wikipedia_id
stringlengths 2
8
| wikipedia_title
stringlengths 1
243
| url
stringlengths 44
370
| contents
stringlengths 53
2.22k
| id
int64 0
6.14M
|
|---|---|---|---|---|
343169
|
Dendritic spine
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dendritic%20spine
|
Dendritic spine
contacting sites between neurons. This was demonstrated more than 50 years later thanks to the emergence of electron microscopy. Until the development of confocal microscopy on living tissues, it was commonly admitted that spines were formed during embryonic development and then would remain stable after birth. In this paradigm, variations of synaptic weight were considered as sufficient to explain memory processes at the cellular level. But since about a decade ago, new techniques of confocal microscopy demonstrated that dendritic spines are indeed motile and dynamic structures that undergo a constant turnover, even after birth.
# External links.
- Spiny Dendrite - Cell Centered Database
| 8,300 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Grudziądz
Grudziądz (, or ' or "Grudentia", old-fashioned English name: Graudence"') is a city of around 95,045 inhabitants (2018) on the Vistula River in northern Poland. Situated in the Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (since 1999), the city was in the Toruń Voivodeship from 1975 to 1998.
# Geographical location.
Grudziądz is located close to the east shore of river Vistula, approximately north-east of Świecie, south of Gdańsk and south-west of Kaliningrad.
# History.
## As part of Piast Poland.
Initially Grudziądz was a defensive gród founded by Polish ruler Bolesław I the Brave.
## State of the Teutonic Knights.
The settlement was re-fortified again from 1234 by the Teutonic Order;
| 8,301 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
the erection of the castle with the help of stone as building material was begun with around the middle of the 13th century. Under the protection of the castle the settlement gradually begun to develop to a town. In 1277 both "the castle and the town" were besieged heavily by the Yotvingians. The settlement adopted Kulm law in 1291 while under the rule of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights.
The oldest building parts of the Catholic St. Nicholas' Church stem from the end of the 13th century. The Holy Spirit Church, which apparently was founded already during the 13th century, is mentioned together with the town's hospital for the first time in 1345. Also other documents reveal that in
| 8,302 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
the 14th century the town had already a well-developed infrastructure. A document of 1380, as an example, refers to the construction of an aqueduct, of a fountain and of the establishment of a town-hall cellar.
During the era of the State of the Teutonic Knights Graudenz had become a distinguished trade center, in particular for textiles and agricultural products including grain. Around 1454 Graudenz had already reached about the same level of economical development as other towns in the western part of the State of the Teutonic Order, such as Danzig ("Gdańsk"), Elbing ("Elbląg"), Thorn ("Toruń"), Marienburg ("Malbork"), Kulm ("Chełmno"), Konitz ("Chojnice"), Neumark ("Nowe Miasto Lubawskie")
| 8,303 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
and Preußisch Stargard ("Starogard Gdański").
## Kingdom of Poland.
In 1440, Graudenz joined the Prussian Confederation opposing the government of the State of the Teutonic Knights. At the beginning of the Thirteen Years' War (1454–66) the citizens forced the Teutonic Order to hand over the castle. Although in the town there existed also a strong party supporting the Knights, during the entire war both the town and the castle remained in possession of the confederation party. The confederation party formally asked the King of Poland, Casimir IV Jagiellon, to join Poland. Thus, among other towns, in the mid-15th century Grudziądz also came under the protectorate of Poland. Between 1454 and
| 8,304 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
1772 the city was part of the Polish Chełmno Voivodeship, which itself was since 1466 part of the Polish province of Royal Prussia. The Grudziądz Castle was seat of the local starostas (royal administrative officials). It was often visited by Polish kings.
After the great depression of the Thirteen Years' War, new economical growth in the town was slow before the middle of the 16th century; the progress was hampered by the religious struggle, and by the Polish–Swedish wars throughout the 17th century. At the end of 1655 the town and its castle were captured by the Swedes, who held them occupied for four years. In 1659 the Swedes had been besieged for several days and retreated. During their
| 8,305 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
departure part of the town was destroyed by fire.
In 1522 in Grudziądz, Nicolaus Copernicus, who aside from his astronomical work was also an economist, presented his treatise "Monetae cudendae ratio", in which he postulated the principle that "bad money drives out good" (also known as the Gresham's law or the Gresham–Copernicus law) and included an early version of the quantity theory of money – a key concept in economics.
Following Protestant Reformation, in 1569 the local Protestants were given access to the Holy Spirit Church; in 1572 Catholicism seemed to have vanished almost entirely in the town. In 1597 King Sigismund III Vasa gave order that the Protestants had to return all churches
| 8,306 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
taken over by them in the past to the Catholics, including all accessories. The Protestants remained in possession solely of St. George's Church until in 1618 the base of the building was washed under by river Vistula, and the church had to be torn down. For a while they utilized once more the vacant Holy Spoirit Church, until in 1624 this building together with the hospital had to be handed over to nuns of the Order of Saint Benedict for the purpose of founding an affiliated institution.
Since 1622 Jesuits from Toruń had a station in Grudziądz, which in 1640 was already so strong that it was able to form a residence in Grudziądz, despite of objections from the side of the magistrate of the
| 8,307 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
town. In 1648 construction work for building a Jesuit church was taken up. The Jesuits also founded the Jesuit College, which was the first high school in Grudziądz.
The town proper was surrounded by town walls, except on the side of river Vistula, where instead of walls there stood huge massive grain silos, from where grain could be transported through wooden pipes to the embankment of the river.
## Prussia and Germany.
Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the city was annexed by the German Kingdom of Prussia. In 1773 the town had a population of only 2,172 persons. In order to stimulate municipal trade, Frederick the Great brought in 44 colonist families. Grain trade flourished;
| 8,308 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
among the most successful grain traders was the Schönborn family. In 1776 a decision was made to build a fortess in the town. In the years 1796-1804, by decision of the King of Prussia, the Grudziądz Castle was demolished. During the Napoleonic invasion in Prussia in 1806/07, the fortress was successfully defended by General of Infantry Wilhelm René de l'Homme de Courbière against attacks by French troops.
In 1871 Graudenz became part of the unified German Empire. With the improvement of the railway network in Germany, Graudenz transiently lost its meaning as an important trading place for grain. In 1878 the railway line Goßlershausen—Graudenz was opened. After the construction of a railroad
| 8,309 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
bridge across the Vistula in 1878, in 1879 the railway line Graudenz—Laskowitz was opened in addition, and
Graudenz became a rapidly growing industrialized city. In 1883 also the railway line Thorn—Graudenz—Marienburg was taken into operation.
In 1899 a Chamber of Commerce was opened in Graudenz, and in 1900 the town became a district center. A light cruiser of the German Imperial Navy, built in 1912-1914, was named after the city. The newspaper "Der Gesellige", founded by book seller Rothe in 1826, belonged up to the end of World War I to the most widely spread newspapers of east Germany. Around the turn to the 20th century, Graudenz had become an important cultural centre in east Germany
| 8,310 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
with numerous schools, municipal archives and a museum.
The city was the site of a military prison for Polish activists - those released, who left Europe, formed the Gromada Grudziądz in Portsmouth, England, in 1835, as part of the Great Emigration movement.
Until 1920 Graudenz belonged to the administrative district of Regierungsbezirk Marienwerder in the Province of West Prussia.
### Prussian rule and Germanization in Landkreis Graudenz.
In the 18th and 19th centuries the city was part of the area affected by the Prussian Partition of Poland, where Germanisation was enforced, beginning in 1772. Frederick had nourished a particular contempt for the Polish nation and state. He brought in
| 8,311 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
German and Frisian workers and peasants there, who in his opinion were more suitable for building up his new civilization. Frederick settled around 300,000 colonists in the eastern provinces of Prussia. Using state funds for colonization, German craftsmen were placed in all local Polish cities. A second colonization wave of ethnic Germans was pursued by Prussia after 1832. Laws were passed aimed at Germanisation of the Polish inhabited areas and 154,000 colonists were settled by the Prussian Settlement Commission before World War I.
Professor Martin Kitchen writes that in areas where the Polish population lived alongside Germans a virtual apartheid existed, with bans on the Polish language
| 8,312 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
and religious discrimination, besides attempts to colonize the areas with Germans.
In 1890 only about 200 Poles lived in the town of Graudenz, but approximately 16,850 Poles in the rural district of Landkreis Graudenz (as compared to about 26,000 Germans in Landkreis Graudenz).
To resist Germanisation, Polish activists started to publish the newspaper "Gazeta Grudziądzka" in 1894. It advocated the social and economical emancipation of rural society and opposed Germanization – publishing articles critical of Germany. The German attempts to repress its editor Wiktor Kulerski only helped to increase its circulation. From 1898 to 1901, a secret society of Polish students seeking to restore Polish
| 8,313 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
independence operated in the city, but the activists were tried by German courts in 1901, frustrating their efforts.
In Graudenz, German soldiers were stationed in the local fortress as part of the Germanization measures, and the authorities placed soldiers with the most chauvinistic attitude towards the Poles there. The German government brought in more stationed military, merchants and state officials to influence population figures. In the 1910 census 84% of the population of the town and 58% of the county was recorded as German.
Census figures published by the German Empire have been criticised as unreliable. Historians believe they have a high degree of falsification; formal pressure
| 8,314 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
on census takers (predominantly school-teachers) was possible, and a new bilingual category was created to further complicate the results, as bilingual people(that is those who could speak both German and Polish) were classified as Germans. Some analysts have asserted that all people registering as bilingual were classified as Germans. The Polish population in this heavily Germanised city has been officially estimated at around 12-15% during this period.
The Polish population numbers rose steadily before the First World War. In the German election of 1912, the National Liberal Party of Germany received 53% of all votes, whilst Polish candidates won 23% of votes. In 1912, Wiktor Kulerski founded
| 8,315 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
the Polish Catholic Peasant Party in the city, which aimed at protecting the local Polish population
In 1913, the "Polish Gazeta Grudziądzka" reached a circulation of 128,000, making it the third largest Polish newspaper in the world.
## Interwar Poland.
When on January 23, 1920, the regulations of the Treaty of Versailles became effective, and the Polish Corridor was arranged in a newly reborn Polish state (Second Polish Republic), Graudenz was incorporated under its Polish name Grudziądz into the new Second Polish Republic, although a majority of inhabitants of Grudziądz were German. At that time Józef Włodek, the newly appointed Polish mayor, described his impression of the town as "modern
| 8,316 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
but unfortunately completely German"
Between 1926 and 1934 the number of Germans (34,194 in 1910) rose from 3,542 to 3,875. Some Polish authors emphasize a wider emigration pattern motivated chiefly by economic conditions and the unwillingness of the German minority to live in the Polish state.
The German author Christian Raitz von Frentz writes that after the First World War ended, the Polish government tried to reverse the systematic Germanization of the past decades
Prejudices, stereotypes and conflicts dating back to German harsh rule and discrimination of Poles influenced Polish policies towards minorities in the new independent Polish state.
The Polish authorities, supported by the
| 8,317 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
public (e.g. the “explicitly anti-German” Związek Obrony Kresów Zachodnich), initiated a number of measures to further Polonization. The local press was also hostile towards the Germans.
Fearful of a re-Germanization of the city, the Polish paper "Słowo Pomorskie" (23.19.1923) criticized the authorities of Grudziądz for tolerating the local German amateur theatre "Deutsche Bühne". The theatre was funded by money from Berlin Created before the war, its actors were mostly German officers stationed with the local garrison
The mayor responded by pointing out that the theatre was being monitored because of suspected “anti-state activities”. According to Kotowski, this episode indicates that even
| 8,318 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
the most minor activities of the German minority were closely scrutinized by the Polish authorities beginning with the earliest phase of Polish policy towards the German minority.
The German theatre was re-opened by the Nazis in 1943, while the last director of the Polish theatre in the city in the years 1922-24 was murdered by them
In the 20 years between the world wars, Grudziądz served as an important centre of culture and education with one of the biggest Polish military garrisons and several military schools located both in and around the city. A large economic potential and the existence of important institutions like the Pomeranian Tax Office and the Pomeranian Chamber of Industry and
| 8,319 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Trade, helped Grudziądz become the economic capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship in the interwar period. Grudziądz's economic potential was featured at the First Pomeranian Exhibition of Agriculture and Industry in 1925, officially opened by Stanisław Wojciechowski, President of the Second Polish Republic.
The 64th and 65th Infantry Regiments and the 16th Light Artillery Regiment of the Polish Army were stationed in Grudziądz during the 19 years of the inter-war period. They were part of the 16th Infantry Division, which had its headquarters in the city, as did the cavalry's famous 18th Pomeranian Uhlan Regiment. The Grudziądz Centre of Cavalry Training educated many notable army commanders.
| 8,320 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Military education in Grudziądz was also provided by the Centre of the Gendarmerie, the Air School of Shooting and Bombarding, and the N.C.O. Professional School, which offered courses for infantry reserve officer cadets.
In 1920 a German-language school was founded. In 1931 the Polish government decreed a reduction in the number of German classes in the school and requested lists of Catholic children and those pupils with Polish-sounding names which they viewed as victims of Germanization, from the German school. Although the list was not prepared, some of the children were transferred, which led to a school-strike. The German school followed ideas and customs as those in Nazi Reich. It was
| 8,321 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
headed by a Nazi sympathiser Hilgendorf who praised Nazi ideology
The Polish authorities were alarmed when a notebook of one female student was discovered by them, which contained the Nazi party anthem, the Horst Wessel Lied and revisionistic text. The discovery caused outrage and calls to dismiss Hilgendorf due to his irredentist beliefs In November 1933 two German craftsmen were killed by a Polish mob during a local election campaign.
## World War II.
On 3 September 1939 units from the Wehrmacht entered the town after the Battle of Grudziądz and occupied it. From 26 October 1939 to 1945 Graudenz was part of the administrative district of Regierungsbezirk Marienwerder in the new province
| 8,322 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia.
### Nazi atrocities.
Graudenz was the location of the German concentration camp Graudenz, a subcamp of Stutthof concentration camp.
In early September, 25 Polish citizens were detained as hostages - priests, teachers and other members that enjoyed the respect of local society. They were threatened with execution if any harm came to the Ethnic Germans from the city who were detained and held by the Polish authorities during the invasion of Poland. After their initial release on the return of the members of the German minority, they were re-arrested and most of them were shot.
On 9 September a further 85 people were imprisoned by the Germans.
The German authorities
| 8,323 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
destroyed the city's monuments to Polish independence, and banned Polish priests from speaking Polish during church masses
On 4 September the Einsatzgruppe V demanded a list of names of all members of the 600-strong Jewish community within 14 hours, as well as a list of all their possessions. They were also fined 20,000 zlotych
On 6 September the whole city was covered with posters demanding that Jews and "mixed races" of category I and IInd degree (so-called "Mischlinge", i.e. persons of mixed race) gather at the headquarters of the Einsatzgruppe V (established in the local school). Around 100 people responded to the demand and were immediately arrested and robbed. After this they were transported
| 8,324 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
to an unknown destination and disappeared - it is believed that they were most likely executed by the Germans in the Mniszek-Grupa forests.
On 19 October Graudenz was visited by the NSDAP Gauleiter (regional chief) Albert Forster. In a public speech to the "Volksdeutsche", he declared that the area was to become "one hundred percent" German, and that Poles "have nothing to do here, and should be evicted"
#### Selbstschutz participation in mass murder.
Alongside the military and "Einsatzgruppen" administration, the first structures of "Selbstschutz" were established - a paramilitary formation of members of the German minority in the region. The head of "Selbstschutz" in Graudenz was Doctor
| 8,325 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Joachim Gramse.
In October 1939, "Selbstschutz" created an internment camp for Poles seeking to restore Polish independence, whose commandant was a local German Kurt Gotze.
Teachers, officials, social workers, doctors, merchants, members of patriotic organisations, lawyers, policemen, farmers and 150 Polish priests were held in this camp. It is estimated that around 4,000 to 5,000 people went through it. Other arrested Poles were held in the cellars of Graudenz Fortress. The local Germans who ran the camp established their own "court" which decided the fate of the prisoners. The "court" comprised: Kurt Gotze, Helmut Domke, Horst Kriedte, Hans Abromeit (owner of a drugstore), Paul Neuman (barber).
| 8,326 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Based on their decisions, some of the prisoners were sent to concentration camps, 300 were murdered "en masse"; only a few were released. Those sentenced to death were mostly executed through shooting by the "Selbstschutz" in Księże Góry near Graudenz; in October and November 1939 several hundred people were murdered there and their bodies buried in five mass graves. The victims were usually shot at the edges of already dug out graves
Further executions were carried out in desolate areas of Graudenz: on 11 November 1939 near Graudenz Fortress, the "Selbstschutz" executed ten Polish teachers, four Polish priests and four women. Additionally, 37 people were murdered in Graudenz city park. On
| 8,327 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
29 October 1939 a unit of "Selbstschutz" mass-murdered ten Polish hostages as revenge for posters that had appeared in the city calling for resistance against Nazi rule.
### At the end of World War II.
As the result of heavy fighting in 1945, over 60% of the city was destroyed. Soviet Major Lev Kopelev participated in those battles and covered the final surrender of the German garrison in his book "To Be Preserved Forever". He describes the joint psychological warfare in March 1945 by the Red Army and members of the NKFD. As the war ended, the German population of the city fled or was expelled to Germany. The city became home to Poles who had emigrated from Polish areas annexed by the Soviet
| 8,328 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Union east of the Curzon line, where they had been asked by the Soviet authorities to either accept incorporation into the U.S.S.R. or to leave what had been their former homeland.
# Notable residents.
- Piotr of Grudziądz (ca. 1400-ca. 1480), composer
- Johann Stobäus (1580–1646), composer
- Alfred Wohl (1863–1946), German chemist
- Max Winkler (1875–1961) was Mayor of Graudenz
- Ernst Hardt (1876–1947), writer
- Georg Jalkowski (1852–1902) Polish publisher
- Waldemar Kophamel (1880–1934), U-Boat commander
- Leo White (1882–1948), stage performer
- Alfons Hoffmann(1895–1963), Polish engineer
- Bolesław Orliński (1899–1992), Polish aviator and test pilot
- Kurt Weyher (1901–1991),
| 8,329 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
Admiral
- Antoni Czortek (1915–2003), Polish boxing champion
- Henryk Sawistowski (1925–1984), dean of City and Guilds College of London Institute
- Waldemar Baszanowski (1935–2011), Olympic champion weightlifter
- Stefania Toczyska (born 1943), mezzo-soprano singer
- Bronisław Malinowski (1951–1981), Olympic Champion in the 3000m steeplechase race, 1980 Summer Olympics
- Krzysztof Buczkowski (born 1986), motorcycle speedway rider
# Education.
- Nicolaus Copernicus University
- Grudziądzka Szkoła Wyższa
# Sport.
Grudziądz has two professional sports teams. The largest following has the popular speedway team GKM Grudziądz, whereas the local football team Olimpia Grudziądz has a slightly
| 8,330 |
74636
|
Grudziądz
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grudziądz
|
Grudziądz
prano singer
- Bronisław Malinowski (1951–1981), Olympic Champion in the 3000m steeplechase race, 1980 Summer Olympics
- Krzysztof Buczkowski (born 1986), motorcycle speedway rider
# Education.
- Nicolaus Copernicus University
- Grudziądzka Szkoła Wyższa
# Sport.
Grudziądz has two professional sports teams. The largest following has the popular speedway team GKM Grudziądz, whereas the local football team Olimpia Grudziądz has a slightly more modest following, playing in the second tier of Polish football.
# Twin towns – sister cities.
Grudziądz is twinned with:
- Chernyakhovsk (Russia)
- Falun (Sweden)
- Gütersloh (Germany)
- Nanning (China)
# External links.
- History website
| 8,331 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
James Rolph
James "Sunny Jim" Rolph Jr. (August 23, 1869 – June 2, 1934) was an American politician and a member of the Republican Party. He was elected to a single term as the 27th governor of California from January 6, 1931 until his death on June 2, 1934 at the height of the Great Depression. Previously, Rolph had been the 30th mayor of San Francisco from January 8, 1912 until his resignation to become governor. Rolph remains the longest-serving mayor in San Francisco history.
# Biography.
Rolph was born in San Francisco. He had four brothers and two sisters. After attending school in the Mission District, he went to work as an office boy in a commission house. He married Annie Marshall
| 8,332 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
Reid (1872–1956) and had at least one son: James Rolph, III (1904-1980).
Rolph entered the shipping business in 1900, by forming a partnership with George Hind. He would over the next decade serve as president of two banks, one of which he helped establish. Although he was asked to run for mayor in 1909, he chose to wait until 1911 to run for mayor—a position that he would hold for nineteen years. As mayor, he was known as "Sunny Jim" and his theme song was "There Are Smiles That Make You Happy". In 1915 he appeared as himself in an early documentary film titled "Mabel and Fatty Viewing the World's Fair at San Francisco", which was directed by and starred Fatty Arbuckle. In 1924, Rolph appeared
| 8,333 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
as himself in a Slim Summerville comedy short film, "Hello, Frisco."
Rolph knew of the power in San Francisco of the Roman Catholic Church. Italians, Irish, French and Germans made up the majority of the population of the City. He established a deep friendship with Archbishop Edward Joseph Hanna. In turn, Hanna would support Rolph in his 1930 election as governor of California.
In addition to his mayoral duties and overseeing his shipping interests, he directed the Ship Owners and Merchants Tugboat Company and the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce. He also was vice-president of the Panama-Pacific International Exposition and president of the Merchants' Exchange. He resigned in 1931 to assume
| 8,334 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
the office of governor of California.
Rolph received considerable criticism for publicly praising the citizens of San Jose following the November 1933 lynching of the confessed kidnapper-murderers of Brooke Hart, a local department store heir, while promising to pardon anyone involved, thereby earning the nickname, "Governor Lynch." Four days before the lynching he had announced he would not call on the National Guard to prevent the lynching, which was already being discussed locally.
After violence erupted during the San Joaquin cotton strike in October 1933, Governor Rolph appointed a fact-finding committee to investigate the deaths of several strikers. When the committee met in Visalia
| 8,335 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
on October 19, 1933, Caroline Decker, a labor activist who had taken part in other California agricultural actions, took testimony from the strikers who testified about the growers' assaults on striking workers.
# Death.
After suffering several heart attacks, he died in Santa Clara County on June 2, 1934, aged 64, three years into his term. Rolph was the second governor to die in office, the first being Washington Bartlett in 1887, who, like Rolph, had also been elected while mayor of San Francisco but died during his only gubernatorial term. He is buried at Greenlawn Memorial Park in Colma, California. He was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Frank Merriam in the Governor's Office.
# Legacy.
One
| 8,336 |
343177
|
James Rolph
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James%20Rolph
|
James Rolph
County on June 2, 1934, aged 64, three years into his term. Rolph was the second governor to die in office, the first being Washington Bartlett in 1887, who, like Rolph, had also been elected while mayor of San Francisco but died during his only gubernatorial term. He is buried at Greenlawn Memorial Park in Colma, California. He was succeeded by Lieutenant Governor Frank Merriam in the Governor's Office.
# Legacy.
One of the unofficial names of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge is the James "Sunny Jim" Rolph Bridge.
# External links.
- Biography from the State of California
- James Rolph, Jr. at The Political Graveyard
- Biography from the Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco
| 8,337 |
343176
|
Fred Karno
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred%20Karno
|
Fred Karno
Fred Karno
Frederick John Westcott (26 March 1866 – 18 September 1941), best known by his stage name Fred Karno, was an English theatre impresario of the British music hall. As a comedian of slapstick he is credited with popularizing the custard-pie-in-the-face gag. During the 1890s, in order to circumvent stage censorship, Karno developed a form of sketch comedy without dialogue.
Cheeky authority-defying playlets such as "Jail Mum" (1896) in which prisoners play tricks on warders and "Early Birds" (1903), where a small man defeats a large ruffian in London's East End, can be seen as precursors of movie silent comedy. Film producer Hal Roach stated: "Fred Karno is not only a genius, he is the
| 8,338 |
343176
|
Fred Karno
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred%20Karno
|
Fred Karno
man who originated slapstick comedy. We in Hollywood owe much to him."
Among the music hall comedians who worked for him were Charlie Chaplin and his understudy, Arthur Jefferson, who later adopted the name of Stan Laurel. These were part of what was known as "Fred Karno's Army", a phrase still occasionally used in the UK to refer to a chaotic group or organisation. The phrase was also adapted by British soldiers into a trench song in the First World War, as a parody of, or rather to the tune of, the hymn "The Church's One Foundation". In the Second World War it was adapted as the Anthem of the Guinea Pig Club, the first line becoming "We are McIndoe's Army ...".
# Biography.
Karno was born
| 8,339 |
343176
|
Fred Karno
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred%20Karno
|
Fred Karno
in Exeter, Devon, England, in 1866. He worked as a cabinet maker with a workshop in Waterbeer Street. He married Edith and in 1896 his son, Fred Karno Jr. was born. In 1904 he visited Tagg's Island on London's River Thames and in 1912 he bought the island and the existing hotel. He demolished the original hotel and hired architect Frank Matcham to build The Karsino. With the advent of cinema, the music hall's popularity declined. As a result of this decline, Karno went bankrupt in 1925.
On 24 May 1927 his wife Edith, from whom he had been separated since 1904, died in her sleep of diabetes. Three weeks later, Karno married his second wife, his long-time partner, Marie Moore. Karno went to the
| 8,340 |
343176
|
Fred Karno
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred%20Karno
|
Fred Karno
US in 1929, and was hired by the Hal Roach Studios as a writer-director, and was reunited with one of his former protégés, Stan Laurel. However, his stay at the studio was brief and unsuccessful as Hal Roach found out Karno's main abilities were as a producer, and he departed in February 1930. On his return to Britain, Karno helped to write and produce several short films and in 1936 returned to the theatre with a show called "Real Life".
Karno spent his last years in southwest England in the village of Lilliput, Dorset, as a part-owner of an off-licence bought with financial help from Charlie Chaplin, and died there in 1941 from diabetes, aged 75.
# Legacy.
His houseboat, the "Astoria",
| 8,341 |
343176
|
Fred Karno
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fred%20Karno
|
Fred Karno
om Charlie Chaplin, and died there in 1941 from diabetes, aged 75.
# Legacy.
His houseboat, the "Astoria", on the River Thames at Hampton, Middlesex, is now used as a recording studio by Pink Floyd's David Gilmour.
On 30 September 2012, the Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America unveiled a commemorative blue plaque to Karno at his former studios at 38 Southwell Road, Camberwell, in south London.
# Further reading.
- (Subscription required.)
- (Available through The Times archive. Subscription required.)
# External links.
- Fred Karno, Tagg's Island and the Astoria
- The Charlie Hall Picture Archive
- Fred Karno biography
- Fred Karno at the Music Hall Guild of Great Britain
| 8,342 |
343179
|
Culm (botany)
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Culm%20(botany)
|
Culm (botany)
Culm (botany)
A culm [Sometimes spelled as Curlm] is the aerial (above-ground) stem of a grass or sedge. It is derived from , the Latin word for "stalk", and it originally referred to the stem of any type of plant.
# Malting.
In the production of malted grains the culms refer to the rootlets of the germinated grains. The culms are normally removed in a process known as "deculming" after kilning when producing barley malt, but form an important part of the product when making sorghum or millet malt. These culms are very nutritious and are sold off as animal feed.
| 8,343 |
343180
|
M27
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27
|
M27
M27
M27, M.27 or M-27 may refer to:
# In science.
- Messier 27, a planetary nebula also called the Dumbbell Nebula
# In firearms and military equipment.
- M27 Mosin–Nagant, a Finnish rifle
- M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle, a squad automatic weapon developed for the U.S. Marine Corps
- M27 link, a disintegrating 5.56×45mm NATO bullet link used in belt fed firearms
- M.27 (mountain gun), a Norwegian mountain gun used in World War II
- M27 tank, a rejected US World War II medium tank design
# In transportation.
- M27 motorway (England), a road connecting Cadnam and Portsmouth in Hampshire
- M27 highway (Russia), a road connecting Novorossiysk and the border with Georgia
- M-27 (Michigan
| 8,344 |
343180
|
M27
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27
|
M27
gant, a Finnish rifle
- M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle, a squad automatic weapon developed for the U.S. Marine Corps
- M27 link, a disintegrating 5.56×45mm NATO bullet link used in belt fed firearms
- M.27 (mountain gun), a Norwegian mountain gun used in World War II
- M27 tank, a rejected US World War II medium tank design
# In transportation.
- M27 motorway (England), a road connecting Cadnam and Portsmouth in Hampshire
- M27 highway (Russia), a road connecting Novorossiysk and the border with Georgia
- M-27 (Michigan highway), a road connecting I-75 near Indian River and US 23 and C-66 in Cheboygan
- Manitoba Highway 27, a road connecting PTH 8 (McPhillips Rd.) and PTH 9 (Main St.)
| 8,345 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
M27 motorway
The M27 is a motorway in Hampshire, England. It is long and runs between Cadnam and Portsmouth. It was opened in stages between 1975 and 1983. It is unfinished, as an extension to the east was planned. A number of smaller motorways were proposed, connecting the city centres of Southampton and Portsmouth to the motorway; of these only the M271 and M275 were built. Three sections of the M27 have since been widened to four lanes each way, the first between Junctions 7 and 8, the second between Junctions 3 and 4, and the third begins at the slip road where Junction 11 joins until mid-way to junction 12.
# Route.
Running approximately parallel both to the coast of the Solent and to
| 8,346 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
the A27, the M27 starts as an eastwards continuation of the A31 from Bournemouth and Poole, meets the A36 from Salisbury, crosses the Wessex Main Line railway, and then meets the M271 to central Southampton. After the M271, the road becomes a dual four lane motorway and passes Rownhams services, it then meets the M3, (two lanes going off, two lanes continuing to the other side of the junction) reverting to a dual three lane motorway as it passes to the north of Southampton, passes Southampton Airport, meeting Junction 7 and becoming dual four lanes again, then becoming dual three lanes after Junction 8, it then runs alongside the West Coastway Line as it heads south-east towards Fareham. It
| 8,347 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
then runs alongside the northern outskirts of Fareham, briefly with a fourth climbing lane in either direction, before its junction with the M275 to Portsmouth. Very shortly after this point the motorway ends, becoming the A27, a four lane dual carriageway almost to motorway standards until the junction with the A3 (M) Motorway. The official reason for this section of road not being a continuation of the motorway is the hard shoulders being too narrow. Although the M275 which the M27 junctions with, has no official hard shoulders throughout its entire length.
# History.
## Opening dates.
The M27 was opened in stages (in common with many UK motorways) between 1975 and 1983.
- Junction 1 to
| 8,348 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
2 opened 20 August 1975
- Junction 2 to 4 opened in December 1975
- Junction 4 to 7 opened in 1983
- Junction 7 to 8 opened in February 1978
- Junction 8 to 12 opened in March 1976
The South Stoneham Crematorium, which was located north of South Stoneham Cemetery, was demolished during 1973 to make way for the construction of the M27 motorway. The South Stoneham garden of remembrance is now located at the north end of the cemetery, adjacent to the motorway.
## Unfulfilled plans.
It has been said that the M27 was intended as a motorway connecting south coast towns from Penzance to Ramsgate. However the only proposal of a route similar to that was by the Institution of Highway Engineers
| 8,349 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
in 1936.
Road developments in the New Forest are also restricted due to its national park status.
The M27 was meant to be extended to Chichester; a sign of this is the width of the A27 road between Junction 12 and the junction with the A3(M), which has 3-or-4 lanes, a hard shoulder and grade-separated junctions. It is not part of the M27 as its hard shoulders are not quite wide enough to comply with motorway regulations.
The M272 was meant to go from Junction 5 through Portswood to the centre of Southampton. The M272 was instead built (in much-reduced form) as the A335 Thomas Lewis Way.
Junction 6 was never built – there were plans for a motorway spur (probably to be numbered M273) connecting
| 8,350 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
the M27 to the centre of the Townhill Park area of Southampton.
A planned service area just east of Junction 9 was never constructed. The long westbound exit slip road at Junction 9 was designed to allow an entry to and exit from the service area.
## 2015 suicide incident.
In November 2015, an elderly woman, Marion Munns, died after jumping from the A3057 bridge that crosses over the M27, into westbound traffic, just before Junction 3. She had become distressed due to mental illness, and escaped from her Southampton home through an upstairs window before climbing off the garage roof and running away.
## Smart Motorway Upgrade.
In March 2018, work began to upgrade the section between Junction
| 8,351 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
11 and Junction 4 to a Smart motorway. The scheme will turn the hard shoulder into a permanent 4th running lane, adding refuge areas along the route and installing new CCTV and speed cameras with mandatory variable speed limit signs.
In early January 2019, official work began when average speed cameras were switched on between J5 and J4. Average cameras further along on the scheme will be turned on as work continues along the route. The work is expected to be complete by 2021.
# Junctions.
Data from driver location signs are used to provide distance and carriageway identifier information. Where a junction spans several hundred metres (yards) and start and end points are available, both are
| 8,352 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
cited.
!scope=col|miles
!scope=col|km
!scope=col abbr="Westbound"|Westbound exits (B carriageway)
!scope=col|Junction
!scope=col abbr="Eastbound"|Eastbound exits (A carriageway)
!scope=col|Coordinates
- Distances in kilometres and carriageway identifiers are obtained from driver location signs/location marker posts. Where a junction spans several hundred metres (yards) and the data is available, both the start and finish values for the junction are shown.
- Coordinate data from ACME Mapper.
# Nearby attractions.
Junction 1 is about ( by road) from The Rufus Stone, where King William II, also known as William Rufus, was killed in what may have been a hunting accident in 1100.
# See
| 8,353 |
343178
|
M27 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M27%20motorway
|
M27 motorway
xits (A carriageway)
!scope=col|Coordinates
- Distances in kilometres and carriageway identifiers are obtained from driver location signs/location marker posts. Where a junction spans several hundred metres (yards) and the data is available, both the start and finish values for the junction are shown.
- Coordinate data from ACME Mapper.
# Nearby attractions.
Junction 1 is about ( by road) from The Rufus Stone, where King William II, also known as William Rufus, was killed in what may have been a hunting accident in 1100.
# See also.
- List of motorways in the United Kingdom
# External links.
- CBRD Motorway Database – M27
- The Motorway Archive – M27
- TAB-MSAS: Photo Gallery: M27
| 8,354 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
Pete Wilson
Peter Barton Wilson (born August 23, 1933) is an American attorney and politician. A Republican, he served as a United States Senator and the 36th Governor of California.
Born in Lake Forest, Illinois, Wilson graduated from the UC Berkeley School of Law after serving in the United States Marine Corps. He established a legal practice in San Diego and campaigned for Republicans such as Richard Nixon and Barry Goldwater. Wilson won election to the California State Assembly in 1966 and became the Mayor of San Diego in 1971. He held that office until 1983, when he became a member of the United States Senate.
In the Senate, Wilson supported the Strategic Defense Initiative and the Civil
| 8,355 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
Liberties Act of 1988, while he opposed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990. He resigned from the Senate after winning the 1990 California gubernatorial election. As governor, he signed a three-strikes law and supported energy deregulation and term limits. He was also an advocate for California Proposition 187, which established a state-run citizenship screening system with the intention of preventing illegal immigrants from using social services. He sought the presidential nomination in the 1996 Republican primaries but quickly dropped out of the race.
Wilson retired from public office after serving two terms as governor. Since leaving office, he has worked for several businesses
| 8,356 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
and has been affiliated with several other organizations. He is a distinguished visiting fellow at the conservative Hoover Institution. Wilson also co-chaired Arnold Schwarzenegger's successful 2003 gubernatorial campaign.
# Early life.
Peter Barton Wilson was born on August 23, 1933, in Lake Forest, Illinois, a suburb north of Chicago. His parents were James Boone Wilson and Margaret (Callaghan) Wilson. His father sold college fraternity jewelry to work his way through University of Illinois, and later became a successful advertising executive. The Wilson family settled in St. Louis, Missouri when Pete was in elementary school. He then attended the private, non-sectarian preparatory middle
| 8,357 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
school John Burroughs (grades 7–9) in Ladue, and then St. Louis Country Day School, an exclusive private high school, where he won an award in his senior year for combined scholarship, athletics, and citizenship. In the fall of 1951, Pete Wilson enrolled at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, where he received a United States Navy Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) scholarship, majored in English, and earned his Bachelor of Arts degree. In his junior year he elected to join the Marine Corps upon his graduation.
After graduating from Yale, Wilson served for three years in the United States Marine Corps as an infantry officer, eventually becoming a platoon leader. Upon completion
| 8,358 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
of his Marine Corps service, Wilson earned a Juris Doctor degree from the University of California, Berkeley School of Law.
In 1962, while working as an Advance Man for the Republican gubernatorial candidate Richard M. Nixon, Wilson got to know Herb Klein, one of Nixon's top aides. Klein suggested that Wilson might do well in Southern California politics, so in 1963, Wilson moved to San Diego.
After passing the bar exam, Wilson began his practice as a criminal defense attorney in San Diego, but he found such work to be low-paying and personally repugnant. He later commented to the "Los Angeles Times", "I realized I couldn't be a criminal defense lawyer – because most of the people who do come
| 8,359 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
to you are guilty." Wilson switched to a more conventional law practice and continued his activity in local politics, working for Barry Goldwater's unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1964. Wilson's liking for politics and managing the day-to-day details of the political process was growing. He put in long hours for the Goldwater campaign, earning the friendship of local Republican boosters so necessary for a political career, and in 1966, at the age of thirty-three, he ran for, and won a seat in the California State Assembly, succeeding Clair Burgener.
Wilson was re-elected to the Assembly in 1968 and 1970, and in 1971 was elected mayor of San Diego.
# Mayor of San Diego.
Wilson served
| 8,360 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
three terms as Mayor of San Diego, from 1971 to 1983, winning election by a 2:1 margin each time. During his three terms he restructured San Diego City Council, reorganized the planning and civil service commissions, instituted campaign finance reform, and promoted the redevelopment of Downtown San Diego. He also helped to keep Major League Baseball's Padres in San Diego, helping to persuade local millionaire Ray Kroc to buy the team.
The 1972 Republican National Convention had been scheduled to take place in San Diego in August 1972. However, in May 1972 the Republican National Committee voted to move the convention to Miami because of a scandal involving a donation to the event by ITT Corporation,
| 8,361 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
as well as concerns about the proposed venue (the San Diego Sports Arena) and the adequacy of hotel space. Wilson proclaimed the week of the convention to be America's Finest City Week, which became an annual event and gave rise to San Diego's unofficial nickname.
In 1972, Wilson recruited Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. to head the Model Cities Program in San Diego. In 1981, US President Ronald Reagan appointed Pendleton to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights, a position that he held from 1981 until his death in San Diego in 1988.
# United States Senator.
In 1982, Wilson won the Republican primary in California to replace the retiring U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa. Wilson's Democratic
| 8,362 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
opponent was the outgoing two-term Governor Jerry Brown. Wilson was known as a fiscal conservative who supported Proposition 13, although Wilson had opposed the measure while mayor of San Diego. However, Brown ran on his gubernatorial record of building the largest state budget surpluses in California history. Both Wilson and Brown were moderate-to-liberal on social issues, including support for abortion rights. The election was expected to be close, with Brown holding a slim lead in most of the polls leading up to Election Day. Wilson hammered away at Brown's appointment of California Chief Justice Rose Bird, using this to portray himself as tougher on crime than Brown was. Brown's late entry
| 8,363 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
into the 1980 Democratic presidential primary, after promising not to run, was also an issue. President Ronald Reagan made a number of visits to California late in the race to campaign for Wilson. Reagan quipped that the last thing he wanted to see was both of his home state's U.S. Senate seats falling into Democrats' hands, especially to be occupied by the man who succeeded him as Governor. Despite exit polls indicating a narrow Brown victory, Wilson edged him out to win the election. A major contributing factor may also have been a late influx of the Armenian vote in the California Governor's race between George Deukmejian and Tom Bradley. Many of these votes came from heavily Republican areas.
| 8,364 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
The Deukmejian voters likely also voted for Wilson for United States Senator.
On October 19, 1983, Wilson voted in favor of a bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day. The legislation was signed into law by President Reagan the following month.
In June 1984, Wilson voted in favor of legislation restricting federal highway funds for states that did not raise the minimum age for drinking to 21.
In May 1985, Wilson underwent surgery for a ruptured appendix at Bethesda Naval Hospital, concurrently as fellow Republican Senator Bob Dole hoped to gather enough votes for the Reagan administration's 1986 budget. The surgery was expected to keep Wilson hospitalized for days, but Wilson returned
| 8,365 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
to Capitol Hill via an ambulance to cast a vote in favor of the budget on May 10. After voting, Wilson stated he made the decision to forgo further bed rest as he believed the vote was possibly the most important of his career.
Convinced by Japanese-American farmers in Central Valley to support redress, Wilson co-sponsored the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. The bill was signed into law by President Reagan.
As a member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, he called for early implementation of President Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative, a national ballistic missile defense system.
Wilson also co-sponsored the Federal Intergovernmental Regulatory Relief Act requiring the federal government
| 8,366 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
to reimburse states for the cost of new federal mandates. A fiscal conservative, he was named the Senate's "Watchdog of the Treasury" for each of his eight years in the nation's capital.
In 1988, Wilson won the race for the United States Senate against his Democratic opponent, Leo T. McCarthy. On January 20, 1989, he presided over the inauguration of George H. W. Bush as President of the United States. He voted against Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, Bush's tax increase, thus remaining a fiscal conservative.
In the weeks following incumbent Governor of California George Deukmejian announcing that he was not running for a third term, Wilson considered a gubernatorial bid; by late
| 8,367 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
January 1989, Wilson admitted to the decision being agonizing for him amid his consulting with others on a possible run. At the beginning of his second six-year term in the Senate, Wilson announced plans to run for Governor of California. In 1990, he resigned from the Senate after winning the California gubernatorial election.
On October 2, 1990, Wilson, away from Washington to campaign for California governor, became the only sitting senator from either party to not vote on the nomination of David Souter for Associate Justice on the United States Supreme Court. He had previously endorsed Souter for confirmation.
# Governor of California.
Pete Wilson was elected Governor of California to
| 8,368 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
succeed outgoing two-term Republican governor George Deukmejian, who chose not to seek a third term in 1990, defeating former San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein, who would go on to be elected to Wilson's former U.S. Senate seat two years later. Wilson was sworn in as governor on January 7, 1991.
As governor, Wilson's oversaw economic recovery in California, just as the rest of the country was recovering from an economic slump. Inheriting the state's worst economy since the Great Depression, Wilson insisted on strict budget discipline and sought to rehabilitate the state's environment for investment and new job creation. During his term, market-based, unsubsidized health coverage was made
| 8,369 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
available for employees of small businesses.
Despite his belief in fiscal conservatism, Wilson raised the sales tax to reduce the state deficit, including imposing a sales tax on newspapers (which did not have one up to then) and "snack" foods. He also raised car license fees and college tuition; by 1991, tuition fees at the University of California rose by 40%, while they rose by 24% at California State University. Additionally, he raised the income tax in the top bracket temporarily. However, by 1993, the snack tax was repealed by the Democratic state legislature and the sales tax increase expired. On April 26, 1991, Wilson proposed an increase in sales tax by 1 1/4 cents and state taxes
| 8,370 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
by 6.7 billion as part of plan to reduce the state's budget deficit. The revenue gap had increased by 5 billion in the four months of his governorship. In response to the April 1991 proposal, the "Los Angeles Times" wrote of Wilson,
In July, the Senate voted 28 to 9 in favor of a bipartisan tax plan that would have increased taxes on the wealthiest Californians, boosted the corporate tax rate, and imposed a tax increase on telecommunication serves by two percent. Wilson returned the budget bill to the legislature without his signature, revoking a prior commitment to vetoing the measure.
On July 12, 1991, Wilson signed a bill mandating that parents neglecting paying for child support could
| 8,371 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
warrant stiff fines and potential suspensions of business and professional licenses. The legislation was intended to address a rising cause of poverty among children and women in the state at a time when unpaid child support in California totaled to 2 billion annually.
On July 24, 1991, Wilson signed a bill requiring mass transit rail lines to be built underground in the event construction take place in the residential neighborhoods of North Hollywood and Van Nuys. The bill, requested by the residents of those neighborhoods, was aimed at easing "homeowners' fear of noise from ground-level trains running along a proposed rail route that parallels Chandler and Victory boulevards."
Less than
| 8,372 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
a year into his first term as governor, Wilson vetoed AB 101, a bill written to prohibit employment discrimination based on sexual orientation in the state. Wilson feared that the bill would increase lawsuits and make California less competitive economically. The veto was met with protests that included demonstrations during Wilson's subsequent public appearances and speeches.
Wilson was the driving force behind the 1996 legislation that deregulated the state's energy market, which was the first energy utilities deregulation in the U.S. and aggressively pushed by companies such as Enron.
Wilson also enacted education reforms aimed at creating statewide curriculum standards, reducing class
| 8,373 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
size and replacing social promotion with early remedial education. Wilson promoted standardized testing of all students, increased teacher training, and a longer school year. However, it was Wilson's uncompromising stance on reducing education spending that led to the budget impasse of 1992, leaving state workers without paychecks from July until September, when the California Supreme Court forced the Governor and the legislature to agree to terms that ended the sixty-three-day stand-off.
On February 22, 1993, Wilson issued an executive order banning smoke in a majority of state buildings barring "buildings controlled by the courts, the Legislature or the state's two university systems." The
| 8,374 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
order was set to take effect December 31. Wilson said secondhand smoke "threatens the health of non-smoking state employees" and charged workplace smoking with increasing the cost of cleaning, damaged furniture and carpets, and heightens the chances of starting fires.
In late 1993, Wilson traveled to Asia to endorse Californian goods and investment opportunities abroad. Wilson's six-day tour was also marked by his insistence of composing export-oriented jobs.
Wilson was re-elected to a second gubernatorial term in 1994, gaining 55 percent of the vote in his race against Democratic State Treasurer Kathleen Brown, daughter of former California Governor Pat Brown.
Wilson spoke at the funeral
| 8,375 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
services for former First Lady Pat Nixon in 1993 and former President Richard M. Nixon in 1994 at the Nixon Library in Yorba Linda, California. Two years later, Wilson became, to date, the most recent governor to speak at a California gubernatorial funeral, that of former Governor Pat Brown.
For most of his time as governor, Wilson reduced per-capita infrastructure spending for California, much as he had done as the Mayor of San Diego. Many construction projects – most notably highway expansion/improvement projects – were severely hindered or delayed, while other maintenance and construction projects were abandoned completely.
Term limit laws passed by voters as Proposition 140, and championed
| 8,376 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
by Wilson in 1990, prohibited Wilson from running for re-election to a third term. At the end of his term of office, Wilson left California with a $16 billion budget surplus. He was succeeded by then-lieutenant governor Gray Davis as governor.
A September 1998 "Los Angeles Times" poll found 55% of registered voters in California favored Wilson's job performance.
## Welfare.
On December 14, 1991, in an address to Howard Jarvis Taxpayers Association, Wilson criticized the Democratic leaders of the state legislature for their opposition to his budget-balancing plan and "spent most of his hour at the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles railing against the state's entitlement programs – including
| 8,377 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
education and Medi-Cal, but especially Aid to Families with Dependent Children and other welfare programs."
On January 8, 1993, Wilson submitted the 1993 spending plan, advocating an immediate cut in welfare grants by 4.2 percent that would be followed six months later by a larger reduction of 15 percent that would be directed at recipient families with an able-bodied adult. The twin cuts would reduce California's standing as the fifth highest benefit granting state to the twelfth.
By the end of his first term, Wilson allied with members of the state legislature that supported the continuation of recession-inspired cuts to welfare benefits. A bill imposing the continued reduction of benefits
| 8,378 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
was passed by two committees of the Republican-majority assembly. H. D. Palmer maintained Wilson's priorities rested in other issues and though admitting to an improving in revenues, disclosed that "the governor does not believe that the first call on those revenues should go to double-digit cost-of-living increases for welfare recipients."
Wilson's second inaugural address featured a proclamation that the administration would usher in welfare reform:
In his 1997 State of the State address, Wilson criticized welfare recipients and charged the program with creating conditions producing out-of-wedlock births, the lack of paternal involvement in the lives of children, and the lifelong ramifications
| 8,379 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
to children caused by the father not being of presence. Under Wilson's welfare overhaul package, mothers would have to go to work after two years and a year would pass before they could return to welfare, which would only have a five-year lifetime. Paternity for each child would also have to be established for the mother to begin receiving benefits.
## Proposition 187.
As governor, Wilson was closely associated with California Proposition 187, a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a state-run citizenship screening system and prohibit illegal immigrants from using health care, public education, and other social services in the U.S. State of California. Voters passed the proposed law as a referendum
| 8,380 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
in November 1994; it was the first time that a state had passed legislation related to immigration, customarily an issue for federal policies and programs. The law was challenged in a legal suit and found unconstitutional by a federal court in 1998 and never went into effect.
Passage of Proposition 187 reflected state residents' concerns about illegal immigration into the United States and the large Hispanic population in California. Opponents believed the law was discriminatory against immigrants of Hispanic origin; supporters generally insisted that their concerns were economic: that the state could not afford to provide social services for so many who entered the state illegally or overstayed
| 8,381 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
their visas. Wilson himself would state that the policy was "about supporting the people who came here the right way."
Opponents of Proposition 187 cited its passage as the cause of long-term negative effects for the California Republican Party statewide. Noting a rapid increase in the Latino participation in California elections, some analysts cite Wilson and the Republican Party's embrace of Proposition 187 as a cause of the failure of the party to win statewide elections. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger is the only Republican to win a California gubernatorial, senatorial, or presidential election since 1994, in a unique 2003 recall election. Schwarzenegger was also re-elected in 2006.
Since
| 8,382 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
1995 the following states have had similar ballot initiatives or laws passed: Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma and Texas.
## Policies on crime.
Wilson led efforts to enact "tough on crime" measures and signed into law the "Three Strikes" (25 years to life for repeat offenders) As a result of the Three Strikes Law, 4,431 offenders have been sentenced to 25 years to life for strings of crime. The law required the construction of new prisons, leading some to question the role in his stance of the California Correctional Peace Officers Association, a lobbying group of prison guards that gave $1.47 million to Wilson's gubernatorial campaigns.
On
| 8,383 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
September 26, 1995, Wilson signed a bill authorizing the possible use of the death penalty toward any individual who committed a murder amid a carjacking or killed a juror. Wilson said the law was the result of four years worth of attempts on his part to toughen the laws against carjacking: "This bill sends an unmistakable message to gang bangers: If you take someone's life while committing a cowardly carjacking, you can expect to pay for your crime with your own life."
Wilson also supported resuming the death penalty in California, after a 25-year moratorium, and he signed the death warrant for the execution of child-murderer Robert Alton Harris. Harris was executed in 1992. A total of five
| 8,384 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
people were executed during his administration (the first two in the gas chamber, the latter three by lethal injection).
# Energy deregulation.
Wilson supported deregulation of the energy industry in California during his administration due to heavy lobbying efforts by Enron. Nevertheless, during the California energy crisis caused by companies such as Enron, Wilson authored an article titled "What California Must Do" that blamed Gray Davis for not building enough power plants. Wilson defended his record of power plant construction and claimed that between 1985 and 1998, 23 plants were certified and 18 were built in California.
# Presidential campaign (1996).
Despite a campaign promise to
| 8,385 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
the people of California not to do so, Wilson also unsuccessfully ran for the Republican nomination for President in the 1996 election, making formal announcements on both coasts. Wilson announced first in New York City, at Battery Park, with the Statue of Liberty as a backdrop. He completed a cross-country tour.
The Wilson campaign had problems from the start. After deciding to run, he almost immediately had throat surgery that kept him from announcing – or even talking – for months. His campaign lasted a month and a day and left him with a million dollars in campaign debt. This debt was paid off in full in a matter of weeks.
A September 6, 1995, UC Irvine poll showed equal support for Wilson
| 8,386 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
and incumbent President Bill Clinton among Orange County voters. The same poll indicated Wilson as trailing Bob Dole by a 20-point margin. Dole would become the Republican nominee in the general election. Later that month, a "Los Angeles Times" poll found 23% of Californians believed Wilson should seek the presidency, including 30% of state voters identifying as Republican.
On September 29, 1995, Wilson told supporters in Sacramento that he was dropping out of the Republican primary, citing he lacked the "necessary campaign funds to take this message to the people who need to hear it." He became the first candidate to exit the Republican primary.
# Post-political careers and commemoration.
After
| 8,387 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
leaving office, Wilson spent two years as a managing director of Pacific Capital Group, a merchant bank based in Los Angeles. He has served as a director of the Irvine Company, TelePacific Communications, Inc., National Information Consortium Inc., an advisor to Crossflo Systems, and IDT Entertainment. He has been a member of the Board of Advisors of Thomas Weisel Partners, a San Francisco merchant bank. He also served as chairman of the Japan Task Force of the Pacific Council on International Policy, which produced an analysis of Japanese economic and national security prospects over the next decade entitled "Can Japan Come Back?"
Wilson is currently a distinguished visiting fellow at the
| 8,388 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank located on the campus of Stanford University, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation, the Richard Nixon Foundation, the Donald Bren Foundation, is the founding director of the California Mentor Foundation and is the Chairman of the Board of Trustees of the National World War II Museum. Wilson sits on two prestigious Federal advisory committees, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee. He currently works as a consultant at the Los Angeles office of Bingham McCutchen LLP, a large, national law firm.
In 2003, Wilson was co-chair of the campaign of Arnold Schwarzenegger to replace Gray Davis
| 8,389 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
as governor of California.
On September 27, 2007, Wilson endorsed Rudolph Giuliani for U.S. President, but Giuliani later dropped out of the primary. On February 4, 2008, Wilson endorsed John McCain as a candidate for U.S. President.
In 2007, a statue of Wilson joined Ernest Hahn and Alonzo Horton on the San Diego Walk of Fame. At the unveiling, Wilson quipped, "Isn't this a great country that anyone can make a perfect horse's ass of himself at any time?" He also said, "View this statue, as I will, as a surrogate recipient of the tribute that's deserved by all of you who shared the dream, who made it come true and gave all the proud neighborhoods of San Diego the vibrant heart they needed."
| 8,390 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
Two hundred sponsors donated $200,000 to build the statue. Leftist Hispanic and LGBT groups protested the unveiling.
On May 23, 2009, Wilson gave the commencement speech and received an honorary degree from the San Diego State University of Professional Studies and Fine Arts.
In 2009, Wilson chaired the unsuccessful campaign of Meg Whitman for Governor.
On January 26, 2010, Wilson wrote an opinion piece in the "Sacramento Bee" accusing the federal government of failure to reimburse California adequately for mandates and other costs such as those resulting from illegal immigration.
On April 30, 2016, Wilson endorsed U.S. Senator Ted Cruz for the Republican nomination in the 2016 presidential
| 8,391 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
election.
On April 22, 2019, Wilson commemorated the 25th anniversary of President's Nixon's passing at the Richard Nixon Presidential Library. 25 years before, Wilson was one of four dignitaries who gave the eulogy, along with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, President Bill Clinton, and Senator Bob Dole.
# Honors and awards.
During and after Wilson's career, he was awarded numerous awards and honors:
- The Woodrow Wilson Awards for Distinguished Public Service
- The Patriots Award by the Congressional Medal of Honor Society
- An honorary degree from the San Diego State College of Professional Studies and Fine Arts
- The Distinguished Alumnus Award from Boalt Hall, UC Berkeley
- The
| 8,392 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
Bernard E. Witkin Amicus Curiae Award given by the Judicial Council of California
- Wilson was also honored by the San Francisco Giants by having him open their 1998 home schedule by throwing out the ceremonial first pitch in honor of his final full year in office.
- Governor Pete Wilson Liberty Flagstaff was raised at the National WWII Museum in New Orleans in June of 2017. The spire that bears Wilson's name serves as an enduring symbol of the unique American spirit—unity, resolve, and devotion to the principles of freedom.
- Wilson was honored by the Secretary of Defense with the Office of the Secretary of Defense Medal for Exceptional Public Service in November 2018, including his service
| 8,393 |
343170
|
Pete Wilson
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pete%20Wilson
|
Pete Wilson
ce on the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee.
- Wilson was honored by Prager University with the PragerU Visionary Award in May, 2019. To honor Governor Wilson and his wife Gayle Wilson, the University created The Pete & Gayle Wilson Fund at PragerU.
# External links.
## Campaign literature and videos.
- Reaffirming Liberty: Wilson for President Campaign Brochure
- Pete Wilson, Candidate for Governor, 1994 Platform Papers, Speeches and Endorsements
## Miscellaneous.
- Pete Wilson Biography and Inaugural addresses
- Hoover Institution Biography
- Cal Voter: Gov. Wilson's Record on Crime
- Undated speech by Pete Wilson on Affirmative Action titled "The Minority-Majority Society"
| 8,394 |
343183
|
A14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A14
|
A14
A14
A14 may refer to:
- Curtiss XA-14 Shrike, a 1930s-era ground-attack airplane
- Aero A.14, a Czech reconnaissance aircraft built after World War I
- ATC code A14 "Anabolic agents for systemic use", a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
- British NVC community A14 (Myriophyllum alterniflorum community), a British Isles plant community
- Fiat A.14, a 1917 Italian 12-cylinder, liquid-cooled, V aero engine
- HMNZS Resolution (A14), a 1989 hydrographic ship of the Royal New Zealand Navy
- HMS A.14, an alternate name for HMS B1, a submarine of the British Royal Navy
- Nissan A14, a 1975–2008 car engine
- English Opening, Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings
| 8,395 |
343183
|
A14
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A14
|
A14
, a Czech reconnaissance aircraft built after World War I
- ATC code A14 "Anabolic agents for systemic use", a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
- British NVC community A14 (Myriophyllum alterniflorum community), a British Isles plant community
- Fiat A.14, a 1917 Italian 12-cylinder, liquid-cooled, V aero engine
- HMNZS Resolution (A14), a 1989 hydrographic ship of the Royal New Zealand Navy
- HMS A.14, an alternate name for HMS B1, a submarine of the British Royal Navy
- Nissan A14, a 1975–2008 car engine
- English Opening, Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code
# See also.
- List of A14 roads
- Subfamily A14, a rhodopsin-like receptors subfamily
| 8,396 |
343191
|
A61
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A61
|
A61
A61
A61 or A-61 may refer to:
- A61 road (England), a road connecting Derby and Thirsk
- A61 motorway (France), a road connecting Narbonne and Bordeaux
- A61 motorway (Germany), a road connecting Venlo and Hockenheim
- Benoni Defense, in the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings
| 8,397 |
343181
|
M42 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M42%20motorway
|
M42 motorway
M42 motorway
The M42 motorway runs north east from Bromsgrove in Worcestershire to just south west of Ashby-de-la-Zouch in Leicestershire, passing Redditch, Solihull, the National Exhibition Centre (NEC) and Tamworth on the way, serving the east of the Birmingham metropolitan area. The section between the M40 and junction 4 of the M6 forms – though unsigned as such – a part of Euroroute E05. Beyond junction 11 the route is continued as the A42, the junctions on this section, 12–14, are numbered like a continuation of the motorway, but the road has non-motorway status from here.
# History.
## Planning and construction.
Plans for a new motorway by-passing the south and east of Birmingham, reaching
| 8,398 |
343181
|
M42 motorway
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M42%20motorway
|
M42 motorway
Tamworth and connecting the M5 and M6 motorways, were announced in 1972.
The first section opened in November 1976 linking Birmingham International Airport with the M6 motorway.
The curve around the south-eastern side of Solihull opened in September 1985 followed by the section from the M6 motorway with the A5 at Tamworth in December 1985. The southern section of the motorway to Alvechurch just north of Redditch to form a junction with the A441 and from A5 at Tamworth with the A444 at Measham opened in 1986.
In 1987 the section to the A38 at Bromsgrove, some south of Birmingham was completed. and then in December 1989 the motorway was completed with the opening of the link from the M5.
A
| 8,399 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.