Era America. “We refuse to allow the impression to remain that the Negro-American assents to inferiority, is submissive under oppression and apologetic before insults. . . . Any discrimination based simply on race or color is barbarous, we care not how hallowed it be by custom, expediency or prejudice . . . discriminations based simply and solely on physical peculiarities, place of birth, color of skin, are relics of that unreasoning human savagery of which the world is and ought to be thoroughly ashamed. . . . Persistent manly agitation is the way to liberty.”10 W. E. B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington made a tremendous historical impact and left a notable historical legacy. They were reared under markedly different circumstances, and thus their early life experiences and even personal temperaments oriented both leaders’ lives and outlooks in decidedly different ways. Du Bois’s confrontational voice boldly targeted white supremacy. He believed in the power of social science to arrest the reach of white supremacy. Washington advocated incremental change for longer-term gain. He contended that economic self-sufficiency would pay off at a future date. Four years after Du Bois directly spoke out against Washington in the chapter “Of Mr. Booker T. Washington” in Souls of Black Folk, the two men shared the same lectern at Philadelphia Divinity School to address matters of race, history, and culture in the American South. Although their philosophies often differed, both men inspired others to demand that America live up to its democratic creed. Notes - Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001). - Edward Ayers, The Promise of the New South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 147. - Ibid. - Ibid. - Neil R. McMillen, Dark Journey: Black Mississippians in the Age of Jim Crow (Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1990), 43. - Perman, Struggle for Mastery, 147. - Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). - Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, 1901), 221–222. - Kate A. Baldwin, Beyond the Color Line and the Iron Curtain: Reading Encounters Between Black and Red (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002), 297 n. 28. - W. E. B. DuBois, “Niagara’s Declaration of Principles, 1905,” Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance, and Abolition, https://glc.yale.edu/niagaras-declaration-principles-1905, accessed June 15, 2018. Conclusion Industrial capitalism unleashed powerful forces in American life. Along with wealth, technological innovation, and rising standards of living, a host of social problems unsettled many who turned to reform politics to set the world right again. The Progressive Era signaled that a turning point had been reached for many Americans who were suddenly willing to confront the age’s problems with national political solutions. Reformers sought to bring order to chaos, to bring efficiency to inefficiency, and to bring justice to injustice. Causes varied, constituencies shifted, and the tangible effects of so much energy was difficult to measure, but the Progressive Era signaled a bursting of long-simmering tensions and introduced new patterns in the relationship between American society, American culture, and American politics. Primary Sources 1. Booker T. Washington & W.E.B. DuBois on Black Progress (1895, 1903) Booker T. Washington, born enslaved in Virginia in 1856, founded the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881 and became a leading advocate of African American progress. Introduced as “a representative of Negro enterprise and Negro civilization,” Washington delivered the following remarks, sometimes called the “Atlanta Compromise” speech, at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta in 1895. 2. Jane Addams, “The Subjective Necessity for Social Settlements” (1892) Hull House, Chicago’s famed “settlement house,” was designed to uplift urban populations. Here, Addams explains why she believes reformers must “add the social function to democracy.” As Addams explained, Hull House “was opened on the theory that the dependence of classes on each other is reciprocal.” 3. Eugene Debs, “How I Became a Socialist” (April, 1902) A native of Terre Haute, Indiana, Eugene V. Debs began working as a locomotive fireman (tending the fires of a train’s steam engine) as a youth in the 1870s. His experience in the American labor movement later led him to socialism. In the early-twentieth century, as the Socialist Party of America’s candidate, he ran for the presidency five times and twice earned nearly one-million votes. He was America’s most prominent socialist. In 1902, a New York paper asked Debs how he became a socialist. This is his answer. 4. Walter Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the Social Crisis (1907) Walter Rauschenbusch, a Baptist minister and theologian, advocated for a “social gospel.” Here, he explains why he believes Christianity must address social questions. 5. Alice Stone Blackwell, Answering Objections to Women’s Suffrage (1917) Alice Stone Blackwell was a feminist activist and writer. In an edited volume published in 1917, Blackwell responded to popular anti-women’s-suffrage arguments. 6. Woodrow Wilson on the “New Freedom,” 1912 Woodrow Wilson campaigned for the presidency in 1912 as a progressive democrat. Wilson argued that changing economic conditions demanded new and aggressive government policies–he called his political program “the New Freedom”– to preserve traditional American liberties. 7. Theodore Roosevelt on “The New Nationalism” (1910) In 1910, a newly invigorated Theodore Roosevelt delivered his outline for a bold new progressive agenda, which he would advance in 1912 during a failed presidential run under the new Progressive, or “Bull Moose,” Party. Illustration shows a “Standard Oil” storage tank as an octopus with many tentacles wrapped around the steel, copper, and shipping industries, as well as a state house, the U.S. Capitol, and one tentacle reaching for the White House. The only building not yet within reach of the octopus is the White House—President Teddy Roosevelt had won a reputation as a “trust buster.” 9. “College Day on the Picket Line” (1917) Women protested silently in front of the White House for over two years before the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment. Here, women represent their colleges as they picket the White House in support of women’s suffrage. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Mary Anne Henderson, with content contributions by Andrew C. Baker, Peter Catapano, Blaine Hamilton, Mary Anne Henderson, Amanda Hughett, Amy Kohout, Maria Montalvo, Brent Ruswick, Philip Luke Sinitiere, Nora Slonimsky, Whitney Stewart, and Brandy Thomas Wells. Recommended citation: Andrew C. Baker et al., “The Progressive Era,” Mary Anne Henderson, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Ayers, Edward. The Promise of the New South. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. - Bay, Mia. To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells. New York: Hill and Wang, 2010. - Cott, Nancy. The Grounding of Modern Feminism. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1987. - Dawley, Alan. Struggles for Justice: Social Responsibility and the Liberal State. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1991. - Dubois, Ellen Carol. Women’s Suffrage and Women’s Rights. New York: New York University Press, 1998. - Filene, Peter. “An Obituary for ‘The Progressive Movement,’” American Quarterly 22 (Spring 1970): 20–34. - Flanagan, Maureen. America Reformed: Progressives and Progressivisms, 1890s–1920s. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. - Foley, Neil. The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. - Gilmore, Glenda E. Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996. - Hale, Grace Elizabeth. Making Whiteness: The Culture of Segregation in the South, 1890–1940. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. - Hicks, Cheryl. Talk with You Like a Woman: African American Women, Justice, and Reform in New York, 1890–1935. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010. - Hofstadter, Richard. The Age of Reform: From Bryan to F.D.R. New York: Knopf, 1955. - Johnson, Kimberley. Governing the American State: Congress and the New Federalism, 1877–1929. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006. - Kessler-Harris, Alice. In Pursuit of Equity: Women, Men, and the Quest for Economic Citizenship in 20th-Century America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. - Kloppenberg, James T. Uncertain Victory: Social Democracy and Progressivism in European and American Thought, 1870–1920. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. - Kolko, Gabriel. The Triumph of Conservatism. New York: Free Press, 1963. - Kousser, J. Morgan. The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restriction and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974. - McGerr, Michael. A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America, 1870–1920. New York: Free Press, 2003. - Molina, Natalia. Fit to Be Citizens?: Public Health and Race in Los Angeles, 1879–1939. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. - Muncy, Robyn. Creating a Female Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. - Rodgers, Daniel T. Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000. - Sanders, Elizabeth. The Roots of Reform: Farmers, Workers, and the American State, 1877–1917. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. - Stromquist, Shelton. Re-Inventing “The People”: The Progressive Movement, the Class Problem, and the Origins of Modern Liberalism. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 2006. - White, Deborah. Too Heavy a Load: In Defense of Themselves. New York: Norton, 1999. - Wiebe, Robert. The Search for Order, 1877–1920. New York: Hill and Wang, 1967.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.813450	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90490/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Reconstruction, Growth, and Transformation, The Progressive Era", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/overview	Lesson 4 Section 10 Race and World War II Lesson 4 Section 11 Toward a Postwar World Lesson 4 Section 2 The Origins of the Pacific War Lesson 4 Section 3 The Origins of the European War Lesson 4 Section 4 American Isolationism Lesson 4 Section 5 The United States and the European War Lesson 4 Section 6 The United States and the Japanese War Lesson 4 Section 7 Soldiers’ Experiences Lesson 4 Section 8 The Wartime Economy Lesson 4 Section 9 Women and World War II World War II Overview Link to student view Unit 2 Lesson 4 https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/student/ Teacher resources linked for The American Yawp content can be found at this link https://www.americanyawp.com/text/teaching-materials/ Quiz for Unit 2 Lesson 4 https://www.americanyawp.com/text/wp-content/uploads/Quiz-24.pdf Did you have an idea for improving this content? We’d love your input. Introduction The 1930s and 1940s were trying times. A global economic crisis gave way to a global war that became the deadliest and most destructive in human history. Perhaps eighty million individuals lost their lives during World War II. The war saw industrialized genocide and nearly threatened the eradication of an entire people. It also unleashed the most fearsome technology ever used in war. And when it ended, the United States found itself alone as the world’s greatest superpower. Armed with the world’s greatest economy, it looked forward to the fruits of a prosperous consumers’ economy. But the war raised as many questions as it would settle and unleashed new social forces at home and abroad that confronted generations of Americans to come. Notes Title image American soldiers recover the dead on Omaha Beach in 1944. Library of Congress. The Origins of the Pacific War Although the United States joined the war in 1941, two years after Europe exploded into conflict in 1939, the path to the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor, the surprise attack that threw the United States headlong into war, began much earlier. For the Empire of Japan, the war had begun a decade before Pearl Harbor. On September 18, 1931, a small explosion tore up railroad tracks controlled by the Japanese-owned South Manchuria Railway near the city of Shenyang (Mukden) in the Chinese province of Manchuria. The railway company condemned the bombing as the work of anti-Japanese Chinese dissidents. Evidence, though, suggests that the initial explosion was neither an act of Chinese anti-Japanese sentiment nor an accident but an elaborate ruse planned by the Japanese to provide a basis for invasion. In response, the privately operated Japanese Guandong (Kwangtung) army began shelling the Shenyang garrison the next day, and the garrison fell before nightfall. Hungry for Chinese territory and witnessing the weakness and disorganization of Chinese forces, but under the pretense of protecting Japanese citizens and investments, the Japanese Imperial Army ordered a full-scale invasion of Manchuria. The invasion was swift. Without a centralized Chinese army, the Japanese quickly defeated isolated Chinese warlords and by the end of February 1932, all of Manchuria was firmly under Japanese control. Japan established the nation of Manchukuo out of the former province of Manchuria.1 This seemingly small skirmish—known by the Chinese as the September 18 Incident and the Japanese as the Manchurian Incident—sparked a war that would last thirteen years and claim the lives of over thirty-five million people. Comprehending Japanese motivations for attacking China and the grueling stalemate of the ensuing war are crucial for understanding Japan’s seemingly unprovoked attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, and, therefore, for understanding the involvement of the United States in World War II as well. Despite their rapid advance into Manchuria, the Japanese put off the invasion of China for nearly three years. Japan occupied a precarious domestic and international position after the September 18 Incident. At home, Japan was riven by political factionalism due to its stagnating economy. Leaders were torn as to whether to address modernization and lack of natural resources through unilateral expansion (the conquest of resource-rich areas such as Manchuria to export raw materials to domestic Japanese industrial bases such as Hiroshima and Nagasaki) or international cooperation (a philosophy of pan-Asianism in an anti-Western coalition that would push the colonial powers out of Asia). Ultimately, after a series of political crises and assassinations enflamed tensions, pro-war elements within the Japanese military triumphed over the more moderate civilian government. Japan committed itself to aggressive military expansion. Chinese leaders Chiang Kai-shek and Zhang Xueliang appealed to the League of Nations for assistance against Japan. The United States supported the Chinese protest, proclaiming the Stimson Doctrine in January 1932, which refused to recognize any state established as a result of Japanese aggression. Meanwhile, the League of Nations sent Englishman Victor Bulwer-Lytton to investigate the September 18 Incident. After a six-month investigation, Bulwer-Lytton found the Japanese guilty of inciting the September 18 incident and demanded the return of Manchuria to China. The Japanese withdrew from the League of Nations in March 1933. Japan isolated itself from the world. Its diplomatic isolation empowered radical military leaders who could point to Japanese military success in Manchuria and compare it to the diplomatic failures of the civilian government. The military took over Japanese policy. And in the military’s eyes, the conquest of China would not only provide for Japan’s industrial needs, it would secure Japanese supremacy in East Asia. The Japanese launched a full-scale invasion of China. It assaulted the Marco Polo Bridge on July 7, 1937, and routed the forces of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek. The broken Chinese army gave up Beiping (Beijing) to the Japanese on August 8, Shanghai on November 26, and the capital, Nanjing (Nanking), on December 13. Between 250,000 and 300,000 people were killed, and tens of thousands of women were raped, when the Japanese besieged and then sacked Nanjing. The Western press labeled it the Rape of Nanjing. To halt the invading enemy, Chiang Kai-shek adopted a scorched-earth strategy of “trading space for time.” His Nationalist government retreated inland, burning villages and destroying dams, and established a new capital at the Yangtze River port of Chongqing (Chungking). Although the Nationalists’ scorched-earth policy hurt the Japanese military effort, it alienated scores of dislocated Chinese civilians and became a potent propaganda tool of the emerging Chinese Communist Party (CCP).2 Americans read about the brutal fighting in China, but the United States lacked both the will and the military power to oppose the Japanese invasion. After the gut-wrenching carnage of World War I, many Americans retreated toward isolationism by opposing any involvement in the conflagrations burning in Europe and Asia. And even if Americans wished to intervene, their military was lacking. The Japanese army was a technologically advanced force consisting of 4,100,000 men and 900,000 Chinese collaborators—and that was in China alone. The Japanese military was armed with modern rifles, artillery, armor, and aircraft. By 1940, the Japanese navy was the third-largest and among the most technologically advanced in the world. Still, Chinese Nationalists lobbied Washington for aid. Chiang Kai-shek’s wife, Soong May-ling—known to the American public as Madame Chiang—led the effort. Born into a wealthy Chinese merchant family in 1898, Madame Chiang spent much of her childhood in the United States and graduated from Wellesley College in 1917 with a major in English literature. In contrast to her gruff husband, Madame Chiang was charming and able to use her knowledge of American culture and values to garner support for her husband and his government. But while the United States denounced Japanese aggression, it took no action during the 1930s. As Chinese Nationalists fought for survival, the Communist Party was busy collecting people and supplies in the northwestern Shaanxi Province. China had been at war with itself when the Japanese came. Nationalists battled a stubborn communist insurgency. In 1935 the Nationalists threw the communists out of the fertile Chinese coast, but an ambitious young commander named Mao Zedong recognized the power of the Chinese peasant population. In Shaanxi, Mao recruited from the local peasantry, building his force from a meager seven thousand survivors at the end of the Long March in 1935 to a robust 1.2 million members by the end of the war. Although Japan had conquered much of the country, the Nationalists regrouped and the communists rearmed. An uneasy truce paused the country’s civil war and refocused efforts on the invaders. The Chinese could not dislodge the Japanese, but they could stall their advance. The war mired in stalemate. Notes - For the second Sino-Japanese War, see, for instance, Michael A. Barnhart, Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919–1941 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987); Dick Wilson, When Tigers Fight: The Story of the Sino-Japanese War, 1937–1945 (New York: Viking, 1982); and Mark Peattie, Edward Drea, and Hans van de Ven, eds., The Battle for China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino-Japanese War of 1937–1945 (Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011). - See Joshua A. Fogel, The Nanjing Massacre in History and Historiography (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000). The Origins of the European War Across the globe in Europe, the continent’s major powers were still struggling with the aftereffects of World War I when the global economic crisis spiraled much of the continent into chaos. Germany’s Weimar Republic collapsed with the economy, and out of the ashes emerged Adolf Hitler’s National Socialists—the Nazis. Championing German racial supremacy, fascist government, and military expansionism, Hitler rose to power and, after aborted attempts to take power in Germany, became chancellor in 1933 and the Nazis conquered German institutions. Democratic traditions were smashed. Leftist groups were purged. Hitler repudiated the punitive damages and strict military limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. He rebuilt the German military and navy. He reoccupied regions lost during the war and remilitarized the Rhineland, along the border with France. When the Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936, Hitler and Benito Mussolini—the fascist Italian leader who had risen to power in the 1920s—intervened for the Spanish fascists, toppling the communist Spanish Republican Party. Britain and France stood by warily and began to rebuild their militaries, anxious in the face of a renewed Germany but still unwilling to draw Europe into another bloody war.1 In his autobiographical manifesto, Mein Kampf, Hitler advocated for the unification of Europe’s German peoples under one nation and that nation’s need for Lebensraum, or living space, particularly in Eastern Europe, to supply Germans with the land and resources needed for future prosperity. The Untermenschen (lesser humans) would have to go. Once in power, Hitler worked toward the twin goals of unification and expansion. In 1938, Germany annexed Austria and set its sights on the Sudetenland, a large, ethnically German area of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France, alarmed but still anxious to avoid war, agreed—without Czechoslovakia’s input—that Germany could annex the region in return for a promise to stop all future German aggression. They thought that Hitler could be appeased, but it became clear that his ambitions would continue pushing German expansion. In March 1939, Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia and began to make demands on Poland. Britain and France promised war. And war came. Hitler signed a secret agreement—the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—with the Soviet Union that coordinated the splitting of Poland between the two powers and promised nonaggression thereafter. The European war began when the German Wehrmacht invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. Britain and France declared war two days later and mobilized their armies. Britain and France hoped that the Poles could hold out for three to four months, enough time for the Allies to intervene. Poland fell in three weeks. The German army, anxious to avoid the rigid, grinding war of attrition that took so many millions in the stalemate of World War I, built their new modern army for speed and maneuverability. German doctrine emphasized the use of tanks, planes, and motorized infantry (infantry that used trucks for transportation instead of marching) to concentrate forces, smash front lines, and wreak havoc behind the enemy’s defenses. It was called Blitzkrieg, or lightning war. After the fall of Poland, France and its British allies braced for an inevitable German attack. Throughout the winter of 1939–1940, however, fighting was mostly confined to smaller fronts in Norway. Belligerents called it the Sitzkrieg (sitting war). But in May 1940, Hitler launched his attack into Western Europe. Mirroring the German’s Schlieffen Plan of 1914 in the previous war, Germany attacked through the Netherlands and Belgium to avoid the prepared French defenses along the French-German border. Poland had fallen in three weeks; France lasted only a few weeks more. By June, Hitler was posing for photographs in front of the Eiffel Tower. Germany split France in half. Germany occupied and governed the north, and the south would be ruled under a puppet government in Vichy. With France under heel, Hitler turned to Britain. Operation Sea Lion—the planned German invasion of the British Isles—required air superiority over the English Channel. From June until October the German Luftwaffe fought the Royal Air Force (RAF) for control of the skies. Despite having fewer planes, British pilots won the so-called Battle of Britain, saving the islands from immediate invasion and prompting the new prime minister, Winston Churchill, to declare, “Never before in the field of human conflict has so much been owed by so many to so few.” If Britain was safe from invasion, it was not immune from additional air attacks. Stymied in the Battle of Britain, Hitler began the Blitz—a bombing campaign against cities and civilians. Hoping to crush the British will to fight, the Luftwaffe bombed the cities of London, Liverpool, and Manchester every night from September to the following May. Children were sent far into the countryside to live with strangers to shield them from the bombings. Remaining residents took refuge in shelters and subway tunnels, emerging each morning to put out fires and bury the dead. The Blitz ended in June 1941, when Hitler, confident that Britain was temporarily out of the fight, launched Operation Barbarossa—the invasion of the Soviet Union. Hoping to capture agricultural lands, seize oil fields, and break the military threat of Stalin’s Soviet Union, Hitler broke the two powers’ 1939 nonaggression pact and, on June 22, invaded the Soviet Union. It was the largest land invasion in history. France and Poland had fallen in weeks, and German officials hoped to break Russia before the winter. And initially, the Blitzkrieg worked. The German military quickly conquered enormous swaths of land and netted hundreds of thousands of prisoners. But Russia was too big and the Soviets were willing to sacrifice millions to stop the fascist advance. After recovering from the initial shock of the German invasion, Stalin moved his factories east of the Urals, out of range of the Luftwaffe. He ordered his retreating army to adopt a “scorched earth” policy, to move east and destroy food, rails, and shelters to stymie the advancing German army. The German army slogged forward. It split into three pieces and stood at the gates of Moscow, Stalingrad, and Leningrad, but supply lines now stretched thousands of miles, Soviet infrastructure had been destroyed, partisans harried German lines, and the brutal Russian winter arrived. Germany had won massive gains but the winter found Germany exhausted and overextended. In the north, the German army starved Leningrad to death during an interminable siege; in the south, at Stalingrad, the two armies bled themselves to death in the destroyed city; and, in the center, on the outskirts of Moscow, in sight of the capital city, the German army faltered and fell back. It was the Soviet Union that broke Hitler’s army. Twenty-five million Soviet soldiers and civilians died during the Great Patriotic War, and roughly 80 percent of all German casualties during the war came on the Eastern Front. The German army and its various conscripts suffered 850,000 casualties at the Battle of Stalingrad alone. In December 1941, Germany began its long retreat.2 Notes - On the origins of World War II in Europe, see, for instance, P. M. H. Bell, The Origins of the Second World War in Europe (New York: Routledge, 1986). - Antony Beevor, Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege, 1942–1943 (New York: Penguin, 1999); Omer Bartov, The Eastern Front, 1941–45: German Troops and the Barbarization of Warfare (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 1986); Catherine Merridale, Ivan’s War: Life and Death in the Red Army, 1939–1945 (New York: Picador, 2006). American Isolationism For more information about Lend-Lease, EDSITEment!, FDR and the Lend-Lease Act, https://edsitement.neh.gov/lesson-plans/lesson-4-fdr-and-lend-lease-act Between 1935 and 1937 Congress passed three "Neutrality Acts" that tried to keep the United States out of war, by making it illegal for Americans to sell or transport arms, or other war materials to belligerent nations. Supporters of neutrality, called "isolationists" by their critics, argued that America should avoid entangling itself in European wars. "Internationalists" rejected the idea that the United States could remain aloof from Europe and held that the nation should aid countries threatened with aggression. In the spring of 1939, as Germany, Japan, and Italy pursued militaristic policies, President Roosevelt wanted more flexibility to meet the Fascist challenge. FDR suggested amending the act to allow warring nations to purchase munitions if they paid cash and transported the goods on non-American ships, a policy that favored Britain and France. Initially, this proposal failed, but after Germany invaded Poland in September, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939 ending the munitions embargo on a "cash and carry" basis. The passage of the 1939 Neutrality Act marked the beginning of a congressional shift away from isolationism. Over the next 2 years, Congress took further steps to oppose fascism. One of the most important was the 1941 approval of Lend-Lease, which allowed the United States to transfer arms to nations vital to the national defense.1 The Lend-Lease Act, approved by Congress in March 1941, had given President Roosevelt virtually unlimited authority to direct material aid such as ammunition, tanks, airplanes, trucks, and food to the war effort in Europe without violating the nation’s official position of neutrality. This aid was intended to assist in the defense of nations whose security was deemed vital to the security of the United States. President Roosevelt, who favored U.S. intervention in WWII, advocated creating the program as a way to provide indirect support for the Allies without engaging the U.S. in a war for which there was not yet overwhelming public support.2 Notes - "Congress, Neutrality, and Lend-Lease," National Archives, https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/text/page20_text.html. Accessed 30 March, 2022. - This account is based on the artilce, "Today in History - October 23, The Lend-Lease Act," Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/today-in-history/october-23/#:~:text=The%20Lend%2DLease%20Act%2C%20approved,nation's%20official%20position%20of%20neutrality. The United States and the European War While Hitler marched across Europe, the Japanese continued their war in the Pacific. In 1939 the United States dissolved its trade treaties with Japan and the following year cut off supplies of war materials by embargoing oil, steel, rubber, and other vital goods. It was hoped that economic pressure would shut down the Japanese war machine. Instead, Japan’s resource-starved military launched invasions across the Pacific to sustain its war effort. The Japanese called their new empire the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere and, with the cry of “Asia for the Asians,” made war against European powers and independent nations throughout the region. Diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States collapsed. The United States demanded that Japan withdraw from China; Japan considered the oil embargo a de facto declaration of war.1 Japanese military planners, believing that American intervention was inevitable, planned a coordinated Pacific offensive to neutralize the United States and other European powers and provide time for Japan to complete its conquests and fortify its positions. On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Japanese military planners hoped to destroy enough battleships and aircraft carriers to cripple American naval power for years. Twenty-four hundred Americans were killed in the attack. American isolationism fell at Pearl Harbor. Japan also assaulted Hong Kong, the Philippines, and American holdings throughout the Pacific, but it was the attack on Hawaii that threw the United States into a global conflict. Franklin Roosevelt called December 7 “a date which will live in infamy” and called for a declaration of war, which Congress answered within hours. Within a week of Pearl Harbor the United States had declared war on the entire Axis, turning two previously separate conflicts into a true world war. The American war began slowly. Britain had stood alone militarily in Europe, but American supplies had bolstered their resistance. Hitler unleashed his U-boat “wolf packs” into the Atlantic Ocean with orders to sink anything carrying aid to Britain, but Britain’s and the United States’ superior tactics and technology won them the Battle of the Atlantic. British code breakers cracked Germany’s radio codes and the surge of intelligence, dubbed Ultra, coupled with massive naval convoys escorted by destroyers armed with sonar and depth charges, gave the advantage to the Allies and by 1942, Hitler’s Kriegsmarine was losing ships faster than they could be built.2 In North Africa in 1942, British victory at El Alamein began pushing the Germans back. In November, the first American combat troops entered the European war, landing in French Morocco and pushing the Germans east while the British pushed west.3 By 1943, the Allies had pushed Axis forces out of Africa. In January President Roosevelt and Prime Minister Churchill met at Casablanca to discuss the next step of the European war. Churchill convinced Roosevelt to chase the Axis up Italy, into the “soft underbelly” of Europe. Afterward, Roosevelt announced to the press that the Allies would accept nothing less than unconditional surrender. Meanwhile, the Army Air Force (AAF) sent hundreds (and eventually thousands) of bombers to England in preparation for a massive strategic bombing campaign against Germany. The plan was to bomb Germany around the clock. American bombers hit German ball-bearing factories, rail yards, oil fields, and manufacturing centers during the day, while the British RAF carpet-bombed German cities at night. Flying in formation, they initially flew unescorted, since many believed that bombers equipped with defensive firepower flew too high and too fast to be attacked. However, advanced German technology allowed fighters to easily shoot down the lumbering bombers. On some disastrous missions, the Germans shot down almost 50 percent of American aircraft. However, the advent and implementation of a long-range escort fighter let the bombers hit their targets more accurately while fighters confronted opposing German aircraft. In the wake of the Soviets’ victory at Stalingrad, the Big Three (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) met in Tehran in November 1943. Dismissing Africa and Italy as a sideshow, Stalin demanded that Britain and the United States invade France to relieve pressure on the Eastern Front. Churchill was hesitant, but Roosevelt was eager. The invasion was tentatively scheduled for 1944. Back in Italy, the “soft underbelly” turned out to be much tougher than Churchill had imagined. Italy’s narrow, mountainous terrain gave the defending Axis the advantage. Movement up the peninsula was slow, and in some places conditions returned to the trenchlike warfare of World War I. Americans attempted to land troops behind them at Anzio on the western coast of Italy, but, surrounded, they suffered heavy casualties. Still, the Allies pushed up the peninsula, Mussolini’s government revolted, and a new Italian government quickly made peace. On the day the American army entered Rome, American, British and Canadian forces launched Operation Overlord, the long-awaited invasion of France. D-Day, as it became popularly known, was the largest amphibious assault in history. American general Dwight Eisenhower was uncertain enough of the attack’s chances that the night before the invasion he wrote two speeches: one for success and one for failure. The Allied landings at Normandy were successful, and although progress across France was much slower than hoped for, Paris was liberated roughly two months later. Allied bombing expeditions meanwhile continued to level German cities and industrial capacity. Perhaps four hundred thousand German civilians were killed by allied bombing.4 The Nazis were crumbling on both fronts. Hitler tried but failed to turn the war in his favor in the west. The Battle of the Bulge failed to drive the Allies back to the English Channel, but the delay cost the Allies the winter. The invasion of Germany would have to wait, while the Soviet Union continued its relentless push westward, ravaging German populations in retribution for German war crimes.5 German counterattacks in the east failed to dislodge the Soviet advance, destroying any last chance Germany might have had to regain the initiative. 1945 dawned with the end of European war in sight. The Big Three met again at Yalta in the Soviet Union, where they reaffirmed the demand for Hitler’s unconditional surrender and began to plan for postwar Europe. The Soviet Union reached Germany in January, and the Americans crossed the Rhine in March. In late April American and Soviet troops met at the Elbe while the Soviets pushed relentlessly by Stalin to reach Berlin first and took the capital city in May, days after Hitler and his high command had died by suicide in a city bunker. Germany was conquered. The European war was over. Allied leaders met again, this time at Potsdam, Germany, where it was decided that Germany would be divided into pieces according to current Allied occupation, with Berlin likewise divided, pending future elections. Stalin also agreed to join the fight against Japan in approximately three months.6 Notes - Herbert Feis, The Road to Pearl Harbor: The Coming of the War Between the United States and Japan (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950). - For the United States on the European front, see, for instance, John Keegan, The Second World War (New York: Viking, 1990); and Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005). - Rick Atkinson, An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943 (New York: Holt, 2002. - Max Hastings, Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. - Richard Overy, Why the Allies Won (New York: Norton, 1997). - Christopher Duffy, Red Storm on the Reich: The Soviet March on Germany, 1945 (New York: Da Capo Press, 1993. The United States and the Japanese War As Americans celebrated V-E (Victory in Europe) Day, they redirected their full attention to the still-raging Pacific War. As in Europe, the war in the Pacific started slowly. After Pearl Harbor, the American-controlled Philippine archipelago fell to Japan. After running out of ammunition and supplies, the garrison of American and Filipino soldiers surrendered. The prisoners were marched eighty miles to their prisoner-of-war camp without food, water, or rest. Ten thousand died on the Bataan Death March.1 But as Americans mobilized their armed forces, the tide turned. In the summer of 1942, American naval victories at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the aircraft carrier duel at the Battle of Midway crippled Japan’s Pacific naval operations. To dislodge Japan’s hold over the Pacific, the U.S. military began island hopping: attacking island after island, bypassing the strongest but seizing those capable of holding airfields to continue pushing Japan out of the region. Combat was vicious. At Guadalcanal American soldiers saw Japanese soldiers launch suicidal charges rather than surrender. Many Japanese soldiers refused to be taken prisoner or to take prisoners themselves. Such tactics, coupled with American racial prejudice, turned the Pacific Theater into a more brutal and barbarous conflict than the European Theater.2 Japanese defenders fought tenaciously. Few battles were as one-sided as the Battle of the Philippine Sea, or what the Americans called the Japanese counterattack, the Great Marianas Turkey Shoot. Japanese soldiers bled the Americans in their advance across the Pacific. At Iwo Jima, an eight-square-mile island of volcanic rock, seventeen thousand Japanese soldiers held the island against seventy thousand Marines for over a month. At the cost of nearly their entire force, they inflicted almost thirty thousand casualties before the island was lost. By February 1945, American bombers were in range of the mainland. Bombers hit Japan’s industrial facilities but suffered high casualties. To spare bomber crews from dangerous daylight raids, and to achieve maximum effect against Japan’s wooden cities, many American bombers dropped incendiary weapons that created massive firestorms and wreaked havoc on Japanese cities. Over sixty Japanese cities were fire-bombed. American fire bombs killed one hundred thousand civilians in Tokyo in March 1945. In June 1945, after eighty days of fighting and tens of thousands of casualties, the Americans captured the island of Okinawa. The mainland of Japan was open before them. It was a viable base from which to launch a full invasion of the Japanese homeland and end the war. Estimates varied, but given the tenacity of Japanese soldiers fighting on islands far from their home, some officials estimated that an invasion of the Japanese mainland could cost half a million American casualties and perhaps millions of Japanese civilians. Historians debate the many motivations that ultimately drove the Americans to use atomic weapons against Japan, and many American officials criticized the decision, but these would be the numbers later cited by government leaders and military officials to justify their use.3 Early in the war, fearing that the Germans might develop an atomic bomb, the U.S. government launched the Manhattan Project, a hugely expensive, ambitious program to harness atomic energy and create a single weapon capable of leveling entire cities. The Americans successfully exploded the world’s first nuclear device, Trinity, in New Mexico in July 1945. (Physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory, where the bomb was designed, later recalled that the event reminded him of Hindu scripture: “Now I am become death, the destroyer of worlds.”) Two more bombs—Fat Man and Little Boy—were built and detonated over two Japanese cities in August. Hiroshima was hit on August 6. Over one hundred thousand civilians were killed. Nagasaki followed on August 9. Perhaps eighty thousand civilians were killed. Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan on August 15. On September 2, aboard the battleship USS Missouri, delegates from the Japanese government formally signed their surrender. World War II was finally over. Notes - For the Pacific War, see, for instance, Ronald Spector, Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan (New York: Vintage Books, 1985); Keegan, Second World War; John Costello, The Pacific War: 1941–1945 (New York: Harper, 2009); and John W. Dower, War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War (New York: Pantheon Books, 1986). - Dower, War Without Mercy. - Michael J. Hogan, Hiroshima in History and Memory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Gar Alperovitz, The Decision to Use the Atomic Bomb (New York: Vintage Books, 1996). Soldiers’ Experiences Almost eighteen million men served in World War II. Volunteers rushed to join the military after Pearl Harbor, but the majority—over ten million—were drafted into service. Volunteers could express their preference for assignment, and many preempted the draft by volunteering. Regardless, recruits judged I-A, “fit for service,” were moved into basic training, where soldiers were developed physically and trained in the basic use of weapons and military equipment. Soldiers were indoctrinated into the chain of command and introduced to military life. After basic, soldiers moved on to more specialized training. For example, combat infantrymen received additional weapons and tactical training, and radio operators learned transmission codes and the operation of field radios. Afterward, an individual’s experience varied depending on what service he entered and to what theater he was assigned.1 Soldiers and Marines bore the brunt of on-the-ground combat. After transportation to the front by trains, ships, and trucks, they could expect to march carrying packs weighing anywhere from twenty to fifty pounds containing rations, ammunition, bandages, tools, clothing, and miscellaneous personal items in addition to their weapons. Sailors, once deployed, spent months at sea operating their assigned vessels. Larger ships, particularly aircraft carriers, were veritable floating cities. In most, sailors lived and worked in cramped conditions, often sleeping in bunks stacked in rooms housing dozens of sailors. Senior officers received small rooms of their own. Sixty thousand American sailors lost their lives in the war. During World War II, the Air Force was still a branch of the U.S. Army and soldiers served in ground and air crews. World War II saw the institutionalization of massive bombing campaigns against cities and industrial production. Large bombers like the B-17 Flying Fortress required pilots, navigators, bombardiers, radio operators, and four dedicated machine gunners. Airmen on bombing raids left from bases in England or Italy or from Pacific islands and endured hours of flight before approaching enemy territory. At high altitude, and without pressurized cabins, crews used oxygen tanks to breathe and on-board temperatures plummeted. Once in enemy airspace, crews confronted enemy fighters and anti-aircraft flak from the ground. While fighter pilots flew as escorts, the Air Corps suffered heavy casualties. Tens of thousands of airmen lost their lives. On the ground, conditions varied. Soldiers in Europe endured freezing winters, impenetrable French hedgerows, Italian mountain ranges, and dense forests. Germans fought with a Western mentality familiar to Americans. Soldiers in the Pacific endured heat and humidity, monsoons, jungles, and tropical diseases. And they confronted an unfamiliar foe. Americans, for instance, could understand surrender as prudent; many Japanese soldiers saw it as cowardice. What Americans saw as a fanatical waste of life, the Japanese saw as brave and honorable. Atrocities flourished in the Pacific at a level unmatched in Europe. Notes - Works on the experiences of World War II soldiers are seemingly endless and include popular histories such as Stephen E. Ambrose’s Citizen Soldiers (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997) and memoirs such as Eugene Sledge’s With the Old Breed: At Peleliu and Okinawa (New York: Presidio Press, 1981). The Wartime Economy Economies win wars no less than militaries. The war converted American factories to wartime production, reawakened Americans’ economic might, armed Allied belligerents and the American armed forces, effectively pulled America out of the Great Depression, and ushered in an era of unparalleled economic prosperity.1 Roosevelt’s New Deal had ameliorated the worst of the Depression, but the economy still limped its way forward into the 1930s. But then Europe fell into war, and, despite its isolationism, Americans were glad to sell the Allies arms and supplies. And then Pearl Harbor changed everything. The United States drafted the economy into war service. The “sleeping giant” mobilized its unrivaled economic capacity to wage worldwide war. Governmental entities such as the War Production Board and the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion managed economic production for the war effort and economic output exploded. An economy that was unable to provide work for a quarter of the workforce less than a decade earlier now struggled to fill vacant positions. Government spending during the four years of war doubled all federal spending in all of American history up to that point. The budget deficit soared, but, just as Depression-era economists had counseled, the government’s massive intervention annihilated unemployment and propelled growth. The economy that came out of the war looked nothing like the one that had begun it. Military production came at the expense of the civilian consumer economy. Appliance and automobile manufacturers converted their plants to produce weapons and vehicles. Consumer choice was foreclosed. Every American received rationing cards and, legally, goods such as gasoline, coffee, meat, cheese, butter, processed food, firewood, and sugar could not be purchased without them. The housing industry was shut down, and the cities became overcrowded. But the wartime economy boomed. The Roosevelt administration urged citizens to save their earnings or buy war bonds to prevent inflation. Bond drives were held nationally and headlined by Hollywood celebrities. Such drives were hugely successful. They not only funded much of the war effort, they helped tame inflation as well. So too did tax rates. The federal government raised income taxes and boosted the top marginal tax rate to 94 percent. With the economy booming and twenty million American workers placed into military service, unemployment virtually disappeared. More and more African Americans continued to leave the agrarian South for the industrial North. And as more and more men joined the military, and more and more positions went unfilled, women joined the workforce en masse. Other American producers looked outside the United States, southward, to Mexico, to fill its labor force. Between 1942 and 1964, the United States contracted thousands of Mexican nationals to work in American agriculture and railroads in the Bracero Program. Jointly administered by the State Department, the Department of Labor, and the Department of Justice, the binational agreement secured five million contracts across twenty-four states.2 With factory work proliferating across the country and agricultural labor experiencing severe labor shortages, the presidents of Mexico and the United States signed an agreement in July 1942 to bring the first group of legally contracted workers to California. Discriminatory policies toward people of Mexican descent prevented bracero contracts in Texas until 1947. The Bracero Program survived the war, enshrined in law until the 1960s, when the United States liberalized its immigration laws. Though braceros suffered exploitative labor conditions, for the men who participated the program was a mixed blessing. Interviews with ex-braceros captured the complexity. “They would call us pigs . . . they didn’t have to treat us that way,” one said of his employers, while another said, “For me it was a blessing, the United States was a blessing . . . it is a nation I fell in love with because of the excess work and good pay.”3 After the exodus of Mexican migrants during the Depression, the program helped reestablish Mexican migration, institutionalized migrant farm work across much of the country, and further planted a Mexican presence in the southern and western United States. Notes - See, for instance, Michael Adams, The Best War Ever: America and World War II (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994); Mark Harrison, ed., The Economics of World War II: Six Great Powers in International Comparison (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998); and Kennedy, Freedom from Fear). - Deborah Cohen, Braceros: Migrant Citizens and Transnational Subjects in the Postwar United States and Mexico (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011). - Interview with Rogelio Valdez Robles by Valerie Martinez and Lydia Valdez, transcribed by Nancy Valerio, September 21, 2008; interview with Alvaro Hernández by Myrna Parra-Mantilla, February 5, 2003, Interview No. 33, Institute of Oral History, University of Texas at El Paso. Women and World War II President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his administration had encouraged all able-bodied American women to help the war effort. He considered the role of women in the war critical for American victory, and the public expected women to assume various functions to free men for active military service. While most women opted to remain at home or volunteer with charitable organizations, many went to work or donned a military uniform. World War II brought unprecedented labor opportunities for American women. Industrial labor, an occupational sphere dominated by men, shifted in part to women for the duration of wartime mobilization. Women applied for jobs in converted munitions factories. The iconic illustrated image of Rosie the Riveter, a muscular woman dressed in coveralls with her hair in a kerchief and inscribed with the phrase We Can Do It!, came to stand for female factory labor during the war. But women also worked in various auxiliary positions for the government. Although such jobs were often traditionally gendered female, over a million administrative jobs at the local, state, and national levels were transferred from men to women for the duration of the war.1 For women who elected not to work, many volunteer opportunities presented themselves. The American Red Cross, the largest charitable organization in the nation, encouraged women to volunteer with local city chapters. Millions of women organized community social events for families, packed and shipped almost half a million tons of medical supplies overseas, and prepared twenty-seven million care packages of nonperishable items for American and other Allied prisoners of war. The American Red Cross further required all female volunteers to certify as nurse’s aides, providing an extra benefit and work opportunity for hospital staffs that suffered severe personnel losses. Other charity organizations, such as church and synagogue affiliates, benevolent associations, and social club auxiliaries, gave women further outlets for volunteer work. Military service was another option for women who wanted to join the war effort. Over 350,000 women served in several all-female units of the military branches. The Army and Navy Nurse Corps Reserves, the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps, the Navy’s Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service, the Coast Guard’s SPARs (named for the Coast Guard motto, Semper Paratus, “Always Ready”), and Marine Corps units gave women the opportunity to serve as either commissioned officers or enlisted members at military bases at home and abroad. The Nurse Corps Reserves alone commissioned 105,000 army and navy nurses recruited by the American Red Cross. Military nurses worked at base hospitals, mobile medical units, and onboard hospital “mercy” ships.2 Jim Crow segregation in both the civilian and military sectors remained a problem for Black women who wanted to join the war effort. Even after President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 in 1941, supervisors who hired Black women still often relegated them to the most menial tasks on factory floors. Segregation was further upheld in factory lunchrooms, and many Black women were forced to work at night to keep them separate from whites. In the military, only the Women’s Army Auxiliary Corps and the Nurse Corps Reserves accepted Black women for active service, and the army set a limited quota of 10 percent of total end strength for Black female officers and enlisted women and segregated Black units on active duty. The American Red Cross, meanwhile, recruited only four hundred Black nurses for the Army and Navy Nurse Corps Reserves, and Black Army and Navy nurses worked in segregated military hospitals on bases stateside and overseas. And for all of the postwar celebration of Rosie the Riveter, after the war ended the men returned and most women voluntarily left the workforce or lost their jobs. Meanwhile, former military women faced a litany of obstacles in obtaining veteran’s benefits during their transition to civilian life. The nation that beckoned the call for assistance to millions of women during the four-year crisis hardly stood ready to accommodate their postwar needs and demands. Notes - Alecea Standlee, “Shifting Spheres: Gender, Labor, and the Construction of National Identity in U.S. Propaganda During the Second World War,” Minerva Journal of Women and War 4 (Spring 2010): 43–62. - Major Jeanne Holm, USAF (Ret.), Women in the Military: An Unfinished Revolution (Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1982), 21–109; Portia Kernodle, The Red Cross Nurse in Action, 1882–1948 (New York: Harper), 406–453. Race and World War II For more information about desegregation in the US military, History.com Why Harry Turman Ended Segregation in the US Military in 1948 World War II affected nearly every aspect of life in the United States, and America’s racial relationships were not immune. African Americans, Mexicans and Mexican Americans, Jews, and Japanese Americans were profoundly impacted. In early 1941, months before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, the largest Black trade union in the nation, made headlines by threatening President Roosevelt with a march on Washington, D.C. In this “crisis of democracy,” Randolph said, many defense contractors still refused to hire Black workers and the armed forces remained segregated. In exchange for Randolph calling off the march, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, the Fair Employment Practice in Defense Industries Act, banning racial and religious discrimination in defense industries and establishing the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to monitor defense industry hiring practices. While the armed forces remained segregated throughout the war, and the FEPC had limited influence, the order showed that the federal government could stand against discrimination. The Black workforce in defense industries rose from 3 percent in 1942 to 9 percent in 1945.1 More than one million African Americans fought in the war. Most Black servicemen served in segregated, noncombat units led by white officers. Some gains were made, however. The number of Black officers increased from five in 1940 to over seven thousand in 1945. The all-Black pilot squadrons, known as the Tuskegee Airmen, completed more than 1,500 missions, escorted heavy bombers into Germany, and earned several hundred merits and medals. Many bomber crews specifically requested the Red Tail Angels as escorts. And near the end of the war, the army and navy began integrating some of their units and facilities2, before President Truman desegregated the armed forces by executive order in July 1948, overriding many objections that the military was no place for social experimentation.3 While Black Americans served in the armed forces (though they were segregated), on the home front they became riveters and welders, rationed food and gasoline, and bought victory bonds. But many Black Americans saw the war as an opportunity not only to serve their country but to improve it. The Pittsburgh Courier, a leading Black newspaper, spearheaded the Double V campaign. It called on African Americans to fight two wars: the war against Nazism and fascism abroad and the war against racial inequality at home. To achieve victory, to achieve “real democracy,” the Courier encouraged its readers to enlist in the armed forces, volunteer on the home front, and fight against racial segregation and discrimination.4 During the war, membership in the NAACP jumped tenfold, from fifty thousand to five hundred thousand. The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was formed in 1942 and spearheaded the method of nonviolent direct action to achieve desegregation. Between 1940 and 1950, some 1.5 million Black southerners, the largest number of any decade since the beginning of the Great Migration, also indirectly demonstrated their opposition to racism and violence by migrating out of the Jim Crow South to the North. But transitions were not easy. Racial tensions erupted in 1943 in a series of riots in cities such as Mobile, Beaumont, and Harlem. The bloodiest race riot occurred in Detroit and resulted in the death of twenty-five Black and nine White Americans. Still, the war ignited in African Americans an urgency for equality that they would carry with them into the subsequent years.5 Many Americans had to navigate American prejudice, and America’s entry into the war left foreign nationals from the belligerent nations in a precarious position. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) targeted many on suspicions of disloyalty for detainment, hearings, and possible internment under the Alien Enemy Act. Those who received an order for internment were sent to government camps secured by barbed wire and armed guards. Such internments were supposed to be for cause. Then, on February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the removal of any persons from designated “exclusion zones”—which ultimately covered nearly a third of the country—at the discretion of military commanders. Thirty thousand Japanese Americans fought for the United States in World War II, but wartime anti-Japanese sentiment built on historical prejudices, and under the order, people of Japanese descent, both immigrants and American citizens, were detained and placed under the custody of the War Relocation Authority, the civil agency that supervised their relocation to internment camps. They lost their homes and jobs. Over ten thousand German nationals and a smaller number of Italian nationals were interned at various times in the United States during World War II, but American policies disproportionately targeted Japanese-descended populations, and individuals did not receive personalized reviews prior to their internment. This policy of mass exclusion and detention affected over 110,000 Japanese and Japanese-descended individuals. Seventy thousand were American citizens.6 In its 1982 report, Personal Justice Denied, the congressionally appointed Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians concluded that “the broad historical causes” shaping the relocation program were “race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.”7 Although the exclusion orders were found to have been constitutionally permissible under the vagaries of national security, they were later judged, even by the military and judicial leaders of the time, to have been a grave injustice against people of Japanese descent. In 1988, President Reagan signed a law that formally apologized for internment and provided reparations to surviving internees. But if actions taken during war would later prove repugnant, so too could inaction. As the Allies pushed into Germany and Poland, they uncovered the full extent of Hitler’s genocidal atrocities. The Allies liberated massive camp systems set up for the imprisonment, forced labor, and extermination of all those deemed racially, ideologically, or biologically “unfit” by Nazi Germany. But the Holocaust—the systematic murder of eleven million civilians, including six million Jews—had been under way for years. How did America respond? Initially, American officials expressed little official concern for Nazi persecutions. At the first signs of trouble in the 1930s, the State Department and most U.S. embassies did relatively little to aid European Jews. Roosevelt publicly spoke out against the persecution and even withdrew the U.S. ambassador to Germany after Kristallnacht. He pushed for the 1938 Evian Conference in France, in which international leaders discussed the Jewish refugee problem and worked to expand Jewish immigration quotas by tens of thousands of people per year. But the conference came to nothing, and the United States turned away countless Jewish refugees who requested asylum in the United States. In 1939, the German ship St. Louis carried over nine hundred Jewish refugees. They could not find a country that would take them. The passengers could not receive visas under the U.S. quota system. A State Department wire to one passenger read that all must “await their turns on the waiting list and qualify for and obtain immigration visas before they may be admissible into the United States.” The ship cabled the president for special privilege, but the president said nothing. The ship was forced to return to Europe. Hundreds of the St. Louis’s passengers would perish in the Holocaust. Anti-Semitism still permeated the United States. Even if Roosevelt wanted to do more—it’s difficult to trace his own thoughts and personal views—he judged the political price for increasing immigration quotas as too high. In 1938 and 1939, the U.S. Congress debated the Wagner-Rogers Bill, an act to allow twenty thousand German-Jewish children into the United States. First lady Eleanor Roosevelt endorsed the measure, but the president remained publicly silent. The bill was opposed by roughly two thirds of the American public and was defeated. Historians speculate that Roosevelt, anxious to protect the New Deal and his rearmament programs, was unwilling to expend political capital to protect foreign groups that the American public had little interest in protecting.8 Knowledge of the full extent of the Holocaust was slow in coming. When the war began, American officials, including Roosevelt, doubted initial reports of industrial death camps. But even when they conceded their existence, officials pointed to their genuinely limited options. The most plausible response for the U.S. military was to bomb either the camps or the railroads leading to them, but those options were rejected by military and civilian officials who argued that it would do little to stop the deportations, would distract from the war effort, and could cause casualties among concentration camp prisoners. Whether bombing would have saved lives remains a hotly debated question.9 Late in the war, secretary of the treasury Henry Morgenthau, himself born into a wealthy New York Jewish family, pushed through major changes in American policy. In 1944, he formed the War Refugees Board (WRB) and became a passionate advocate for Jewish refugees. The WRB saved perhaps two hundred thousand Jews and twenty thousand others. Morgenthau also convinced Roosevelt to issue a public statement condemning the Nazi’s persecution. But it was already 1944, and such policies were far too little, far too late.10 Notes - William P. Jones, The March on Washington: Jobs, Freedom, and the Forgotten History of Civil Rights (New York: Norton, 2013). - Stephen Tuck, Fog of War: The Second World War and the Civil Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Daniel Kryder, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000). - "U.S. History" by OpenStax is licensed under CC BY 4.0 - Andrew Buni, Robert L. Vann of the Pittsburgh Courier: Politics and Black Journalism (Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1974). - Dominic J. Capeci Jr. and Martha Wilkerson, Layered Violence: The Detroit Rioters of 1943 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1991). - Greg Robinson, By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001). - Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, Personal Justice Denied: Report of the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), 18). - Richard Breitman and Allan J. Lichtman, FDR and the Jews (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2013), 149. - Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999). - David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 274. Toward a Postwar World Americans celebrated the end of the war. At home and abroad, the United States looked to create a postwar order that would guarantee global peace and domestic prosperity. Although the alliance of convenience with Stalin’s Soviet Union would collapse, Americans nevertheless looked for the means to ensure postwar stability and economic security for returning veterans. The inability of the League of Nations to stop German, Italian, and Japanese aggressions caused many to question whether any global organization or agreements could ever ensure world peace. This included Franklin Roosevelt, who, as Woodrow Wilson’s undersecretary of the navy, witnessed the rejection of this idea by both the American people and the Senate. In 1941, Roosevelt believed that postwar security could be maintained by an informal agreement between what he termed the Four Policemen—the United States, Britain, the Soviet Union, and China—instead of a rejuvenated League of Nations. But others, including secretary of state Cordell Hull and British prime minister Winston Churchill, disagreed and convinced Roosevelt to push for a new global organization. As the war ran its course, Roosevelt came around to the idea. And so did the American public. Pollster George Gallup noted a “profound change” in American attitudes. The United States had rejected membership in the League of Nations after World War I, and in 1937 only a third of Americans polled supported such an idea. But as war broke out in Europe, half of Americans did. America’s entry into the war bolstered support, and, by 1945, with the war closing, 81 percent of Americans favored the idea.1 Whatever his support, Roosevelt had long shown enthusiasm for the ideas later enshrined in the United Nations (UN) charter. In January 1941, he announced his Four Freedoms—freedom of speech, of worship, from want, and from fear—that all of the world’s citizens should enjoy. That same year he signed the Atlantic Charter with Churchill, which reinforced those ideas and added the right of self-determination and promised some sort of postwar economic and political cooperation. Roosevelt first used the term united nations to describe the Allied powers, not the subsequent postwar organization. But the name stuck. At Tehran in 1943, Roosevelt and Churchill convinced Stalin to send a Soviet delegation to a conference at Dumbarton Oaks, in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C., in August 1944, where they agreed on the basic structure of the new organization. It would have a Security Council—the original Four Policemen, plus France—which would consult on how best to keep the peace and when to deploy the military power of the assembled nations. According to one historian, the organization demonstrated an understanding that “only the Great Powers, working together, could provide real security.” But the plan was a kind of hybrid between Roosevelt’s policemen idea and a global organization of equal representation. There would also be a General Assembly, made up of all nations; an International Court of Justice; and a council for economic and social matters. Dumbarton Oaks was a mixed success—the Soviets especially expressed concern over how the Security Council would work—but the powers agreed to meet again in San Francisco between April and June 1945 for further negotiations. There, on June 26, 1945, fifty nations signed the UN charter.2 Anticipating victory in World War II, leaders not only looked to the postwar global order, they looked to the fate of returning American servicemen. American politicians and interest groups sought to avoid another economic depression—the economy had tanked after World War I—by gradually easing returning veterans back into the civilian economy. The brainchild of William Atherton, the head of the American Legion, the G.I. Bill won support from progressives and conservatives alike. Passed in 1944, the G.I. Bill was a multifaceted, multibillion-dollar entitlement program that rewarded honorably discharged veterans with numerous benefits.3 Faced with the prospect of over fifteen million members of the armed services (including approximately 350,000 women) suddenly returning to civilian life, the G.I. Bill offered a bevy of inducements to slow their influx into the civilian workforce as well as reward their service with public benefits. The legislation offered a year’s worth of unemployment benefits for veterans unable to secure work. About half of American veterans (eight million) received $4 billion in unemployment benefits over the life of the bill. The G.I. Bill also made postsecondary education a reality for many. The Veterans Administration (VA) paid the lion’s share of educational expenses, including tuition, fees, supplies, and even stipends for living expenses. The G.I. Bill sparked a boom in higher education. Enrollments at accredited colleges, universities, and technical and professional schools spiked, rising from 1.5 million in 1940 to 3.6 million in 1960. The VA disbursed over $14 billon in educational aid in just over a decade. Furthermore, the bill encouraged home ownership. Roughly 40 percent of Americans owned homes in 1945, but that figure climbed to 60 percent a decade after the close of the war. Because the bill did away with down payment requirements, veterans could obtain home loans for as little as $1 down. Close to four million veterans purchased homes through the G.I. Bill, sparking a construction bonanza that fueled postwar growth. In addition, the VA also helped nearly two hundred thousand veterans secure farms and offered thousands more guaranteed financing for small businesses.4 Not all Americans, however, benefited equally from the G.I. Bill. Indirectly, since the military limited the number of female personnel, men qualified for the bill’s benefits in far higher numbers. Colleges also limited the number of female applicants to guarantee space for male veterans. African Americans, too, faced discrimination. Segregation forced Black veterans into overcrowded “historically Black colleges” that had to turn away close to twenty thousand applicants. Meanwhile, residential segregation limited Black home ownership in various neighborhoods, denying Black homeowners the equity and investment that would come with home ownership. There were other limits and other disadvantaged groups. Veterans accused of homosexuality, for instance, were similarly unable to claim GI benefits.5 The effects of the G.I. Bill were significant and long-lasting. It helped sustain the great postwar economic boom and, even if many could not attain it, it nevertheless established the hallmarks of American middle class life. Notes - Fraser J. Harbutt, Yalta 1945: Europe and America at the Crossroads of Peace (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 258; Mark Mazower, Governing the World: The History of a Modern Idea (New York: Penguin, 2012, 208. - Paul Kennedy, The Parliament of Man: The Past, Present, and Future of the United Nations (New York: Random House, 2006). - Kathleen Frydl, The G.I. Bill (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Suzanne Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens: The G.I. Bill and the Making of the Greatest Generation (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005). - Kathleen Frydl, G.I. Bill; Mettler, Soldiers to Citizens. - Lizabeth Cohen, A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Knopf, 2003). Primary Sources 1. Charles A. Lindbergh, “America First” (1941) Charles Lindbergh won international fame in 1927 after completing the first non-stop, solo flight across the Atlantic Ocean. As Hitler’s armies marched across the European continent, many Americans began to imagine American participation in the war. Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee, advocating “America First,” championed American isolationism. 2. A. Philip Randolph and Franklin Roosevelt on Racial Discrimination in the Defense Industry (1941) As the United States prepared for war, Black labor leader A. Philip Randolph recoiled at rampant employment discrimination in the defense industry. Together with NAACP head Walter White and other leaders, Randolph planned “a mass March on Washington” to push for fair employment practices. President Franklin Roosevelt met with Randolph and White on June 18, and, faced with mobilized discontent and a possible disruption of wartime industries, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802 on June 25. The order prohibited racial discrimination in the defense industry. Randolph and other leaders declared victory and called off the march. 3. The Atlantic Charter (1941) The leaders of the United States and United Kingdom signed the Atlantic Charter in August 1941. The short document neatly outlined an idealized vision for political and economic order of the postwar world. 4. FDR, Executive Order No. 9066 (1942) During World War II, the federal government removed over 120,000 men, women, and children of Japanese descent (both foreign-born “issei” and native-born “nisei”) from the West Coast and interned in camps. President Roosevelt authorized the internments with his Executive Order No. 9066, issued on February 19, 1942. 5. Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga on Japanese Internment (1942/1994) Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga was born in 1924 in Los Angeles, California. A second-generation (“Nisei”) Japanese American, she was incarcerated at the Manzanar internment camp in California and later at other internment camps in Arkansas. Her she describes learning about Pearl Harbor, her family’s forced evacuation, and her impressions of her internment camp. 6. Harry Truman Announcing the Atomic Bombing of Hiroshima (1945) On August 6, 1945, Harry Truman disclosed to the American public that the United States had detonated an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan. 7. Declaration of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1945) Vietnam, which had been colonized by the French and then by the Japanese, declared their independence from colonial rule—particularly the re-imposition of a French colonial regime—in the aftermath of Japan’s defeat in World War II. Proclaimed by Ho Chi Minh in September 1945, Vietnam’s Declaration of Independence reflected back the early promises of the Allies in World War II and even borrowed directly from the American Declaration of Independence. The Tuskegee Airmen stand at attention as Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross, one of the first graduates of the Tuskegee cadets. The Tuskegee Airmen who continued a tradition of African American military service while honorably serving a country that still considered them second-class citizens. 9. World War II Recruitment Posters (1942 & 1943) This pair of US Military recruiting posters demonstrates the way that two branches of the military—the Marines and the Women’s Army Corps—borrowed techniques from advertising professionals to “sell” a romantic vision of war to Americans. These two images take different strategies: one shows Marines at war in a lush jungle, reminding viewers that the war was taking place in exotic lands, the other depicted women taking on new jobs as a patriotic duty. Reference Material This chapter was edited by Joseph Locke, with content contributions by Mary Beth Chopas, Andrew David, Ashton Ellett, Paula Fortier, Joseph Locke, Jennifer Mandel, Valerie Martinez, Ryan Menath, Chris Thomas. Recommended citation: Mary Beth Chopas et al., “World War II,” Joseph Locke, ed., in The American Yawp, eds. Joseph Locke and Ben Wright (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2018). Recommended Reading - Adams, Michael. The Best War Ever: America and World War II. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. - Anderson, Karen. Wartime Women: Sex Roles, Family Relations, and the Status of Women During WWII. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981. - Black, Gregory D. Hollywood Goes to War: How Politics, Profit and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies. New York: Free Press, 1987. - Blum, John Morton. V Was for Victory: Politics and American Culture During World War II. New York: Marine Books, 1976. - Borgwardt, Elizabeth. A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision for Human Rights. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2005. - Daniels, Roger. Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. - Dower, John. War without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon, 1993. - Honey, Maureen. Creating Rosie the Riveter: Class, Gender, and Propaganda During World War II. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1984. - Hooks, Gregory Michael. Forging the Military-Industrial Complex: World War II’s Battle of the Potomac. Champaign: University of Illinois Press, 1991. - Kaminski, Theresa. Angels of the Underground: The American Women Who Resisted the Japanese in the Philippines in World War II. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. - Keegan, John. The Second World War. New York: Viking, 1990. - Kennedy, David. Freedom from Fear: America in Depression and War, 1929–1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. - Leonard, Kevin Allen. The Battle for Los Angeles: Racial Ideology and World War II. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2006. - Lichtenstein, Nelson. Labor’s War at Home: The CIO in World War II. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982. - Malloy, Sean L. Atomic Tragedy: Henry L. Stimson and the Decision to Use the Bomb. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008. - Meyer, Leisa D. Creating G.I. Jane: The Regulation of Sexuality and Sexual Behavior in the Women’s Army Corps During WWII. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992. - Murray, Alice Yang. Historical Memories of the Japanese American Internment and the Struggle for Redress. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2007. - O’Neill, William L. A Democracy at War: America’s Fight at Home and Abroad in World War II. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995. - Rhodes, Richard. The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988. - Russell, Jan Jarboe. The Train to Crystal City: FDR’s Secret Prisoner Exchange Program and America’s Only Family Internment Camp During World War II. New York: Scribner, 2015. - Schulman, Bruce J. From Cotton Belt to Sunbelt: Federal Policy, Economic Development, and the Transformation of the South, 1938–1980. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. - Sparrow, James T. Warfare State: World War II Americans and the Age of Big Government. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. - Spector, Ronald H. Eagle Against the Sun: The American War with Japan. New York: Random House, 1985 - Takaki, Ronald T. Double Victory: A Multicultural History of America in World War II. New York: Little, Brown, 2000. - Wynn, Neil A. The African American Experience During World War II. New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.903999	02/28/2022	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/90494/overview", "title": "Statewide Dual Credit American History II, Crisis at Home and Abroad, World War II", "author": "Anna McCollum" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview	Introduction to Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview This Summer Institutute kick off webinar and reflection in group discussion covered the following: - Connect and get to know each other - Discuss Institute Goals, Outcomes and Expectations - Open Educational Resources and Practices Overview - Explore the What and Why - Discover how Open Educational Resources and Practices can support our work Introduction to Open Educational Resources & Practices Webinar Recording: Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zMMyN6n__GZOTKfMznjDRaATEd28X6a8gCUXqfMPykpr2_Crl5BdzXjd4vIsyJOw Slides are attached Reply to group discussion: https://www.oercommons.org/groups/summer-2020-training-team/4846/discussions/1294?__hub_id=74 Summary of all known empirical research on the impacts of OER adoption in Higher Education https://openedgroup.org/review	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.930804	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66683/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, Introduction to Open Educational Resources and Practices", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview	OER Collaboration and Curation Overview The Summer Institute webinar and practice activities covered the following: 1.Share what collaboration looks like in your work 2.Explore tools and workflows for collaboration and curation –Create folders and subfolders –Save resources to folders OER Collaboration and Curation Webinar recording Link to zoom recording: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/zshKKritp3xLRIXy40LlZJwgJoS7X6a81nJL__oLyk8XpNR6V06OQ0l_ejgw94Kd Slides are attached This week's practice activities: 1. Practice: Create a folder / subfolders and save resources you can use in your work. Learn how to create group folders. - Are you interested in creating a group? Learn how to create a group. 2. Practice: Add descriptive tags and keywords to resources you curate To add a resource to one of the BranchED Hub Collections, find the the keyword below for the collection you want to add it to and tag it on the resource. \| Collection title \| Keywords \| \| Subject areas/content \| BranchED SC \| \| Teaching Methods \| BranchED Methods \| \| Social Emotional Learning \| BranchED SEL \| \| CLSP \| BranchED CLSP \| \| SPED \| BranchED SPED \| \| Assessment and Evaluation \| BranchED Assessment \| \| Foundations of Education \| BranchED Foundations \| \| Field-Based Courses \| BranchED FBC \| 3. Show & Tell: Bring a resource you created or remixed that you are proud of to share at our next meeting	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.951578	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66685/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, OER Collaboration and Curation", "author": "Megan Simmons" }
https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview	OER Quality Evaluation Overview The Summer Institute session covered the following: 1.Share what high-quality resources look like in your work 2.Explore quality evaluation tools 3.Determine your own quality evaluation criteria Webinar Recording: Link to the zoom recording here: https://iskme.zoom.us/rec/share/_v0pFZCu7XtLRNbw707tc48BFZnheaa8hyVKqKIKzRsRAQ7P0HYtwTxx24tN4Ipq?startTime=1591204997000 Slides are attached Quality Evaluation Tools: - Achieve OER Rubric https://www.achieve.org/files/AchieveOERRubrics.pdf - Open Textbook Library Review Criteria https://open.umn.edu/opentextbooks/reviews/rubric - BranchED’s Equity-Oriented Criteria https://www.oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/65060/overview - Washington’s Model for Assessing Bias in Instructional Materials https://www.k12.wa.us/sites/default/files/public/equity/pubdocs/Washington%20Models%20for%20the%20Evaluation%20of%20Bias_2009.pdf This week's practice and reflection: Discuss: Share what your resource quality evaluation criteria is in the group discussion here. Practice: Evaluate a resource in our group folders using your own quality evaluation criteria. Write your review as a comment on the resource. For example: Here is a resource that was evaluated in the comment section Fractal Cities Discuss: Revisit your OER Content Development & Training Proposal. Reflect on any modifications or additions you many need to make to your module and/or training offerings given what you have worked on in the past month. Share any changes you made and why in our group discussion here.	oercommons	2025-03-18T00:39:30.979626	05/12/2020	{ "license": "Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/", "url": "https://oercommons.org/courseware/lesson/66686/overview", "title": "ISKME & BranchED OER Institute, Train-the-Trainer Intensive, OER Quality Evaluation", "author": "Megan Simmons" }

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