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Vladimir Vinek (3 December 1897 – 1945) was a Croatian footballer. He competed in the men's tournament at the 1924 Summer Olympics.
International career
He made his debut for the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in a June 1922 friendly match against Romania and earned a total of 6 caps, scoring 3 goals. His final international was a May 1924 Olympic Games match against Uruguay.
References
External links
Vladimir Vinek at FIFA (archived)
Vladimir Vinek at National-Football-Teams.com
Vladimir Vinek at Olympedia
Vladimir Vinek - at Serbian FA
|
given name
|
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"text": [
"Vladimir"
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|
Keep It Right There may refer to:
Keep It Right There (album), an album by Marion Meadows
Keep It Right There (song), a song by Changing Faces
"Keep It Right There", a song by Diana Ross on her album Take Me Higher
|
performer
|
{
"answer_start": [
129
],
"text": [
"Changing Faces"
]
}
|
Keep It Right There may refer to:
Keep It Right There (album), an album by Marion Meadows
Keep It Right There (song), a song by Changing Faces
"Keep It Right There", a song by Diana Ross on her album Take Me Higher
|
part of
|
{
"answer_start": [
129
],
"text": [
"Changing Faces"
]
}
|
The Tōyō Rapid Railway Line (東葉高速線, Tōyō Kōsoku-sen) is a rapid transit line owned by the third-sector company Tōyō Rapid Railway Co., Ltd., which runs between Nishi-Funabashi Station in Funabashi, Chiba and Tōyō-Katsutadai Station in Yachiyo, Chiba. The name Tōyō (東葉) comes from the characters for Tokyo and Chiba. The line is an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line.
Operation
Almost every train on the Toyo Rapid Railway makes through services with the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line. However, due to Tōyō Rapid Railway vehicles (namely the Tōyō Rapid 2000 series) not being equipped with ATS-P, they can not operate on the Chūō–Sōbu Line, which uses this method of safety equipment. The same goes for E231-800 series sets, which can not go direct to the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Despite this, Tokyo Metro vehicles can operate on all lines.
Current train services
There are three train service types on the Tōyō Rapid Railway, however, all trains stop at every station the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line.
Rapid (快速)
Operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and sometimes to Mitaka. Most services on the Toyo Rapid Railway use this service. While it stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, the section between Nishi-Funabashi and Tōyōchō on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line is non-stop except for a stop at Urayasu, then the service stops at all stations west of Tōyōchō. Most morning and afternoon trains go direct to Mitaka on the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Commuter Rapid (通勤快速)
Like the Rapid Service, it also operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and in the morning and afternoon to Mitaka, and stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Only operates in the "up" direction on mornings towards Nakano. It is non-stop between Nishi-Funabashi and Urayasu before stopping at every station west of Urayasu.
Local (各駅停車)
This service only operates on rush hours when services on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line make through services with the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, and sometimes goes to Mitaka station on the Chūō–Sōbu Line. This service stops at all stations on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line and the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Former services
Tōyō Rapid (東葉快速)
From the revised timetable on the 4 December 1999, the "Toyo Rapid" service was created. It stopped at Nishi-Funabashi, Kita-Narashino, Yachiyo-Midorigaoka and Tōyō-Katsutadai. Due to congestion on tracks, on March 14, 2009, the timetable changed to have 4 evening "up" bound Tōyō Rapid trains, thus the "down" service towards Tōyō-Katsutadai was abolished. Due to passenger counts increasing on stops that the Tōyō Rapid did not stop at, the Tōyō Rapid service was completely abolished on the March 14 2014 timetable change.
Stations
All services stop at every station.
Rolling stock
Tōyō Rapid 2000 series (only go as far as Nakano, due to lack of ATS-P)
Tokyo Metro 05/N series
Tokyo Metro 07 series
Tokyo Metro 15000 series
Former
Tōyō Rapid 1000 series (retired in 2006)
Tokyo Metro 5000 series (retired in 2007)
History
Construction work on the line commenced in July 1984, and the line was fully opened on 27 April 1996. Limited-stop "Toyo Rapid" (東葉快速, Tōyō Kaisoku) services were introduced on the line from the start of the 4 December 1999 timetable revision. Such services in the "up" direction (toward Tokyo) were discontinued in 2009, and the "down" limited-stop services were discontinued from the start of the revised timetable on 15 March 2014.
References
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in English)
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
3518
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"text": [
"Japan"
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|
The Tōyō Rapid Railway Line (東葉高速線, Tōyō Kōsoku-sen) is a rapid transit line owned by the third-sector company Tōyō Rapid Railway Co., Ltd., which runs between Nishi-Funabashi Station in Funabashi, Chiba and Tōyō-Katsutadai Station in Yachiyo, Chiba. The name Tōyō (東葉) comes from the characters for Tokyo and Chiba. The line is an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line.
Operation
Almost every train on the Toyo Rapid Railway makes through services with the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line. However, due to Tōyō Rapid Railway vehicles (namely the Tōyō Rapid 2000 series) not being equipped with ATS-P, they can not operate on the Chūō–Sōbu Line, which uses this method of safety equipment. The same goes for E231-800 series sets, which can not go direct to the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Despite this, Tokyo Metro vehicles can operate on all lines.
Current train services
There are three train service types on the Tōyō Rapid Railway, however, all trains stop at every station the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line.
Rapid (快速)
Operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and sometimes to Mitaka. Most services on the Toyo Rapid Railway use this service. While it stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, the section between Nishi-Funabashi and Tōyōchō on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line is non-stop except for a stop at Urayasu, then the service stops at all stations west of Tōyōchō. Most morning and afternoon trains go direct to Mitaka on the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Commuter Rapid (通勤快速)
Like the Rapid Service, it also operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and in the morning and afternoon to Mitaka, and stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Only operates in the "up" direction on mornings towards Nakano. It is non-stop between Nishi-Funabashi and Urayasu before stopping at every station west of Urayasu.
Local (各駅停車)
This service only operates on rush hours when services on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line make through services with the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, and sometimes goes to Mitaka station on the Chūō–Sōbu Line. This service stops at all stations on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line and the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Former services
Tōyō Rapid (東葉快速)
From the revised timetable on the 4 December 1999, the "Toyo Rapid" service was created. It stopped at Nishi-Funabashi, Kita-Narashino, Yachiyo-Midorigaoka and Tōyō-Katsutadai. Due to congestion on tracks, on March 14, 2009, the timetable changed to have 4 evening "up" bound Tōyō Rapid trains, thus the "down" service towards Tōyō-Katsutadai was abolished. Due to passenger counts increasing on stops that the Tōyō Rapid did not stop at, the Tōyō Rapid service was completely abolished on the March 14 2014 timetable change.
Stations
All services stop at every station.
Rolling stock
Tōyō Rapid 2000 series (only go as far as Nakano, due to lack of ATS-P)
Tokyo Metro 05/N series
Tokyo Metro 07 series
Tokyo Metro 15000 series
Former
Tōyō Rapid 1000 series (retired in 2006)
Tokyo Metro 5000 series (retired in 2007)
History
Construction work on the line commenced in July 1984, and the line was fully opened on 27 April 1996. Limited-stop "Toyo Rapid" (東葉快速, Tōyō Kaisoku) services were introduced on the line from the start of the 4 December 1999 timetable revision. Such services in the "up" direction (toward Tokyo) were discontinued in 2009, and the "down" limited-stop services were discontinued from the start of the revised timetable on 15 March 2014.
References
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in English)
|
owned by
|
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4
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"text": [
"Tōyō Rapid Railway"
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The Tōyō Rapid Railway Line (東葉高速線, Tōyō Kōsoku-sen) is a rapid transit line owned by the third-sector company Tōyō Rapid Railway Co., Ltd., which runs between Nishi-Funabashi Station in Funabashi, Chiba and Tōyō-Katsutadai Station in Yachiyo, Chiba. The name Tōyō (東葉) comes from the characters for Tokyo and Chiba. The line is an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line.
Operation
Almost every train on the Toyo Rapid Railway makes through services with the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line. However, due to Tōyō Rapid Railway vehicles (namely the Tōyō Rapid 2000 series) not being equipped with ATS-P, they can not operate on the Chūō–Sōbu Line, which uses this method of safety equipment. The same goes for E231-800 series sets, which can not go direct to the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Despite this, Tokyo Metro vehicles can operate on all lines.
Current train services
There are three train service types on the Tōyō Rapid Railway, however, all trains stop at every station the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line.
Rapid (快速)
Operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and sometimes to Mitaka. Most services on the Toyo Rapid Railway use this service. While it stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, the section between Nishi-Funabashi and Tōyōchō on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line is non-stop except for a stop at Urayasu, then the service stops at all stations west of Tōyōchō. Most morning and afternoon trains go direct to Mitaka on the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Commuter Rapid (通勤快速)
Like the Rapid Service, it also operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and in the morning and afternoon to Mitaka, and stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Only operates in the "up" direction on mornings towards Nakano. It is non-stop between Nishi-Funabashi and Urayasu before stopping at every station west of Urayasu.
Local (各駅停車)
This service only operates on rush hours when services on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line make through services with the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, and sometimes goes to Mitaka station on the Chūō–Sōbu Line. This service stops at all stations on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line and the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Former services
Tōyō Rapid (東葉快速)
From the revised timetable on the 4 December 1999, the "Toyo Rapid" service was created. It stopped at Nishi-Funabashi, Kita-Narashino, Yachiyo-Midorigaoka and Tōyō-Katsutadai. Due to congestion on tracks, on March 14, 2009, the timetable changed to have 4 evening "up" bound Tōyō Rapid trains, thus the "down" service towards Tōyō-Katsutadai was abolished. Due to passenger counts increasing on stops that the Tōyō Rapid did not stop at, the Tōyō Rapid service was completely abolished on the March 14 2014 timetable change.
Stations
All services stop at every station.
Rolling stock
Tōyō Rapid 2000 series (only go as far as Nakano, due to lack of ATS-P)
Tokyo Metro 05/N series
Tokyo Metro 07 series
Tokyo Metro 15000 series
Former
Tōyō Rapid 1000 series (retired in 2006)
Tokyo Metro 5000 series (retired in 2007)
History
Construction work on the line commenced in July 1984, and the line was fully opened on 27 April 1996. Limited-stop "Toyo Rapid" (東葉快速, Tōyō Kaisoku) services were introduced on the line from the start of the 4 December 1999 timetable revision. Such services in the "up" direction (toward Tokyo) were discontinued in 2009, and the "down" limited-stop services were discontinued from the start of the revised timetable on 15 March 2014.
References
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in English)
|
operator
|
{
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4
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"text": [
"Tōyō Rapid Railway"
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}
|
The Tōyō Rapid Railway Line (東葉高速線, Tōyō Kōsoku-sen) is a rapid transit line owned by the third-sector company Tōyō Rapid Railway Co., Ltd., which runs between Nishi-Funabashi Station in Funabashi, Chiba and Tōyō-Katsutadai Station in Yachiyo, Chiba. The name Tōyō (東葉) comes from the characters for Tokyo and Chiba. The line is an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line.
Operation
Almost every train on the Toyo Rapid Railway makes through services with the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line. However, due to Tōyō Rapid Railway vehicles (namely the Tōyō Rapid 2000 series) not being equipped with ATS-P, they can not operate on the Chūō–Sōbu Line, which uses this method of safety equipment. The same goes for E231-800 series sets, which can not go direct to the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Despite this, Tokyo Metro vehicles can operate on all lines.
Current train services
There are three train service types on the Tōyō Rapid Railway, however, all trains stop at every station the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line.
Rapid (快速)
Operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and sometimes to Mitaka. Most services on the Toyo Rapid Railway use this service. While it stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, the section between Nishi-Funabashi and Tōyōchō on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line is non-stop except for a stop at Urayasu, then the service stops at all stations west of Tōyōchō. Most morning and afternoon trains go direct to Mitaka on the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Commuter Rapid (通勤快速)
Like the Rapid Service, it also operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and in the morning and afternoon to Mitaka, and stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Only operates in the "up" direction on mornings towards Nakano. It is non-stop between Nishi-Funabashi and Urayasu before stopping at every station west of Urayasu.
Local (各駅停車)
This service only operates on rush hours when services on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line make through services with the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, and sometimes goes to Mitaka station on the Chūō–Sōbu Line. This service stops at all stations on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line and the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Former services
Tōyō Rapid (東葉快速)
From the revised timetable on the 4 December 1999, the "Toyo Rapid" service was created. It stopped at Nishi-Funabashi, Kita-Narashino, Yachiyo-Midorigaoka and Tōyō-Katsutadai. Due to congestion on tracks, on March 14, 2009, the timetable changed to have 4 evening "up" bound Tōyō Rapid trains, thus the "down" service towards Tōyō-Katsutadai was abolished. Due to passenger counts increasing on stops that the Tōyō Rapid did not stop at, the Tōyō Rapid service was completely abolished on the March 14 2014 timetable change.
Stations
All services stop at every station.
Rolling stock
Tōyō Rapid 2000 series (only go as far as Nakano, due to lack of ATS-P)
Tokyo Metro 05/N series
Tokyo Metro 07 series
Tokyo Metro 15000 series
Former
Tōyō Rapid 1000 series (retired in 2006)
Tokyo Metro 5000 series (retired in 2007)
History
Construction work on the line commenced in July 1984, and the line was fully opened on 27 April 1996. Limited-stop "Toyo Rapid" (東葉快速, Tōyō Kaisoku) services were introduced on the line from the start of the 4 December 1999 timetable revision. Such services in the "up" direction (toward Tokyo) were discontinued in 2009, and the "down" limited-stop services were discontinued from the start of the revised timetable on 15 March 2014.
References
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in English)
|
terminus
|
{
"answer_start": [
160
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"text": [
"Nishi-Funabashi Station"
]
}
|
The Tōyō Rapid Railway Line (東葉高速線, Tōyō Kōsoku-sen) is a rapid transit line owned by the third-sector company Tōyō Rapid Railway Co., Ltd., which runs between Nishi-Funabashi Station in Funabashi, Chiba and Tōyō-Katsutadai Station in Yachiyo, Chiba. The name Tōyō (東葉) comes from the characters for Tokyo and Chiba. The line is an extension of the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line.
Operation
Almost every train on the Toyo Rapid Railway makes through services with the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line. However, due to Tōyō Rapid Railway vehicles (namely the Tōyō Rapid 2000 series) not being equipped with ATS-P, they can not operate on the Chūō–Sōbu Line, which uses this method of safety equipment. The same goes for E231-800 series sets, which can not go direct to the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Despite this, Tokyo Metro vehicles can operate on all lines.
Current train services
There are three train service types on the Tōyō Rapid Railway, however, all trains stop at every station the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line.
Rapid (快速)
Operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and sometimes to Mitaka. Most services on the Toyo Rapid Railway use this service. While it stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, the section between Nishi-Funabashi and Tōyōchō on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line is non-stop except for a stop at Urayasu, then the service stops at all stations west of Tōyōchō. Most morning and afternoon trains go direct to Mitaka on the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Commuter Rapid (通勤快速)
Like the Rapid Service, it also operates between Tōyō-Katsutadai and Nakano stations and in the morning and afternoon to Mitaka, and stops at every station on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line. Only operates in the "up" direction on mornings towards Nakano. It is non-stop between Nishi-Funabashi and Urayasu before stopping at every station west of Urayasu.
Local (各駅停車)
This service only operates on rush hours when services on the Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line make through services with the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, and sometimes goes to Mitaka station on the Chūō–Sōbu Line. This service stops at all stations on the Tōyō Rapid Railway Line, Tokyo Metro Tōzai Line and the Chūō–Sōbu Line.
Former services
Tōyō Rapid (東葉快速)
From the revised timetable on the 4 December 1999, the "Toyo Rapid" service was created. It stopped at Nishi-Funabashi, Kita-Narashino, Yachiyo-Midorigaoka and Tōyō-Katsutadai. Due to congestion on tracks, on March 14, 2009, the timetable changed to have 4 evening "up" bound Tōyō Rapid trains, thus the "down" service towards Tōyō-Katsutadai was abolished. Due to passenger counts increasing on stops that the Tōyō Rapid did not stop at, the Tōyō Rapid service was completely abolished on the March 14 2014 timetable change.
Stations
All services stop at every station.
Rolling stock
Tōyō Rapid 2000 series (only go as far as Nakano, due to lack of ATS-P)
Tokyo Metro 05/N series
Tokyo Metro 07 series
Tokyo Metro 15000 series
Former
Tōyō Rapid 1000 series (retired in 2006)
Tokyo Metro 5000 series (retired in 2007)
History
Construction work on the line commenced in July 1984, and the line was fully opened on 27 April 1996. Limited-stop "Toyo Rapid" (東葉快速, Tōyō Kaisoku) services were introduced on the line from the start of the 4 December 1999 timetable revision. Such services in the "up" direction (toward Tokyo) were discontinued in 2009, and the "down" limited-stop services were discontinued from the start of the revised timetable on 15 March 2014.
References
External links
Official website (in Japanese)
Official website (in English)
|
connects with
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{
"answer_start": [
361
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"text": [
"Tōzai Line"
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}
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Elena da Feltre is an opera in three acts by 19th-century Italian composer Saverio Mercadante from a libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, well known as librettist of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Verdi's Il trovatore. The premiere took place at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples on 1 January 1839 as part of the Carnival Season. While not successful at the time, the opera was revived at La Scala in 1843 with twenty performances.
Mercadante's "revolution"
When composing Elena da Feltre in 1838, Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the "revolution" begun in his previous opera, Il giuramento:
"I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band"Elena seems to match up with the new concepts: greater involvement of the orchestra; fewer vocal "fireworks"; a more simple vocal line but more adventuresome harmonies and drama when compared to Il giuramento.
"Mercadante wanted to break free from any formulas developed by earlier composers, especially those of Rossini......The romantic hero is given to the bass-baritone voice, and the villain was played by the famous French tenor Nourrit. The story is tragic and violent, filled with romantic intrigues and twisted passions. The part of Elena is one of Mercadante's outstanding soprano vocal roles. Her opening romanza is one of the opera's finest highlights, although he later replaced it with an equally brilliant florid cavatina. The finale to the third act is another extremely strong number. The skillfully wrought ensemble reflects the dramatic tension of the script, as the denouement comes to its tragic conclusion."In a 20th-century examination of Mercadante's operas by Patric Schmid, a critical comment noted:
A work of harmonic daring, subtlety and originally orchestrated, it suddenly makes sense of oft-quoted comparisons between Mercadante and Verdi. It has the overall coherence one looks for and finds in middle and late Verdi – a surprising anticipation, for Elena da Feltre dates from 1838, the year before Verdi's first opera.
Performance history
Although not successful in its initial performance in Naples, "it achieved a considerable success in the rest of Italy and Europe where it was performed in several places between 1839 and 1860 with twenty performances at La Scala in the 1843 autumn season". It was performed at Covent Garden in London in January 1842 and in Dublin that July.
But, like most of Mercadante's operas, Elena da Feltre had disappeared from the repertory by the late 19th century. It was not until the mid-1900s that his operas began to see the light of day, and the revival of Elena did not take place until the October 1997 performances at the Wexford Festival in Ireland.
In 1999, with almost the same cast as had appeared at Wexford (including Monica Colonna in the title role), the opera was presented at the Teatro Rossini in Lugo, Italy, as part of the Lugo Opera Festival which has been held since the mid-1980s.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: 1250, during the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines
Place: Feltre, Northern Italy, a Guelph town occupied by the Ghibellines under Ezzelino III da Romano
Act 1
Scene 1: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo's entourage cannot understand why he is so melancholic They leave when his friend Guido enters. Guido asks Ubaldo to help him: Boemondo (Ezzelino's henchman) wishes him to marry his daughter Imberga, but his heart belongs to another. Ubaldo points out that, if Guido defies Boemondo, his chances of regaining the position once held by his ancestors will be ruined. Guido, nevertheless, is prepared to renounce everything for love. He reveals that his lover is Elena, daughter of the outlawed Sigifredo, and that he plans to secretly leave the town with her. Ubaldo is aghast, as he realises why Elena has rejected his own declaration of love, but he conceals his agitation and agrees to help Guido, notwithstanding the likely rage of Ezzelino. Left alone, Ubaldo first considers betraying Guido to Ezzelino, but then resolves to abduct Elena instead.
Scene 2: Sigifredo's palace
Elena is overjoyed to hear that her father has escaped to nearby Belluno and excited at the prospect of marriage with Guido. Her servant Gualtiero tells her that a pilgrim who is approaching the palace is her father in disguise. Sigifredo and Elena embrace, and he tells her that Belluno has fallen to Ezzelino but that he has escaped so that he can die in his home town. He hides as Ubaldo enters to tell Elena that he and his men are about to carry her off. Sigifredo emerges to protect Elena, but Ubaldo's followers appear and drag Sigifredo away to prison. Ubaldo reluctantly goes with them, and Elena, left behind, falls into a faint.
Act 2
The town hall
Boemondo tells Ubaldo that Sigifredo is now held in a secret location. Elena arrives. Boemondo says that Ubaldo will explain what she must do to save her father's life, and leaves. Ubaldo informs Elena that, if Sigifredo is not to be executed, Guido must marry Imberga, and she (Elena) must marry him. Ubaldo tells her that he loves her, but, when she repulses him, he reveals that a scaffold for her father's death is being built and that Sigifredo will die very soon if she does not consent to the marriage. She gives in, and they leave together.
Guido is brought in under guard and left alone. His sense of foreboding is confirmed when Boemondo tells him that Elena has betrayed him, and that this will be confirmed before long. Guido is distraught and longs for death.
Boemondo's adherents arrive to celebrate the fall of Belluno to Ezzelino. Boemondo announces that he will show mercy to his enemy Sigifredo's daughter if she will name someone as her protector. Guido and Ubaldo await her decision with trepidation. Provoked by Boemondo, she reluctantly names Ubaldo. The Act ends with Guido accusing her of treachery and asking Imberga to marry him, Ubaldo expressing his love for Elena, Boemondo and Imberga gloating, and Elena lamenting her fate.
Act 3
Scene 1: Sigifredo's palace
Elena prays to her dead mother to allow her to die. Guido confronts her, but he is still not entirely convinced that she acted out of free will. Elena is about to explain everything when the bell for the execution of Sigifredo rings, and she re-asserts that she loves Ubaldo. Furious, Guido leaves as Elena again prays for death.
Scene 2: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo has returned empty-handed from his mission to release Sigifredo from prison. He is upset that Boemondo has double-crossed Elena: Sigifredo had already been executed. He knows that he has lost Elena for ever, and he and his followers swear to abandon Boemondo and return to the Guelph cause.
Scene 3: Sigifredo's palace
Elena waits with Gualtiero for the overdue arrival of Ubaldo and Sigifredo. She sends Gualtiero to find out what has happened. The wedding procession for Guido and Imberga can be heard offstage, and Elena prays for Guido's happiness and her own death. Ubaldo and his men arrive as the offstage music becomes more joyous, and then Gualtiero returns with the news of Sigismondo's death. Elena has a vision of Sigifredo waiting for her in heaven and dies. Ubaldo laments her loss, and the chorus comment that an angel missing from heaven has now returned there.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Bryan, Karen M., "Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre", Donizetti Society Journal 6, London, 1988
Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "Elena da Feltre". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Couling, Della (trans.), "Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)" Elena da Feltre ", in the booklet accompanying the 1997 recording of that opera at the Wexford Festival released on the Marco Polo label.
Rose, Michael (1998), “Mercandante, (Giuseppe) Saverio (Raffaele)" in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp. 334–339. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 ISBN 1-56159-228-5
Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda,(ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. ISBN 0-14-029312-4
External links
Website of The Donizetti Society, UK Retrieved 3 March 2010
|
composer
|
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"text": [
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Elena da Feltre is an opera in three acts by 19th-century Italian composer Saverio Mercadante from a libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, well known as librettist of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Verdi's Il trovatore. The premiere took place at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples on 1 January 1839 as part of the Carnival Season. While not successful at the time, the opera was revived at La Scala in 1843 with twenty performances.
Mercadante's "revolution"
When composing Elena da Feltre in 1838, Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the "revolution" begun in his previous opera, Il giuramento:
"I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band"Elena seems to match up with the new concepts: greater involvement of the orchestra; fewer vocal "fireworks"; a more simple vocal line but more adventuresome harmonies and drama when compared to Il giuramento.
"Mercadante wanted to break free from any formulas developed by earlier composers, especially those of Rossini......The romantic hero is given to the bass-baritone voice, and the villain was played by the famous French tenor Nourrit. The story is tragic and violent, filled with romantic intrigues and twisted passions. The part of Elena is one of Mercadante's outstanding soprano vocal roles. Her opening romanza is one of the opera's finest highlights, although he later replaced it with an equally brilliant florid cavatina. The finale to the third act is another extremely strong number. The skillfully wrought ensemble reflects the dramatic tension of the script, as the denouement comes to its tragic conclusion."In a 20th-century examination of Mercadante's operas by Patric Schmid, a critical comment noted:
A work of harmonic daring, subtlety and originally orchestrated, it suddenly makes sense of oft-quoted comparisons between Mercadante and Verdi. It has the overall coherence one looks for and finds in middle and late Verdi – a surprising anticipation, for Elena da Feltre dates from 1838, the year before Verdi's first opera.
Performance history
Although not successful in its initial performance in Naples, "it achieved a considerable success in the rest of Italy and Europe where it was performed in several places between 1839 and 1860 with twenty performances at La Scala in the 1843 autumn season". It was performed at Covent Garden in London in January 1842 and in Dublin that July.
But, like most of Mercadante's operas, Elena da Feltre had disappeared from the repertory by the late 19th century. It was not until the mid-1900s that his operas began to see the light of day, and the revival of Elena did not take place until the October 1997 performances at the Wexford Festival in Ireland.
In 1999, with almost the same cast as had appeared at Wexford (including Monica Colonna in the title role), the opera was presented at the Teatro Rossini in Lugo, Italy, as part of the Lugo Opera Festival which has been held since the mid-1980s.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: 1250, during the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines
Place: Feltre, Northern Italy, a Guelph town occupied by the Ghibellines under Ezzelino III da Romano
Act 1
Scene 1: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo's entourage cannot understand why he is so melancholic They leave when his friend Guido enters. Guido asks Ubaldo to help him: Boemondo (Ezzelino's henchman) wishes him to marry his daughter Imberga, but his heart belongs to another. Ubaldo points out that, if Guido defies Boemondo, his chances of regaining the position once held by his ancestors will be ruined. Guido, nevertheless, is prepared to renounce everything for love. He reveals that his lover is Elena, daughter of the outlawed Sigifredo, and that he plans to secretly leave the town with her. Ubaldo is aghast, as he realises why Elena has rejected his own declaration of love, but he conceals his agitation and agrees to help Guido, notwithstanding the likely rage of Ezzelino. Left alone, Ubaldo first considers betraying Guido to Ezzelino, but then resolves to abduct Elena instead.
Scene 2: Sigifredo's palace
Elena is overjoyed to hear that her father has escaped to nearby Belluno and excited at the prospect of marriage with Guido. Her servant Gualtiero tells her that a pilgrim who is approaching the palace is her father in disguise. Sigifredo and Elena embrace, and he tells her that Belluno has fallen to Ezzelino but that he has escaped so that he can die in his home town. He hides as Ubaldo enters to tell Elena that he and his men are about to carry her off. Sigifredo emerges to protect Elena, but Ubaldo's followers appear and drag Sigifredo away to prison. Ubaldo reluctantly goes with them, and Elena, left behind, falls into a faint.
Act 2
The town hall
Boemondo tells Ubaldo that Sigifredo is now held in a secret location. Elena arrives. Boemondo says that Ubaldo will explain what she must do to save her father's life, and leaves. Ubaldo informs Elena that, if Sigifredo is not to be executed, Guido must marry Imberga, and she (Elena) must marry him. Ubaldo tells her that he loves her, but, when she repulses him, he reveals that a scaffold for her father's death is being built and that Sigifredo will die very soon if she does not consent to the marriage. She gives in, and they leave together.
Guido is brought in under guard and left alone. His sense of foreboding is confirmed when Boemondo tells him that Elena has betrayed him, and that this will be confirmed before long. Guido is distraught and longs for death.
Boemondo's adherents arrive to celebrate the fall of Belluno to Ezzelino. Boemondo announces that he will show mercy to his enemy Sigifredo's daughter if she will name someone as her protector. Guido and Ubaldo await her decision with trepidation. Provoked by Boemondo, she reluctantly names Ubaldo. The Act ends with Guido accusing her of treachery and asking Imberga to marry him, Ubaldo expressing his love for Elena, Boemondo and Imberga gloating, and Elena lamenting her fate.
Act 3
Scene 1: Sigifredo's palace
Elena prays to her dead mother to allow her to die. Guido confronts her, but he is still not entirely convinced that she acted out of free will. Elena is about to explain everything when the bell for the execution of Sigifredo rings, and she re-asserts that she loves Ubaldo. Furious, Guido leaves as Elena again prays for death.
Scene 2: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo has returned empty-handed from his mission to release Sigifredo from prison. He is upset that Boemondo has double-crossed Elena: Sigifredo had already been executed. He knows that he has lost Elena for ever, and he and his followers swear to abandon Boemondo and return to the Guelph cause.
Scene 3: Sigifredo's palace
Elena waits with Gualtiero for the overdue arrival of Ubaldo and Sigifredo. She sends Gualtiero to find out what has happened. The wedding procession for Guido and Imberga can be heard offstage, and Elena prays for Guido's happiness and her own death. Ubaldo and his men arrive as the offstage music becomes more joyous, and then Gualtiero returns with the news of Sigismondo's death. Elena has a vision of Sigifredo waiting for her in heaven and dies. Ubaldo laments her loss, and the chorus comment that an angel missing from heaven has now returned there.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Bryan, Karen M., "Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre", Donizetti Society Journal 6, London, 1988
Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "Elena da Feltre". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Couling, Della (trans.), "Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)" Elena da Feltre ", in the booklet accompanying the 1997 recording of that opera at the Wexford Festival released on the Marco Polo label.
Rose, Michael (1998), “Mercandante, (Giuseppe) Saverio (Raffaele)" in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp. 334–339. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 ISBN 1-56159-228-5
Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda,(ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. ISBN 0-14-029312-4
External links
Website of The Donizetti Society, UK Retrieved 3 March 2010
|
genre
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Elena da Feltre is an opera in three acts by 19th-century Italian composer Saverio Mercadante from a libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, well known as librettist of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Verdi's Il trovatore. The premiere took place at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples on 1 January 1839 as part of the Carnival Season. While not successful at the time, the opera was revived at La Scala in 1843 with twenty performances.
Mercadante's "revolution"
When composing Elena da Feltre in 1838, Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the "revolution" begun in his previous opera, Il giuramento:
"I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band"Elena seems to match up with the new concepts: greater involvement of the orchestra; fewer vocal "fireworks"; a more simple vocal line but more adventuresome harmonies and drama when compared to Il giuramento.
"Mercadante wanted to break free from any formulas developed by earlier composers, especially those of Rossini......The romantic hero is given to the bass-baritone voice, and the villain was played by the famous French tenor Nourrit. The story is tragic and violent, filled with romantic intrigues and twisted passions. The part of Elena is one of Mercadante's outstanding soprano vocal roles. Her opening romanza is one of the opera's finest highlights, although he later replaced it with an equally brilliant florid cavatina. The finale to the third act is another extremely strong number. The skillfully wrought ensemble reflects the dramatic tension of the script, as the denouement comes to its tragic conclusion."In a 20th-century examination of Mercadante's operas by Patric Schmid, a critical comment noted:
A work of harmonic daring, subtlety and originally orchestrated, it suddenly makes sense of oft-quoted comparisons between Mercadante and Verdi. It has the overall coherence one looks for and finds in middle and late Verdi – a surprising anticipation, for Elena da Feltre dates from 1838, the year before Verdi's first opera.
Performance history
Although not successful in its initial performance in Naples, "it achieved a considerable success in the rest of Italy and Europe where it was performed in several places between 1839 and 1860 with twenty performances at La Scala in the 1843 autumn season". It was performed at Covent Garden in London in January 1842 and in Dublin that July.
But, like most of Mercadante's operas, Elena da Feltre had disappeared from the repertory by the late 19th century. It was not until the mid-1900s that his operas began to see the light of day, and the revival of Elena did not take place until the October 1997 performances at the Wexford Festival in Ireland.
In 1999, with almost the same cast as had appeared at Wexford (including Monica Colonna in the title role), the opera was presented at the Teatro Rossini in Lugo, Italy, as part of the Lugo Opera Festival which has been held since the mid-1980s.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: 1250, during the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines
Place: Feltre, Northern Italy, a Guelph town occupied by the Ghibellines under Ezzelino III da Romano
Act 1
Scene 1: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo's entourage cannot understand why he is so melancholic They leave when his friend Guido enters. Guido asks Ubaldo to help him: Boemondo (Ezzelino's henchman) wishes him to marry his daughter Imberga, but his heart belongs to another. Ubaldo points out that, if Guido defies Boemondo, his chances of regaining the position once held by his ancestors will be ruined. Guido, nevertheless, is prepared to renounce everything for love. He reveals that his lover is Elena, daughter of the outlawed Sigifredo, and that he plans to secretly leave the town with her. Ubaldo is aghast, as he realises why Elena has rejected his own declaration of love, but he conceals his agitation and agrees to help Guido, notwithstanding the likely rage of Ezzelino. Left alone, Ubaldo first considers betraying Guido to Ezzelino, but then resolves to abduct Elena instead.
Scene 2: Sigifredo's palace
Elena is overjoyed to hear that her father has escaped to nearby Belluno and excited at the prospect of marriage with Guido. Her servant Gualtiero tells her that a pilgrim who is approaching the palace is her father in disguise. Sigifredo and Elena embrace, and he tells her that Belluno has fallen to Ezzelino but that he has escaped so that he can die in his home town. He hides as Ubaldo enters to tell Elena that he and his men are about to carry her off. Sigifredo emerges to protect Elena, but Ubaldo's followers appear and drag Sigifredo away to prison. Ubaldo reluctantly goes with them, and Elena, left behind, falls into a faint.
Act 2
The town hall
Boemondo tells Ubaldo that Sigifredo is now held in a secret location. Elena arrives. Boemondo says that Ubaldo will explain what she must do to save her father's life, and leaves. Ubaldo informs Elena that, if Sigifredo is not to be executed, Guido must marry Imberga, and she (Elena) must marry him. Ubaldo tells her that he loves her, but, when she repulses him, he reveals that a scaffold for her father's death is being built and that Sigifredo will die very soon if she does not consent to the marriage. She gives in, and they leave together.
Guido is brought in under guard and left alone. His sense of foreboding is confirmed when Boemondo tells him that Elena has betrayed him, and that this will be confirmed before long. Guido is distraught and longs for death.
Boemondo's adherents arrive to celebrate the fall of Belluno to Ezzelino. Boemondo announces that he will show mercy to his enemy Sigifredo's daughter if she will name someone as her protector. Guido and Ubaldo await her decision with trepidation. Provoked by Boemondo, she reluctantly names Ubaldo. The Act ends with Guido accusing her of treachery and asking Imberga to marry him, Ubaldo expressing his love for Elena, Boemondo and Imberga gloating, and Elena lamenting her fate.
Act 3
Scene 1: Sigifredo's palace
Elena prays to her dead mother to allow her to die. Guido confronts her, but he is still not entirely convinced that she acted out of free will. Elena is about to explain everything when the bell for the execution of Sigifredo rings, and she re-asserts that she loves Ubaldo. Furious, Guido leaves as Elena again prays for death.
Scene 2: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo has returned empty-handed from his mission to release Sigifredo from prison. He is upset that Boemondo has double-crossed Elena: Sigifredo had already been executed. He knows that he has lost Elena for ever, and he and his followers swear to abandon Boemondo and return to the Guelph cause.
Scene 3: Sigifredo's palace
Elena waits with Gualtiero for the overdue arrival of Ubaldo and Sigifredo. She sends Gualtiero to find out what has happened. The wedding procession for Guido and Imberga can be heard offstage, and Elena prays for Guido's happiness and her own death. Ubaldo and his men arrive as the offstage music becomes more joyous, and then Gualtiero returns with the news of Sigismondo's death. Elena has a vision of Sigifredo waiting for her in heaven and dies. Ubaldo laments her loss, and the chorus comment that an angel missing from heaven has now returned there.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Bryan, Karen M., "Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre", Donizetti Society Journal 6, London, 1988
Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "Elena da Feltre". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Couling, Della (trans.), "Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)" Elena da Feltre ", in the booklet accompanying the 1997 recording of that opera at the Wexford Festival released on the Marco Polo label.
Rose, Michael (1998), “Mercandante, (Giuseppe) Saverio (Raffaele)" in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp. 334–339. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 ISBN 1-56159-228-5
Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda,(ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. ISBN 0-14-029312-4
External links
Website of The Donizetti Society, UK Retrieved 3 March 2010
|
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Elena da Feltre is an opera in three acts by 19th-century Italian composer Saverio Mercadante from a libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, well known as librettist of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Verdi's Il trovatore. The premiere took place at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples on 1 January 1839 as part of the Carnival Season. While not successful at the time, the opera was revived at La Scala in 1843 with twenty performances.
Mercadante's "revolution"
When composing Elena da Feltre in 1838, Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the "revolution" begun in his previous opera, Il giuramento:
"I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band"Elena seems to match up with the new concepts: greater involvement of the orchestra; fewer vocal "fireworks"; a more simple vocal line but more adventuresome harmonies and drama when compared to Il giuramento.
"Mercadante wanted to break free from any formulas developed by earlier composers, especially those of Rossini......The romantic hero is given to the bass-baritone voice, and the villain was played by the famous French tenor Nourrit. The story is tragic and violent, filled with romantic intrigues and twisted passions. The part of Elena is one of Mercadante's outstanding soprano vocal roles. Her opening romanza is one of the opera's finest highlights, although he later replaced it with an equally brilliant florid cavatina. The finale to the third act is another extremely strong number. The skillfully wrought ensemble reflects the dramatic tension of the script, as the denouement comes to its tragic conclusion."In a 20th-century examination of Mercadante's operas by Patric Schmid, a critical comment noted:
A work of harmonic daring, subtlety and originally orchestrated, it suddenly makes sense of oft-quoted comparisons between Mercadante and Verdi. It has the overall coherence one looks for and finds in middle and late Verdi – a surprising anticipation, for Elena da Feltre dates from 1838, the year before Verdi's first opera.
Performance history
Although not successful in its initial performance in Naples, "it achieved a considerable success in the rest of Italy and Europe where it was performed in several places between 1839 and 1860 with twenty performances at La Scala in the 1843 autumn season". It was performed at Covent Garden in London in January 1842 and in Dublin that July.
But, like most of Mercadante's operas, Elena da Feltre had disappeared from the repertory by the late 19th century. It was not until the mid-1900s that his operas began to see the light of day, and the revival of Elena did not take place until the October 1997 performances at the Wexford Festival in Ireland.
In 1999, with almost the same cast as had appeared at Wexford (including Monica Colonna in the title role), the opera was presented at the Teatro Rossini in Lugo, Italy, as part of the Lugo Opera Festival which has been held since the mid-1980s.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: 1250, during the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines
Place: Feltre, Northern Italy, a Guelph town occupied by the Ghibellines under Ezzelino III da Romano
Act 1
Scene 1: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo's entourage cannot understand why he is so melancholic They leave when his friend Guido enters. Guido asks Ubaldo to help him: Boemondo (Ezzelino's henchman) wishes him to marry his daughter Imberga, but his heart belongs to another. Ubaldo points out that, if Guido defies Boemondo, his chances of regaining the position once held by his ancestors will be ruined. Guido, nevertheless, is prepared to renounce everything for love. He reveals that his lover is Elena, daughter of the outlawed Sigifredo, and that he plans to secretly leave the town with her. Ubaldo is aghast, as he realises why Elena has rejected his own declaration of love, but he conceals his agitation and agrees to help Guido, notwithstanding the likely rage of Ezzelino. Left alone, Ubaldo first considers betraying Guido to Ezzelino, but then resolves to abduct Elena instead.
Scene 2: Sigifredo's palace
Elena is overjoyed to hear that her father has escaped to nearby Belluno and excited at the prospect of marriage with Guido. Her servant Gualtiero tells her that a pilgrim who is approaching the palace is her father in disguise. Sigifredo and Elena embrace, and he tells her that Belluno has fallen to Ezzelino but that he has escaped so that he can die in his home town. He hides as Ubaldo enters to tell Elena that he and his men are about to carry her off. Sigifredo emerges to protect Elena, but Ubaldo's followers appear and drag Sigifredo away to prison. Ubaldo reluctantly goes with them, and Elena, left behind, falls into a faint.
Act 2
The town hall
Boemondo tells Ubaldo that Sigifredo is now held in a secret location. Elena arrives. Boemondo says that Ubaldo will explain what she must do to save her father's life, and leaves. Ubaldo informs Elena that, if Sigifredo is not to be executed, Guido must marry Imberga, and she (Elena) must marry him. Ubaldo tells her that he loves her, but, when she repulses him, he reveals that a scaffold for her father's death is being built and that Sigifredo will die very soon if she does not consent to the marriage. She gives in, and they leave together.
Guido is brought in under guard and left alone. His sense of foreboding is confirmed when Boemondo tells him that Elena has betrayed him, and that this will be confirmed before long. Guido is distraught and longs for death.
Boemondo's adherents arrive to celebrate the fall of Belluno to Ezzelino. Boemondo announces that he will show mercy to his enemy Sigifredo's daughter if she will name someone as her protector. Guido and Ubaldo await her decision with trepidation. Provoked by Boemondo, she reluctantly names Ubaldo. The Act ends with Guido accusing her of treachery and asking Imberga to marry him, Ubaldo expressing his love for Elena, Boemondo and Imberga gloating, and Elena lamenting her fate.
Act 3
Scene 1: Sigifredo's palace
Elena prays to her dead mother to allow her to die. Guido confronts her, but he is still not entirely convinced that she acted out of free will. Elena is about to explain everything when the bell for the execution of Sigifredo rings, and she re-asserts that she loves Ubaldo. Furious, Guido leaves as Elena again prays for death.
Scene 2: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo has returned empty-handed from his mission to release Sigifredo from prison. He is upset that Boemondo has double-crossed Elena: Sigifredo had already been executed. He knows that he has lost Elena for ever, and he and his followers swear to abandon Boemondo and return to the Guelph cause.
Scene 3: Sigifredo's palace
Elena waits with Gualtiero for the overdue arrival of Ubaldo and Sigifredo. She sends Gualtiero to find out what has happened. The wedding procession for Guido and Imberga can be heard offstage, and Elena prays for Guido's happiness and her own death. Ubaldo and his men arrive as the offstage music becomes more joyous, and then Gualtiero returns with the news of Sigismondo's death. Elena has a vision of Sigifredo waiting for her in heaven and dies. Ubaldo laments her loss, and the chorus comment that an angel missing from heaven has now returned there.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Bryan, Karen M., "Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre", Donizetti Society Journal 6, London, 1988
Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "Elena da Feltre". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Couling, Della (trans.), "Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)" Elena da Feltre ", in the booklet accompanying the 1997 recording of that opera at the Wexford Festival released on the Marco Polo label.
Rose, Michael (1998), “Mercandante, (Giuseppe) Saverio (Raffaele)" in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp. 334–339. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 ISBN 1-56159-228-5
Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda,(ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. ISBN 0-14-029312-4
External links
Website of The Donizetti Society, UK Retrieved 3 March 2010
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Elena da Feltre is an opera in three acts by 19th-century Italian composer Saverio Mercadante from a libretto by Salvatore Cammarano, well known as librettist of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor and Verdi's Il trovatore. The premiere took place at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples on 1 January 1839 as part of the Carnival Season. While not successful at the time, the opera was revived at La Scala in 1843 with twenty performances.
Mercadante's "revolution"
When composing Elena da Feltre in 1838, Mercadante wrote to Francesco Florimo, laying out his ideas about how opera should be structured, following the "revolution" begun in his previous opera, Il giuramento:
"I have continued the revolution I began in Il giuramento: varied forms, cabalettas banished, crescendos out, vocal lines simplified, fewer repeats, more originality in the cadences, proper regard paid to the drama, orchestration rich but not so as to swamp the voices, no long solos in the ensembles (they only force the other parts to stand idle to the detriment of the action), not much bass drum, and a lot less brass band"Elena seems to match up with the new concepts: greater involvement of the orchestra; fewer vocal "fireworks"; a more simple vocal line but more adventuresome harmonies and drama when compared to Il giuramento.
"Mercadante wanted to break free from any formulas developed by earlier composers, especially those of Rossini......The romantic hero is given to the bass-baritone voice, and the villain was played by the famous French tenor Nourrit. The story is tragic and violent, filled with romantic intrigues and twisted passions. The part of Elena is one of Mercadante's outstanding soprano vocal roles. Her opening romanza is one of the opera's finest highlights, although he later replaced it with an equally brilliant florid cavatina. The finale to the third act is another extremely strong number. The skillfully wrought ensemble reflects the dramatic tension of the script, as the denouement comes to its tragic conclusion."In a 20th-century examination of Mercadante's operas by Patric Schmid, a critical comment noted:
A work of harmonic daring, subtlety and originally orchestrated, it suddenly makes sense of oft-quoted comparisons between Mercadante and Verdi. It has the overall coherence one looks for and finds in middle and late Verdi – a surprising anticipation, for Elena da Feltre dates from 1838, the year before Verdi's first opera.
Performance history
Although not successful in its initial performance in Naples, "it achieved a considerable success in the rest of Italy and Europe where it was performed in several places between 1839 and 1860 with twenty performances at La Scala in the 1843 autumn season". It was performed at Covent Garden in London in January 1842 and in Dublin that July.
But, like most of Mercadante's operas, Elena da Feltre had disappeared from the repertory by the late 19th century. It was not until the mid-1900s that his operas began to see the light of day, and the revival of Elena did not take place until the October 1997 performances at the Wexford Festival in Ireland.
In 1999, with almost the same cast as had appeared at Wexford (including Monica Colonna in the title role), the opera was presented at the Teatro Rossini in Lugo, Italy, as part of the Lugo Opera Festival which has been held since the mid-1980s.
Roles
Synopsis
Time: 1250, during the war between the Guelphs and Ghibellines
Place: Feltre, Northern Italy, a Guelph town occupied by the Ghibellines under Ezzelino III da Romano
Act 1
Scene 1: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo's entourage cannot understand why he is so melancholic They leave when his friend Guido enters. Guido asks Ubaldo to help him: Boemondo (Ezzelino's henchman) wishes him to marry his daughter Imberga, but his heart belongs to another. Ubaldo points out that, if Guido defies Boemondo, his chances of regaining the position once held by his ancestors will be ruined. Guido, nevertheless, is prepared to renounce everything for love. He reveals that his lover is Elena, daughter of the outlawed Sigifredo, and that he plans to secretly leave the town with her. Ubaldo is aghast, as he realises why Elena has rejected his own declaration of love, but he conceals his agitation and agrees to help Guido, notwithstanding the likely rage of Ezzelino. Left alone, Ubaldo first considers betraying Guido to Ezzelino, but then resolves to abduct Elena instead.
Scene 2: Sigifredo's palace
Elena is overjoyed to hear that her father has escaped to nearby Belluno and excited at the prospect of marriage with Guido. Her servant Gualtiero tells her that a pilgrim who is approaching the palace is her father in disguise. Sigifredo and Elena embrace, and he tells her that Belluno has fallen to Ezzelino but that he has escaped so that he can die in his home town. He hides as Ubaldo enters to tell Elena that he and his men are about to carry her off. Sigifredo emerges to protect Elena, but Ubaldo's followers appear and drag Sigifredo away to prison. Ubaldo reluctantly goes with them, and Elena, left behind, falls into a faint.
Act 2
The town hall
Boemondo tells Ubaldo that Sigifredo is now held in a secret location. Elena arrives. Boemondo says that Ubaldo will explain what she must do to save her father's life, and leaves. Ubaldo informs Elena that, if Sigifredo is not to be executed, Guido must marry Imberga, and she (Elena) must marry him. Ubaldo tells her that he loves her, but, when she repulses him, he reveals that a scaffold for her father's death is being built and that Sigifredo will die very soon if she does not consent to the marriage. She gives in, and they leave together.
Guido is brought in under guard and left alone. His sense of foreboding is confirmed when Boemondo tells him that Elena has betrayed him, and that this will be confirmed before long. Guido is distraught and longs for death.
Boemondo's adherents arrive to celebrate the fall of Belluno to Ezzelino. Boemondo announces that he will show mercy to his enemy Sigifredo's daughter if she will name someone as her protector. Guido and Ubaldo await her decision with trepidation. Provoked by Boemondo, she reluctantly names Ubaldo. The Act ends with Guido accusing her of treachery and asking Imberga to marry him, Ubaldo expressing his love for Elena, Boemondo and Imberga gloating, and Elena lamenting her fate.
Act 3
Scene 1: Sigifredo's palace
Elena prays to her dead mother to allow her to die. Guido confronts her, but he is still not entirely convinced that she acted out of free will. Elena is about to explain everything when the bell for the execution of Sigifredo rings, and she re-asserts that she loves Ubaldo. Furious, Guido leaves as Elena again prays for death.
Scene 2: Ubaldo's house
Ubaldo has returned empty-handed from his mission to release Sigifredo from prison. He is upset that Boemondo has double-crossed Elena: Sigifredo had already been executed. He knows that he has lost Elena for ever, and he and his followers swear to abandon Boemondo and return to the Guelph cause.
Scene 3: Sigifredo's palace
Elena waits with Gualtiero for the overdue arrival of Ubaldo and Sigifredo. She sends Gualtiero to find out what has happened. The wedding procession for Guido and Imberga can be heard offstage, and Elena prays for Guido's happiness and her own death. Ubaldo and his men arrive as the offstage music becomes more joyous, and then Gualtiero returns with the news of Sigismondo's death. Elena has a vision of Sigifredo waiting for her in heaven and dies. Ubaldo laments her loss, and the chorus comment that an angel missing from heaven has now returned there.
Recordings
References
Notes
Sources
Bryan, Karen M., "Mercadante's Experiment in Form: The cabalettas of Elena da Feltre", Donizetti Society Journal 6, London, 1988
Casaglia, Gherardo (2005). "Elena da Feltre". L'Almanacco di Gherardo Casaglia (in Italian).
Couling, Della (trans.), "Saverio Mercadante (1795–1870)" Elena da Feltre ", in the booklet accompanying the 1997 recording of that opera at the Wexford Festival released on the Marco Polo label.
Rose, Michael (1998), “Mercandante, (Giuseppe) Saverio (Raffaele)" in Stanley Sadie, (Ed.), The New Grove Dictionary of Opera, Vol. Three, pp. 334–339. London: MacMillan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 ISBN 1-56159-228-5
Rose, Michael (2001), in Holden, Amanda,(ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc. ISBN 0-14-029312-4
External links
Website of The Donizetti Society, UK Retrieved 3 March 2010
|
form of creative work
|
{
"answer_start": [
22
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"text": [
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|
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
different from
|
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Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
native label
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Crab"
]
}
|
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
title
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Crab"
]
}
|
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
edition or translation of
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Crab"
]
}
|
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
has edition or translation
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Crab"
]
}
|
Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura, which typically have a very short projecting "tail" (abdomen), usually hidden entirely under the thorax (brachyura means "short tail" in Greek). They live in all the world's oceans, in freshwater, and on land, are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, and have a single pair of pincers. They first appeared during the Jurassic Period.
Description
Crabs are generally covered with a thick exoskeleton, composed primarily of highly mineralized chitin, and armed with a pair of chelae (claws). Crabs vary in size from the pea crab, a few millimeters wide, to the Japanese spider crab, with a leg span up to 4 m (13 ft). Several other groups of crustaceans with similar appearances – such as king crabs and porcelain crabs – are not true crabs, but have evolved features similar to true crabs through a process known as carcinisation.
Environment
Crabs are found in all of the world's oceans, as well as in fresh water and on land, particularly in tropical regions. About 850 species are freshwater crabs.
Sexual dimorphism
Crabs often show marked sexual dimorphism. Males often have larger claws, a tendency that is particularly pronounced in the fiddler crabs of the genus Uca (Ocypodidae). In fiddler crabs, males have one greatly enlarged claw used for communication, particularly for attracting a mate. Another conspicuous difference is the form of the pleon (abdomen); in most male crabs, this is narrow and triangular in form, while females have a broader, rounded abdomen. This is because female crabs brood fertilised eggs on their pleopods.
Reproduction and lifecycle
Crabs attract a mate through chemical (pheromones), visual, acoustic, or vibratory means. Pheromones are used by most fully aquatic crabs, while terrestrial and semiterrestrial crabs often use visual signals, such as fiddler crab males waving their large claws to attract females. The vast number of brachyuran crabs have internal fertilisation and mate belly-to-belly. For many aquatic species, mating takes place just after the female has moulted and is still soft. Females can store the sperm for a long time before using it to fertilise their eggs. When fertilisation has taken place, the eggs are released onto the female's abdomen, below the tail flap, secured with a sticky material. In this location, they are protected during embryonic development. Females carrying eggs are called "berried" since the eggs resemble round berries.
When development is complete, the female releases the newly hatched larvae into the water, where they are part of the plankton. The release is often timed with the tidal and light/dark diel cycle. The free-swimming tiny zoea larvae can float and take advantage of water currents. They have a spine, which probably reduces the rate of predation by larger animals. The zoea of most species must find food, but some crabs provide enough yolk in the eggs that the larval stages can continue to live off the yolk.
Each species has a particular number of zoeal stages, separated by moults, before they change into a megalopa stage, which resembles an adult crab, except for having the abdomen (tail) sticking out behind. After one more moult, the crab is a juvenile, living on the bottom rather than floating in the water. This last moult, from megalopa to juvenile, is critical, and it must take place in a habitat that is suitable for the juvenile to survive.: 63–77 Most species of terrestrial crabs must migrate down to the ocean to release their larvae; in some cases, this entails very extensive migrations. After living for a short time as larvae in the ocean, the juveniles must do this migration in reverse. In many tropical areas with land crabs, these migrations often result in considerable roadkill of migrating crabs.: 113–114 Once crabs have become juveniles, they still have to keep moulting many more times to become adults. They are covered with a hard shell, which would otherwise prevent growth. The moult cycle is coordinated by hormones. When preparing for moult, the old shell is softened and partly eroded away, while the rudimentary beginnings of a new shell form under it. At the time of moulting, the crab takes in a lot of water to expand and crack open the old shell at a line of weakness along the back edge of the carapace. The crab must then extract all of itself – including its legs, mouthparts, eyestalks, and even the lining of the front and back of the digestive tract – from the old shell. This is a difficult process that takes many hours, and if a crab gets stuck, it will die. After freeing itself from the old shell (now called an exuvia), the crab is extremely soft and hides until its new shell has hardened. While the new shell is still soft, the crab can expand it to make room for future growth.: 78–79
Behaviour
Crabs typically walk sideways (hence the term crabwise), because of the articulation of the legs which makes a sidelong gait more efficient. Some crabs walk forward or backward, including raninids, Libinia emarginata and Mictyris platycheles. Some crabs, like the Portunidae and Matutidae, are also capable of swimming, the Portunidae especially so as their last pair of walking legs are flattened into swimming paddles.: 96 Crabs are mostly active animals with complex behaviour patterns such as communicating by drumming or waving their pincers. Crabs tend to be aggressive toward one another, and males often fight to gain access to females. On rocky seashores, where nearly all caves and crevices are occupied, crabs may also fight over hiding holes. Fiddler crabs (genus Uca) dig burrows in sand or mud, which they use for resting, hiding, and mating, and to defend against intruders.: 28–29, 99 Crabs are omnivores, feeding primarily on algae, and taking any other food, including molluscs, worms, other crustaceans, fungi, bacteria, and detritus, depending on their availability and the crab species. For many crabs, a mixed diet of plant and animal matter results in the fastest growth and greatest fitness. Some species are more specialised in their diets, based in plankton, clams or fish.: 85 Crabs are known to work together to provide food and protection for their family, and during mating season to find a comfortable spot for the female to release her eggs.
Human consumption
Fisheries
Crabs make up 20% of all marine crustaceans caught, farmed, and consumed worldwide, amounting to 1.5 million tonnes annually. One species, Portunus trituberculatus, accounts for one-fifth of that total. Other commercially important taxa include Portunus pelagicus, several species in the genus Chionoecetes, the blue crab (Callinectes sapidus), Charybdis spp., Cancer pagurus, the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Scylla serrata, each of which yields more than 20,000 tonnes annually.In some crab species, meat is harvested by manually twisting and pulling off one or both claws and returning the live crab to the water in the knowledge that the crab may survive and regenerate the claws.
Cookery
Crabs are prepared and eaten as a dish in many different ways all over the world. Some species are eaten whole, including the shell, such as soft-shell crab; with other species, just the claws or legs are eaten. The latter is particularly common for larger crabs, such as the snow crab. In many cultures, the roe of the female crab is also eaten, which usually appears orange or yellow in fertile crabs. This is popular in Southeast Asian cultures, some Mediterranean and Northern European cultures, and on the East, Chesapeake, and Gulf Coasts of the United States.
In some regions, spices improve the culinary experience. In Southeast Asia and the Indosphere, masala crab and chilli crab are examples of heavily spiced dishes. In the Chesapeake Bay region, blue crab is often steamed with Old Bay Seasoning. Alaskan king crab or snow crab legs are usually simply boiled and served with garlic or lemon butter.
For the British dish dressed crab, the crab meat is extracted and placed inside the hard shell. One American way to prepare crab meat is by extracting it and adding varying amounts of binders, such as egg white, cracker meal, mayonnaise, or mustard, creating a crab cake. Crabs can also be made into a bisque, a global dish of French origin which in its authentic form includes in the broth the pulverized shells of the shellfish from which it is made.
Imitation crab, also called surimi, is made from minced fish meat that is crafted and colored to resemble crab meat. While it is sometimes disdained among some elements of the culinary industry as an unacceptably low-quality substitute for real crab, this does not hinder its popularity, especially as a sushi ingredient in Japan and South Korea, and in home cooking, where cost is often a chief concern. Indeed, surimi is an important source of protein in most East and Southeast Asian cultures, appearing in staple ingredients such as fish balls and fish cake.
Pain
Whether crustaceans as a whole experience pain or not is a scientific debate that has ethical implications for crab dish preparation. Crabs are very often boiled alive as part of the cooking process.
Evolution
The earliest unambiguous crab fossils date from the Early Jurassic, with the oldest being Eocarcinus from the early Pliensbachian of Britain, which likely represents a stem-group lineage, as it lacks several key morphological features that define modern crabs. Most Jurassic crabs are only known from dorsal (top half of the body) carapaces, making it difficult to determine their relationships. Crabs radiated in the Late Jurassic, corresponding with an increase in reef habitats, though they would decline at the end of the Jurassic as the result of the decline of reef ecosystems. Crabs increased in diversity through the Cretaceous and represented the dominant group of decapods by the end of the period.The crab infraorder Brachyura belongs to the group Reptantia, which consists of the walking/crawling decapods (lobsters and crabs). Brachyura is the sister clade to the infraorder Anomura, which contains the hermit crabs and relatives. The cladogram below shows Brachyura's placement within the larger order Decapoda, from analysis by Wolfe et al., 2019.
Brachyura is separated into several sections, with the basal Dromiacea diverging the earliest in the evolutionary history, around the Late Triassic or Early Jurassic. The group consisting of Raninoida and Cyclodorippoida split off next, during the Jurassic period. The remaining clade Eubrachyura then divided during the Cretaceous period into Heterotremata and Thoracotremata.
A summary of the high-level internal relationships within Brachyura can be shown in the cladogram below:
There is a no consensus on the relationships of the subsequent superfamilies and families. The proposed cladogram below is from analysis by Tsang et al, 2014:
Classification
The infraorder Brachyura contains approximately 7,000 species in 98 families, as many as the remainder of the Decapoda. The evolution of crabs is characterised by an increasingly robust body, and a reduction in the abdomen. Although many other groups have undergone similar processes, carcinisation is most advanced in crabs. The telson is no longer functional in crabs, and the uropods are absent, having probably evolved into small devices for holding the reduced abdomen tight against the sternum.
In most decapods, the gonopores (sexual openings) are found on the legs. Since crabs use their first two pairs of pleopods (abdominal appendages) for sperm transfer, this arrangement has changed. As the male abdomen evolved into a slimmer shape, the gonopores have moved toward the midline, away from the legs, and onto the sternum. A similar change occurred, independently, with the female gonopores. The movement of the female gonopore to the sternum defines the clade Eubrachyura, and the later change in the position of the male gonopore defines the Thoracotremata. It is still a subject of debate whether a monophyletic group is formed by those crabs where the female, but not male, gonopores are situated on the sternum.
Superfamilies
Numbers of extant and extinct (†) species are given in brackets. The superfamily Eocarcinoidea, containing Eocarcinus and Platykotta, was formerly thought to contain the oldest crabs; it is now considered part of the Anomura.
Section †Callichimaeroida
†Callichimaeroidea (1†)
Section Dromiacea
†Dakoticancroidea (6†)
Dromioidea (147, 85†)
Glaessneropsoidea (45†)
Homolodromioidea (24, 107†)
Homoloidea (73, 49†)
Section Raninoida (46, 196†)
Section Cyclodorippoida (99, 27†)
Section Eubrachyura
Subsection Heterotremata
Aethroidea (37, 44†)
Bellioidea (7)
Bythograeoidea (14)
Calappoidea (101, 71†)
Cancroidea (57, 81†)
Carpilioidea (4, 104†)
Cheiragonoidea (3, 13†)
Corystoidea (10, 5†)
†Componocancroidea (1†)
Dairoidea (4, 8†)
Dorippoidea (101, 73†)
Eriphioidea (67, 14†)
Gecarcinucoidea (349)
Goneplacoidea (182, 94†)
Hexapodoidea (21, 25†)
Leucosioidea (488, 113†)
Majoidea (980, 89†)
Orithyioidea (1)
Palicoidea (63, 6†)
Parthenopoidea (144, 36†)
Pilumnoidea (405, 47†)
Portunoidea (455, 200†)
Potamoidea (662, 8†)
Pseudothelphusoidea (276)
Pseudozioidea (22, 6†)
Retroplumoidea (10, 27†)
Trapezioidea (58, 10†)
Trichodactyloidea (50)
Xanthoidea (736, 134†)
Subsection Thoracotremata Cryptochiroidea (46)
Grapsoidea (493, 28†)
Ocypodoidea (304, 14†)
Pinnotheroidea (304, 13†)Recent studies have found the following superfamilies and families to not be monophyletic, but rather paraphyletic or polyphyletic:
The Thoracotremata superfamily Grapsoidea is polyphyletic
The Thoracotremata superfamily Ocypodoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Calappoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Eriphioidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Goneplacoidea is polyphyletic
The Heterotremata superfamily Potamoidea is paraphyletic with respect to Gecarcinucoidea, which is resolved by placing Gecarcinucidae within Potamoidea
The Majoidea families Epialtidae, Mithracidae and Majidae are polyphyletic with respect to each other
The Dromioidea family Dromiidae may be paraphyletic with respect to Dynomenidae
The Homoloidea family Homolidae is paraphyletic with respect to Latreilliidae
The Xanthoidea family Xanthidae is paraphyletic with respect to Panopeidae
Cultural influences
Both the constellation Cancer and the astrological sign Cancer are named after the crab, and depicted as a crab. William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse drew the Crab Nebula in 1848 and noticed its similarity to the animal; the Crab Pulsar lies at the centre of the nebula. The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped nature, especially the sea, and often depicted crabs in their art. In Greek mythology, Karkinos was a crab that came to the aid of the Lernaean Hydra as it battled Heracles. One of Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, The Crab that Played with the Sea, tells the story of a gigantic crab who made the waters of the sea go up and down, like the tides. The auction for the crab quota in 2019, Russia is the largest revenue auction in the world except the spectrum auctions. In Malay mythology (as related by Hugh Clifford to Walter William Skeat), ocean tides are believed to be caused by water rushing in and out of a hole in the Navel of the Seas (Pusat Tasek), where "there sits a gigantic crab which twice a day gets out in order to search for food".: 7–8 The Kapsiki people of North Cameroon use the way crabs handle objects for divination.The term crab mentality is derived from a type of detrimental social behavior observed in crabs.
Explanatory notes
References
External links
Decapoda at Curlie
|
location of creation
|
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"Goin' Down Hill" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist John Anderson. It was released in June 1983 as the third single from the album Wild & Blue. The song reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Anderson wrote the song with X. Lincoln (aka Billy Lee Tubb).
Chart performance
== References ==
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"Goin' Down Hill" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist John Anderson. It was released in June 1983 as the third single from the album Wild & Blue. The song reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Anderson wrote the song with X. Lincoln (aka Billy Lee Tubb).
Chart performance
== References ==
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genre
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"Goin' Down Hill" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist John Anderson. It was released in June 1983 as the third single from the album Wild & Blue. The song reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Anderson wrote the song with X. Lincoln (aka Billy Lee Tubb).
Chart performance
== References ==
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performer
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"Goin' Down Hill" is a song co-written and recorded by American country music artist John Anderson. It was released in June 1983 as the third single from the album Wild & Blue. The song reached number 5 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. Anderson wrote the song with X. Lincoln (aka Billy Lee Tubb).
Chart performance
== References ==
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part of
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{
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165
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"text": [
"Wild & Blue"
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|
Lloyd French (January 11, 1900 – May 24, 1950) was an American director of short films, most of them comedies. His best remembered films are several Laurel and Hardy comedies in the 1930s. He also made several musical short films featuring many bandleaders of the day; in the 1940s he also directed several shorts starring Edgar Kennedy and Leon Errol; he made his last film in 1946.
French was born in San Francisco, California and died in Beverly Hills, California of heart disease.
Partial Filmography
(With Laurel and Hardy):
That's My Wife (1929)
The Midnight Patrol (1933)
Busy Bodies (1933)
Dirty Work (1933)
Oliver the Eighth (1934)
References
External links
Lloyd French at IMDb
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
6
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"text": [
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}
|
Lloyd French (January 11, 1900 – May 24, 1950) was an American director of short films, most of them comedies. His best remembered films are several Laurel and Hardy comedies in the 1930s. He also made several musical short films featuring many bandleaders of the day; in the 1940s he also directed several shorts starring Edgar Kennedy and Leon Errol; he made his last film in 1946.
French was born in San Francisco, California and died in Beverly Hills, California of heart disease.
Partial Filmography
(With Laurel and Hardy):
That's My Wife (1929)
The Midnight Patrol (1933)
Busy Bodies (1933)
Dirty Work (1933)
Oliver the Eighth (1934)
References
External links
Lloyd French at IMDb
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Lloyd"
]
}
|
Lloyd French (January 11, 1900 – May 24, 1950) was an American director of short films, most of them comedies. His best remembered films are several Laurel and Hardy comedies in the 1930s. He also made several musical short films featuring many bandleaders of the day; in the 1940s he also directed several shorts starring Edgar Kennedy and Leon Errol; he made his last film in 1946.
French was born in San Francisco, California and died in Beverly Hills, California of heart disease.
Partial Filmography
(With Laurel and Hardy):
That's My Wife (1929)
The Midnight Patrol (1933)
Busy Bodies (1933)
Dirty Work (1933)
Oliver the Eighth (1934)
References
External links
Lloyd French at IMDb
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
403
],
"text": [
"San Francisco"
]
}
|
Lloyd French (January 11, 1900 – May 24, 1950) was an American director of short films, most of them comedies. His best remembered films are several Laurel and Hardy comedies in the 1930s. He also made several musical short films featuring many bandleaders of the day; in the 1940s he also directed several shorts starring Edgar Kennedy and Leon Errol; he made his last film in 1946.
French was born in San Francisco, California and died in Beverly Hills, California of heart disease.
Partial Filmography
(With Laurel and Hardy):
That's My Wife (1929)
The Midnight Patrol (1933)
Busy Bodies (1933)
Dirty Work (1933)
Oliver the Eighth (1934)
References
External links
Lloyd French at IMDb
|
place of death
|
{
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441
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"text": [
"Beverly Hills"
]
}
|
Molly Rush is a Catholic anti-war, civil and women's rights activist born in 1935. She co-founded the Thomas Merton Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, along with Larry Kessler in 1972, She was one of the Plowshares eight defendants. They faced trial after an anti-nuclear weapons symbolic action at a nuclear missile plant in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.
Life and activism
Rush grew up in Pittsburgh and has been a member of civil rights organizations including the Catholic Interracial Council, Allegheny County Council on Civil Rights and National Organization for Women. She co-founded the Thomas Merton Peace & Justice Center in 1972. She participated in the first local Take Back the Night march to protest violence against women in 1976. Rush was a delegate to the National Women’s Conference in Houston in 1977.
Plowshares action
In 1980 Rush, with seven others, Daniel Berrigan, Phillip Berrigan, Carl Kabat, Elmer Mass, Anne Montgomery, John Schuchardt and Dean Hammer entered a GE plant that manufactured delivery systems for hydrogen bombs in King of Prussia, PA. The protesters then pounded on the cone of an Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) warhead to protest the nuclear arms race. Rush and the other seven were arrested. Rush was in jail for 11 weeks until two Pittsburgh religious orders, the Sisters of Mercy and the Sister of St. Joseph, provided security for her bail. She was sentenced to 2 to 5 years. After 10 years of appeals, she was re-sentenced to time served. A film on the trial, In the King of Prussia, defendants played themselves. Martin Sheen was the Judge.
Awards and recognition
She was named a Distinguished Daughter of Pennsylvania in 2011 by Governor Tom Corbett. and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Commemorative Coalition Award in 1990, Fannie Lou Hamer Award from Women for Racial & Economic Equality in 1994, the Mother Jones Award from the PA Labor History Society in 2003, the YWCA Tribute to Women award in 2003 and the Just Harvest Award in 2004.
Play
A play about her life, Molly's Hammer was written by Tammy Ryan and is based on the book Hammer of Justice: Molly Rush and Plowshares Eight by Liane Ellison Norman. Depicted in the play are the actions leading up to the 78 days Rush spent in Pennsylvania jails in 1980 as a result of her involvement in the Plowshares Eight's assault of a missile at General Electric Co. plant in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.
Film
Emile de Antonio's 1982 film In the King of Prussia, which starred Martin Sheen and Molly Rush appeared as herself. Rush was featured in the documentaries The Pursuit of Happiness and The Trial of the AVCO Plowshares, by Global Village Video.
== References ==
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
6
],
"text": [
"Rush"
]
}
|
Molly Rush is a Catholic anti-war, civil and women's rights activist born in 1935. She co-founded the Thomas Merton Center in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, along with Larry Kessler in 1972, She was one of the Plowshares eight defendants. They faced trial after an anti-nuclear weapons symbolic action at a nuclear missile plant in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.
Life and activism
Rush grew up in Pittsburgh and has been a member of civil rights organizations including the Catholic Interracial Council, Allegheny County Council on Civil Rights and National Organization for Women. She co-founded the Thomas Merton Peace & Justice Center in 1972. She participated in the first local Take Back the Night march to protest violence against women in 1976. Rush was a delegate to the National Women’s Conference in Houston in 1977.
Plowshares action
In 1980 Rush, with seven others, Daniel Berrigan, Phillip Berrigan, Carl Kabat, Elmer Mass, Anne Montgomery, John Schuchardt and Dean Hammer entered a GE plant that manufactured delivery systems for hydrogen bombs in King of Prussia, PA. The protesters then pounded on the cone of an Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) warhead to protest the nuclear arms race. Rush and the other seven were arrested. Rush was in jail for 11 weeks until two Pittsburgh religious orders, the Sisters of Mercy and the Sister of St. Joseph, provided security for her bail. She was sentenced to 2 to 5 years. After 10 years of appeals, she was re-sentenced to time served. A film on the trial, In the King of Prussia, defendants played themselves. Martin Sheen was the Judge.
Awards and recognition
She was named a Distinguished Daughter of Pennsylvania in 2011 by Governor Tom Corbett. and the Martin Luther King, Jr. Commemorative Coalition Award in 1990, Fannie Lou Hamer Award from Women for Racial & Economic Equality in 1994, the Mother Jones Award from the PA Labor History Society in 2003, the YWCA Tribute to Women award in 2003 and the Just Harvest Award in 2004.
Play
A play about her life, Molly's Hammer was written by Tammy Ryan and is based on the book Hammer of Justice: Molly Rush and Plowshares Eight by Liane Ellison Norman. Depicted in the play are the actions leading up to the 78 days Rush spent in Pennsylvania jails in 1980 as a result of her involvement in the Plowshares Eight's assault of a missile at General Electric Co. plant in King of Prussia, Pennsylvania.
Film
Emile de Antonio's 1982 film In the King of Prussia, which starred Martin Sheen and Molly Rush appeared as herself. Rush was featured in the documentaries The Pursuit of Happiness and The Trial of the AVCO Plowshares, by Global Village Video.
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Molly"
]
}
|
The Battle of Morat was a battle in the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) that was fought on 22 June 1476 between Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and a Swiss Confederate army at Morat (Murten), about 30 kilometres from Bern. The result was a crushing defeat for the Burgundians at the hands of the Swiss.
Background
Stung by his defeat by the Swiss Confederation at Grandson in March 1476, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, reorganised his tangled but otherwise mainly intact army at Lausanne. By the end of May he once again felt ready to march against the Confederates to recover his territories and fortifications in the Pays de Vaud, then march on and attack the city of Bern, his greatest enemy among the Swiss cantons.
His first objective was the strategic lakeside town of Morat, set on the eastern shore of Lake Morat. On 11 June 1476, the Burgundians commenced the siege of the well-prepared town, whose forces were commanded by the Bernese general Adrian von Bubenberg. An initial assault was repulsed by a heavy barrage of fire from light guns mounted on the walls, but two great bombards used by the Burgundians were slowly reducing the walls to rubble. By 19 June the Confederate muster was near complete at their camp behind the Sarine (Saane) River. Only a contingent of some 4,000 men from Zürich had yet to arrive and these were not expected until 22 June.
Charles in the meantime had been kept reasonably well informed of the approach of the Confederate army, though he did nothing to hinder their approach. This is not to say that he was unprepared for the arrival of the Swiss; indeed in typical fashion Charles had prepared an elaborate plan to meet the enemy on ground of his choosing, some 2 km (1.2 mi) from Morat, dominating their anticipated line of approach. The terrain around the town is quite hilly and he had chosen to rest his left flank artillery on a steeply sloped gorge cut by the Burggraben stream. In the centre, behind an elaborate ditch and palisade entrenchment known as the Grunhag, stood the bulk of Charles' infantry and artillery that were not engaged in besieging Murten itself. These were to fight the Confederation pike and halberd blocks to a halt while on the right the massed gendarmes would then flank the frontally engaged Swiss, thus creating a killing ground from which there was no escape.
On 21 June 1476, Charles expected the Confederation forces to attack. He arranged his army and prepared for the coming assault. However, the Swiss commanders decided to wait an additional day for the troops from Zürich. After about six hours of waiting Charles ordered his troops to stand down and return to camp.
Battle
On 22 June 1476, around mid-morning, Charles ordered his treasurer to pay the entire army, expecting the Confederate troops to continue delaying. The orderly lines of the Burgundian army dissolved into chaos as soldiers scattered throughout the camp collecting their pay, eating their midday meal, and seeking shelter from the rain. The skeleton force that remained at the Grunhag were surprised when the Swiss army, in battle order, emerged from the woods less than 1,000 m (1,100 yd) from their lines. The Confederate vanguard of some 6,000 skirmishers and all the 1,200 cavalry present erupted out of the woods to the west of Morat, exactly where Charles had predicted they would appear.
Behind the vanguard came the main body of pikemen, the gewalthut (centre). Some 10,000 to 12,000 strong, they formed a large wedge with the canton standards in the centre, flanked by halberdiers and an outer ring of pikemen. The rearguard of 6,000 to 8,000 more closely packed pikemen and halberdiers followed the gewalthut towards the now sparsely manned Grunhag.
As the Swiss charged downhill into the Burgundian position the artillery managed to fire a few salvoes, killing or maiming several hundred of the overeager Lorrainers. Against the odds the defenders in the Grunhag held the Swiss for some time before a contingent of Swiss found a way through the left flank of the defences near the Burggraben and turned the whole position. The Swiss formed up quickly beyond it and advanced towards Morat and the besieger's camp.
In the Burgundian camp, there was confusion after the Swiss were sighted, as men rushed to re-form ranks and prepare for battle. In the ducal tent atop Bois Domingue, a hill overlooking the town, Charles was quickly armed by his retainers before rushing on horseback to try to coordinate the defence of the camp. But as fast as any unit was formed and moved forward against the Swiss, it was swept aside as various uncoordinated attacks were made against the still compact Confederate battle formations. There was some resistance from the squadrons of the ducal household who routed the Lorrainers, including René II, Duke of Lorraine, who was saved only by the arrival of the pikes, against which the gendarmes could only retire, unable to make any impression against them.
Charles managed to muster enough English archers to form a last line of defence before the camp, but these were routed before a bow could be bent, their commander shot by a Swiss skirmisher. Traditionally, the Duke of Somerset is identified as the commander of the English archers. However, the only Duke of Somerset, Edmund Beaufort who was known to have been in Burgundian service died in 1471 at Tewkesbury in England and therefore could not have been at Morat five years later. Then it was every man for himself as Charles ordered the army to fall back which was interpreted as a retreat, which in turn became a rout as all organized resistance ended.
For some three miles along the lakeside many Burgundians died that day in the rout. The Italian division of some 4,000–6,000 men besieging the southern part of Morat probably suffered the worst fate: cut off by the Swiss rearguard and attacked by a sally from the town, they were hunted down along the shore and driven into the lake. As promised, no quarter was granted.
More fortunate was the Savoyard division under Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont which was posted in the northern half of the Morat siege works. Forming up and abandoning all their baggage they retreated north and west round the lake and eventually made good their escape to Romont.
Part of the war booty captured at this battle is still retained at the castle of Gruyères in Switzerland, and includes three capes of the Order of the Golden Fleece which belonged to Charles the Bold, including one with the emblem of his father, Philip the Good, which he had with him as he was marking the anniversary of the death of his father.
Aftermath
The French poet and chronicler Jean Molinet reported that Charles' army lost about 6,000 to 7,000 men. Later writers have calculated a higher number, between 9,000 and 10,000.Charles’ dream of revenge against the Confederates ended that day. Although he would doggedly struggle for another six months against his foes, his defeat at Morat really spelled the beginning of the end for the Burgundian State, much to the delight of the duke's enemies. Charles escaped to Morges, and then to Pontarlier, where he stayed for months, reportedly in a deep depression. He later returned to the battlefield at the Battle of Nancy, where he was killed.
Pockmarks from the Burgundian cannon can still be seen in the defensive towers of Morat.
Citation
Lord Byron in Canto III of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage has these words on the battle:
63
But ere these matchless heights I dare to scan,
There is a spot should not be pass'd in vain,--
Morat! the proud, the patriot field! where man
May gaze on ghastly trophies of the slain,
Nor blush for those who conquered on that plain;
Here Burgundy bequeath'd his tombless host,
A bony heap, through ages to remain,
Themselves their monument;--the Stygian coast
Unsepulchred they roam'd, and shriek'd each wandering ghost.64
While Waterloo with Cannae's carnage vies,
Morat and Marathon twin names shall stand;
They were true Glory's stainless victories,
Won by the unambitious heart and hand
Of a proud, brotherly, and civic band,
All unbought champions in no princely cause
Of vice-entail'd Corruption; they no land
Doom'd to bewail the blasphemy of laws
Making kings' rights divine, by some Draconic clause.
See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy
References
Further reading
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Morat" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 815–816.
Winkler, Albert (2010). "The Battle of Murten: The Invasion of Charles the Bold and the Survival of the Swiss States," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol.46, no. 1, pp. 8–34.
External links
Panorama of the Battle of Morat
The panorama of the battle of Murten, official site
|
instance of
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The Battle of Morat was a battle in the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) that was fought on 22 June 1476 between Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and a Swiss Confederate army at Morat (Murten), about 30 kilometres from Bern. The result was a crushing defeat for the Burgundians at the hands of the Swiss.
Background
Stung by his defeat by the Swiss Confederation at Grandson in March 1476, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, reorganised his tangled but otherwise mainly intact army at Lausanne. By the end of May he once again felt ready to march against the Confederates to recover his territories and fortifications in the Pays de Vaud, then march on and attack the city of Bern, his greatest enemy among the Swiss cantons.
His first objective was the strategic lakeside town of Morat, set on the eastern shore of Lake Morat. On 11 June 1476, the Burgundians commenced the siege of the well-prepared town, whose forces were commanded by the Bernese general Adrian von Bubenberg. An initial assault was repulsed by a heavy barrage of fire from light guns mounted on the walls, but two great bombards used by the Burgundians were slowly reducing the walls to rubble. By 19 June the Confederate muster was near complete at their camp behind the Sarine (Saane) River. Only a contingent of some 4,000 men from Zürich had yet to arrive and these were not expected until 22 June.
Charles in the meantime had been kept reasonably well informed of the approach of the Confederate army, though he did nothing to hinder their approach. This is not to say that he was unprepared for the arrival of the Swiss; indeed in typical fashion Charles had prepared an elaborate plan to meet the enemy on ground of his choosing, some 2 km (1.2 mi) from Morat, dominating their anticipated line of approach. The terrain around the town is quite hilly and he had chosen to rest his left flank artillery on a steeply sloped gorge cut by the Burggraben stream. In the centre, behind an elaborate ditch and palisade entrenchment known as the Grunhag, stood the bulk of Charles' infantry and artillery that were not engaged in besieging Murten itself. These were to fight the Confederation pike and halberd blocks to a halt while on the right the massed gendarmes would then flank the frontally engaged Swiss, thus creating a killing ground from which there was no escape.
On 21 June 1476, Charles expected the Confederation forces to attack. He arranged his army and prepared for the coming assault. However, the Swiss commanders decided to wait an additional day for the troops from Zürich. After about six hours of waiting Charles ordered his troops to stand down and return to camp.
Battle
On 22 June 1476, around mid-morning, Charles ordered his treasurer to pay the entire army, expecting the Confederate troops to continue delaying. The orderly lines of the Burgundian army dissolved into chaos as soldiers scattered throughout the camp collecting their pay, eating their midday meal, and seeking shelter from the rain. The skeleton force that remained at the Grunhag were surprised when the Swiss army, in battle order, emerged from the woods less than 1,000 m (1,100 yd) from their lines. The Confederate vanguard of some 6,000 skirmishers and all the 1,200 cavalry present erupted out of the woods to the west of Morat, exactly where Charles had predicted they would appear.
Behind the vanguard came the main body of pikemen, the gewalthut (centre). Some 10,000 to 12,000 strong, they formed a large wedge with the canton standards in the centre, flanked by halberdiers and an outer ring of pikemen. The rearguard of 6,000 to 8,000 more closely packed pikemen and halberdiers followed the gewalthut towards the now sparsely manned Grunhag.
As the Swiss charged downhill into the Burgundian position the artillery managed to fire a few salvoes, killing or maiming several hundred of the overeager Lorrainers. Against the odds the defenders in the Grunhag held the Swiss for some time before a contingent of Swiss found a way through the left flank of the defences near the Burggraben and turned the whole position. The Swiss formed up quickly beyond it and advanced towards Morat and the besieger's camp.
In the Burgundian camp, there was confusion after the Swiss were sighted, as men rushed to re-form ranks and prepare for battle. In the ducal tent atop Bois Domingue, a hill overlooking the town, Charles was quickly armed by his retainers before rushing on horseback to try to coordinate the defence of the camp. But as fast as any unit was formed and moved forward against the Swiss, it was swept aside as various uncoordinated attacks were made against the still compact Confederate battle formations. There was some resistance from the squadrons of the ducal household who routed the Lorrainers, including René II, Duke of Lorraine, who was saved only by the arrival of the pikes, against which the gendarmes could only retire, unable to make any impression against them.
Charles managed to muster enough English archers to form a last line of defence before the camp, but these were routed before a bow could be bent, their commander shot by a Swiss skirmisher. Traditionally, the Duke of Somerset is identified as the commander of the English archers. However, the only Duke of Somerset, Edmund Beaufort who was known to have been in Burgundian service died in 1471 at Tewkesbury in England and therefore could not have been at Morat five years later. Then it was every man for himself as Charles ordered the army to fall back which was interpreted as a retreat, which in turn became a rout as all organized resistance ended.
For some three miles along the lakeside many Burgundians died that day in the rout. The Italian division of some 4,000–6,000 men besieging the southern part of Morat probably suffered the worst fate: cut off by the Swiss rearguard and attacked by a sally from the town, they were hunted down along the shore and driven into the lake. As promised, no quarter was granted.
More fortunate was the Savoyard division under Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont which was posted in the northern half of the Morat siege works. Forming up and abandoning all their baggage they retreated north and west round the lake and eventually made good their escape to Romont.
Part of the war booty captured at this battle is still retained at the castle of Gruyères in Switzerland, and includes three capes of the Order of the Golden Fleece which belonged to Charles the Bold, including one with the emblem of his father, Philip the Good, which he had with him as he was marking the anniversary of the death of his father.
Aftermath
The French poet and chronicler Jean Molinet reported that Charles' army lost about 6,000 to 7,000 men. Later writers have calculated a higher number, between 9,000 and 10,000.Charles’ dream of revenge against the Confederates ended that day. Although he would doggedly struggle for another six months against his foes, his defeat at Morat really spelled the beginning of the end for the Burgundian State, much to the delight of the duke's enemies. Charles escaped to Morges, and then to Pontarlier, where he stayed for months, reportedly in a deep depression. He later returned to the battlefield at the Battle of Nancy, where he was killed.
Pockmarks from the Burgundian cannon can still be seen in the defensive towers of Morat.
Citation
Lord Byron in Canto III of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage has these words on the battle:
63
But ere these matchless heights I dare to scan,
There is a spot should not be pass'd in vain,--
Morat! the proud, the patriot field! where man
May gaze on ghastly trophies of the slain,
Nor blush for those who conquered on that plain;
Here Burgundy bequeath'd his tombless host,
A bony heap, through ages to remain,
Themselves their monument;--the Stygian coast
Unsepulchred they roam'd, and shriek'd each wandering ghost.64
While Waterloo with Cannae's carnage vies,
Morat and Marathon twin names shall stand;
They were true Glory's stainless victories,
Won by the unambitious heart and hand
Of a proud, brotherly, and civic band,
All unbought champions in no princely cause
Of vice-entail'd Corruption; they no land
Doom'd to bewail the blasphemy of laws
Making kings' rights divine, by some Draconic clause.
See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy
References
Further reading
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Morat" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 815–816.
Winkler, Albert (2010). "The Battle of Murten: The Invasion of Charles the Bold and the Survival of the Swiss States," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol.46, no. 1, pp. 8–34.
External links
Panorama of the Battle of Morat
The panorama of the battle of Murten, official site
|
location
|
{
"answer_start": [
187
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The Battle of Morat was a battle in the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) that was fought on 22 June 1476 between Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and a Swiss Confederate army at Morat (Murten), about 30 kilometres from Bern. The result was a crushing defeat for the Burgundians at the hands of the Swiss.
Background
Stung by his defeat by the Swiss Confederation at Grandson in March 1476, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, reorganised his tangled but otherwise mainly intact army at Lausanne. By the end of May he once again felt ready to march against the Confederates to recover his territories and fortifications in the Pays de Vaud, then march on and attack the city of Bern, his greatest enemy among the Swiss cantons.
His first objective was the strategic lakeside town of Morat, set on the eastern shore of Lake Morat. On 11 June 1476, the Burgundians commenced the siege of the well-prepared town, whose forces were commanded by the Bernese general Adrian von Bubenberg. An initial assault was repulsed by a heavy barrage of fire from light guns mounted on the walls, but two great bombards used by the Burgundians were slowly reducing the walls to rubble. By 19 June the Confederate muster was near complete at their camp behind the Sarine (Saane) River. Only a contingent of some 4,000 men from Zürich had yet to arrive and these were not expected until 22 June.
Charles in the meantime had been kept reasonably well informed of the approach of the Confederate army, though he did nothing to hinder their approach. This is not to say that he was unprepared for the arrival of the Swiss; indeed in typical fashion Charles had prepared an elaborate plan to meet the enemy on ground of his choosing, some 2 km (1.2 mi) from Morat, dominating their anticipated line of approach. The terrain around the town is quite hilly and he had chosen to rest his left flank artillery on a steeply sloped gorge cut by the Burggraben stream. In the centre, behind an elaborate ditch and palisade entrenchment known as the Grunhag, stood the bulk of Charles' infantry and artillery that were not engaged in besieging Murten itself. These were to fight the Confederation pike and halberd blocks to a halt while on the right the massed gendarmes would then flank the frontally engaged Swiss, thus creating a killing ground from which there was no escape.
On 21 June 1476, Charles expected the Confederation forces to attack. He arranged his army and prepared for the coming assault. However, the Swiss commanders decided to wait an additional day for the troops from Zürich. After about six hours of waiting Charles ordered his troops to stand down and return to camp.
Battle
On 22 June 1476, around mid-morning, Charles ordered his treasurer to pay the entire army, expecting the Confederate troops to continue delaying. The orderly lines of the Burgundian army dissolved into chaos as soldiers scattered throughout the camp collecting their pay, eating their midday meal, and seeking shelter from the rain. The skeleton force that remained at the Grunhag were surprised when the Swiss army, in battle order, emerged from the woods less than 1,000 m (1,100 yd) from their lines. The Confederate vanguard of some 6,000 skirmishers and all the 1,200 cavalry present erupted out of the woods to the west of Morat, exactly where Charles had predicted they would appear.
Behind the vanguard came the main body of pikemen, the gewalthut (centre). Some 10,000 to 12,000 strong, they formed a large wedge with the canton standards in the centre, flanked by halberdiers and an outer ring of pikemen. The rearguard of 6,000 to 8,000 more closely packed pikemen and halberdiers followed the gewalthut towards the now sparsely manned Grunhag.
As the Swiss charged downhill into the Burgundian position the artillery managed to fire a few salvoes, killing or maiming several hundred of the overeager Lorrainers. Against the odds the defenders in the Grunhag held the Swiss for some time before a contingent of Swiss found a way through the left flank of the defences near the Burggraben and turned the whole position. The Swiss formed up quickly beyond it and advanced towards Morat and the besieger's camp.
In the Burgundian camp, there was confusion after the Swiss were sighted, as men rushed to re-form ranks and prepare for battle. In the ducal tent atop Bois Domingue, a hill overlooking the town, Charles was quickly armed by his retainers before rushing on horseback to try to coordinate the defence of the camp. But as fast as any unit was formed and moved forward against the Swiss, it was swept aside as various uncoordinated attacks were made against the still compact Confederate battle formations. There was some resistance from the squadrons of the ducal household who routed the Lorrainers, including René II, Duke of Lorraine, who was saved only by the arrival of the pikes, against which the gendarmes could only retire, unable to make any impression against them.
Charles managed to muster enough English archers to form a last line of defence before the camp, but these were routed before a bow could be bent, their commander shot by a Swiss skirmisher. Traditionally, the Duke of Somerset is identified as the commander of the English archers. However, the only Duke of Somerset, Edmund Beaufort who was known to have been in Burgundian service died in 1471 at Tewkesbury in England and therefore could not have been at Morat five years later. Then it was every man for himself as Charles ordered the army to fall back which was interpreted as a retreat, which in turn became a rout as all organized resistance ended.
For some three miles along the lakeside many Burgundians died that day in the rout. The Italian division of some 4,000–6,000 men besieging the southern part of Morat probably suffered the worst fate: cut off by the Swiss rearguard and attacked by a sally from the town, they were hunted down along the shore and driven into the lake. As promised, no quarter was granted.
More fortunate was the Savoyard division under Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont which was posted in the northern half of the Morat siege works. Forming up and abandoning all their baggage they retreated north and west round the lake and eventually made good their escape to Romont.
Part of the war booty captured at this battle is still retained at the castle of Gruyères in Switzerland, and includes three capes of the Order of the Golden Fleece which belonged to Charles the Bold, including one with the emblem of his father, Philip the Good, which he had with him as he was marking the anniversary of the death of his father.
Aftermath
The French poet and chronicler Jean Molinet reported that Charles' army lost about 6,000 to 7,000 men. Later writers have calculated a higher number, between 9,000 and 10,000.Charles’ dream of revenge against the Confederates ended that day. Although he would doggedly struggle for another six months against his foes, his defeat at Morat really spelled the beginning of the end for the Burgundian State, much to the delight of the duke's enemies. Charles escaped to Morges, and then to Pontarlier, where he stayed for months, reportedly in a deep depression. He later returned to the battlefield at the Battle of Nancy, where he was killed.
Pockmarks from the Burgundian cannon can still be seen in the defensive towers of Morat.
Citation
Lord Byron in Canto III of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage has these words on the battle:
63
But ere these matchless heights I dare to scan,
There is a spot should not be pass'd in vain,--
Morat! the proud, the patriot field! where man
May gaze on ghastly trophies of the slain,
Nor blush for those who conquered on that plain;
Here Burgundy bequeath'd his tombless host,
A bony heap, through ages to remain,
Themselves their monument;--the Stygian coast
Unsepulchred they roam'd, and shriek'd each wandering ghost.64
While Waterloo with Cannae's carnage vies,
Morat and Marathon twin names shall stand;
They were true Glory's stainless victories,
Won by the unambitious heart and hand
Of a proud, brotherly, and civic band,
All unbought champions in no princely cause
Of vice-entail'd Corruption; they no land
Doom'd to bewail the blasphemy of laws
Making kings' rights divine, by some Draconic clause.
See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy
References
Further reading
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Morat" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 815–816.
Winkler, Albert (2010). "The Battle of Murten: The Invasion of Charles the Bold and the Survival of the Swiss States," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol.46, no. 1, pp. 8–34.
External links
Panorama of the Battle of Morat
The panorama of the battle of Murten, official site
|
part of
|
{
"answer_start": [
40
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"Burgundian Wars"
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|
The Battle of Morat was a battle in the Burgundian Wars (1474–1477) that was fought on 22 June 1476 between Charles the Bold, the Duke of Burgundy, and a Swiss Confederate army at Morat (Murten), about 30 kilometres from Bern. The result was a crushing defeat for the Burgundians at the hands of the Swiss.
Background
Stung by his defeat by the Swiss Confederation at Grandson in March 1476, Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, reorganised his tangled but otherwise mainly intact army at Lausanne. By the end of May he once again felt ready to march against the Confederates to recover his territories and fortifications in the Pays de Vaud, then march on and attack the city of Bern, his greatest enemy among the Swiss cantons.
His first objective was the strategic lakeside town of Morat, set on the eastern shore of Lake Morat. On 11 June 1476, the Burgundians commenced the siege of the well-prepared town, whose forces were commanded by the Bernese general Adrian von Bubenberg. An initial assault was repulsed by a heavy barrage of fire from light guns mounted on the walls, but two great bombards used by the Burgundians were slowly reducing the walls to rubble. By 19 June the Confederate muster was near complete at their camp behind the Sarine (Saane) River. Only a contingent of some 4,000 men from Zürich had yet to arrive and these were not expected until 22 June.
Charles in the meantime had been kept reasonably well informed of the approach of the Confederate army, though he did nothing to hinder their approach. This is not to say that he was unprepared for the arrival of the Swiss; indeed in typical fashion Charles had prepared an elaborate plan to meet the enemy on ground of his choosing, some 2 km (1.2 mi) from Morat, dominating their anticipated line of approach. The terrain around the town is quite hilly and he had chosen to rest his left flank artillery on a steeply sloped gorge cut by the Burggraben stream. In the centre, behind an elaborate ditch and palisade entrenchment known as the Grunhag, stood the bulk of Charles' infantry and artillery that were not engaged in besieging Murten itself. These were to fight the Confederation pike and halberd blocks to a halt while on the right the massed gendarmes would then flank the frontally engaged Swiss, thus creating a killing ground from which there was no escape.
On 21 June 1476, Charles expected the Confederation forces to attack. He arranged his army and prepared for the coming assault. However, the Swiss commanders decided to wait an additional day for the troops from Zürich. After about six hours of waiting Charles ordered his troops to stand down and return to camp.
Battle
On 22 June 1476, around mid-morning, Charles ordered his treasurer to pay the entire army, expecting the Confederate troops to continue delaying. The orderly lines of the Burgundian army dissolved into chaos as soldiers scattered throughout the camp collecting their pay, eating their midday meal, and seeking shelter from the rain. The skeleton force that remained at the Grunhag were surprised when the Swiss army, in battle order, emerged from the woods less than 1,000 m (1,100 yd) from their lines. The Confederate vanguard of some 6,000 skirmishers and all the 1,200 cavalry present erupted out of the woods to the west of Morat, exactly where Charles had predicted they would appear.
Behind the vanguard came the main body of pikemen, the gewalthut (centre). Some 10,000 to 12,000 strong, they formed a large wedge with the canton standards in the centre, flanked by halberdiers and an outer ring of pikemen. The rearguard of 6,000 to 8,000 more closely packed pikemen and halberdiers followed the gewalthut towards the now sparsely manned Grunhag.
As the Swiss charged downhill into the Burgundian position the artillery managed to fire a few salvoes, killing or maiming several hundred of the overeager Lorrainers. Against the odds the defenders in the Grunhag held the Swiss for some time before a contingent of Swiss found a way through the left flank of the defences near the Burggraben and turned the whole position. The Swiss formed up quickly beyond it and advanced towards Morat and the besieger's camp.
In the Burgundian camp, there was confusion after the Swiss were sighted, as men rushed to re-form ranks and prepare for battle. In the ducal tent atop Bois Domingue, a hill overlooking the town, Charles was quickly armed by his retainers before rushing on horseback to try to coordinate the defence of the camp. But as fast as any unit was formed and moved forward against the Swiss, it was swept aside as various uncoordinated attacks were made against the still compact Confederate battle formations. There was some resistance from the squadrons of the ducal household who routed the Lorrainers, including René II, Duke of Lorraine, who was saved only by the arrival of the pikes, against which the gendarmes could only retire, unable to make any impression against them.
Charles managed to muster enough English archers to form a last line of defence before the camp, but these were routed before a bow could be bent, their commander shot by a Swiss skirmisher. Traditionally, the Duke of Somerset is identified as the commander of the English archers. However, the only Duke of Somerset, Edmund Beaufort who was known to have been in Burgundian service died in 1471 at Tewkesbury in England and therefore could not have been at Morat five years later. Then it was every man for himself as Charles ordered the army to fall back which was interpreted as a retreat, which in turn became a rout as all organized resistance ended.
For some three miles along the lakeside many Burgundians died that day in the rout. The Italian division of some 4,000–6,000 men besieging the southern part of Morat probably suffered the worst fate: cut off by the Swiss rearguard and attacked by a sally from the town, they were hunted down along the shore and driven into the lake. As promised, no quarter was granted.
More fortunate was the Savoyard division under Jacques of Savoy, Count of Romont which was posted in the northern half of the Morat siege works. Forming up and abandoning all their baggage they retreated north and west round the lake and eventually made good their escape to Romont.
Part of the war booty captured at this battle is still retained at the castle of Gruyères in Switzerland, and includes three capes of the Order of the Golden Fleece which belonged to Charles the Bold, including one with the emblem of his father, Philip the Good, which he had with him as he was marking the anniversary of the death of his father.
Aftermath
The French poet and chronicler Jean Molinet reported that Charles' army lost about 6,000 to 7,000 men. Later writers have calculated a higher number, between 9,000 and 10,000.Charles’ dream of revenge against the Confederates ended that day. Although he would doggedly struggle for another six months against his foes, his defeat at Morat really spelled the beginning of the end for the Burgundian State, much to the delight of the duke's enemies. Charles escaped to Morges, and then to Pontarlier, where he stayed for months, reportedly in a deep depression. He later returned to the battlefield at the Battle of Nancy, where he was killed.
Pockmarks from the Burgundian cannon can still be seen in the defensive towers of Morat.
Citation
Lord Byron in Canto III of Childe Harold's Pilgrimage has these words on the battle:
63
But ere these matchless heights I dare to scan,
There is a spot should not be pass'd in vain,--
Morat! the proud, the patriot field! where man
May gaze on ghastly trophies of the slain,
Nor blush for those who conquered on that plain;
Here Burgundy bequeath'd his tombless host,
A bony heap, through ages to remain,
Themselves their monument;--the Stygian coast
Unsepulchred they roam'd, and shriek'd each wandering ghost.64
While Waterloo with Cannae's carnage vies,
Morat and Marathon twin names shall stand;
They were true Glory's stainless victories,
Won by the unambitious heart and hand
Of a proud, brotherly, and civic band,
All unbought champions in no princely cause
Of vice-entail'd Corruption; they no land
Doom'd to bewail the blasphemy of laws
Making kings' rights divine, by some Draconic clause.
See also
Battles of the Old Swiss Confederacy
References
Further reading
Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort (1911). "Morat" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 18 (11th ed.). pp. 815–816.
Winkler, Albert (2010). "The Battle of Murten: The Invasion of Charles the Bold and the Survival of the Swiss States," Swiss American Historical Society Review, vol.46, no. 1, pp. 8–34.
External links
Panorama of the Battle of Morat
The panorama of the battle of Murten, official site
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
4
],
"text": [
"Battle of Morat"
]
}
|
Dołganów [dɔu̯ˈɡanuf] (German: Dolgenow) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Rąbino, within Świdwin County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland. It lies approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) west of Rąbino, 12 km (7 mi) north of Świdwin, and 97 km (60 mi) north-east of the regional capital Szczecin.
For the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.
== References ==
|
country
|
{
"answer_start": [
171
],
"text": [
"Poland"
]
}
|
Dołganów [dɔu̯ˈɡanuf] (German: Dolgenow) is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Rąbino, within Świdwin County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship, in north-western Poland. It lies approximately 9 kilometres (6 mi) west of Rąbino, 12 km (7 mi) north of Świdwin, and 97 km (60 mi) north-east of the regional capital Szczecin.
For the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.
== References ==
|
located in the administrative territorial entity
|
{
"answer_start": [
88
],
"text": [
"Gmina Rąbino"
]
}
|
Granger Boston (24 May 1921 – 4 February 1958) was an English cricketer. He played three first-class matches for Cambridge University Cricket Club in 1946.
See also
List of Cambridge University Cricket Club players
References
External links
Granger Boston at ESPNcricinfo
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
62
],
"text": [
"cricketer"
]
}
|
Granger Boston (24 May 1921 – 4 February 1958) was an English cricketer. He played three first-class matches for Cambridge University Cricket Club in 1946.
See also
List of Cambridge University Cricket Club players
References
External links
Granger Boston at ESPNcricinfo
|
sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
62
],
"text": [
"cricket"
]
}
|
Granger Boston (24 May 1921 – 4 February 1958) was an English cricketer. He played three first-class matches for Cambridge University Cricket Club in 1946.
See also
List of Cambridge University Cricket Club players
References
External links
Granger Boston at ESPNcricinfo
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
54
],
"text": [
"English"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
258
],
"text": [
"Anshan"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
sex or gender
|
{
"answer_start": [
115
],
"text": [
"male"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
member of sports team
|
{
"answer_start": [
175
],
"text": [
"Bayi Rockets"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
133
],
"text": [
"basketball player"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
sport
|
{
"answer_start": [
133
],
"text": [
"basketball"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Zou"
]
}
|
Zou Yuchen (simplified Chinese: 邹雨宸; traditional Chinese: 鄒雨宸; pinyin: Zōu Yǔchén; born July 5, 1996) is a Chinese male professional basketball player who currently plays for Bayi Rockets in the Chinese Basketball Association.
Career
Zou Yuchen was born in Anshan, Liaoning to a basketball family. His parents were players from the Bayi Basketball Team, now known as the Bayi Rockets. While he was a child, Zou was bulkier than many of his peers and had the build of a basketball player. His family immigrated from Anshan to Zhuhai during his childhood, but there was not a professional basketball team in those days. Dai Yixin, the president of Shenzhen Sports School who once recruited Yi Jianlian to the school, introduced Zou to Shenzhen Sports School, but Zou's parents refused the offer. Dai had no choice but to request the famous basketball coach Ma Yuenan to persuade Zou's parents. Finally, Zou's parents agreed that Zou would go to the sports school. Zou formally started his basketball career in September 2008.Zou started as a member of the Juvenile Group in Liaoning's basketball team. In 2009, he became a member of Bayi Youth Basketball Team. In March 2016, he was chosen to play in China men's national basketball team at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
References
External links
Zou Yuchen at the Chinese Olympic Committee (also available in Chinese)
Zou Yuchen at the International Olympic Committee
Zou Yuchen at Olympics.com
Zou Yuchen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived)
|
participant in
|
{
"answer_start": [
1244
],
"text": [
"2016 Summer Olympics"
]
}
|
Lilleborg Church is a church in Oslo, Norway.The church was designed by architect Harald Hille and was consecrated by the bishop in 1966. There are 410 seats in the church room itself and 216 in the adjoining parish hall. The material is concrete and brick, and the church ship itself has a rectangular shape and steep eaves.The altarpiece, with the motif "Christ and the world", is painted by Olav Strømme.
Stained glass on the baptismal font and on the long wall are created by Finn Christensen. There is also a stained glass window by Kjell Pahr-Iversen. The pulpit and baptismal font are in concrete and designed by the architect, and the baptismal dish is in glass from Hadeland Glassverk.The church organ is from 1981 and was reviewed in 2012.
The bell tower is close to the church and has three church bells.The church is listed by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage.
References
External links
Official parish website
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country
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{
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Lilleborg Church is a church in Oslo, Norway.The church was designed by architect Harald Hille and was consecrated by the bishop in 1966. There are 410 seats in the church room itself and 216 in the adjoining parish hall. The material is concrete and brick, and the church ship itself has a rectangular shape and steep eaves.The altarpiece, with the motif "Christ and the world", is painted by Olav Strømme.
Stained glass on the baptismal font and on the long wall are created by Finn Christensen. There is also a stained glass window by Kjell Pahr-Iversen. The pulpit and baptismal font are in concrete and designed by the architect, and the baptismal dish is in glass from Hadeland Glassverk.The church organ is from 1981 and was reviewed in 2012.
The bell tower is close to the church and has three church bells.The church is listed by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage.
References
External links
Official parish website
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architect
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{
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"Harald Hille"
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The kingdom of Tushara, according to ancient Indian literature, such as the epic Mahabharata, was a land located beyond north-west India. In the Mahabharata, its inhabitants, known as the Tusharas, are depicted as mlechchas ("barbarians") and fierce warriors.
Modern scholars generally see Tushara as synonymous with the historical "Tukhara", also known as Tokhara or Tokharistan – another name for Bactria. This area was the stronghold of the Kushan Empire, which dominated India between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE.
Tukhara
The historical Tukhara appears to be synonymous with the land known by Ancient Chinese scholars as Daxia, from the 3rd century BCE onwards.
Its inhabitants were known later to Ancient Greek scholars as the Tokharoi and to the Ancient Romans as Tochari. Modern scholars appear to have conflated the Tukhara with the so-called Tocharians – an Indo-European people who lived in the Tarim Basin, in present-day Xinjiang, China, until the 1st millennium. When the Tocharian languages of the Tarim were rediscovered in the early 20th century, most scholars accepted a hypothesis that they were linked to the Tukhara (who were known to have migrated to Central Asia from China, with the other founding Kushan peoples). However, the subjects of the Tarim kingdoms appear to have referred to themselves by names such as Agni, Kuči and Krorän. These peoples are also known to have spoken centum languages, whereas the Tukhara of Bactria spoke a satem language.
The Tukhara were among Indo-European tribes that conquered Central Asia during the 2nd century BCE, according to both Chinese and Greek sources. Ancient Chinese sources refer to these tribes collectively as the Da Yuezhi ("Greater Yuezhi"). In subsequent centuries the Tukhara and other tribes founded the Kushan Empire, which dominated Central and South Asia.
The account in Mahabharata (Mbh) 1:85 depicts the Tusharas as mlechchas ("barbarians") and descendants of Anu, one of the cursed sons of King Yayati. Yayati's eldest son Yadu, gave rise to the Yadavas and his youngest son Puru to the Pauravas that includes the Kurus and Panchalas. Only the fifth son of Puru's line was considered to be the successors of Yayati's throne, as he cursed the other four sons and denied them kingship. The Pauravas inherited the Yayati's original empire and stayed in the Gangetic plain who later created the Kuru and Panchala Kingdoms. They were followers of the Vedic culture. The Yadavas made central and western India their stronghold. The descendants of Anu, known as the Anavas, are said to have migrated to Iran.
Various regional terms and proper names may have originated with, or been derived from, the Tusharas including: Takhar Province in Afghanistan; the Pakistani village of Thakra; the surname Thakkar, found across India; the Marathi surname Thakere, sometimes anglicised as Thackeray; the Takhar Jat clan in Rajasthan, and the Thakar tribe of Maharashtra. It is also possible that the Thakor (or Thakore) caste of Gujarat, the Thakar caste of Maharashtra and the title Thakur originated with names such as Tushara/Tukhara. The Sanskrit word thakkura "administrator" may be the source of some such names or may itself be derived from one of them.
Indian literature
References in Mahabharata
The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata associates the Tusharas with the Yavanas, Kiratas, Chinas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Kankas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Ramathas etc., and brands them all as barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha, leading lives of Dasyus.The Tusharas along with numerous other tribes from the north-west, including the Bahlikas, Kiratas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Daradas, Kambojas, Shakas, Kankas, Romakas, Yavanas, Trigartas, Kshudrakas, Malavas, Angas, and Vangas had joined Yudhishtra at his Rajasuya ceremony and brought him numerous gifts such as camels, horses, cows, elephants and goldLater the Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas had joined the military division of the Kambojas and participated in the Mahabharata war on the side of the Kauravas. Karna Parva of Mahabharata describes the Tusharas as very ferocious and wrathful warriors.
At one place in the Mahabharata, the Tusharas are mentioned along with the Shakas and the Kankas. At another place they are in a list with the Shakas, Kankas and Pahlavas. And at other places are mentioned along with the Shakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas etc.
The Tushara kingdom is mentioned in the traves of Pandavas in the northern regions beyond the Himalayas:- Crossing the difficult Himalayan regions, and the countries of China, Tukhara, Darada and all the climes of Kulinda, rich in heaps of jewels, those warlike men reached the capital of Suvahu (3:176).
The Mahabharata makes clear that Vedic Hindus did not know the origins of the Mlechcha tribes, who were highly skilled in weapons, warfare and material sciences, but never followed the Vedic rites properly. That the Vedic people were dealing with foreign tribes is evident in a passage from Mahabharata (12:35). It asks which duties that should be performed by the Yavanas, the Kiratas, the Gandharvas, the Chinas, the Savaras, the Barbaras, the Sakas, the Tusharas, the Kankas, the Pathavas, the Andhras, the Madrakas, the Paundras, the Pulindas, the Ramathas, the Kambojas, and several new castes of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Shudras, that had sprung up in the dominions of the Arya kings.
The kings of the Pahlavas and the Daradas and the various tribes of the Kiratas and Yavanas and Sakras and the Harahunas and Chinas and Tukharas and the Sindhavas and the Jagudas and the Ramathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdom of women and the Tanganas and the Kekayas and the Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira, were present in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhishthira the king of the Pandavas (3:51). The Sakas and Tukhatas and Tukharas and Kankas and Romakas and men with horns bringing with them as tribute numerous large elephants and ten thousand horses, and hundreds and hundreds of millions of golds (2:50).
The Tusharas were very ferocious warriors. The Yavanas and the Sakas, along with the Chulikas, stood in the right wing of the Kaurava battle-array (6:75). The Tusharas, the Yavanas, the Khasas, the Darvabhisaras, the Daradas, the Sakas, the Kamathas, the Ramathas, the Tanganas the Andhrakas, the Pulindas, the Kiratas of fierce prowess, the Mlecchas, the Mountaineers, and the races hailing from the sea-side, all endued with great wrath and great might, delighting in battle and armed with maces, these all—united with the Kurus and fought wrathfully for Duryodhana’s sake (8:73). A number of Saka and Tukhara and Yavana horsemen, accompanied by some of the foremost combatants among the Kambojas, quickly rushed against Arjuna (8:88). F. E Pargiter writes that the Tusharas, along with the Yavanas, Shakas, Khasas and Daradas had collectively joined the Kamboja army of Sudakshina Kamboj and had fought in Kurukshetra war under latter's supreme command.
In the Puranas and other Indian texts
Puranic texts like Vayu Purana, Brahmanda Purana and Vamana Purana, etc., associate the Tusharas with the Shakas, Barbaras, Kambojas, Daradas, Viprendras, Anglaukas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc and refer to them all as the tribes of Udichya i.e. north or north-west. The Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras, Harsavardhanas, Cinas and the Tusharas are described as the populous races of men outside.Puranic literature further states that the Tusharas and other tribes like the Gandharas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Yavanas, Barbaras, Khasa, and Lampakas, etc., would be invaded and annihilated by Lord Kalki at the end of Kali Yuga. And they were annihilated by king Pramiti at the end of Kali Yuga.According to Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana, river Chakshu (Oxus or Amu Darya) flowed through the countries of Tusharas, Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and the Shakas, etc.The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of Pt Kshemendra relates that around 400 CE, Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) (r. 375-413/15 CE), had "unburdened the sacred earth by destroying the barbarians" like the Tusharas, Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Hunas etc.
The Rajatarangini of Kalhana records that king Laliditya Muktapida, the 8th-century ruler of Kashmir had invaded the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battlefield. This shows that during the 8th century CE, a section of the Tusharas was living as neighbours of the Kambojas near the Oxus valley.
By the 6th century CE, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira also locates the Tusharas with Barukachcha (Bhroach) and Barbaricum (on the Indus Delta) near the sea in western India. The Romakas formed a colony of the Romans near the port of Barbaricum in Sindhu Delta. This shows that a section of the Tusharas had also moved to western India and was living there around Vrahamihira's time.
There is also a mention of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) in the Mahabharata, Harshacharita of Bana Bhata and Kavyamimansa of Rajshekhar. ÷
Kingdom
Historical references
Early Chinese & Greek sources
Little is known of the Tukhara before they conquered the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in the 2nd century BCE. They are known, in subsequent centuries, to have spoken Bactrian, an Eastern Iranian language. The Yuezhi are generally believed to have had their ethnogenesis in Gansu, China. However, Ancient Chinese sources use the term Daxia (Tukhara) for a state in Central Asia, two centuries before the Yuezhi entered the area. Hence the Tukhara may have been recruited by the Yuezhi, from a people neighbouring or subject to the Greco-Bactrians.
Likewise the Atharvaveda also associates the Tusharas with the Bahlikas (Bactrians), Yavanas/Yonas (Greeks) and Sakas (Indo-Scythians), as following: "Saka.Yavana.Tushara.Bahlikashcha". It also places the Bahlikas as neighbors of the Kambojas. This may suggest suggests that the Tusharas were neighbours to these peoples, possibly in Transoxiana.
Later Chinese sources
In the 7th century CE, the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, by way of the "Iron Pass" entered Tukhara (覩貨羅 Pinyin Duhuoluo; W-G Tu-huo-luo). Xuanzang stated that it lay south of the Iron Pass, north of the "great snow mountains" (Hindukush), and east of Persia, with the Oxus "flowing westward through the middle of it."During the time of Xuanzang, Tukhāra was divided into 27 administrative units, each having its separate chieftain.
Tibetan chronicles
The Tukharas (Tho-gar) are mentioned in the Tibetan chronicle Dpag-bsam-ljon-bzah (The Excellent Kalpa-Vrksa), along with people like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Daradas, Hunas, Khasas etc.
References in association with the Kambojas
The Komedai of Ptolemy, the Kiumito or Kumituo of Xuanzang's accounts, Kiumizhi of Wu'kong, Kumi of the Tang Annals, Kumed or Kumadh of some Muslim writers, Cambothi, Kambuson and Komedon of the Greek writers (or the Kumijis of Al-Maqidisi, Al-Baihaki, Nasir Khusau etc.) who lived in Buttamen Mountains (now in Tajikistan) in the upper Oxus are believed by many scholars to be the Kambojas who were living neighbors to the Tukhara/Tusharas north of the Hindukush in the Oxus valley. The region was also known as Kumudadvipa of the Puranic texts, which the scholars identify with Sanskrit Kamboja.Before its occupation by the Tukhara, Badakshan formed a part of ancient Kamboja (Parama Kamboja) but, after its occupation by the Tukhara in the 2nd century BCE, Badakshan and some other territories of the Kamboja became part of Tukhara.Around the 4th to 5th century CE, when the fortunes of the Tukhara finally waned, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself, and the region again started to be called by its ancient name, i.e., "Kamboja", though northwestern parts still retained the name of Duhuoluo or Tukharistan in Chinese at least until the time of the Tang Dynasty.There are several later references to Kamboja of the Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha - a 5th-century Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (Raghu: 4.68-70). As seen above, the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentions the Kiumito/Kumito living to the north of the Oxus, which may refer to Komedai of Ptolemy. which, as noted above, has been equated to Kamboja mentioned in Sanskrit texts.
The 8th-century king of Kashmir, King Lalitadiya, invaded the Kambojas of the "far-spreading northern region" (uttarāpatha) as mentioned in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana. After encountering the Kambojas, Lalitadiya's army approached the Tuhkhāras who "fled to the mountain ranges leaving behind their horses." According to D. C. Sircar, the Kambojas here are bracketed with the Tukharas and are shown as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors of the Tukharas who were living in the western parts of that Valley.The 10th century CE Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of the Uttarapatha viz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. This mediaeval era evidence shows that the Tusharas were different from the Turushakas with whom they are often confused by some writers.
Possible connection to the Rishikas
Pompeius Trogus remarks that the Asii were lords of the Tochari. It is generally believed that they are same as the Rishikas of the Mahabharata which people are equivalent to Asii (in Prakrit). V. S. Aggarwala also equates the Rishikas with the Asii or Asioi. In 1870, George Rawlinson commented that "The Asii or Asiani were closely connected with the Tochari and the Sakarauli (Saracucse?) who are found connected with both the Tochari and the Asiani".If the Rishikas of the Mahabharata were same as the Tukharas, then the observation from George Rawlinson is in line with the Mahabharata statement which also closely allies the Rishikas with the Parama Kambojas and places them both in the Sakadvipa. The Kambojas (i.e. the southern branch of the Parama Kambojas), are the same as the classical Assaceni/Assacani (Aspasio/Assakenoi of Arrian) and the Aśvayana and Aśvakayana of Panini. They are also mentioned by Megasthenes who refers to them as Osii (= Asii), Asoi, Aseni etc., all living on upper Indus in eastern Afghanistan. The names indicate their connection with horses and horse culture. These Osii, Asoi/Aseni clans represent earlier migration from the Parama Kamboja (furthest Kamboja) land, lying between Oxus and Jaxartes, which happened prior to Achamenid rule. Per epic evidence, Parama Kamboja was the land of the Loha-Kamboja-Rishikas.The Rishikas are said by some scholars to be the same people as the Yuezhi. The Kushanas are also said by some to be the same people. Kalhana (c. 1148-1149 CE) claims that the three kings he calls Huṣka, Juṣka and Kaniṣka (commonly interpreted to refer to Huvishka, Vāsishka and Kanishka I) were "descended from the Turuṣka race". Aurel Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokarai) were a branch of the Yuezhi. P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical. If he is correct, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), the Kushanas and the Yuezhi, were probably either a single people, or members of a confederacy.
Sabha Parva of Mahabharata states that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were allied tribes. Like the "Parama Kambojas", the Rishikas of the Transoxian region are similarly styled as "Parama Rishikas". Based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5.5.15
and verse 2.27.25, Ishwa Mishra believe that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i.e. Parama Kambojas. V. S. Aggarwala too, relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to the Rishikas of the Mahabharata and also places them in the Sakadvipa (or Scythia). According to Dr B. N. Puri and some other scholars, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas. Based on the above Rishika-Kamboja connections, some scholars also claim that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves. Dr Moti Chander also sees a close ethnic relationship between the Kambojas and the Yuezhi .Modern scholars are still debating the details of these connections without coming to any firm consensus.
Japan Visit
According to the Nihon Shoki, the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history, in 1654 two men and two women of the Tushara Kingdom, along with one woman from Shravasti, were drive by a storm to take refuge at the former Hyūga Province in southern Kyushu. They remained for several years before setting off for home. That is the first recorded visit of people from India to Japan.
See also
Tokharistan
Bactria
Tocharians
Kambojas
Bahlikas
Janapadas
Kingdoms of Ancient India
Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Footnotes
== External links ==
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country of origin
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{
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"India"
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The kingdom of Tushara, according to ancient Indian literature, such as the epic Mahabharata, was a land located beyond north-west India. In the Mahabharata, its inhabitants, known as the Tusharas, are depicted as mlechchas ("barbarians") and fierce warriors.
Modern scholars generally see Tushara as synonymous with the historical "Tukhara", also known as Tokhara or Tokharistan – another name for Bactria. This area was the stronghold of the Kushan Empire, which dominated India between the 1st and 3rd centuries CE.
Tukhara
The historical Tukhara appears to be synonymous with the land known by Ancient Chinese scholars as Daxia, from the 3rd century BCE onwards.
Its inhabitants were known later to Ancient Greek scholars as the Tokharoi and to the Ancient Romans as Tochari. Modern scholars appear to have conflated the Tukhara with the so-called Tocharians – an Indo-European people who lived in the Tarim Basin, in present-day Xinjiang, China, until the 1st millennium. When the Tocharian languages of the Tarim were rediscovered in the early 20th century, most scholars accepted a hypothesis that they were linked to the Tukhara (who were known to have migrated to Central Asia from China, with the other founding Kushan peoples). However, the subjects of the Tarim kingdoms appear to have referred to themselves by names such as Agni, Kuči and Krorän. These peoples are also known to have spoken centum languages, whereas the Tukhara of Bactria spoke a satem language.
The Tukhara were among Indo-European tribes that conquered Central Asia during the 2nd century BCE, according to both Chinese and Greek sources. Ancient Chinese sources refer to these tribes collectively as the Da Yuezhi ("Greater Yuezhi"). In subsequent centuries the Tukhara and other tribes founded the Kushan Empire, which dominated Central and South Asia.
The account in Mahabharata (Mbh) 1:85 depicts the Tusharas as mlechchas ("barbarians") and descendants of Anu, one of the cursed sons of King Yayati. Yayati's eldest son Yadu, gave rise to the Yadavas and his youngest son Puru to the Pauravas that includes the Kurus and Panchalas. Only the fifth son of Puru's line was considered to be the successors of Yayati's throne, as he cursed the other four sons and denied them kingship. The Pauravas inherited the Yayati's original empire and stayed in the Gangetic plain who later created the Kuru and Panchala Kingdoms. They were followers of the Vedic culture. The Yadavas made central and western India their stronghold. The descendants of Anu, known as the Anavas, are said to have migrated to Iran.
Various regional terms and proper names may have originated with, or been derived from, the Tusharas including: Takhar Province in Afghanistan; the Pakistani village of Thakra; the surname Thakkar, found across India; the Marathi surname Thakere, sometimes anglicised as Thackeray; the Takhar Jat clan in Rajasthan, and the Thakar tribe of Maharashtra. It is also possible that the Thakor (or Thakore) caste of Gujarat, the Thakar caste of Maharashtra and the title Thakur originated with names such as Tushara/Tukhara. The Sanskrit word thakkura "administrator" may be the source of some such names or may itself be derived from one of them.
Indian literature
References in Mahabharata
The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata associates the Tusharas with the Yavanas, Kiratas, Chinas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Kankas, Sabaras, Barbaras, Ramathas etc., and brands them all as barbaric tribes of Uttarapatha, leading lives of Dasyus.The Tusharas along with numerous other tribes from the north-west, including the Bahlikas, Kiratas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Daradas, Kambojas, Shakas, Kankas, Romakas, Yavanas, Trigartas, Kshudrakas, Malavas, Angas, and Vangas had joined Yudhishtra at his Rajasuya ceremony and brought him numerous gifts such as camels, horses, cows, elephants and goldLater the Tusharas, Sakas and Yavanas had joined the military division of the Kambojas and participated in the Mahabharata war on the side of the Kauravas. Karna Parva of Mahabharata describes the Tusharas as very ferocious and wrathful warriors.
At one place in the Mahabharata, the Tusharas are mentioned along with the Shakas and the Kankas. At another place they are in a list with the Shakas, Kankas and Pahlavas. And at other places are mentioned along with the Shakas, Yavanas and the Kambojas etc.
The Tushara kingdom is mentioned in the traves of Pandavas in the northern regions beyond the Himalayas:- Crossing the difficult Himalayan regions, and the countries of China, Tukhara, Darada and all the climes of Kulinda, rich in heaps of jewels, those warlike men reached the capital of Suvahu (3:176).
The Mahabharata makes clear that Vedic Hindus did not know the origins of the Mlechcha tribes, who were highly skilled in weapons, warfare and material sciences, but never followed the Vedic rites properly. That the Vedic people were dealing with foreign tribes is evident in a passage from Mahabharata (12:35). It asks which duties that should be performed by the Yavanas, the Kiratas, the Gandharvas, the Chinas, the Savaras, the Barbaras, the Sakas, the Tusharas, the Kankas, the Pathavas, the Andhras, the Madrakas, the Paundras, the Pulindas, the Ramathas, the Kambojas, and several new castes of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and the Shudras, that had sprung up in the dominions of the Arya kings.
The kings of the Pahlavas and the Daradas and the various tribes of the Kiratas and Yavanas and Sakras and the Harahunas and Chinas and Tukharas and the Sindhavas and the Jagudas and the Ramathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdom of women and the Tanganas and the Kekayas and the Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira, were present in the Rajasuya sacrifice of Yudhishthira the king of the Pandavas (3:51). The Sakas and Tukhatas and Tukharas and Kankas and Romakas and men with horns bringing with them as tribute numerous large elephants and ten thousand horses, and hundreds and hundreds of millions of golds (2:50).
The Tusharas were very ferocious warriors. The Yavanas and the Sakas, along with the Chulikas, stood in the right wing of the Kaurava battle-array (6:75). The Tusharas, the Yavanas, the Khasas, the Darvabhisaras, the Daradas, the Sakas, the Kamathas, the Ramathas, the Tanganas the Andhrakas, the Pulindas, the Kiratas of fierce prowess, the Mlecchas, the Mountaineers, and the races hailing from the sea-side, all endued with great wrath and great might, delighting in battle and armed with maces, these all—united with the Kurus and fought wrathfully for Duryodhana’s sake (8:73). A number of Saka and Tukhara and Yavana horsemen, accompanied by some of the foremost combatants among the Kambojas, quickly rushed against Arjuna (8:88). F. E Pargiter writes that the Tusharas, along with the Yavanas, Shakas, Khasas and Daradas had collectively joined the Kamboja army of Sudakshina Kamboj and had fought in Kurukshetra war under latter's supreme command.
In the Puranas and other Indian texts
Puranic texts like Vayu Purana, Brahmanda Purana and Vamana Purana, etc., associate the Tusharas with the Shakas, Barbaras, Kambojas, Daradas, Viprendras, Anglaukas, Yavanas, Pahlavas etc and refer to them all as the tribes of Udichya i.e. north or north-west. The Kambojas, Daradas, Barbaras, Harsavardhanas, Cinas and the Tusharas are described as the populous races of men outside.Puranic literature further states that the Tusharas and other tribes like the Gandharas, Shakas, Pahlavas, Kambojas, Paradas, Yavanas, Barbaras, Khasa, and Lampakas, etc., would be invaded and annihilated by Lord Kalki at the end of Kali Yuga. And they were annihilated by king Pramiti at the end of Kali Yuga.According to Vayu Purana and Matsya Purana, river Chakshu (Oxus or Amu Darya) flowed through the countries of Tusharas, Lampakas, Pahlavas, Paradas and the Shakas, etc.The Brihat-Katha-Manjari of Pt Kshemendra relates that around 400 CE, Gupta king Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) (r. 375-413/15 CE), had "unburdened the sacred earth by destroying the barbarians" like the Tusharas, Shakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas, Hunas etc.
The Rajatarangini of Kalhana records that king Laliditya Muktapida, the 8th-century ruler of Kashmir had invaded the tribes of the north and after defeating the Kambojas, he immediately faced the Tusharas. The Tusharas did not give a fight but fled to the mountain ranges leaving their horses in the battlefield. This shows that during the 8th century CE, a section of the Tusharas was living as neighbours of the Kambojas near the Oxus valley.
By the 6th century CE, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira also locates the Tusharas with Barukachcha (Bhroach) and Barbaricum (on the Indus Delta) near the sea in western India. The Romakas formed a colony of the Romans near the port of Barbaricum in Sindhu Delta. This shows that a section of the Tusharas had also moved to western India and was living there around Vrahamihira's time.
There is also a mention of Tushara-Giri (Tushara mountain) in the Mahabharata, Harshacharita of Bana Bhata and Kavyamimansa of Rajshekhar. ÷
Kingdom
Historical references
Early Chinese & Greek sources
Little is known of the Tukhara before they conquered the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in the 2nd century BCE. They are known, in subsequent centuries, to have spoken Bactrian, an Eastern Iranian language. The Yuezhi are generally believed to have had their ethnogenesis in Gansu, China. However, Ancient Chinese sources use the term Daxia (Tukhara) for a state in Central Asia, two centuries before the Yuezhi entered the area. Hence the Tukhara may have been recruited by the Yuezhi, from a people neighbouring or subject to the Greco-Bactrians.
Likewise the Atharvaveda also associates the Tusharas with the Bahlikas (Bactrians), Yavanas/Yonas (Greeks) and Sakas (Indo-Scythians), as following: "Saka.Yavana.Tushara.Bahlikashcha". It also places the Bahlikas as neighbors of the Kambojas. This may suggest suggests that the Tusharas were neighbours to these peoples, possibly in Transoxiana.
Later Chinese sources
In the 7th century CE, the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, by way of the "Iron Pass" entered Tukhara (覩貨羅 Pinyin Duhuoluo; W-G Tu-huo-luo). Xuanzang stated that it lay south of the Iron Pass, north of the "great snow mountains" (Hindukush), and east of Persia, with the Oxus "flowing westward through the middle of it."During the time of Xuanzang, Tukhāra was divided into 27 administrative units, each having its separate chieftain.
Tibetan chronicles
The Tukharas (Tho-gar) are mentioned in the Tibetan chronicle Dpag-bsam-ljon-bzah (The Excellent Kalpa-Vrksa), along with people like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Daradas, Hunas, Khasas etc.
References in association with the Kambojas
The Komedai of Ptolemy, the Kiumito or Kumituo of Xuanzang's accounts, Kiumizhi of Wu'kong, Kumi of the Tang Annals, Kumed or Kumadh of some Muslim writers, Cambothi, Kambuson and Komedon of the Greek writers (or the Kumijis of Al-Maqidisi, Al-Baihaki, Nasir Khusau etc.) who lived in Buttamen Mountains (now in Tajikistan) in the upper Oxus are believed by many scholars to be the Kambojas who were living neighbors to the Tukhara/Tusharas north of the Hindukush in the Oxus valley. The region was also known as Kumudadvipa of the Puranic texts, which the scholars identify with Sanskrit Kamboja.Before its occupation by the Tukhara, Badakshan formed a part of ancient Kamboja (Parama Kamboja) but, after its occupation by the Tukhara in the 2nd century BCE, Badakshan and some other territories of the Kamboja became part of Tukhara.Around the 4th to 5th century CE, when the fortunes of the Tukhara finally waned, the original population of Kambojas re-asserted itself, and the region again started to be called by its ancient name, i.e., "Kamboja", though northwestern parts still retained the name of Duhuoluo or Tukharistan in Chinese at least until the time of the Tang Dynasty.There are several later references to Kamboja of the Pamirs/Badakshan. Raghuvamsha - a 5th-century Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, attests their presence on river Vamkshu (Oxus) as neighbors to the Hunas (Raghu: 4.68-70). As seen above, the 7th-century Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang mentions the Kiumito/Kumito living to the north of the Oxus, which may refer to Komedai of Ptolemy. which, as noted above, has been equated to Kamboja mentioned in Sanskrit texts.
The 8th-century king of Kashmir, King Lalitadiya, invaded the Kambojas of the "far-spreading northern region" (uttarāpatha) as mentioned in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana. After encountering the Kambojas, Lalitadiya's army approached the Tuhkhāras who "fled to the mountain ranges leaving behind their horses." According to D. C. Sircar, the Kambojas here are bracketed with the Tukharas and are shown as living in the eastern parts of the Oxus valley as neighbors of the Tukharas who were living in the western parts of that Valley.The 10th century CE Kavyamimamsa of Rajshekhar lists the Tusharas with several other tribes of the Uttarapatha viz: the Shakas, Kekeyas, Vokkanas, Hunas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Pahlavas, Limpakas, Kulutas, Tanganas, Turusakas, Barbaras, Ramathas etc. This mediaeval era evidence shows that the Tusharas were different from the Turushakas with whom they are often confused by some writers.
Possible connection to the Rishikas
Pompeius Trogus remarks that the Asii were lords of the Tochari. It is generally believed that they are same as the Rishikas of the Mahabharata which people are equivalent to Asii (in Prakrit). V. S. Aggarwala also equates the Rishikas with the Asii or Asioi. In 1870, George Rawlinson commented that "The Asii or Asiani were closely connected with the Tochari and the Sakarauli (Saracucse?) who are found connected with both the Tochari and the Asiani".If the Rishikas of the Mahabharata were same as the Tukharas, then the observation from George Rawlinson is in line with the Mahabharata statement which also closely allies the Rishikas with the Parama Kambojas and places them both in the Sakadvipa. The Kambojas (i.e. the southern branch of the Parama Kambojas), are the same as the classical Assaceni/Assacani (Aspasio/Assakenoi of Arrian) and the Aśvayana and Aśvakayana of Panini. They are also mentioned by Megasthenes who refers to them as Osii (= Asii), Asoi, Aseni etc., all living on upper Indus in eastern Afghanistan. The names indicate their connection with horses and horse culture. These Osii, Asoi/Aseni clans represent earlier migration from the Parama Kamboja (furthest Kamboja) land, lying between Oxus and Jaxartes, which happened prior to Achamenid rule. Per epic evidence, Parama Kamboja was the land of the Loha-Kamboja-Rishikas.The Rishikas are said by some scholars to be the same people as the Yuezhi. The Kushanas are also said by some to be the same people. Kalhana (c. 1148-1149 CE) claims that the three kings he calls Huṣka, Juṣka and Kaniṣka (commonly interpreted to refer to Huvishka, Vāsishka and Kanishka I) were "descended from the Turuṣka race". Aurel Stein says that the Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokarai) were a branch of the Yuezhi. P. C. Bagchi holds that the Yuezhi, Tocharioi and Tushara were identical. If he is correct, the Rishikas, Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi), the Kushanas and the Yuezhi, were probably either a single people, or members of a confederacy.
Sabha Parva of Mahabharata states that the Parama Kambojas, Lohas and the Rishikas were allied tribes. Like the "Parama Kambojas", the Rishikas of the Transoxian region are similarly styled as "Parama Rishikas". Based on the syntactical construction of the Mahabharata verse 5.5.15
and verse 2.27.25, Ishwa Mishra believe that the Rishikas were a section of the Kambojas i.e. Parama Kambojas. V. S. Aggarwala too, relates the Parama Kambojas of the Trans-Pamirs to the Rishikas of the Mahabharata and also places them in the Sakadvipa (or Scythia). According to Dr B. N. Puri and some other scholars, the Kambojas were a branch of the Tukharas. Based on the above Rishika-Kamboja connections, some scholars also claim that the Kambojas were a branch of the Yuezhi themselves. Dr Moti Chander also sees a close ethnic relationship between the Kambojas and the Yuezhi .Modern scholars are still debating the details of these connections without coming to any firm consensus.
Japan Visit
According to the Nihon Shoki, the second-oldest book of classical Japanese history, in 1654 two men and two women of the Tushara Kingdom, along with one woman from Shravasti, were drive by a storm to take refuge at the former Hyūga Province in southern Kyushu. They remained for several years before setting off for home. That is the first recorded visit of people from India to Japan.
See also
Tokharistan
Bactria
Tocharians
Kambojas
Bahlikas
Janapadas
Kingdoms of Ancient India
Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated to English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Footnotes
== External links ==
|
described by source
|
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81
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"Mahabharata"
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The Queensland Competition Authority (QCA) is an independent statutory authority that promotes competition as the basis for enhancing efficiency and growth in the Queensland economy. It was established by the Government of Queensland in 1997.
The QCA is governed by a four-member board. The Minister responsible for administering the Queensland Competition Authority Act 1997 (the QCA Act) is the Treasurer of Queensland.
Functions
The QCA's primary role is to ensure monopoly businesses operating in Queensland, particularly in the provision of key infrastructure, do not abuse their market power through unfair pricing or restrictive access arrangements.
Responsibilities
The QCA's main responsibilities under the QCA Act are:
Monopoly prices oversight
The QCA uses pricing and other regulatory arrangements, based on sound economic and commercial principles, to encourage monopoly businesses to operate responsibly in the absence of normal competitive market forces.
Prices oversight prevents government and non-government monopolies or near-monopolies from abusing their market power by charging excessive prices for their products or services – because they either have no competitors or existing ones are ineffective.
The QCA may investigate the pricing practices of such monopolies or monitor their pricing practices, depending on the referral from the Queensland Treasurer. The QCA only performs these functions on request from the Treasurer.The monopoly prices oversight powers of the QCA enable consumers to enjoy market prices, while businesses still earn a reasonable investment return – thus ensuring a beneficial outcome for all.
Third party access
Essential infrastructure that underpins economic activity should be accessible to all potential users.
The QCA regulates third party access to essential infrastructure so as to support competition by enabling competitors (i.e. ‘third parties’) to access infrastructure that cannot be economically duplicated, such as electricity and gas distribution systems, water storage and distribution systems, rail tracks and ports. As an example, in the Queensland rail sector, they ensure track owned by Aurizon Holdings may also be used by other transport operators. This provides customers, such as coal miners, with options regarding the haulage of their product.
By opening up access, competition is enhanced in related markets such as electricity and gas retailing and rail transport.
Competitive neutrality
The principle of competitive neutrality requires that government business activities competing in the market with non-government or private-business activities do not gain an unfair competitive advantage by virtue of being government-owned.
Their potential advantage could result from being exempt from any of the following:
Commonwealth or state taxes and tax equivalent payments
debt guarantee fees
the procedural or regulatory requirements of the federal, state or local governments.The principle of competitive neutrality does not extend to competitive advantage arising from factors such as business size, skills, location or customer loyalty.
General issues
Apart from the specific responsibilities outlined above, the QCA has a range of general responsibilities. In particular, under section 10(e) of the QCA Act, Ministers can direct the QCA to investigate and report on matters relating to competition and industry.
Responsibilities outside the QCA Act
The responsibilities, in addition to those under the QCA Act, include:
setting retail electricity prices under the Electricity Act 1994 for regional Queensland
enforcing customer protections under the Electricity Industry Code and the Gas Industry Code
applying competitive neutrality principles to local government business activities under the Local Government Act 2009.
See also
Australian Competition & Consumer Commission
List of Queensland government agencies
References
External links
Official website
|
country
|
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3824
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"Australia"
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|
The Journal of Interprofessional Care is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers education, practice, and research in health and social care.
Aims and scope
The Journal of Interprofessional Care aims to disseminate research and new developments in the field of interprofessional education and practice. We welcome contributions containing an explicit interprofessional focus, and involving a range of settings, professions, and fields. Areas of practice covered include primary, community and hospital care, health education and public health, and beyond health and social care into fields such as criminal justice and primary/elementary education. Papers introducing additional interprofessional views, for example, from a community development or environmental design perspective, are welcome.
The Journal publishes the following types of manuscripts:
1. Peer-reviewed Original Articles (research studies, systematic/analytical reviews, theoretical papers) that focus on interprofessional education and/or practice, and add to the conceptual, empirical or theoretical knowledge of the interprofessional field.
2. Peer-reviewed Short Reports that describe research plans, studies in progress or recently completed, or an interprofessional innovation.
3. Peer-reviewed Interprofessional Education and Practice (IPEP) Guides that offer practical advice on successfully undertaking various interprofessional activities.
4. Guest Editorials that discuss a salient issue related to interprofessional education and practice.
5. Book and Report Reviews that offer summaries of recently published books and reports (published on the Journal's Blog).
The Journal was established in 1986 and is published by Taylor & Francis. The editor-in-chief is Dr Andreas Xyrichis (King's College London). The Journal of Interprofessional Care is supported by an international editorial board.
Publication History
Currently known as
Journal of Interprofessional Care (1992 - current)
Formerly known as
Holistic Medicine (1986 - 1991)
Subjects Covered by this Journal
Allied Health; Community Health; Community Social Work; Health Education and Promotion; Health and Social Care; Public Health Policy and Practice; Social Work and Social Policy
Abstracting & Indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
2016 Journal Citation Reports® Ranks Journal of Interprofessional Care 22nd out of 77 journals in Health Care Sciences & Services (S) and 36th out of 74 journals in the Health Policy & Services (Ss) with a 2016 Impact Factor of 2.205
See also
Health human resources
Interprofessional education in health care
References
External links
Taylor & Francis Website: Official Journal Website
Blog: JIC Blog
|
Danish Bibliometric Research Indicator level
|
{
"answer_start": [
869
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"text": [
"1"
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|
The Journal of Interprofessional Care is a bimonthly peer-reviewed medical journal that covers education, practice, and research in health and social care.
Aims and scope
The Journal of Interprofessional Care aims to disseminate research and new developments in the field of interprofessional education and practice. We welcome contributions containing an explicit interprofessional focus, and involving a range of settings, professions, and fields. Areas of practice covered include primary, community and hospital care, health education and public health, and beyond health and social care into fields such as criminal justice and primary/elementary education. Papers introducing additional interprofessional views, for example, from a community development or environmental design perspective, are welcome.
The Journal publishes the following types of manuscripts:
1. Peer-reviewed Original Articles (research studies, systematic/analytical reviews, theoretical papers) that focus on interprofessional education and/or practice, and add to the conceptual, empirical or theoretical knowledge of the interprofessional field.
2. Peer-reviewed Short Reports that describe research plans, studies in progress or recently completed, or an interprofessional innovation.
3. Peer-reviewed Interprofessional Education and Practice (IPEP) Guides that offer practical advice on successfully undertaking various interprofessional activities.
4. Guest Editorials that discuss a salient issue related to interprofessional education and practice.
5. Book and Report Reviews that offer summaries of recently published books and reports (published on the Journal's Blog).
The Journal was established in 1986 and is published by Taylor & Francis. The editor-in-chief is Dr Andreas Xyrichis (King's College London). The Journal of Interprofessional Care is supported by an international editorial board.
Publication History
Currently known as
Journal of Interprofessional Care (1992 - current)
Formerly known as
Holistic Medicine (1986 - 1991)
Subjects Covered by this Journal
Allied Health; Community Health; Community Social Work; Health Education and Promotion; Health and Social Care; Public Health Policy and Practice; Social Work and Social Policy
Abstracting & Indexing
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
2016 Journal Citation Reports® Ranks Journal of Interprofessional Care 22nd out of 77 journals in Health Care Sciences & Services (S) and 36th out of 74 journals in the Health Policy & Services (Ss) with a 2016 Impact Factor of 2.205
See also
Health human resources
Interprofessional education in health care
References
External links
Taylor & Francis Website: Official Journal Website
Blog: JIC Blog
|
title
|
{
"answer_start": [
4
],
"text": [
"Journal of Interprofessional Care"
]
}
|
Ahmed Mulay Ali Hamadi (Arabic: مولاي أحمد علي حمادي; born 1954) is the current Sahrawi ambassador to Mexico, with a base in Mexico City. He is a licenciate on International Relations by the UNAM, and a member of the "Mexican Academy of International Law". Apart from his diplomatic career, Mulay Ali is also a writer in Spanish language, with books published in Mexico.
Personal life
Mulay Ali was born in 1954 in Hagunia, a town near El Aaiun, the capital of the territory. In 1976, he was among the Polisario Front militants helping the Sahrawi civilians who were fleeing from the cities occupied by Morocco. In 1997, he was an observer of the identification process in El Aaiun for the planned self-determination referendum, and saw his mother and daughter for the first time since 1976.
Diplomatic postings
From 2001 to 2004, he was the POLISARIO Delegate in Madrid, Spain. In August 2004, he was designated as Sahrawi resident ambassador in the United Mexican States, replacing Bachari Saleh.
Books
In 2006 the editorial Sky published his novel "Viaje a la Sabiduría del Desierto" ("Journey to the Wisdom of the Desert"). In 2008, the short story "El Silencioso Debate de los Animales" ("The Animals Silent Debate") was published by Libros de Godot. In 2011, he self-published in Bubok the novel "Los Senderos de la Vida" ("The Paths of Life").
== References ==
|
sex or gender
|
{
"answer_start": [
1188
],
"text": [
"male"
]
}
|
Ahmed Mulay Ali Hamadi (Arabic: مولاي أحمد علي حمادي; born 1954) is the current Sahrawi ambassador to Mexico, with a base in Mexico City. He is a licenciate on International Relations by the UNAM, and a member of the "Mexican Academy of International Law". Apart from his diplomatic career, Mulay Ali is also a writer in Spanish language, with books published in Mexico.
Personal life
Mulay Ali was born in 1954 in Hagunia, a town near El Aaiun, the capital of the territory. In 1976, he was among the Polisario Front militants helping the Sahrawi civilians who were fleeing from the cities occupied by Morocco. In 1997, he was an observer of the identification process in El Aaiun for the planned self-determination referendum, and saw his mother and daughter for the first time since 1976.
Diplomatic postings
From 2001 to 2004, he was the POLISARIO Delegate in Madrid, Spain. In August 2004, he was designated as Sahrawi resident ambassador in the United Mexican States, replacing Bachari Saleh.
Books
In 2006 the editorial Sky published his novel "Viaje a la Sabiduría del Desierto" ("Journey to the Wisdom of the Desert"). In 2008, the short story "El Silencioso Debate de los Animales" ("The Animals Silent Debate") was published by Libros de Godot. In 2011, he self-published in Bubok the novel "Los Senderos de la Vida" ("The Paths of Life").
== References ==
|
member of political party
|
{
"answer_start": [
503
],
"text": [
"Polisario Front"
]
}
|
Ahmed Mulay Ali Hamadi (Arabic: مولاي أحمد علي حمادي; born 1954) is the current Sahrawi ambassador to Mexico, with a base in Mexico City. He is a licenciate on International Relations by the UNAM, and a member of the "Mexican Academy of International Law". Apart from his diplomatic career, Mulay Ali is also a writer in Spanish language, with books published in Mexico.
Personal life
Mulay Ali was born in 1954 in Hagunia, a town near El Aaiun, the capital of the territory. In 1976, he was among the Polisario Front militants helping the Sahrawi civilians who were fleeing from the cities occupied by Morocco. In 1997, he was an observer of the identification process in El Aaiun for the planned self-determination referendum, and saw his mother and daughter for the first time since 1976.
Diplomatic postings
From 2001 to 2004, he was the POLISARIO Delegate in Madrid, Spain. In August 2004, he was designated as Sahrawi resident ambassador in the United Mexican States, replacing Bachari Saleh.
Books
In 2006 the editorial Sky published his novel "Viaje a la Sabiduría del Desierto" ("Journey to the Wisdom of the Desert"). In 2008, the short story "El Silencioso Debate de los Animales" ("The Animals Silent Debate") was published by Libros de Godot. In 2011, he self-published in Bubok the novel "Los Senderos de la Vida" ("The Paths of Life").
== References ==
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
272
],
"text": [
"diplomat"
]
}
|
Ahmed Mulay Ali Hamadi (Arabic: مولاي أحمد علي حمادي; born 1954) is the current Sahrawi ambassador to Mexico, with a base in Mexico City. He is a licenciate on International Relations by the UNAM, and a member of the "Mexican Academy of International Law". Apart from his diplomatic career, Mulay Ali is also a writer in Spanish language, with books published in Mexico.
Personal life
Mulay Ali was born in 1954 in Hagunia, a town near El Aaiun, the capital of the territory. In 1976, he was among the Polisario Front militants helping the Sahrawi civilians who were fleeing from the cities occupied by Morocco. In 1997, he was an observer of the identification process in El Aaiun for the planned self-determination referendum, and saw his mother and daughter for the first time since 1976.
Diplomatic postings
From 2001 to 2004, he was the POLISARIO Delegate in Madrid, Spain. In August 2004, he was designated as Sahrawi resident ambassador in the United Mexican States, replacing Bachari Saleh.
Books
In 2006 the editorial Sky published his novel "Viaje a la Sabiduría del Desierto" ("Journey to the Wisdom of the Desert"). In 2008, the short story "El Silencioso Debate de los Animales" ("The Animals Silent Debate") was published by Libros de Godot. In 2011, he self-published in Bubok the novel "Los Senderos de la Vida" ("The Paths of Life").
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Ahmed"
]
}
|
Elwood Henneman (1915 – 22 February 1996) was an American neurophysiologist who studied the properties of vertebrate motor neurons.
Biography and Research
Henneman received his bachelor's degree from Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1937. In 1943 he finished his medical studies at McGill University in Montreal. During a research fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Henneman and colleague, Vernon Mountcastle, showed that tactile information about the extremities is represented in an orderly map in the ventrolateral thalamus of the cat and monkey. Further research positions followed, including at the Royal Victorian Hospital and at the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI) in Chicago. At NPI, Henneman discovered that the drug Mephenesin (Myensin) inhibits interneurons in the spinal cord and thus causes muscle relaxation. This discovery helped lead to the development of muscle relaxant drugs.
Of greater impact for the scientific community was Henneman's work describing the physiology of motor neurons, the neurons that control contraction of the muscles. In 1957, Henneman published experimental results that showed that motor neurons that project to the same muscle are recruited on the basis of their size. Henneman's Size Principle describes this relationship.
In 1971, Henneman became chair of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School, a position he held until his retirement in 1984.
Awards and honors
In 1997, Henneman was posthumously elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death
Elwood Henneman passed away in 1996 at age 80, of heart failure.
Literature
Hans Peter Clamann: Elwood Henneman and the Size Principle. Journal of the history of the neurosciences. Vol. 11, no. 4 (Dec. 2002) p. 420–421.
== References ==
|
educated at
|
{
"answer_start": [
201
],
"text": [
"Harvard College"
]
}
|
Elwood Henneman (1915 – 22 February 1996) was an American neurophysiologist who studied the properties of vertebrate motor neurons.
Biography and Research
Henneman received his bachelor's degree from Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1937. In 1943 he finished his medical studies at McGill University in Montreal. During a research fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Henneman and colleague, Vernon Mountcastle, showed that tactile information about the extremities is represented in an orderly map in the ventrolateral thalamus of the cat and monkey. Further research positions followed, including at the Royal Victorian Hospital and at the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI) in Chicago. At NPI, Henneman discovered that the drug Mephenesin (Myensin) inhibits interneurons in the spinal cord and thus causes muscle relaxation. This discovery helped lead to the development of muscle relaxant drugs.
Of greater impact for the scientific community was Henneman's work describing the physiology of motor neurons, the neurons that control contraction of the muscles. In 1957, Henneman published experimental results that showed that motor neurons that project to the same muscle are recruited on the basis of their size. Henneman's Size Principle describes this relationship.
In 1971, Henneman became chair of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School, a position he held until his retirement in 1984.
Awards and honors
In 1997, Henneman was posthumously elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death
Elwood Henneman passed away in 1996 at age 80, of heart failure.
Literature
Hans Peter Clamann: Elwood Henneman and the Size Principle. Journal of the history of the neurosciences. Vol. 11, no. 4 (Dec. 2002) p. 420–421.
== References ==
|
occupation
|
{
"answer_start": [
58
],
"text": [
"neurophysiologist"
]
}
|
Elwood Henneman (1915 – 22 February 1996) was an American neurophysiologist who studied the properties of vertebrate motor neurons.
Biography and Research
Henneman received his bachelor's degree from Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1937. In 1943 he finished his medical studies at McGill University in Montreal. During a research fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Henneman and colleague, Vernon Mountcastle, showed that tactile information about the extremities is represented in an orderly map in the ventrolateral thalamus of the cat and monkey. Further research positions followed, including at the Royal Victorian Hospital and at the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI) in Chicago. At NPI, Henneman discovered that the drug Mephenesin (Myensin) inhibits interneurons in the spinal cord and thus causes muscle relaxation. This discovery helped lead to the development of muscle relaxant drugs.
Of greater impact for the scientific community was Henneman's work describing the physiology of motor neurons, the neurons that control contraction of the muscles. In 1957, Henneman published experimental results that showed that motor neurons that project to the same muscle are recruited on the basis of their size. Henneman's Size Principle describes this relationship.
In 1971, Henneman became chair of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School, a position he held until his retirement in 1984.
Awards and honors
In 1997, Henneman was posthumously elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death
Elwood Henneman passed away in 1996 at age 80, of heart failure.
Literature
Hans Peter Clamann: Elwood Henneman and the Size Principle. Journal of the history of the neurosciences. Vol. 11, no. 4 (Dec. 2002) p. 420–421.
== References ==
|
member of
|
{
"answer_start": [
1529
],
"text": [
"American Academy of Arts and Sciences"
]
}
|
Elwood Henneman (1915 – 22 February 1996) was an American neurophysiologist who studied the properties of vertebrate motor neurons.
Biography and Research
Henneman received his bachelor's degree from Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1937. In 1943 he finished his medical studies at McGill University in Montreal. During a research fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Henneman and colleague, Vernon Mountcastle, showed that tactile information about the extremities is represented in an orderly map in the ventrolateral thalamus of the cat and monkey. Further research positions followed, including at the Royal Victorian Hospital and at the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI) in Chicago. At NPI, Henneman discovered that the drug Mephenesin (Myensin) inhibits interneurons in the spinal cord and thus causes muscle relaxation. This discovery helped lead to the development of muscle relaxant drugs.
Of greater impact for the scientific community was Henneman's work describing the physiology of motor neurons, the neurons that control contraction of the muscles. In 1957, Henneman published experimental results that showed that motor neurons that project to the same muscle are recruited on the basis of their size. Henneman's Size Principle describes this relationship.
In 1971, Henneman became chair of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School, a position he held until his retirement in 1984.
Awards and honors
In 1997, Henneman was posthumously elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death
Elwood Henneman passed away in 1996 at age 80, of heart failure.
Literature
Hans Peter Clamann: Elwood Henneman and the Size Principle. Journal of the history of the neurosciences. Vol. 11, no. 4 (Dec. 2002) p. 420–421.
== References ==
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
7
],
"text": [
"Henneman"
]
}
|
Elwood Henneman (1915 – 22 February 1996) was an American neurophysiologist who studied the properties of vertebrate motor neurons.
Biography and Research
Henneman received his bachelor's degree from Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts in 1937. In 1943 he finished his medical studies at McGill University in Montreal. During a research fellowship at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, Henneman and colleague, Vernon Mountcastle, showed that tactile information about the extremities is represented in an orderly map in the ventrolateral thalamus of the cat and monkey. Further research positions followed, including at the Royal Victorian Hospital and at the Illinois Neuropsychiatric Institute (NPI) in Chicago. At NPI, Henneman discovered that the drug Mephenesin (Myensin) inhibits interneurons in the spinal cord and thus causes muscle relaxation. This discovery helped lead to the development of muscle relaxant drugs.
Of greater impact for the scientific community was Henneman's work describing the physiology of motor neurons, the neurons that control contraction of the muscles. In 1957, Henneman published experimental results that showed that motor neurons that project to the same muscle are recruited on the basis of their size. Henneman's Size Principle describes this relationship.
In 1971, Henneman became chair of the Department of Physiology at Harvard Medical School, a position he held until his retirement in 1984.
Awards and honors
In 1997, Henneman was posthumously elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Death
Elwood Henneman passed away in 1996 at age 80, of heart failure.
Literature
Hans Peter Clamann: Elwood Henneman and the Size Principle. Journal of the history of the neurosciences. Vol. 11, no. 4 (Dec. 2002) p. 420–421.
== References ==
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Elwood"
]
}
|
Hellinger is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Bert Hellinger (1925–2019), German psychotherapist
Ernst Hellinger (1883–1950), German mathematician
Hellinger distance, used to quantify the similarity between two probability distributions
Hellinger integral, used to define the Hellinger distance in probability theory
Mark Hellinger (1903–1947), American journalist, theatre columnist and film producer
Mark Hellinger Theatre, former Broadway theatre and cinema complex
Martin Hellinger (1904–1988), German Nazi dentist
|
different from
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Hellinger"
]
}
|
Hellinger is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Bert Hellinger (1925–2019), German psychotherapist
Ernst Hellinger (1883–1950), German mathematician
Hellinger distance, used to quantify the similarity between two probability distributions
Hellinger integral, used to define the Hellinger distance in probability theory
Mark Hellinger (1903–1947), American journalist, theatre columnist and film producer
Mark Hellinger Theatre, former Broadway theatre and cinema complex
Martin Hellinger (1904–1988), German Nazi dentist
|
native label
|
{
"answer_start": [
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"text": [
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|
Beverly Penberthy (born May 9, 1932, in Detroit, Michigan) is an American actress, best known for her role as Pat Matthews Randolph on the soap opera Another World, which she played from 1967 to 1982. She returned for a couple of appearances in May 1989 to coincide with the program's 25th anniversary celebration. Penberthy also played the character of Adelaide Fitzgibbons on As the World Turns in 1989.
She also had a small role in the film Judas Kiss.
References
External links
Beverly Penberthy at IMDb
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
40
],
"text": [
"Detroit"
]
}
|
Beverly Penberthy (born May 9, 1932, in Detroit, Michigan) is an American actress, best known for her role as Pat Matthews Randolph on the soap opera Another World, which she played from 1967 to 1982. She returned for a couple of appearances in May 1989 to coincide with the program's 25th anniversary celebration. Penberthy also played the character of Adelaide Fitzgibbons on As the World Turns in 1989.
She also had a small role in the film Judas Kiss.
References
External links
Beverly Penberthy at IMDb
|
Commons category
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Beverly Penberthy"
]
}
|
Beverly Penberthy (born May 9, 1932, in Detroit, Michigan) is an American actress, best known for her role as Pat Matthews Randolph on the soap opera Another World, which she played from 1967 to 1982. She returned for a couple of appearances in May 1989 to coincide with the program's 25th anniversary celebration. Penberthy also played the character of Adelaide Fitzgibbons on As the World Turns in 1989.
She also had a small role in the film Judas Kiss.
References
External links
Beverly Penberthy at IMDb
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
8
],
"text": [
"Penberthy"
]
}
|
Beverly Penberthy (born May 9, 1932, in Detroit, Michigan) is an American actress, best known for her role as Pat Matthews Randolph on the soap opera Another World, which she played from 1967 to 1982. She returned for a couple of appearances in May 1989 to coincide with the program's 25th anniversary celebration. Penberthy also played the character of Adelaide Fitzgibbons on As the World Turns in 1989.
She also had a small role in the film Judas Kiss.
References
External links
Beverly Penberthy at IMDb
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
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"text": [
"Beverly"
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}
|
Karin Tabke is an American author. Born in Miami, Florida, United States she now lives in Northern California.
Biography
Tabke has written two series Hot Cops and Blood Sword Legacy.
She has been the president of SFARWA San Francisco Area Romance Writers of America for two years.
Selected works
Novels
Good Girl Gone Bad – Pocket Books – 2006 - ISBN 1-4165-2485-1
Skin – Pocket Books – 2007 – ISBN 1-4165-2492-4
Jaded – Pocket Books – 2008 - ISBN 1-4165-6444-6
Master of Surrender – Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-5089-5
Have Yourself a Naughty Little Santa - Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-6458-6
Master of Torment – Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-5503-X
Master of Craving - Pocket Books - 2009 - ISBN 1-4391-0257-0
Anthologies
The Hard Stuff with Bonnie Edwards and Sunny – Kensington Books – 2006 – ISBN 0-7582-1408-1
What You Can’t See with Allison Brennan and Roxanne St. Claire - Pocket Books – 2007 – ISBN 1-4165-4229-9
Italian Stallions with Jami Alden – Kensington Books – 2008 – ISBN 0-7582-2559-8
By series
Hot Cops series
Good Girl Gone Bad
Skin
Jaded
Blood Sword Legacy series
Master of Surrender
Master of Torment
Master of Craving
References
External links
Karin Tabke Official Website
Karin Tabke at Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Fog City Divas
Murder She Writes
Write Attitude
Writer Unboxed Interview
Love Romances More Interview
My Tote Bag Interview
Antioch Press Interview
Cosmopolitan Red Hot Reads
San Francisco Area Romance Writers of America
Karin Tabke at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
|
place of birth
|
{
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44
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"text": [
"Miami"
]
}
|
Karin Tabke is an American author. Born in Miami, Florida, United States she now lives in Northern California.
Biography
Tabke has written two series Hot Cops and Blood Sword Legacy.
She has been the president of SFARWA San Francisco Area Romance Writers of America for two years.
Selected works
Novels
Good Girl Gone Bad – Pocket Books – 2006 - ISBN 1-4165-2485-1
Skin – Pocket Books – 2007 – ISBN 1-4165-2492-4
Jaded – Pocket Books – 2008 - ISBN 1-4165-6444-6
Master of Surrender – Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-5089-5
Have Yourself a Naughty Little Santa - Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-6458-6
Master of Torment – Pocket Books – 2008 – ISBN 1-4165-5503-X
Master of Craving - Pocket Books - 2009 - ISBN 1-4391-0257-0
Anthologies
The Hard Stuff with Bonnie Edwards and Sunny – Kensington Books – 2006 – ISBN 0-7582-1408-1
What You Can’t See with Allison Brennan and Roxanne St. Claire - Pocket Books – 2007 – ISBN 1-4165-4229-9
Italian Stallions with Jami Alden – Kensington Books – 2008 – ISBN 0-7582-2559-8
By series
Hot Cops series
Good Girl Gone Bad
Skin
Jaded
Blood Sword Legacy series
Master of Surrender
Master of Torment
Master of Craving
References
External links
Karin Tabke Official Website
Karin Tabke at Simon & Schuster, Inc.
Fog City Divas
Murder She Writes
Write Attitude
Writer Unboxed Interview
Love Romances More Interview
My Tote Bag Interview
Antioch Press Interview
Cosmopolitan Red Hot Reads
San Francisco Area Romance Writers of America
Karin Tabke at the Internet Speculative Fiction Database
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Karin"
]
}
|
Michael Casanova (born 4 May 1989) is a former Swiss footballer.
Career
He began his career with Team Ticino U-18 the youth team of Lugano and was in summer 2006 promoted to the first team. He played in the Lugano senior team his professional debut and joined the Challenge League team FC Locarno on 27 September 2008. In the summer 2009 two Super League teams, BSC Young Boys and FC Sion were interested in this player. In the summer of 2010, after a long and complicated process, he was transferred back to Lugano. But he retires in 2013 because he had problems to head after injury during a match.
External links
Swiss football league profile
Swiss national under-20 team profile
|
place of birth
|
{
"answer_start": [
133
],
"text": [
"Lugano"
]
}
|
Michael Casanova (born 4 May 1989) is a former Swiss footballer.
Career
He began his career with Team Ticino U-18 the youth team of Lugano and was in summer 2006 promoted to the first team. He played in the Lugano senior team his professional debut and joined the Challenge League team FC Locarno on 27 September 2008. In the summer 2009 two Super League teams, BSC Young Boys and FC Sion were interested in this player. In the summer of 2010, after a long and complicated process, he was transferred back to Lugano. But he retires in 2013 because he had problems to head after injury during a match.
External links
Swiss football league profile
Swiss national under-20 team profile
|
member of sports team
|
{
"answer_start": [
287
],
"text": [
"FC Locarno"
]
}
|
Michael Casanova (born 4 May 1989) is a former Swiss footballer.
Career
He began his career with Team Ticino U-18 the youth team of Lugano and was in summer 2006 promoted to the first team. He played in the Lugano senior team his professional debut and joined the Challenge League team FC Locarno on 27 September 2008. In the summer 2009 two Super League teams, BSC Young Boys and FC Sion were interested in this player. In the summer of 2010, after a long and complicated process, he was transferred back to Lugano. But he retires in 2013 because he had problems to head after injury during a match.
External links
Swiss football league profile
Swiss national under-20 team profile
|
family name
|
{
"answer_start": [
8
],
"text": [
"Casanova"
]
}
|
Michael Casanova (born 4 May 1989) is a former Swiss footballer.
Career
He began his career with Team Ticino U-18 the youth team of Lugano and was in summer 2006 promoted to the first team. He played in the Lugano senior team his professional debut and joined the Challenge League team FC Locarno on 27 September 2008. In the summer 2009 two Super League teams, BSC Young Boys and FC Sion were interested in this player. In the summer of 2010, after a long and complicated process, he was transferred back to Lugano. But he retires in 2013 because he had problems to head after injury during a match.
External links
Swiss football league profile
Swiss national under-20 team profile
|
given name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
],
"text": [
"Michael"
]
}
|
Zittelloceras is an extinct genus of nautiloids from the order Oncocerida which are among a large group of once diverse and numerous shelled cephalopods, now represented by only a handful of species.
Zittleoceras, which is included in the family Oncoceratidae, is characterized by subcircular or slightly depressed cyrtoconic shells with ventral, suborthochoanitic empty siphuncles; the shell surface typically with crenulated transverse frills or distinct noncrenulated annulations. Zittleoceras has been found in middle and upper Ordovician sediments in North America and Scotland. (Sweet, 1964)
See also
Nautiloid
List of nautiloids
References
Sweet, Walter C. 1964. Nautiloidea -Oncocerida; Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology Part K(3), R.C. Moore (ed); Univ. Kans. press.
Sepkoski, J.J. Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera.Sepkoski's Online Genus Database (CEPHALOPODA)
|
taxon rank
|
{
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28
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"text": [
"genus"
]
}
|
Zittelloceras is an extinct genus of nautiloids from the order Oncocerida which are among a large group of once diverse and numerous shelled cephalopods, now represented by only a handful of species.
Zittleoceras, which is included in the family Oncoceratidae, is characterized by subcircular or slightly depressed cyrtoconic shells with ventral, suborthochoanitic empty siphuncles; the shell surface typically with crenulated transverse frills or distinct noncrenulated annulations. Zittleoceras has been found in middle and upper Ordovician sediments in North America and Scotland. (Sweet, 1964)
See also
Nautiloid
List of nautiloids
References
Sweet, Walter C. 1964. Nautiloidea -Oncocerida; Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology Part K(3), R.C. Moore (ed); Univ. Kans. press.
Sepkoski, J.J. Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera.Sepkoski's Online Genus Database (CEPHALOPODA)
|
parent taxon
|
{
"answer_start": [
246
],
"text": [
"Oncoceratidae"
]
}
|
Zittelloceras is an extinct genus of nautiloids from the order Oncocerida which are among a large group of once diverse and numerous shelled cephalopods, now represented by only a handful of species.
Zittleoceras, which is included in the family Oncoceratidae, is characterized by subcircular or slightly depressed cyrtoconic shells with ventral, suborthochoanitic empty siphuncles; the shell surface typically with crenulated transverse frills or distinct noncrenulated annulations. Zittleoceras has been found in middle and upper Ordovician sediments in North America and Scotland. (Sweet, 1964)
See also
Nautiloid
List of nautiloids
References
Sweet, Walter C. 1964. Nautiloidea -Oncocerida; Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology Part K(3), R.C. Moore (ed); Univ. Kans. press.
Sepkoski, J.J. Jr. 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera.Sepkoski's Online Genus Database (CEPHALOPODA)
|
taxon name
|
{
"answer_start": [
0
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"text": [
"Zittelloceras"
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}
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Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
instance of
|
{
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81
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"text": [
"website"
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}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
founded by
|
{
"answer_start": [
954
],
"text": [
"David Mikkelson"
]
}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
headquarters location
|
{
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5430
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"text": [
"Tacoma"
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}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
location
|
{
"answer_start": [
5430
],
"text": [
"Tacoma"
]
}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
Twitter username
|
{
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2227
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"text": [
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}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
Facebook ID
|
{
"answer_start": [
2227
],
"text": [
"snopes"
]
}
|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
Quora topic ID
|
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Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
subreddit
|
{
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2227
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Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
Trustpilot company ID
|
{
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2227
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|
Snopes , formerly known as the Urban Legends Reference Pages, is a fact-checking website. It has been described as a "well-regarded reference for sorting out myths and rumors" on the Internet. The site has also been seen as a source for both validating and debunking urban legends and similar stories in American popular culture.
History
1990s
In 1994, David and Barbara Mikkelson created an urban folklore web site that would become Snopes.com. Snopes was an early online encyclopedia focused on urban legends, which mainly presented search results of user discussions based at first on their contributions to the Usenet newsgroup alt.folklore.urban (AFU) where they'd been active. The site grew to encompass a wide range of subjects and became a resource to which Internet users began submitting pictures and stories of questionable veracity. According to the Mikkelsons, Snopes predated the search engine concept of fact-checking via search results. David Mikkelson had originally adopted the username "Snopes" (the name of a family of often unpleasant people in the works of William Faulkner) in AFU.
2000s
In 2002, the site had become known well enough that a television pilot by writer-director Michael Levine called Snopes: Urban Legends was completed with American actor Jim Davidson as host. However, it did not air on major networks.By 2010, the site was attracting seven million to eight million unique visitors in an average month.
2010s
By mid-2014, Barbara had not written for Snopes "in several years" and David was forced to hire users from Snopes.com's message board to assist him in running the site. The Mikkelsons divorced around that time. Christopher Richmond and Drew Schoentrup became part owners in July 2016 with the purchase of Barbara Mikkelson's share by the internet media management company Proper Media.On March 9, 2017, David Mikkelson terminated the brokering agreement with Proper Media, which is also the company that provides Snopes with web development, hosting, and advertising support. The move prompted Proper Media to stop remitting advertising revenue and to file a lawsuit in May. In late June, Bardav—the company founded by David and Barbara Mikkelson in 2003 to own and operate snopes.com—started a GoFundMe campaign to raise money to continue operations. They raised $500,000 in 24 hours. Later, in August, a judge ordered Proper Media to disburse advertising revenues to Bardav while the case was pending.In July 2018, Snopes abruptly terminated its contract with Managing Editor Brooke Binkowski, with no explanation. By the time Snopes co-founder and CEO David Mikkelson confirmed the termination to her, the situation was still not clear.In early 2019, Snopes announced that it had acquired the website OnTheIssues.org, and is "hard at work modernizing its extensive archives". OnTheIssues is a website that seeks to "present all the relevant evidence, assess how strongly each piece supports or opposes a position, and summarize it with an average" in order to "provide voters with reliable information on candidates' policy positions".In 2018 and 2019, Snopes fact-checked several articles from The Babylon Bee, a satirical website, rating them "False". The decision resulted in Facebook adding warnings to links to those articles shared on its site. Snopes added a new rating called "Labeled Satire" to identify satirical stories.In 2019, Snopes was embroiled in legal disputes with Proper Media, with a court case scheduled for spring 2020. By then Proper Media had become a co-owner of Bardav through acquiring Barbara Mikkelson's half-interest share, intending to take overall ownership of Snopes for its own "portfolio of media sites". The move failed as David Mikkelson had no intention to sell his share.
2020s
COVID-19 pandemic and misinformation
As the COVID-19 pandemic started in 2020, many people tried to "educate themselves on the coronavirus" and find "any comfort, certainty, or hope for a cure [for the coronavirus]". Snopes has around 237 COVID-related fact-checking articles.
Plagiarism by co-founder David Mikkelson
On August 13, 2021, BuzzFeed News published an investigation by reporter Dean Sterling Jones that showed David Mikkelson had used plagiarized material from different news sources in 54 articles between 2015 and 2019 in an effort to increase website traffic. Mikkelson also published plagiarized material under a pseudonym, "Jeff Zarronandia". The BuzzFeed inquiry prompted Snopes to launch an internal review of Mikkelson's articles and to retract 60 of them the day the Buzzfeed story appeared. Mikkelson admitted to committing "multiple serious copyright violations" and apologized for "serious lapses in judgment." He was suspended from editorial duties during the investigation, but remains an officer and stakeholder in the company.
Change of ownership
On September 16, 2022, David Mikkelson stepped down as CEO and was succeeded by shareholder and board member Chris Richmond. Richmond and fellow shareholder Drew Schoentrup together acquired 100% of the company, ending the ownership dispute which began in 2017.
Main site
Snopes aims to debunk or confirm widely spread urban legends. The site has been referenced by news media and other sites, including CNN, MSNBC, Fortune, Forbes, and The New York Times. By March 2009, the site had more than six million visitors per month. David Mikkelson ran the website from his home in Tacoma, Washington.Mikkelson has stressed the reference portion of the name Urban Legends Reference Pages, indicating that the intention is not merely to dismiss or confirm misconceptions and rumors but to provide evidence for such debunkings and confirmation as well. Where appropriate, pages are generally marked "undetermined" or "unverifiable" when there is not enough evidence to either support or disprove a given claim.In an attempt to demonstrate the perils of over-reliance on the Internet as authority, Snopes assembled a series of fabricated urban folklore tales that it termed "The Repository of Lost Legends". The name was chosen for its acronym, T.R.O.L.L., a reference to the definition of the word troll, meaning an internet persona intended to be deliberately provocative or incendiary.In 2009, FactCheck.org reviewed a sample of Snopes's responses to political rumors regarding George W. Bush, Sarah Palin, and Barack Obama, and found them to be free from bias in all cases. In 2012, The Florida Times-Union reported that About.com's urban legends researcher found a "consistent effort to provide even-handed analyses" and that Snopes' cited sources and numerous reputable analyses of its content confirm its accuracy.Mikkelson has said that the site receives more complaints of liberal bias than conservative bias, but added that the same debunking standards are applied to all political urban legends.
Funding
In 2016, Snopes said that the entirety of its revenue was derived from advertising. In the same year it received an award of $75,000 from the James Randi Educational Foundation, an organization formed to debunk paranormal claims. In 2017, it raised approximately $700,000 from a crowd-sourced GoFundMe effort and received $100,000 from Facebook as a part of a fact-checking partnership. Snopes also offers a premium membership that disables ads.On February 1, 2019, Snopes announced that it had ended its fact-checking partnership with Facebook. Snopes did not rule out the possibility of working with Facebook in the future but said it needed to "determine with certainty that our efforts to aid any particular platform are a net positive for our online community, publication and staff". Snopes added that the loss of revenue from the partnership meant the company would "have less money to invest in our publication—and we will need to adapt to make up for it".Snopes publishes a yearly summary detailing expenses and sources of income.
See also
FactCheck.org – Fact-checking website
Hoaxes – fabricated falsehoods
List of common misconceptions
References
External links
Official website
|
Media Bias/Fact Check ID
|
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Volker Winkler (born 20 July 1957) is a retired East German track cyclist. He had his best achievements in the 4000 m team pursuit. In this discipline he won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics, as well as four gold medals at the world championships in 1977–1981.After retiring from competitions in 1985 he worked as a cycling coach, first at SC Cottbus, the club he was competing for, then at RSC Cottbus, and later at Berlin Cycling Union.
References
External links
Media related to Volker Winkler at Wikimedia Commons
|
Commons category
|
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Volker Winkler (born 20 July 1957) is a retired East German track cyclist. He had his best achievements in the 4000 m team pursuit. In this discipline he won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics, as well as four gold medals at the world championships in 1977–1981.After retiring from competitions in 1985 he worked as a cycling coach, first at SC Cottbus, the club he was competing for, then at RSC Cottbus, and later at Berlin Cycling Union.
References
External links
Media related to Volker Winkler at Wikimedia Commons
|
family name
|
{
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7
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"Winkler"
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|
Volker Winkler (born 20 July 1957) is a retired East German track cyclist. He had his best achievements in the 4000 m team pursuit. In this discipline he won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics, as well as four gold medals at the world championships in 1977–1981.After retiring from competitions in 1985 he worked as a cycling coach, first at SC Cottbus, the club he was competing for, then at RSC Cottbus, and later at Berlin Cycling Union.
References
External links
Media related to Volker Winkler at Wikimedia Commons
|
given name
|
{
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0
],
"text": [
"Volker"
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|
Volker Winkler (born 20 July 1957) is a retired East German track cyclist. He had his best achievements in the 4000 m team pursuit. In this discipline he won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics, as well as four gold medals at the world championships in 1977–1981.After retiring from competitions in 1985 he worked as a cycling coach, first at SC Cottbus, the club he was competing for, then at RSC Cottbus, and later at Berlin Cycling Union.
References
External links
Media related to Volker Winkler at Wikimedia Commons
|
languages spoken, written or signed
|
{
"answer_start": [
53
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"text": [
"German"
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|
Volker Winkler (born 20 July 1957) is a retired East German track cyclist. He had his best achievements in the 4000 m team pursuit. In this discipline he won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics, as well as four gold medals at the world championships in 1977–1981.After retiring from competitions in 1985 he worked as a cycling coach, first at SC Cottbus, the club he was competing for, then at RSC Cottbus, and later at Berlin Cycling Union.
References
External links
Media related to Volker Winkler at Wikimedia Commons
|
name in native language
|
{
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View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
instance of
|
{
"answer_start": [
70
],
"text": [
"painting"
]
}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
creator
|
{
"answer_start": [
57
],
"text": [
"Paul Cézanne"
]
}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
depicts
|
{
"answer_start": [
8
],
"text": [
"Auvers-sur-Oise"
]
}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
made from material
|
{
"answer_start": [
1231
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"text": [
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|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
collection
|
{
"answer_start": [
827
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"text": [
"Ashmolean Museum"
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|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
location
|
{
"answer_start": [
1718
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"text": [
"unknown"
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}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
significant event
|
{
"answer_start": [
1116
],
"text": [
"theft"
]
}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
title
|
{
"answer_start": [
184
],
"text": [
"Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France"
]
}
|
View of Auvers-sur-Oise is the common English name for a Paul Cézanne painting known by various French names, usually Paysage d'Auvers-sur-Oise, or in the artist's catalogue raisonné, Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France. It is believed to have been painted in 1879–80, several years after Cézanne's residence in Auvers-sur-Oise, a small village northwest of Paris. The painting depicts a landscape of Northern France; the exact location has not been determined.
Victor Chocquet bought the painting from the artist, and it remained in his family's collection until the early 20th century. Later it came into the possession of Bruno Cassirer, who loaned it to the Kunsthaus Zürich. It was inherited by Cassirer's daughter Sophie, and after her death in 1979 it was accepted in lieu of inheritance tax and allocated to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford University.Shortly after midnight on New Year's Day 2000, guards at the Ashmolean, responding to a fire alarm, discovered the painting was missing. Police believe the thief or thieves used a smoke bomb and that night's millennium celebrations as a cover for the theft of the museum's only Cézanne and the only painting taken. It has not been recovered.
Description
The oil-on-canvas painting depicts a rolling landscape below a blue sky filled with clouds, represented as smears of paint. Down a green slope from the viewer are a group of houses, white with roofs either blue or orange, again not depicted in detail. Scattered among them are trees, most green, but some with more yellowish color apparent. In the background another hillside with houses amid trees rises; a church spire rises at the crest.The location of the landscape depicted in the painting is unknown. The painting is 46 centimetres (18 in) high by 55 centimetres (22 in) wide. Cézanne's signature is in red paint at the lower left.
History
Camille Pissarro, whom Cézanne came to see as both friend and mentor, moved to Pontoise, a small country town northwest of Paris, in 1872 after his previous country residence in Louveciennes, west of Paris, was stripped of all its contents while he was in Paris during the Franco-Prussian War two years earlier. The following year, Cézanne moved to neighboring Auvers-sur-Oise, where he and Pissarro lived within walking distance of each other, and often painted side by side in plein air. They painted the same subjects, but in different and distinctive works.The two were trying to capture the "perception of sensation" in their work. Cézanne's style, especially in his landscapes, reflected the influence of his fellow artist, even as the two preferred different techniques—Pissarro dabbing while Cézanne daubed or smeared, according to a local resident who watched them both paint. Cézanne began using brighter colors than he had previously, with less stark contrasts.A catalogue to a 2006 joint exhibition of their work from this period at the Musée d'Orsay in Paris calls the two Impressionism's "painters of the earth", counterparts to its two "painters of water", Claude Monet and Alfred Sisley. But "with Cézanne the spectator is openly invited to observe the way he portrays surfaces" the catalog observes. "Shapes are simplified and each brushstroke is amplified. His paintings are intense reflections of his method."View of Auvers-sur-Oise was painted later, in 1879–80. By this time, Cézanne was preparing to leave Paris and return to his native Aix-en-Provence, where he continued painting in this style, including similar landscapes, moving toward Post-Impressionism. Ashmolean Museum director Christopher Brown describes the painting as important to understanding the artist's career, showing him transitioning from his early work to the mature style he brought to well-known later works.
Provenance
French bureaucrat Victor Chocquet, a collector and advocate for Impressionism, bought the painting. After his death in 1891, it was bequeathed to his wife Marie. In 1899 the Chocquet collection was exhibited at Galerie Georges Petit in Paris, under the title Auvers. In turn it was purchased by another collector of Impressionist works, Thadée Natanson.Natanson auctioned his collection, including View of Auvers-sur-oise, at the Hôtel Drouot in 1908. It passed that way to another prominent collector, German publisher Bruno Cassirer. He loaned it to his cousin Paul for a 1921 Berlin exhibit of Cézanne works in private German collections; it was titled Ansicht an Aix. Bruno made the painting part of an extended loan to the Kunsthaus Zürich, which exhibited it in 1933 as Regenlandschaft. On another loan to a Swiss museum, the Kunsthalle Basel. This time it was known as Bei Auvers.
Bruno's daughter Sophie inherited it after his death in 1941, by which time the family had moved to Oxford following Nazi persecution. She kept it in the family's hands and did not loan it out. Upon the deaths of her husband Richard Rudolf Walzer in 1975, followed by her own four years later, the estate incurred a large inheritance tax bill. The painting was accepted by the British government in lieu of inheritance tax to become part of the collection at the Ashmolean, which lists it in its catalogue under the English title A View of buildings in a valley in the Ile-de-France. In 1998 the Ashmolean loaned it to the Art Gallery of New South Wales, in Sydney, for its Classic Cézanne exhibit; in this it was given the French title Groupe de maisons, paysage d'île de France, the title used in the artist's current catalogue raisonné.
Theft
At midnight on 31 December 1999, fireworks went off in Oxford as part of the global millennium celebrations that year. Police believe that at that time, someone used the distraction and noise to prevent anyone from noticing that they were climbing scaffolding around an extension to the museum's library that was under construction. Once they reached the roof, they broke a skylight over the museum's Hindley Smith Gallery and dropped a small smoke bomb in.The burglar carried with them a small holdall holding a scalpel, tape, gloves and portable fan. They dropped a rope ladder into the gallery and descended. Once there they used the fan to blow the smoke around so neither the museum's security guards, should they come into the gallery, nor its CCTV cameras would be able to get a good view of their faces. After cutting View of Auvers-sur-Oise from its frame, they smashed the empty frame on the floor, climbed the rope ladder, went back down the scaffolding and out into the crowds still celebrating the new year and millennium.Alarms had been set off during the burglary, but security at the museum assumed from the smoke that there had been a fire. When police and firefighters reached the museum at 1:43am, they went into the Smith Gallery and found the smoke had dissipated, with no signs of a fire. Instead what was left of the smoke bomb was on the floor, and a flashing light on the wall alerted them to the absence of the Cézanne painting next to it.Director Brown, in London for the millennium celebrations, was alerted within the hour. He went immediately back to Oxford and saw the crime scene for himself. "It was like coming into your own house and finding evidence of a break-in," he said. "Any director builds up an intense relationship with the works of art that he or she is responsible for, and this was very personal to me."Police soon determined that View of Auvers-sur-Oise was the only work taken from a room that also displayed paintings by Renoir, Rodin and Toulouse-Lautrec. This led them to theorise that the burglary had specifically targeted the painting, the only work by Cézanne in the Ashmolean. The thief or whoever they were working for had wanted it for a personal private collection. They may also have been motivated by the £18.2 million sale at Sotheby's of a Cézanne still life, Bouilloire et fruits, itself recently recovered following a theft in 1978, and hoped to make a similar profit. Katrina Burrows, editor of the London-based magazine Trace, which covers stolen art, doubted the thieves or anyone working for them would be able to sell the painting, if that was their goal, due to the considerable publicity surrounding the theft.The Ashmolean valued the painting at £3 million. Like other artwork in British museums, it was not insured due to the high premiums required. Burrows also said that contrary to public perception of art theft as prevalent due to the recent box office success of The Thomas Crown Affair, it had actually become much rarer due to increased security and awareness of which works might have been stolen. "Anyone offered this painting will walk over to the shelf and look it up in a Cezanne book, and would see where it belongs", Brown said.There had been other thefts and attempted thefts of art from the museum and other Oxford facilities in the late 1990s. A pair of 17th-century French bottles were taken in 1996, and the following year three thieves were caught after they broke open a glass display case to take a jewel made for Alfred the Great. Brown said the museum had not relaxed its security for the holiday.The theft also drew comparisons to another recent film, Entrapment, in which the characters use the millennium celebrations as cover for an art theft. Investigators said the thief demonstrated a high level of skill. "It was a very clever ploy, a very professional theft", an unnamed police source told The Guardian. "Whoever has taken this painting has given some thought to how to steal it" agreed Oxford police superintendent John Carr.Novelist Iain Pears, who lived nearby, said that he could have been a witness. "If I had been there 10 minutes earlier, I could have helped them load it into the car", he joked to The New York Times. He called the theft "jolly brilliant". He believed it was likely that the painting would be recovered. "Twenty years ago the Ashmolean lost a Persian carpet in a theft. They eventually got it back from a dry cleaners in New York."In January 2014, the Ashmolean made up for the painting's absence by becoming the first European museum to host an exhibit of Impressionist works from the Henry and Rose Pearlman Collection at the Princeton University Art Museum. Of the fifty paintings in Cézanne and the Modern, twenty-four were by the title artist, spanning his whole career. Museum staff recalled the theft as a low point in the museum's recent history that made them more elated to host the Pearlman exhibit.
Investigation
The Thames Valley Police assigned six officers to investigate. They knew their own resources would not be enough. "This is not a crime which is going to be solved overnight." said a spokesman. "We are more used to run-of-the-mill crimes. We need expertise." Accordingly they had called in specialists in art theft; customs officers at airports and harbours had been alerted in case anyone tried to take the painting out of Britain, although police believed that it was more likely in the possession of some domestic collector.At first police withheld some details of the crime in case a ransom request came in. Later in January they believed they were on the verge of recovering it after receiving a tip that it had been seen in a West Midlands pub. When they went there to investigate, it turned out to be a copy, its paint still wet, being painted by the landlord.As of 2021, no other leads have come in that police have discussed publicly; the investigation continues. In 2005 the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) named the theft one the world's top ten art crimes; its Art Crime Team actively seeks information from the public that may lead to the recover of View of Auvers-sur-Oise.
See also
1880 in art
List of paintings by Paul Cézanne
List of stolen paintings
The Boy in the Red Vest, another Cézanne painting stolen (but later recovered)
Notes
== References ==
|
height
|
{
"answer_start": [
1743
],
"text": [
"46"
]
}
|
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