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In 1998, Andrew Fire at Carnegie Institution for Science in Washington DC and Craig Mello at University of Massachusetts in Worcester discovered the RNAi mechanism while working on the gene expression in the nematode, "Caenorhabditis elegans". They won the Nobel prize for their research with RNAi in 2006. siRNAs and their role in post-transcriptional gene silencing(PTGS) was discovered in plants by David Baulcombe's group at the Sainsbury Laboratory in Norwich, England and reported in "Science" in 1999. Thomas Tuschl and colleagues soon reported in "Nature" that synthetic siRNAs could induce RNAi in mammalian cells. In 2001, the expression of a specific gene was successfully silenced by introducing chemically synthesized siRNA into mammalian cells (Tuschl et al.) These discoveries led to a surge in interest in harnessing RNAi for biomedical research and drug development. Significant developments in siRNA therapies have been made with both organic (carbon based) and inorganic (non-carbon based) nanoparticles, which have been successful in drug delivery to the brain, offering promising methods to deliver therapeutics into human subjects. However, human applications of siRNA have had significant limitations to its success. One of these being off-targeting. There is also a possibility that these therapies can trigger innate immunity. Animal models have not been successful in accurately representing the extent of this response in humans. Hence, studying the effects of siRNA therapies has been a challenge.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=584617
| 742,798 |
1,706,710 |
Krylov has received worldwide recognition, in particular for her invention of the spin-flip method. She received the 2007 WATOC (World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists) Dirac Medal for her "outstanding research on new methods in electronic structure theory for the description of bond-breaking, in particular the spin-flip method", and the Agnes Fay Morgan Research Award, given by Iota Sigma Pi National Honor Society for outstanding research achievements to a woman chemist or biochemist under 40 years of age. She is the recipient of a Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel Research Award from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation for developing robust electronic structure methods for open-shell and electronically excited species and creative use of "ab initio" theory to understand the chemistry of biomolecules, reaction intermediates, and photoinduced processes; and the recipient of the 2012 Theoretical Chemistry Award from the Physical Chemistry Division of the American Chemical Society. In addition, she has received the USC Melon Mentoring Award, the Hanna Reisler Mentoring Award from the WiSE program, the USC Phi Kappa Phi Faculty Recognition Award, and the INSIGHT Into Diversity Inspiring Women in STEM Award. In 2017, Krylov was recognized with the Mildred Dresselhaus Award from the Center for Ultrafast Imaging at DESY in Hamburg, Germany. In 2018, she was awarded a Simons Fellowship in Theoretical Physics from the Simons Foundation. In 2019 she received the American Physical Association's prestigious Earle K. Plyler Prize for Molecular Spectroscopy & Dynamics for her:"innovative work developing high accuracy electronic structure theory to inspire interpretation of spectroscopy of radicals, excited states, and ionization resonances in small molecules, biomolecules, and condensed phase solutes."In 2022, she received the USC Associates Award for Creativity in Research and Scholarship, the highest scholarly award granted by the University. That same year, she received the inaugural Communicator of the Year Award, Science and Mathematics, from the USC Dornsife College of Letters, Arts, and Sciences. The award recognized her efforts to inform the scientific community and the general public through writings and speaking engagements of "the growing influence of politics and moral trends within STEM fields."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11061937
| 1,705,752 |
765,968 |
Such materials would need to be manufactured into bulk materials with complex shapes at high volume and low cost and would serve a variety of fields such as construction, transportation, energy storage and conversion. In a classic design problem, strength and toughness are more likely to be mutually exclusive i.e., strong materials are brittle and tough materials are weak. However, natural materials with complex and hierarchical material gradients that span from nano- to macro-scales are both strong and tough. Generally, most natural materials utilize limited chemical components but complex material architectures that give rise to exceptional mechanical properties. Understanding the highly diverse and multi functional biological materials and discovering approaches to replicate such structures will lead to advanced and more efficient technologies. Bone, nacre (abalone shell), teeth, the dactyl clubs of stomatopod shrimps and bamboo are great examples of damage tolerant materials. The exceptional resistance to fracture of bone is due to complex deformation and toughening mechanisms that operate at spanning different size scales - nanoscale structure of protein molecules to macroscopic physiological scale. Nacre exhibits similar mechanical properties however with rather simpler structure. Nacre shows a brick and mortar like structure with thick mineral layer (0.2-0.9 μm) of closely packed aragonite structures and thin organic matrix (~20 nm). While thin films and micrometer sized samples that mimic these structures are already produced, successful production of bulk biomimetic structural materials is yet to be realized. However, numerous processing techniques have been proposed for producing nacre like materials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45784
| 765,558 |
88,579 |
A major criticism of the assumptions that continue to make these model results possible appeared in the 1987 book "Nuclear War Survival Skills" ("NWSS"), a civil defense manual by Cresson Kearny for the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. According to the 1988 publication "An assessment of global atmospheric effects of a major nuclear war", Kearny's criticisms were directed at the excessive amount of soot that the modelers assumed would reach the stratosphere. Kearny cited a Soviet study that modern cities would not burn as firestorms, as most flammable city items would be buried under non-combustible rubble and that the TTAPS study included a massive overestimate on the size and extent of non-urban wildfires that would result from a nuclear war. The TTAPS authors responded that, amongst other things, they did not believe target planners would intentionally blast cities into rubble, but instead argued fires would begin in relatively undamaged suburbs when nearby sites were hit, and partially conceded his point about non-urban wildfires. Dr. Richard D. Small, director of thermal sciences at the Pacific-Sierra Research Corporation similarly disagreed strongly with the model assumptions, in particular the 1990 update by TTAPS that argues that some 5,075 Tg of material would burn in a total US-Soviet nuclear war, as analysis by Small of blueprints and real buildings returned a maximum of 1,475 Tg of material that could be burned, "assuming that all the available combustible material was actually ignited".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22171
| 88,544 |
147,492 |
The Universidad de El Salvador (University of El Salvador) has a program of 8 years for students who want to study medicine. The first six years are organized in a two semesters fashion, the seventh year is used for a rotating internship through the mayor specialty areas in a 10-week periods fashion (psychiatry and public health share a period) and the eighth year is designated for Social service in locations approved by the Ministry of Health (usually as attending physician in Community Health Centers or non-profit organizations). The graduates receive the degree of MD and must register in the Public Health Superior Council to get the medical license and a registered national number that allows them to prescribe barbiturates and other controlled drugs. In order to attend further studies (Surgery, Internal medicine, G/OB, Pediatrics, Psychiatry), the students in the year of Social service or graduates of any Salvadorian university must apply independently for the residency to the hospital of choice; the preliminary selection process is based on the results of clinical knowledge tests, followed by psychiatric evaluations and interviews with the hospital medical and administrative staff. The basic residencies mentioned above commonly last 3 years; at the last trimester of the third year, the residents can apply to the position of Chief of residents (1 year) or follow further studies as resident (3 years) of a specialty (for example:orthopedic surgery, urology, neurology, endocrinology...). No further studies are offered to the date; therefore, specialist looking for training or practice in a specific area (For example: a neurosurgeon looking for specialty in endovascular neurosurgery, spine surgery or pediatric neurosurgery) must attend studies in other countries and apply for such positions independently.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=465584
| 147,434 |
1,248,138 |
For the DoD, SwA is defined as "the level of confidence that software functions only as intended and is free of vulnerabilities, either intentionally or unintentionally designed or inserted as part of the software, throughout the life cycle. DoD is developing SwA as a sound systems engineering practice as demonstrated by two recent publications funded by JFAC with development led by the Software Engineering Institute (SEI) and expert practitioners within the Military Services and NSA. The Program Manager's SwA Guidebook shows how SwA should be planned, resourced, and managed while the Developer's SwA Guidebook recommends tailorable technical practices throughout the life cycle. Both of these documents are the first of their kind, and awarded. The two enterprise-scale organizations in DoD building SwA capability are the Joint Federated Assurance Center (JFAC) and the DoD SwA Community of practice which has operated as a quarterly collegial forum 32 consecutive gatherings. Both are open to other parts of the US Government. The JFAC Charter is available at its website. To develop wider situational awareness of the families of SwA tools commercially available, JFAC funded the Institute for Defense Analysis (IDA) to produce the State of the Art Resource (SOAR). A recent innovation in "engineering-in" SwA throughout the life cycle is coupling selected NIST 800-53 controls to engineering tasks so that the engineering results define the Risk Management Framework (RMF) and drive the Authority to Operate (ATO). A package including Data Item Descriptions (DIDs), machine-readable vulnerability report formats, and a brief overviewing application of the techniques is available at the JFAC website. Other disruptive innovations are in process.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3084104
| 1,247,462 |
725,491 |
On 23 March 1923 on one of the lakes of Moritzburg, the Frauenteich, he spotted what he identified as a red-crested pochard. The species had not been seen in Saxony since 1845 and the local club argued about the identity. Raimund Schelcher (1891–1979) of the club then suggested that Mayr visit his classmate Erwin Stresemann on his way to Greifswald, where Mayr was to begin his medical studies. After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic. Stresemann was very impressed and suggested that, between semesters, Mayr could work as a volunteer in the ornithological section of the museum. Mayr wrote about this event, "It was as if someone had given me the key to heaven." He entered the University of Greifswald in 1923 and, according to Mayr himself, "took the medical curriculum (to satisfy a family tradition) but after only a year, he decided to leave medicine and enrolled at the Faculty of Biological Sciences." Mayr was endlessly interested in ornithology and "chose Greifswald at the Baltic for my studies for no other reason than that ... it was situated in the ornithologically most interesting area." Although he ostensibly planned to become a physician, he was "first and foremost an ornithologist." During the first semester break Stresemann gave him a test to identify treecreepers and Mayr was able to identify most of the specimens correctly. Stresemann declared that Mayr "was a born systematist". In 1925, Stresemann suggested that he give up his medical studies, in fact he should leave the faculty of medicine and enrol into the faculty of Biology and then join the Berlin Museum with the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics, on the condition that he completed his doctoral studies in 16 months. Mayr completed his doctorate in ornithology at the University of Berlin under Dr. Carl Zimmer, who was a full professor (Ordentlicher Professor), on 24 June 1926 at the age of 21. On 1 July he accepted the position offered to him at the museum for a monthly salary of 330.54 Reichsmark.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9238
| 725,110 |
94,509 |
The second major line of thought relates the hippocampus to memory. Although it had historical precursors, this idea derived its main impetus from a famous report by American neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville and British-Canadian neuropsychologist Brenda Milner describing the results of surgical destruction of the hippocampi when trying to relieve epileptic seizures in an American man Henry Molaison, known until his death in 2008 as "Patient H.M." The unexpected outcome of the surgery was severe anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia; Molaison was unable to form new episodic memories after his surgery and could not remember any events that occurred just before his surgery, but he did retain memories of events that occurred many years earlier extending back into his childhood. This case attracted such widespread professional interest that Molaison became the most intensively studied subject in medical history. In the ensuing years, other patients with similar levels of hippocampal damage and amnesia (caused by accident or disease) have also been studied, and thousands of experiments have studied the physiology of activity-driven changes in synaptic connections in the hippocampus. There is now universal agreement that the hippocampi play some sort of important role in memory; however, the precise nature of this role remains widely debated. A recent theory proposed – without questioning its role in spatial cognition – that the hippocampus encodes new episodic memories by associating representations in the newborn granule cells of the dentate gyrus and arranging those representations sequentially in the CA3 by relying on the phase precession generated in the entorhinal cortex
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53948
| 94,468 |
602,702 |
Brånemark spent almost 30 years fighting the scientific community for acceptance of osseointegration as a viable treatment. In Sweden he was often openly ridiculed at science conferences. His university stopped funding for his research, forcing him to open a private clinic to continue treating patients. Eventually an emerging breed of young academics started to notice the work being done in Sweden. Toronto's George Zarb, a Maltese-born Canadian prosthodontist, was instrumental in bringing the concept of osseointegration to the wider world. The 1983 Toronto Conference is generally considered to be the turning point, when finally the worldwide scientific community accepted Brånemark's work. Osseointegration is now a highly predictable and common treatment modality. Since 2010, Al Muderis in Sydney, Australia, used a high tensile strength titanium implant with plasma sprayed surface as an intramedullary prosthesis that is inserted into the bone residuum of amputees and then connect through an opening in the skin to a robotic limb prosthesis. This lets amputees mobilize with more comfort and less energy consumption. Al Muderis also published the first series of combining osseointegration prosthesis with Joint replacement enabling below knee amputees with knee arthritis or short residual bone to walk without needing a socket prosthesis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1176900
| 602,393 |
2,186,608 |
In short, critical gaps exist in the literature, with a paucity of prospective, controlled studies on late-life outcomes and neurodegeneration after mTBI and related basic science research. These research gaps are particularly prominent in the injuries and difficulties seen in combat-exposed populations. The existing research, although suggestive, is not rigorous or robust enough to allow for a clear understanding of the relationships, risks, and potential effective interventions for mTBI, chronic symptoms, and neurodegeneration. To date, no controlled prospective longitudinal study has examined the late-life cognitive, behavioral, systemic, and functional effects of TBI of any severity. Given the absence of prospective studies, the association between TBI and early neurodegeneration is merely theoretical, and the actual risk factors and rate/extent of physiologic and clinical decline over time are unknown. It is also unclear whether a single TBI may be enough to begin a degenerative cascade in select individuals or whether a critical number (dose threshold) of TBIs is needed to “prime” the central nervous system for degeneration. As the majority of TBIs in the military are mild, prospective studies of cognitive outcomes from mild injury are necessary to determine the long-term risks posed to SMs and Veterans. The potential link between mTBI and the development of early dementia is a significant concern for not only at-risk SMs, Veterans, and their families, but also for DoD and VA resource planning, given the high service utilization in the DoD and VA health systems associated with dementia.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42630360
| 2,185,360 |
1,263,707 |
Specific parts were carefully chosen to be entirely manufactured in Australia in a strategic manner to save on costs judging by the competitive market at the time. Many of these were selected with a long term vision in mind, being the more disposable and consumable materials that would otherwise need to be purchased continually throughout the service lifetime of the aircraft. This decision was made because a trend was identified in the earlier use of aircraft by the RAAF, in which most were kept in service by spending on maintenance as long as possible rather than investing in new aircraft. This would allow Australia to manufacture replacements of those necessary parts which would wear out the fastest even after no more Mirages were produced by Dassault. The most important customization choices made by the RAAF were the powerplant, avionics and weapons. The British Rolls Royce Avon engine, having been proved effective serving in both the Sabre and Canberra, was preferred and a Mirage IIIA with a RB146 Avon 67 turbojet engine was created and tested in February 1961. However, due to issues of expense the French Safran Aircraft Engines (SNECMA) ATAR 9C advertised in the original designs was used thereafter. The first RAAF model created, the A3-1, was handed over to Australia in 1963 and the second, the A3-2, was kept in France. These served as experimental prototypes, testing the modifications as they were implemented. Two completed aircraft packages were sent to GAF for assembly and saw the first Australian flight test in November 1963 in the A3-3 by Squadron leader Bill Collings at Avalon. The A3-16 was the first to include the chosen parts provided by the Australian manufacturers as they took over from Dassault. 60 of these aircraft were ordered by the RAAF not including 10 double seated aircraft for pilot training.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63754631
| 1,263,019 |
823,319 |
Gravitropism is a turning or growth movement by a plant or fungus in response to gravity. It is equally widespread in both kingdoms. Statolites are required in both fungi and plants for the mechanism of gravity-sensing. The Zygomycota sporangiophores originate from specialized “basal hyphae” and pass through several distinctive developmental stages until the mature asexual spores are released. In addition to the positive phototropism, the sporangiophores are directed by a negative gravitropic response into a position suitable for spore dispersal and distribution. Both responses are growth reactions i.e. the bending is caused by differential growth on the respective opposite flanks of the sporangiophore, and influence each other. The only model for the mechanism of the gravitropic reaction of "Phycomyces" is based on the floatability of the vacuole within the surrounding cytoplasm. The resulting asymmetric distribution of the cytoplasm is proposed to generate increased wall growth on the lower side of horizonally placed sporangiophores as in the thicker cytoplasmic layer forming there the number of vesicles secreting cell-wall material would be higher than on the upper side. Gravitropic bending starts after approximately 15 – 30 min in horizontally placed sporangiophores and continues until after, approximately 12 – 14 hours, the sporangiophore tip has recovered its original vertical position. Usually, the gravitropic response is weaker compared to the phototrophic one. However, in certain conditions, equilibrium could be established and the responses are comparable. In plants and fungi, phototropism and gravitropism interact in a complex manner. During continuous irradiation with unilateral light, the sporangiophore (fruiting body) of the zygomycete fungus, Phycomyces blakesleeanus reach a bending angle of photogravitropic equilibrium at which the gravitropic and phototropic stimuli balance each other (Fig. 1, bending angle +α, due to light irradiation).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191164
| 822,876 |
843,644 |
Morgan moved to California to head the Division of Biology at the California Institute of Technology in 1928. In establishing the biology division, Morgan wanted to distinguish his program from those offered by Johns Hopkins and Columbia, with research focused on genetics and evolution; experimental embryology; physiology; biophysics, and biochemistry. He was also instrumental in the establishment of the Marine Laboratory at Corona del Mar. He wanted to attract the best people to the Division at Caltech, so he took Bridges, Sturtevant, Jack Shultz and Albert Tyler from Columbia and took on Theodosius Dobzhansky as an international research fellow. More scientists came to work in the Division including George Beadle, Boris Ephrussi, Edward L. Tatum, Linus Pauling, Frits Went, and [[Sidney W.Byance with his reputation, Morgan held numerous prestigious positions in American science organizations. From 1927 to 1931 Morgan served as the President of the National Academy of Sciences; in 1930 he was the President of the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]; and in 1932 he chaired the Sixth [[International Congress of Genetics]] in [[Ithaca, New York]]. In 1933 Morgan was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]; he had been nominated in 1919 and 1930 for the same work. As an acknowledgment of the group nature of his discovery, he gave his prize money to Bridges, Sturtevant, and his own children. Morgan declined to attend the awards ceremony in 1933, instead attending in 1934. The 1933 rediscovery of the giant [[polytene chromosome]]s in the salivary gland of "Drosophila" may have influenced his choice. Until that point, the lab's results had been inferred from phenotypic results, the visible polytene chromosome enabled them to confirm their results on a physical basis. Morgan's Nobel acceptance speech entitled "The Contribution of Genetics to Physiology and Medicine" downplayed the contribution genetics could make to medicine beyond [[genetic counseling]]. In 1939 he was awarded the [[Copley Medal]] by the Royal Society.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31522
| 843,194 |
1,539,946 |
In 1979, Gordon became co-chair of a commission on economic problems set up by the Progressive Alliance—a political coalition of more than 200 organizations representing labor, citizens, civil rights and women's organizations. He felt that a new and overarching analysis of the U.S. economy was needed in order to understand the macroeconomic travails of the time and to guide proposals for change. This led to more than a decade of collaboration with Samuel Bowles and Thomas Weisskopf in which they first analyzed the post-World War II boom of the U.S. economy as well as its subsequent unraveling and then formulated policy proposals to develop a more democratic, egalitarian and successful U.S. economy in the future. Gordon, Bowles and Weisskopf's account of the unraveling of the postwar boom gives prominence to the institutional and political impact of sustained full employment during the middle-to-late 1960s, the erosion of U.S. world hegemony and the rise of environmental and other citizen movements. In brief, they argue that the boom ended because the institutional structures could no longer restrain the claims of rivals (both domestic and international) against the profits of U.S. corporations and that a new and more just social and economic order would be needed to restore prosperity. Gordon's work with Bowles and Weisskopf led to numerous econometric and historical studies on the dynamics of stagflation, the slowdown of productivity growth and the determinants of profitability and investment which were published in a series of articles in economics journals. The collaboration also led to two co-authored books for a general audience, namely "Beyond the Waste Land: A Democratic Alternative to Economic Decline" (1983) and "After the Waste Land: A Democratic Economics for the Year 2000" (1991).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26644045
| 1,539,073 |
1,066,044 |
In regard to the pulp and paper industry; lignin is a natural polymer co-generated and is generally used as boiler fuel to generate heat or steam to cover the energy demand in the process. Since lignin accounts for 10–30 wt% of the available lignocellulosic biomass and is equivalent to ~40% of its energy contents; the economics of biorefineries depend on the cost-effective processes to transform lignin into value-added fuels and chemicals. The conversion of an existing Swedish kraft pulp mill to the production of dissolving pulp, electricity, lignin, and hemicellulose has been studied; self-sufficiency in terms of steam and the production of excess steam was a key factor for the integration of a lignin separation plant; in this case; the digester has to be upgraded for preserving the same production level and represents 70% of the total investment cost of conversion. The potential of using the kraft process for producing bioethanol from softwoods in a repurposed or co-located kraft mill has been studied, a sugar recovery higher than 60% enables the process to be competitive for the production of ethanol from softwood. The repurposing of a kraft pulp mill to produce both ethanol and dimethyl ether has been investigated; in the process, cellulose is separated by and an alkaline pretreatment and then is hydrolyzed and fermented to produce ethanol, while the resulting liquor containing dissolved lignin is gasified and refined to dimethyl ether; the process demonstrate to be self-sufficient in terms of hot utility (fresh steam) demand but with a deficit of electricity; the process can be feasible, economically speaking, but is highly dependent on the development of biofuel prices. The exergetic and economic evaluation for the production of catechol from lignin was performed to determine its feasibility; the results showed that the total capital investment was 4.9 M$ based on the plant capacity of 2,544 kg/d of feedstock; besides, the catechol price was estimated to be 1,100 $/t and the valorization ratio was found to be 3.02.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1637397
| 1,065,490 |
8,989 |
In 1958, NASA formed an engineering group, the Space Task Group, to manage their human spaceflight programs under the direction of Robert Gilruth. Their earliest programs were conducted under the pressure of the Cold War competition between the US and the Soviet Union. NASA inherited the US Air Force's Man in Space Soonest program, which considered many crewed spacecraft designs ranging from rocket planes like the X-15, to small ballistic space capsules. By 1958, the space plane concepts were eliminated in favor of the ballistic capsule, and NASA renamed it Project Mercury. The first seven astronauts were selected among candidates from the Navy, Air Force and Marine test pilot programs. On May 5, 1961, astronaut Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard a capsule he named "Freedom 7", launched on a Redstone booster on a 15-minute ballistic (suborbital) flight. John Glenn became the first American to be launched into orbit, on an Atlas launch vehicle on February 20, 1962, aboard "Friendship 7". Glenn completed three orbits, after which three more orbital flights were made, culminating in L. Gordon Cooper's 22-orbit flight "Faith 7", May 15–16, 1963. Katherine Johnson, Mary Jackson, and Dorothy Vaughan were three of the human computers doing calculations on trajectories during the Space Race. Johnson was well known for doing trajectory calculations for John Glenn's mission in 1962, where she was running the same equations by hand that were being run on the computer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18426568
| 8,985 |
1,061,380 |
Blastomyces dermatitidis is a dimorphic fungus that causes blastomycosis, an invasive and often serious fungal infection found occasionally in humans and other animals. It lives in soil and wet, decaying wood, often in an area close to a waterway such as a lake, river or stream. Indoor growth may also occur, for example, in accumulated debris in damp sheds or shacks. The fungus is endemic to parts of eastern North America, particularly boreal northern Ontario, southeastern Manitoba, Quebec south of the St. Lawrence River, parts of the U.S. Appalachian mountains and interconnected eastern mountain chains, the west bank of Lake Michigan, the state of Wisconsin, and the entire Mississippi Valley including the valleys of some major tributaries such as the Ohio River. In addition, it occurs rarely in Africa both north and south of the Sahara Desert, as well as in the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent. Though it has never been directly observed growing in nature, it is thought to grow there as a cottony white mold, similar to the growth seen in artificial culture at . In an infected human or animal, however, it converts in growth form and becomes a large-celled budding yeast. Blastomycosis is generally readily treatable with systemic antifungal drugs once it is correctly diagnosed; however, delayed diagnosis is very common except in highly endemic areas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12618169
| 1,060,827 |
2,037,773 |
Sustainable Islands International website reports that a 30kWh/8 kW prototype has been installed in Scotland to support a remote community and has been running successfully since 2013. This product has been recently selected by Canadian and UK governments to install large scale SLIQ battery systems to support the grid and to support storage of renewable generation. According to this news article in a British news paper this technology and supporting electronics will demonstrate how this energy storage systems can increase uptake of renewables, save money for customers and utilities, and accelerate carbon reductions by boosting the use of electric energy. The University of Strathclyde is leading a research project aimed at reducing the cost and improving the performance of battery technologies, for use in developing countries and emerging economies using this technology. With the development of this technology for developing countries, the faraday institute and University of Strathclyde believe they can help communities with low or no connectivity to have reliable access to energy sources and bringing economic, social and environment benefits to developing countries and emerging economies. In addition this technology has been used to setup a smart energy network for Perth & Kinross council to decarbonise all their assets and to achieve net-zero status.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67041304
| 2,036,598 |
228,514 |
As machines became more powerful the time to run programs diminished, and the time to hand off the equipment to the next user became large by comparison. Accounting for and paying for machine usage moved on from checking the wall clock to automatic logging by the computer. Run queues evolved from a literal queue of people at the door, to a heap of media on a jobs-waiting table, or batches of punch-cards stacked one on top of the other in the reader, until the machine itself was able to select and sequence which magnetic tape drives processed which tapes. Where program developers had originally had access to run their own jobs on the machine, they were supplanted by dedicated machine operators who looked after the machine and were less and less concerned with implementing tasks manually. When commercially available computer centers were faced with the implications of data lost through tampering or operational errors, equipment vendors were put under pressure to enhance the runtime libraries to prevent misuse of system resources. Automated monitoring was needed not just for CPU usage but for counting pages printed, cards punched, cards read, disk storage used and for signaling when operator intervention was required by jobs such as changing magnetic tapes and paper forms. Security features were added to operating systems to record audit trails of which programs were accessing which files and to prevent access to a production payroll file by an engineering program, for example.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55395
| 228,397 |
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Most of the early software crackers were computer hobbyists who often formed groups that competed against each other in the cracking and spreading of software. Breaking a new copy protection scheme as quickly as possible was often regarded as an opportunity to demonstrate one's technical superiority rather than a possibility of money-making. Software crackers usually did not benefit materially from their actions and their motivation was the challenge itself of removing the protection. Some low skilled hobbyists would take already cracked software and edit various unencrypted strings of text in it to change messages a game would tell a game player, often something considered vulgar. Uploading the altered copies on file sharing networks provided a source of laughs for adult users. The cracker groups of the 1980s started to advertise themselves and their skills by attaching animated screens known as crack intros in the software programs they cracked and released. Once the technical competition had expanded from the challenges of cracking to the challenges of creating visually stunning intros, the foundations for a new subculture known as demoscene were established. Demoscene started to separate itself from the illegal "warez scene" during the 1990s and is now regarded as a completely different subculture. Many software crackers have later grown into extremely capable software reverse engineers; the deep knowledge of assembly required in order to crack protections enables them to reverse engineer drivers in order to port them from binary-only drivers for Windows to drivers with source code for Linux and other free operating systems. Also because music and game intro was such an integral part of gaming the music format and graphics became very popular when hardware became affordable for the home user.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29213
| 891,901 |
817,137 |
"World Taekwondo" was established on May 28, 1973, at the inaugural meeting held at the Kukkiwon with participation of 35 representatives from the world after it separated from the International Taekwon-Do Federation because of political reasons. At that time, Un Yong Kim was elected president for a four-year term. One of the main Constituents of World Taekwondo, the Secretariat was formed on June 3, 1973, and began operating. On October 8, 1974, World Taekwondo was affiliated to the General Association of International Sports Federations (GAISF), now SportAccord. Until the 1980s, the European (May, 1976), the Asian (October, 1976), the Pan American (September, 1978) and the African (April, 1979) Taekwondo Unions inaugural meetings were held, while Oceania's Taekwondo Union was not recognized as the 5th Continental Union of World Taekwondo until July 16, 2005. The recognition of the IOC towards World Taekwondo at its 83rd session in Moscow on July 17, 1980, was the cornerstone for their Cooperation. Thereupon Taekwondo participated in the 24th Olympiad at Changchung Gymnasium in Seoul, Korea as well as the 25th Olympiad at the Palau Blaugrana in Barcelona, Spain as a demonstration sport. In recognition of his contribution to the Olympic Movement Un Yong Kim was awarded the Order of Commander by Prince Rainier of Monaco on September 21, 1993. Moreover, Taekwondo was adopted as an official sport of the 2000 Summer Olympics at the 103rd IOC session in Paris, France, on September 4, 1994. Half a year later, on February 15, 1995, World Taekwondo was affiliated with the Association of Summer Olympic International Federations (ASOIF) as a provisional member. After the first appearance of Taekwondo as an Olympic Sport in the 2000 Summer Olympics, the IOC executive board confirms Taekwondo as an Olympic Sport for the 2004 Summer Olympics on December 11–13, 2000. Furthermore, the inclusion of taekwondo in the 2008 Summer Olympics was confirmed on November 29, 2002, at the 114th IOC session held in Mexico City. On February 15, 2004, the Vice President (Italy) Sun Jae Park was elected as Acting President of World Taekwondo due to the resignation of the founding President Un Yong Kim from the presidency of World Taekwondo. Four month later Chung Won Choue was elected as new President of World Taekwondo at the extraordinary General Assembly on June 11, 2004. Taekwondo was confirmed as program of the 2012 Summer Olympics on July 8, 2005.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=912408
| 816,701 |
515,788 |
Conservationists are working with governments and fisheries to prevent further declines and increase populations of endangered procellariids. Progress has been made in protecting many colonies where most species are most vulnerable. On 20 June 2001, the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels was signed by seven major fishing nations. The agreement lays out a plan to manage fisheries by-catch, protect breeding sites, promote conservation in the industry, and research threatened species. The developing field of island restoration, where introduced species are removed and native species and habitats restored, has been used in several procellariid recovery programmes. Invasive species such as rats, feral cats and pigs have been either removed or controlled in many remote islands in the tropical Pacific (such as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands), around New Zealand (where island restoration was developed), and in the south Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The grey-faced petrels of Whale Island (mentioned above) have been achieving much higher fledging successes after the introduced Norway rats were finally completely removed. At sea, procellariids threatened by long-line fisheries can be protected using techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers can all reduce the seabird by-catch. The Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by eight countries, Australia, Ecuador, New Zealand, Spain, South Africa, France, Peru and the United Kingdom. The treaty requires these countries to take specific actions to reduce by-catch and pollution and to remove introduced species from nesting islands.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=224443
| 515,519 |
33,206 |
As originally proposed in 1980 by a team of scientists led by Luis Alvarez and his son Walter, it is now generally thought that the K–Pg extinction was caused by the impact of a massive asteroid , 66 million years ago, which devastated the global environment, mainly through a lingering impact winter which halted photosynthesis in plants and plankton. The impact hypothesis, also known as the Alvarez hypothesis, was bolstered by the discovery of the Chicxulub crater in the Gulf of Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula in the early 1990s, which provided conclusive evidence that the K–Pg boundary clay represented debris from an asteroid impact. The fact that the extinctions occurred simultaneously provides strong evidence that they were caused by the asteroid. A 2016 drilling project into the Chicxulub peak ring confirmed that the peak ring comprised granite ejected within minutes from deep in the earth, but contained hardly any gypsum, the usual sulfate-containing sea floor rock in the region: the gypsum would have vaporized and dispersed as an aerosol into the atmosphere, causing longer-term effects on the climate and food chain. In October 2019, researchers reported that the event rapidly acidified the oceans, producing ecological collapse and, in this way as well, produced long-lasting effects on the climate, and accordingly was a key reason for the mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44503418
| 33,194 |
921,267 |
There is no one mode of reproduction that is universally superior in selective terms, but in many circumstances viviparity of various forms offers good protection from parasites and predators and permits flexibility in dealing with problems of reliability and economy in adverse circumstances. Variations on the theme in biology are enormous, ranging from trophic eggs to resorption of partly developed embryos in hard times or when they are too numerous for the mother to bring to term, but among the most profoundly advantageous features of viviparity are various forms of physiological support and protection of the embryo, such as thermoregulation and osmoregulation. Since the developing offspring remains within the mother's body, she becomes, in essence, a walking incubator, protecting the developing young from excessive heat, cold, drought, or flood. This offers powerful options for dealing with excessive changes in climate or when migration events expose populations to unfavourable temperatures or humidities. In squamate reptiles in particular, there is a correlation between high altitudes or latitudes, colder climates and the frequency of viviparity. The idea that the tendency to favour egg-retention selectively under cooler conditions arises from the thermoregulatory benefits, and that it consequently promotes the evolution of viviparity as an adaptation, is known as "the cold climate hypothesis".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=354964
| 920,781 |
133,284 |
An intellectual revitalization of Western Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. These urban institutions grew from the informal scholarly activities of learned friars who visited monasteries, consulted libraries, and conversed with other fellow scholars. A friar who became well-known would attract a following of disciples, giving rise to a brotherhood of scholars (or "collegium" in Latin). A "collegium" might travel to a town or request a monastery to host them. However, if the number of scholars within a "collegium" grew too large, they would opt to settle in a town instead. As the number of "collegia" within a town grew, the "collegia" might request that their king grant them a charter that would convert them into a "universitas". Many universities were chartered during this period, with the first in Bologna in 1088, followed by Paris in 1150, Oxford in 1167, and Cambridge in 1231. The granting of a charter meant that the medieval universities were partially sovereign and independent from local authorities. Their independence allowed them to conduct themselves and judge their own members based on their own rules. Furthermore, as initially religious institutions, their faculties and students were protected from capital punishment (e.g., gallows). Such independence was a matter of custom, which could, in principle, be revoked by their respective rulers if they felt threatened. Discussions of various subjects or claims at these medieval institutions, no matter how controversial, were done in a formalized way so as to declare such discussions as being within the bounds of a university and therefore protected by the privileges of that institution's sovereignty. A claim could be described as "ex cathedra" (literally "from the chair", used within the context of teaching) or "ex hypothesi" (by hypothesis). This meant that the discussions were presented as purely an intellectual exercise that did not require those involved to commit themselves to the truth of a claim or to proselytize. Modern academic concepts and practices such as academic freedom or freedom of inquiry are remnants of these medieval privileges that were tolerated in the past.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14400
| 133,231 |
116,073 |
Solar photovoltaic power is not entirely "clean energy": production produces greenhouse gas emissions, materials used to build the cells are potentially unsustainable and will run out eventually, the technology uses toxic substances which cause pollution, and there are no viable technologies for recycling solar waste. Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by a rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature. One difficulty in determining impacts due to PV is to determine if the wastes are released to the air, water, or soil during the manufacturing phase. Life-cycle assessments, which look at all different environment impacts ranging from global warming potential, pollution, water depletion and others, are unavailable for PV. Instead, studies have tried to estimate the impact and potential impacts of various types of PV, but these estimates are usually restricted to simply assessing energy costs of the manufacture and/or transport, because these are new technologies and the total environmental impacts of their components and disposal methods are unknown, even for commercially available first generation solar cells, let alone experimental prototypes with no commercial viability.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=652531
| 116,028 |
116,200 |
The table below does not necessarily give power densities for the pure material but for a chemically inert form. For actinides this is of little concern as their oxides are usually inert enough (and can be transformed into ceramics further increasing their stability), but for alkali metals and alkaline earth metals like caesium or strontium respectively, relatively complex (and heavy) chemical compounds have to be used. For example, strontium is commonly used as strontium titanate in RTGs, which increases molar mass by about a factor of 2. Furthermore, depending on the source, isotopic purity may not be obtainable. Plutonium extracted from spent nuclear fuel has a low share of Pu-238, so plutonium-238 for use in RTGs is usually purpose-made by neutron irradiation of neptunium-237, further raising costs. Caesium in fission products is almost equal parts Cs-135 and Cs-137, plus significant amounts of stable Cs-133 and—in "young" spent fuel—short lived Cs-134. If isotope separation, a costly and time-consuming process, is to be avoided, this has to be factored in, too. While historically RTGs have been rather small, there is in theory nothing preventing RTGs from reaching into the Megawatt range of power. However, for such applications actinides are less suitable than lighter radioisotopes as the critical mass is orders of magnitude below the mass needed to produce such amounts of power. As Sr-90, Cs-137 and other lighter radionuclides "cannot" maintain a nuclear chain reaction under any circumstances, RTGs of arbitrary size and power could be assembled from them if enough material can be produced. In general, however, potential applications for such large-scale RTGs are more the domain of small modular reactors, microreactors or non-nuclear power sources.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=211485
| 116,155 |
406,285 |
In a practical situation and room-temperature setting, humans lose considerable energy due to thermal radiation in infra-red in addition to that lost by conduction to air (aided by concurrent convection, or other air movement like drafts). The heat energy lost is partially regained by absorbing heat radiation from walls or other surroundings. (Heat gained by conduction would occur for air temperature higher than body temperature.) Otherwise, body temperature is maintained from generated heat through internal metabolism. Human skin has an emissivity of very close to 1.0. Using the formulas below shows a human, having roughly in surface area, and a temperature of about 307 K, continuously radiates approximately 1000 watts. If people are indoors, surrounded by surfaces at 296 K, they receive back about 900 watts from the wall, ceiling, and other surroundings, so the net loss is only about 100 watts. These heat transfer estimates are highly dependent on extrinsic variables, such as wearing clothes, i.e. decreasing total thermal circuit conductivity, therefore reducing total output heat flux. Only truly "gray" systems (relative equivalent emissivity/absorptivity and no directional transmissivity dependence in "all" control volume bodies considered) can achieve reasonable steady-state heat flux estimates through the Stefan-Boltzmann law. Encountering this "ideally calculable" situation is almost impossible (although common engineering procedures surrender the dependency of these unknown variables and "assume" this to be the case). Optimistically, these "gray" approximations will get close to real solutions, as most divergence from Stefan-Boltzmann solutions is very small (especially in most STP lab controlled environments).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=185239
| 406,085 |
347,519 |
The turn of the century brought many changes in the administration and organization of the university including the naming of a new chancellor in 1899. Walter B. Hill became the first UGA alumnus to lead the university. A progressive leader, his six-year tenure, before his death from pneumonia, was marked with increased enrollment, expansion of the university's course offerings, and the addition of state funding through appropriation, for the first time bringing the university's annual income to over $100,000 in 1902. Hill and his successors David C. Barrow (1906–1925), Charles Snelling (1926–1932), and Steadman Sanford (1932–1935) would grow the school to take on the role of a true university. Many of the university's schools and colleges were established during Barrow's tenure. The College of Education (1908), the Graduate School (1910), the School of Commerce (1912), the School of Journalism (1915), and the Division of Home Economics (1918) were all established during this period. In 1906, UGA also incorporated the College of Agriculture by bringing together A&M (agricultural and mechanical) courses. The college of science and engineering continued as formed in the previous century. Conner Hall became the first building built in South Campus and first of several buildings that housed the university's agriculture programs on what came to be known as "Ag Hill". In 1914, the first Phi Beta Kappa chapter in the state of Georgia was founded at UGA. In 1923, another honor society, Phi Kappa Phi, established a chapter at the university. In 1920, UGA's athletic program was among 14 of the 30 universities to leave the SIAA to form the Southern Conference.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=378232
| 347,338 |
1,285,687 |
Malawi's rainfall in 1989-90 and 1990-91 was at best moderate and locally poor. Smallholder food reserves were depleted before the deeper crisis in 1991–92. Rainfall before planting in 1991 was low and sporadic; withdrawing fertilizer subsidies made a poor harvest poorer. Only 40% of the normal maize crop was gathered in 1992. The famines of the 1990s represent exceptional food shortfalls within longer periods of increasing shortages. Although rainfall or agricultural output data do exist for 1991 and 1992, there are few contemporary accounts of a 1992 famine. This is because President Banda suppressed discussion about food insecurity and information on malnutrition. After he was voted from office a better-documented drought occurred in 1993–94. J Milner, (2004). Agriculture and Rural Development in Malawi: the Role of Policies and Policy Processes, p 42. There are no generally available or accepted figure for famine deaths in 1992. Apart from the lack of rainfall, the main causes of famine in the 1990s include the state regulation of agriculture and the distortions caused by diverting resources to inefficient estates and failure to support smallholders growing food crops. This intensified pressure on food-growing land without providing an alternative way for poorer Malawians to earn a living' as ADMARC failed to pay reasonable prices for the crops that farmers had to grow. Although the withdrawal of fertilizer subsidies exacerbated agricultural decline, its seeds lay in government policies since 1968 or earlier. Many poorer tenants and squatters relied on food-for-work arrangements or casual paid labour on the estates to supplement the limited food they could grow, and this short-term rural casual work paid for in kind called ganyu became a way of life for an increasing number of poorer Malawians.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14543243
| 1,284,986 |
1,042,842 |
Hansen is best known as the developer of the econometric technique generalized method of moments (GMM) and has written and co-authored papers applying GMM to analyze economic models in numerous fields including labor economics, international finance, finance and macroeconomics. This method has been widely adopted in economics and other fields and applications where fully specifying and solving a model of a complex economic environment is unwieldy or otherwise impractical. Hansen showed how to exploit moment conditions (e.g. relations where conditional expectations are known to be zero at true parameter values) to construct reasonable, reliable estimators (i.e. having desirable statistical properties such as consistency, asymptotic normality, and efficiency within the class of all asymptotic normal estimators) with less stringent maintained model assumptions than needed for maximum likelihood estimation. However, these estimators are mathematically equivalent to those based on "orthogonality conditions" (Sargan, 1958, 1959) or "unbiased estimating equations" (Huber, 1967; Wang et al., 1997). Moreover, maximum likelihood estimation methods provide guidance for devising more efficient instrumental variables estimators that take into account special features such as restrictions on the variance-covariance matrices of the errors (Bhargava and Sargan, 1983).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3313162
| 1,042,299 |
1,186,027 |
Laboratory registries allow for the analysis of the incidence and prevalence of the target condition as well as trends in the level of control. For instance, an NIH-funded program called the Vermedx Diabetes Information System maintained a registry of laboratory values of diabetic adults in Vermont and northern New York State in the US with several years of laboratory results on thousands of patients. The data included measures of blood sugar control (glycosolated hemoglobin A1C), cholesterol, and kidney function (serum creatinine and urine protein), and were used to monitor the quality of care at the patient, practice, and population levels. Since the data contained each patient's name and address, the system was also used to communicate directly with patients when the laboratory data indicated the need for attention. Out of control test results generated a letter to the patient suggesting they take action with their medical provider. Tests that were overdue generated reminders to have testing performed. The system also generated reminders and alerts with guideline-based advice for the practice as well as a periodic roster of each provider's patients and a report card summarizing the health status of the population. Clinical and economic evaluations of the system, including a large randomized clinical trial, demonstrated improvements in adherence to practice guidelines and reductions in the need for emergency department and hospital services as well as total costs per patient. The system has been commercialized and distributed to physicians, insurers, employers and others responsible for the care of chronically ill patients. It is now being expanded to other conditions such as chronic kidney disease.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2497276
| 1,185,398 |
1,144,749 |
Meanwhile, Carter wrote the Indian Medical Service examination and joined the service in January 1858 had moved to Bombay and was married to a woman named Harriet Bushell, only to discover that her real name was Amelia Adams, previously married and whose first marriage had been canceled because of her adultery. Carter could not legally obtain the annulment of the marriage as this would entail the loss of the legitimacy of his daughter, Eliza Lily, born in September 1860. However, he never saw his wife, and came out destroyed by an experience that became publicly known quickly throughout Bombay. Carter was employed to the Indian Medical Service in Bombay in 1858 for the rest of his career, where he took up the post of Professor of Anatomy at Grant Medical College, enjoying with satisfaction the good fortune of his book. He served in Satara from 1863 to 1872. Between 1872 and 1875 he took leave and returned to Europe and worked with visiting researchers of various European nationalities. Upon his return to India, he was sent to the peninsula of Junagadh and after a short residence he published a report on leprosy in the area. He was eventually awarded the titles of "Principal of Grant Medical College" and "First Physician at JJ Hospital" and was the secretary then president of the Bombay Medical Society, and went off to conduct medical research regarding the most common infectious diseases in poor sections of the Indian population, being the first researcher in the Indian subcontinent to confirm the presence of endemic diseases such as tuberculosis, (of which Robert Koch would only discover the pathogen, the "Koch bacillus", in 1892) and malaria. He worked on Spirillum or relapsing fever, for which he received a Stewart Prize in 1882.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21870624
| 1,144,148 |
1,900,273 |
Kim specializes in computational biology, genomics, and evolutionary biology. Originally from South Korea, he received his undergraduate degree in Microbiology at Seoul National University. During his undergraduate years, he became strongly interested in computer science and programming. He developed a program to fold tRNA sequences published in the Korean Journal of Biochemistry. This paper is now known as the first computational biology paper published in Korea. He received his PhD in Ecology and Evolution at Stony Brook University in 1992 under the supervision of Lev Ginzburg and Dan Dykhuizen. His dissertation was entitled "Factors influencing the growth of populations and their spatial distribution." His post-doctoral research was with Margaret Kidwell at the University of Arizona working on molecular evolution of Drosophila species. In 1994, he became an assistant professor in the Department of Biology at Yale University and was promoted to a tenured position in 2000. In 2002 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania where he is currently the Edmund J. and Louise Kahn Term Endowed Professor in Biology, an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science, and the Co-Director of the Penn Genome Frontiers Institute. He has been on the Steering Committee and the Conference Chair for Workshop on Algorithms in Bioinformatics; program chair and program committee for Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology; and he is the longest running Associate Editor for IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics. Junhyong Kim's honors include the Sloan Foundation Young Investigator Award, Yale Faculty Award, Visiting Fellow at the Newton Institute (Cambridge University) and IHES (France), Ellison Medical Foundation Senior Scholar in Aging, and a Guggenheim Fellowship.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38570216
| 1,899,185 |
2,073,651 |
The fungus Chondrostereum purpureum, the causal agent of silver leaf, was grown in liquid culture and agar, which caused it to secrete extracellular proteinases into the medium. The fluid dialysed by the activation of metal ions, which confirmed the presence of metalloproteinases. The silverleaf disease is a basidiomycete pathogenic on a wide range of host plants. The most notable host plant species include pomaceous and stone fruit species which are substantial for New Zealand’s economy. Cations, such as copper, zinc, and cobalt, are all inhibitory for the control of extract and stimulatory for EDTA-dialysed extract, which could possibly make the processes native cofactors. The amount of proteinases could be variable to the duration of the infection’s presence. Activity was found throughout the infected zone and not just the wound site; therefore, fungal growth and proteinase activity have a direct relationship. Even though zinc-binding metalloproteinases have been found to aid processes such as protein turnover and embryogenesis, it is still unclear as to the role they play in plants. To try to better understand MMPs’ role in plant tissue, the SMEP1 is cloned and analyzed using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) reaction. It was found only to be present in mature leaves, which suggest that SEMP1 may play an important role in tissue modeling.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29961903
| 2,072,459 |
1,270,614 |
The start of the Great Leap Forward in 1958 came with a vehement attack on pure mathematics and intellectuals, which prompted Hua to shift towards applied mathematics. Hua developed, with Wang Yuan, a broad interest in linear programming, operations research, and multidimensional numerical integration. In connection with the last of these, the study of the Monte Carlo method and the role of uniform distribution led them to invent an alternative deterministic method based on ideas from algebraic number theory. Their theory was set out in "Applications of Number Theory to Numerical Analysis", which was published much later, in 1978, and by Springer in English translation in 1981. The newfound interest in applicable mathematics took him in the 1960s, accompanied by a team of assistants, all over China to show workers of all kinds how to apply their reasoning faculty to the solution of shop-floor and everyday problems. Whether in ad hoc problem-solving sessions in factories or open-air teachings, he touched his audiences with the spirit of mathematics to such an extent that he became a national hero and even earned an unsolicited letter of commendation from Mao Zedong, this last a valuable protection in uncertain times. Hua had a commanding presence, a genial personality, and a wonderful way of putting things simply, and the impact of his travels spread his fame and the popularity of mathematics across the land.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2337582
| 1,269,923 |
1,039,593 |
A hockey tournament debuted in the Summer Olympics in 1920 and would later also be recognized as the first World Ice Hockey Championship. Canada took the gold medal, with the United States getting the silver. The Canadians went on to claim three consecutive golds after the sport was permanently transferred to the newly established Winter Olympics in 1924. In 1936, their streak was ended by the British team that went on to beat the Canadians and tie the Americans, claiming the gold. Canada reclaimed gold in 1948 and defended it in 1952. However, the Soviet Union ended Canadian dominance in 1956, winning gold, and went on to win all Olympic tournaments until 1992 with 1960 and 1980, when the Americans were victorious, being lone exceptions. Much of this has to do with the fact that, unlike the Soviets, the Canadians were unable to use their best players. After 1992, four nations won gold medals: Canada (7th, 8th, and 9th titles), Sweden (1st and 2nd title), Czech Republic (1st title), Russia (9th title), and, the most recent champions, Finland (1st title). From 1998 to 2014, NHL players participated in the Olympics. In 1994, 2018, and 2022 players from all professional leagues except the NHL and AHL competed. Prior to 1947 there was no nationally recognized national governing body for ice hockey in the United States. The Amateur Hockey Association of the United States or AHAUS, which later became USA Hockey, was created that year and has remained the governing body of ice hockey in the United States since then. The United States men's team has won two gold medals (1960, 1980), eight silver medals (1920, 1924, 1932, 1952, 1956, 1972, 2002, 2010) and one bronze medal (1936). The 1980 gold medal victory is still remembered as one of the greatest upsets in sporting history, with team USA beating four-time defending champions the USSR in the medal round. The women's team has won two gold medals (1998, 2018), four silver medals (2002, 2010, 2014, 2022), and one bronze medal (2006).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51692350
| 1,039,052 |
100,116 |
Rhinoviruses are spread worldwide and are the primary cause of the common cold. Symptoms include sore throat, runny nose, nasal congestion, sneezing and cough; sometimes accompanied by muscle aches, fatigue, malaise, headache, muscle weakness, or loss of appetite. Most sinus findings are reversible consistent with a self-limited viral process typical of rhinovirus colds. Fever and extreme exhaustion are more usual in influenza. Children may have six to twelve colds a year. In the United States, the incidence of colds is higher in the autumn and winter, with most infections occurring between September to April. The seasonality may be due to the start of the school year and to people spending more time indoors thereby increasing the chance of transmission of the virus. Lower ambient temperatures, especially outdoors, may also be a factor given that rhinoviruses preferentially replicate at 32 °C (89 °F) as opposed to 37 °C (98 °F). Variant pollens, grasses, hays and agricultural practices may be factors in the seasonality as well as the use of chemical controls of lawn, paddock and sportsfields in schools and communities. The changes in temperature, humidity and wind patterns seem to be factors. It is also postulated that poor housing, overcrowding and unsanitary conditions related to poverty are relevant factors in the transmission of 'common cold'.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=104066
| 100,071 |
731,426 |
Born in Spokane, Washington, on January 26, 1891, Penfield spent most of his early life in Hudson, Wisconsin. He studied at Princeton University, where he was a member of Cap and Gown Club and played on the football team. After graduation in 1913, he was hired briefly as the team coach. In 1915 he obtained a Rhodes Scholarship to Merton College, Oxford, where he studied neuropathology under Sir Charles Scott Sherrington. After one term at Merton, Penfield went to France where he served as a dresser in a military hospital in the suburbs of Paris. He was wounded in 1916 when the ferry he was aboard, the SS "Sussex", was torpedoed. The following year, he married Helen Kermott, and began studying at the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, attaining his medical degree in 1918; this was followed by a short period as a house surgeon at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. Returning to Merton College in 1919, Penfield spent the next two years completing his studies; during this time he met Sir William Osler. In 1924, he worked for five months with Pío del Río Hortega characterising the type of glial cells known as oligodendroglia. He also studied in Germany with Fedor Krause and Otfrid Foerster, as well as in New York City. In 1928, during the 6 months he spent in Germany with Dr. Foerster, he learned how to use local anesthesia to keep brain surgery patients awake.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=400115
| 731,041 |
2,062,034 |
The use of theoretical and applied physics were an extremely important part of Canada's war effort as reflected in activities involving the development of atomic energy. The Tizard Mission, a delegation of British scientists and military experts, visiting North America to promote wartime allied scientific cooperation, met with NRC nuclear physicist George Laurence in Ottawa in 1940. As a result of this meeting, beginning in 1942, a Montreal-based British-Canadian project under the aegis of the National Research Council undertook the construction of a heavy-water atomic reactor. An experimental device with graphite control rods, ZEEP, (Zero Energy Experimental Pile) was built at Chalk River Ontario before the end of the war, and on 5 September 1945 achieved "the first self-sustained nuclear reaction outside the United States". This momentous event was followed by the construction of a larger, full-sized reactor the NRX in 1947, also at Chalk River. Studies in radar and optics were also of importance and the practical results of these efforts were seen in the radar sets and range finders, manufactured by Research Enterprises Limited, a crown corporation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18401364
| 2,060,844 |
60,003 |
All known "Achelousaurus" specimens were recovered from the Two Medicine Formation in Glacier County, Montana during excavations conducted by the Museum of the Rockies, which still houses the specimens. The discoveries came about by an accidental chain of events. In the spring of 1985, paleontologist John "Jack" R. Horner was informed that he would no longer be allowed to exploit the Willow Creek site, where he had studied the "Maiasaura" Egg Mountain nesting colony for six years. Having already made extensive arrangements for a new field season, he was suddenly forced to seek an alternative site. Horner had always been intrigued by the field diaries of Charles Whitney Gilmore who had reported the discovery of dinosaur eggs at Landslide Butte in 1928, but never published on them. In this locality, Gilmore had employed George Fryer Sternberg to excavate skeletons of the horned dinosaurs "Brachyceratops" and "Styracosaurus ovatus". That summer, Horner obtained the permission of the Blackfeet Indian Tribal Council to prospect for fossils on Landslide Butte, which is part of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation; it was the first paleontological investigation there since the 1920s. In August 1985, Horner's associate Bob Makela discovered a rich fossil site on the land of the farmer Ricky Reagan, which was called the Dinosaur Ridge Quarry and contained fossils of horned dinosaurs. On 20 June 1986, Horner and Makela returned to the Blackfeet Indian Reservation and resumed work on the Dinosaur Ridge Quarry, which proved to contain, apart from eggs, more than a dozen skeletons of a horned dinosaur later named "Einiosaurus". In August 1986, at a nearby site – the Canyon Bone Bed on the land of Gloria Sundquist, east of the Milk River – Horner's team discovered another "Einiosaurus" bone bed. Part of the discoveries made on this occasion was an additional horned dinosaur skull, specimen MOR 492, that later would be referred to (i.e., formally assigned to) "Rubeosaurus", the genus name in 2010 given to "Styracosaurus ovatus".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1792493
| 59,978 |
1,056,530 |
There also has been some interest in the possible use of gadolinium-157 (Gd) as a capture agent for NCT for the following reasons: "First", and foremost, has been its very high neutron capture cross section of 254,000 barns. "Second", gadolinium compounds, such as Gd-DTPA (gadopentetate dimeglumine Magnevist®), have been used routinely as contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of brain tumors and have shown high uptake by brain tumor cells in tissue culture ("in vitro"). "Third", gamma rays and internal conversion and Auger electrons are products of the Gd(n,γ)Gd capture reaction (Gd + n (0.025eV) → [Gd] → Gd + γ + 7.94 MeV). Though the gamma rays have longer pathlengths, orders of magnitude greater depths of penetration compared with alpha particles, the other radiation products (internal conversion and Auger electrons) have pathlengths of about one cell diameter and can directly damage DNA. Therefore, it would be highly advantageous for the production of DNA damage if the Gd were localized within the cell nucleus. However, the possibility of incorporating gadolinium into biologically active molecules is very limited and only a small number of potential delivery agents for Gd NCT have been evaluated. Relatively few studies with Gd have been carried out in experimental animals compared to the large number with boron containing compounds (Table 1), which have been synthesized and evaluated in experimental animals ("in vivo"). Although "in vitro" activity has been demonstrated using the Gd-containing MRI contrast agent Magnevist® as the Gd delivery agent, there are very few studies demonstrating the efficacy of Gd NCT in experimental animal tumor models, and, as evidenced by a lack of citations in the literature, Gd NCT has not, as of 2019, been used clinically in humans.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32637211
| 1,055,982 |
1,618,479 |
There is a slight thermodynamic tendency for heavy isotopes to form bonds with each other, in excess of what would be expected from a stochastic or random distribution of the same concentration of isotopes. The excess is greatest at low temperature (see Van 't Hoff equation), with the isotopic distribution becoming more randomized at higher temperature. Along with the closely related phenomenon of equilibrium isotope fractionation, this effect arises from differences in zero point energy among isotopologues. Carbonate minerals like calcite contain CO groups that can be converted to CO gas by reaction with concentrated phosphoric acid. The CO gas is analyzed with a mass spectrometer, to determine the abundances of isotopologues. The parameter Δ is the measured difference in concentration between isotopologues with a mass of 47 u (as compared to 44) in a sample and a hypothetical sample with the same bulk isotopic composition, but a stochastic distribution of heavy isotopes. Lab experiments, quantum mechanical calculations, and natural samples (with known crystallization temperatures) all indicate that Δ is correlated to the inverse square of temperature. Thus Δ measurements provide an estimation of the temperature at which a carbonate formed. C-O paleothermometry does not require prior knowledge of the concentration of O in the water (which the δO method does). This allows the C-O paleothermometer to be applied to some samples, including freshwater carbonates and very old rocks, with less ambiguity than other isotope-based methods. The method is presently limited by the very low concentration of isotopologues of mass 47 or higher in CO produced from natural carbonates, and by the scarcity of instruments with appropriate detector arrays and sensitivities. The study of these types of isotopic ordering reactions in nature is often called "clumped-isotope" geochemistry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2527382
| 1,617,564 |
1,669,075 |
In addition to her roles as an engineer, Ericsson has been passionate about mentoring young people and students for much of her life and career, beginning in high school and college. By lecturing and serving on advisory boards at multiple universities, advising pre-college STEM programs, and reviewing proposals for NASA- and NSF-funded grants, Ericsson has supported numerous engineering students and young professionals pursuing careers in science, technology, engineering and math. She currently advises students at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and Howard University. Dr. Ericsson has taught at Howard University and Bowie State University, leading courses in mathematics and mechanical engineering. She has also contributed instruction on Aerospace theory at HU Public Charter Middle School of Math and Science. She works to motivate minority students in science and engineering, and serves as the lead Advisor for the Dynamical Mathematical Visionaries National Society of Engineering Jr. Chapter in Washington, DC. She has served as a Nifty Fifty speaker for the USA Science and Engineering Festival since 2010. She has spoken at the Oprah Winfrey Leadership Academy for Girls in South Africa. Her efforts were recognized by NASA's Exceptional Achievement in Outreach Award in 2002.. In 2022, Dr. Aprille Ericsson received the 2022 Ralph Coats Roe medal from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), honoring her international work encouraging young people, women, and people from other underrepresented groups to pursue STEM careers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41937200
| 1,668,135 |
1,098,005 |
The role of the limbic system in emotion was first explained by James Papez in 1937 within his paper titled “A proposed mechanism of emotion.” The model is known as the Papez circuit. the Papez circuit highlighted the presence of neuronal pathways between vestibular system and limbic system. The vestibular apparatus is in the inner ear this apparatus coordinates the body balance and movement. this requires extensive neuronal networking. Vestibular stimulation can cause changes in mood and emotion. vestibular stimulation by influencing hypothalamus can impact emotions either independently or as part of the general limbic system networks. These emotions can include extreme passivity, loss of drive/motivation, excessive eating and drinking, and rage and violent behavior. Studies show Romantic Love uses reward and motivation systems to focus on a specific individual. The limbic cortical regions process individual emotion factors. In "A General Theory of Love," three professors of psychiatry from UCSF provide an overview of the scientific theories and findings relating to the role of the limbic system in love, attachment and social bonding. They advance the hypothesis that our nervous systems are not self-contained, but rather demonstrably attuned to those around us and those with whom we are most close. This empathy, which they call limbic resonance, is a capacity which we share, along with the anatomical characteristics of the limbic areas of the brain, with all other mammals. Their work builds on previous studies of the importance of physical contact and affection in social and cognitive development, such as the experiments conducted by Harry Harlow on rhesus monkeys, which first established the biological consequences of isolation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4318932
| 1,097,445 |
1,371,353 |
"Mei" is a troodontid, a group of small, bird-like, gracile maniraptorans. All troodontids have many unique features of the skull, such as closely spaced teeth in the lower jaw, and large numbers of teeth. Troodontids have sickle-claws and raptorial hands, and some of the highest non-avian encephalization quotients, meaning they were behaviourally advanced and had keen senses. The type fossil is a young juvenile about long, complete and exceptionally well preserved in three-dimensional detail, with the snout nestled beneath one of the forelimbs and the legs neatly folded beneath the body, similar to the roosting position of modern birds. This posture provides another behavioral link between birds and dinosaurs. The chemistry of the matrix stone and the resting pose indicate the living animal was probably buried instantly in volcanic ash. A second specimen, DNHM D2154, was also preserved in a sleeping posture. Although DNHM D2154 exhibits several juvenile-like features including free cervical ribs, unfused frontals and nasals, and a short snouted skull, other attributes, full fusion of all neurocentral synostoses and the sacrum, and dense exteriors to cortical bone, suggest a small, mature individual. Microscopic examination of tibia and fibula histology confirms maturity and suggests an individual greater than two years old with slowed growth. "Mei" is notable as a distinct species of troodontid based on several unique features, including extremely large nares. It is most closely related to the troodontid "Sinovenator", which places it near the base of the troodontid (bird like) family.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1342730
| 1,370,596 |
1,523,647 |
4. Mood and depression – Several years ago, Prof. Bar’s research evolved to include clinical questions, particularly pertaining to psychiatric disorders such as major depression, and this work made a rapid impact. He started with a theoretical paper (Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 2009) that presented a novel synthesis of findings from psychiatry, neuroscience and cognitive psychology, which gave rise to an overarching hypothesis linking mood with thinking patterns and associative processing. The crux of his groundbreaking hypothesis is that a thinking pattern that involves a broad associative scope elicits positive mood, while a ruminative thinking pattern and inhibition trigger negative mood. Through extensive and fruitful collaborations first with the outstanding department of psychiatry at the Harvard medical school and the Massachusetts General Hospital, and since his return with multiple psychiatric institutions in Israel, this theory has been tested, supported and polished to a point where it is now being implemented in a therapeutic tool soon to become available to all. The theory connects the semantic scope of mental processes to neurogenesis in the hippocampus (which is admittedly a big leap but with promise), the regulation of inhibition from the prefrontal cortex, and mood. The behavioral and neuroimaging publications that stemmed from these ideas already attracted exceptional levels of attention with their global explanatory power and their potential for therapeutic alleviation of symptoms. Prof. Bar’s approach, now being employed in healthy and clinical populations, is to train participants with broad associative thinking in a way that will restore their deficient medial-frontal cortical network and critically diminish ruminative thinking. Rumination is a hallmark of not only major depression but also of other debilitating disorders such as addiction, OCD, PTSD, eating disorders, and more. Therefore, this approach, which already shows significant positive outcomes in pilot participants with major depression, has the potential of helping multiple clinical populations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26854460
| 1,522,786 |
275,392 |
During those early days, the stress and strain of combat put on the crews was intense. However, by early July the chances of F-82s engaging in air-to-air combat was significantly reduced, as the F-80 Shooting Stars had effectively stopped North Korea's air force from coming below the 38th parallel. The F-82s began flying strike and escort missions, along with night intruder sorties. Several F-82s took hits in their radar radomes, which were difficult to replace, and the radomes were removed, turning the aircraft into day fighters. In the ground support role, the F-82s could reach any part of the Korean battlefield with a total ordnance load of over . Each of the six machine guns carried 400 rounds. This firepower was well-used against numerous ground targets. The escort missions flown with the B-26s took F-82s deep into North Korea. Flying with external fuel tanks, it was necessary on many occasions for the Twin Mustangs to drop tanks, owing to the risk of fire or explosion if enemy fire hit one of the empty tanks. On 10 July, F-82s from the 4th and 68th squadrons participated in one of the biggest strikes of the war against ground targets. Joined by B-26s and F-80s, the aircraft hit massive amounts of North Korean road traffic. An estimated 117 trucks, 38 tanks and seven personnel carriers were destroyed, along with a large number of enemy troops killed when the B-26s destroyed a bridge at Pyongtaek, causing a massive jam.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=671473
| 275,243 |
775,259 |
In the late 1770s, during the American Revolutionary War, smallpox returned once more and killed thousands. Peter Kalm in his "Travels in North America", described how in that period, the dying Indian villages became overrun with wolves feasting on the corpses and weakened survivors. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Northwestern Native Americans, killing tens of thousands. The smallpox epidemic of 1780–1782 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. This epidemic is a classic instance of European immunity and non-European vulnerability. It is probable that the Indians contracted the disease from the 'Snake Indians' on the Mississippi. From there it spread eastward and northward to the Saskatchewan River. According to David Thompson's account, the first to hear of the disease were fur traders from the Hudson's House on October 15, 1781. A week later, reports were made to William Walker and William Tomison, who were in charge of the Hudson and Cumberland Hudson's Bay Company posts. By February, the disease spread as far as the Basquia Tribe. Smallpox attacked whole tribes and left few survivors. E. E. Rich described the epidemic by saying that "Families lay unburied in their tents while the few survivors fled, to spread the disease." After reading Tomison's journals, Houston and Houston calculated that, of the Indians who traded at the Hudson and Cumberland houses, 95% died of smallpox. Paul Hackett adds to the mortality numbers suggesting that perhaps up to one half to three quarters of the Ojibway situated west of the Grand Portage died from the disease. The Cree also suffered a casualty rate of approximately 75% with similar effects found in the Lowland Cree. By 1785 the Sioux Indians of the great plains had also been affected. Not only did smallpox devastate the Indian population, it did so in an unforgiving way. William Walker described the epidemic stating that "the Indians [are] all Dying by this Distemper … lying Dead about the Barren Ground like a rotten sheep, their Tents left standing & the Wild beast Devouring them."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20790125
| 774,843 |
1,014,044 |
Sibley and Etnier (2003) performed a meta-analysis that looked at the relationship between physical activity and cognitive performance in children. They reported a beneficial relationship in the categories of perceptual skills, intelligence quotient, achievement, verbal tests, mathematic tests, developmental level/academic readiness and other, with the exception of memory, that was found to be unrelated to physical activity. The correlation was strongest for the age ranges of 4–7 and 11–13 years. On the other hand, Chaddock and colleagues (2011) found results that contrasted Sibley and Etnier's meta-analysis. In their study, the hypothesis was that lower-fit children would perform poorly in executive control of memory and have smaller hippocampal volumes compared to higher-fit children. Instead of physical activity being unrelated to memory in children between 4 and 18 years of age, it may be that preadolescents of higher fitness have larger hippocampal volumes, than preadolescents of lower fitness. According to a previous study done by Chaddock and colleagues (Chaddock "et al." 2010), a larger hippocampal volume would result in better executive control of memory. They concluded that hippocampal volume was positively associated with performance on relational memory tasks. Their findings are the first to indicate that aerobic fitness may relate to the structure and function of the preadolescent human brain. In Best's (2010) meta-analysis of the effect of activity on children's executive function, there are two distinct experimental designs used to assess aerobic exercise on cognition. The first is chronic exercise, in which children are randomly assigned to a schedule of aerobic exercise over several weeks and later assessed at the end. The second is acute exercise, which examines the immediate changes in cognitive functioning after each session. The results of both suggest that aerobic exercise may briefly aid children's executive function and also influence more lasting improvements to executive function. Other studies have suggested that exercise is unrelated to academic performance, perhaps due to the parameters used to determine exactly what academic achievement is. This area of study has been a focus for education boards that make decisions on whether physical education should be implemented in the school curriculum, how much time should be dedicated to physical education, and its impact on other academic subjects.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34760961
| 1,013,523 |
1,162,569 |
"Redfish" received a Presidential Unit Citation which read "For extraordinary heroism in action during the First and Second War Patrols against enemy Japanese surface units in the restricted waters of the Pacific. Operating in bold defiance of foul weather and persistent hostile depth charging, gunfire and bombing by outnumbering forces of radar-equipped ships, air escorts and patrol craft, the "Redfish" launched her accurate and intensive gun and torpedo fire during brief periods of concentrated attack to sink a new Japanese aircraft carrier with her entire complement of embarked planes and equipment destined to be used against our forces, to damage severely another vital carrier and to destroy or cripple much additional shipping necessary to the enemy’s continued prosecution of the war. Although forced to the bottom in 230 feet of water by vicious countermeasures, with her pressure hull cracked and numerous leaks throughout, the "Redfish" responded gallantly to the superb handling of her skilled and aggressive ship's company and succeeded in evading further damage and returning to port. Her brilliant record of success in combat and her indomitable fighting spirit in the face of the most determined and fierce counterattacks by an alert and relentless enemy reflect the highest credit upon the "Redfish", her valiant officers and men and the United States Naval Service."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=446267
| 1,161,952 |
420,274 |
The most complete example of the species, currently in the collections of the University of Alberta Laboratory for Vertebrate Paleontology as specimen number UALVP 24238, is a partially-articulated sub-adult fossil with a wingspan of about . The skeleton is missing only parts of the skull and the ends of the wings and feet, was discovered in 1974 near Utica, Kansas. The fossil was found by Richard C. Fox and Allen Lindoe in rocks belonging to the lower part of the Smoky Hill Chalk Member of the Niobrara Formation. These rocks date to the late Coniacian or early Santonian stage, about 86 million years ago. In 2010, a paper by Alexander W.A. Kellner argued that this specimen was different enough from "G. sternbegi" that it should be re-classified as its own genus and species, which he named "Dawndraco kanzai". This generic name combined the Dawn deity of the Iroquois with a Latin "draco", "dragon". The specific name refers to the Kanza tribe of Kansas. Kellner thought that several features of the skeleton supported his hypothesis that "D. kanzai" was a unique species, most notably its unique snout, which does not strongly taper towards the tip as in female "Pteranodon" specimens, with the upper and lower margins running almost parallel instead. Kellner thought this meant the specimen must have had a crest running along the length of the snout. However, a re-examination of the fossil published in 2017 by Elizabeth Martin-Silverstone and colleagues argued that the differences in the snout were more likely due to male pteranodontids having longer, broader bills than the more complete female specimens Kellner used for comparison. Martin-Silverstone concluded that ""Dawndraco"" was simply a male "G. sternbergi" with a very long bill with a gradual taper.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12413861
| 420,069 |
339,957 |
In spite of the evidence regarding increasingly powerful counterweight trebuchets during the 13th century, "it remains an important consideration that not one of these appears to have effected a breach that directly led to the fall of a stronghold." In 1220, Al-Mu'azzam Isa laid siege to Atlit with a "trabuculus", three "petrariae", and four "mangonelli" but could not penetrate past the outer wall, which was soft but thick. As late as the Siege of Acre (1291), where the Mamluk Sultanate fielded 72 or 92 trebuchets, including 14 or 15 counterweight trebuchets and the remaining traction types, they were never able to fulfill a breaching role. The Mamluks entered the city by sapping the northeast corner of the outer wall. Though stone projectiles of substantial size (~66kg) have been found at Acre, located near the site of the siege and likely used by the Mamluks, surviving walls of a 13th century Montmusard tower are no more than one meter thick. There is no indication that the thickness of fortress walls increased exponentially rather than a modest increase of 0.5-1m between the 12th and 13th centuries. The Templar of Tyre described the faster firing traction trebuchets as more dangerous to the defenders than the counterweight ones. The Song dynasty described countermeasures against counterweight trebuchets that prevented them from damaging towers and houses: "an extraordinary method was invented of neutralising the effects of the enemy's trebuchets. Ropes of rice straw four inches thick and thirty-four feet long were joined together twenty at a time, draped on to the buildings from top to bottom, and covered with [wet] clay. Then neither the incendiary arrows, nor bombs ["huo pao"] from trebuchets, nor even stones of a hundred "jun" caused any damage to the towers and houses."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43380
| 339,776 |
702,455 |
Because molecular diagnostics methods can detect sensitive markers, these tests are less intrusive than a traditional biopsy. For example, because cell-free nucleic acids exist in human plasma, a simple blood sample can be enough to sample genetic information from tumours, transplants or an unborn fetus. Many, but not all, molecular diagnostics methods based on nucleic acids detection use polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to vastly increase the number of nucleic acid molecules, thereby amplifying the target sequence(s) in the patient sample. PCR is a method that a template DNA is amplified using synthetic primers, a DNA polymerase, and dNTPs. The mixture is cycled between at least 2 temperatures: a high temperature for denaturing double-stranded DNA into single-stranded molecules and a low temperature for the primer to hybridize to the template and for the polymerase to extend the primer. Each temperature cycle theoretically doubles the quantity of target sequence. Detection of sequence variations using PCR typically involves the design and use oligonucleotide reagents that amplify the variant of interest more efficiently than wildtype sequence. PCR is currently the most widely used method for detection of DNA sequences. The detection of the marker might use real time PCR, direct sequencing, microarray chipsprefabricated chips that test many markers at once, or MALDI-TOF The same principle applies to the proteome and the genome. High-throughput protein arrays can use complementary DNA or antibodies to bind and hence can detect many different proteins in parallel. Molecular diagnostic tests vary widely in sensitivity, turn around time, cost, coverage and regulatory approval. They also vary in the level of validation applied in the laboratories using them. Hence, robust local validation in accordance with the regulatory requirements and use of appropriate controls is required especially where the result may be used to inform a patient treatment decision.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40439442
| 702,087 |
943,374 |
In 1958, American physicist William Higinbotham worked in the Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, New York, as the head of the instrumentation division. Higinbotham had a bachelor's degree in physics from Williams College, and had previously worked as a technician in the physics department at Cornell University while unsuccessfully pursuing a Ph.D. there. He served as the head of the electronics division of the Manhattan Project from 1943 to 1945, and began working at Brookhaven in 1947, which focused on researching peaceful uses of atomic power. Once a year, the government research facility held an exhibition for the public, with one day each for high school students, college students, and the general public. The exhibition largely consisted of tours and static displays, with some attempts at making displays with "action", so for the 1958 exhibition Higinbotham decided to make an interactive display to entertain the visitors. While reading the instruction manual for one of Brookhaven's computers, a Donner Model 30 analog computer, he learned that the computer could calculate ballistic missile trajectories or a bouncing ball with wind resistance, and he decided to use this ability to form the foundation of a game. He later recalled his intentions were that "it might liven up the place to have a game that people could play, and which could convey the message that our scientific endeavors have relevance for society."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=921415
| 942,872 |
1,162,244 |
Neutral countries seemingly remained in the World War I mindset of trench observation. While aerial photography was allocated to tactically inferior aircraft, and aerial mapping advanced considerably, there was no concept of strategic reconnaissance and little thought given to analysis and interpretation. Surprisingly, this was even the case in the United States, where the Air Corps had staked its future on the doctrine of strategic bombing. Up to 1940, the USAAC's interest in reconnaissance was centered in one small office at Wright Field, Ohio, headed by the controversial Captain George William Goddard. He was responsible for most of the technical advantages adopted by the USAAC during the early war years. The extensive O-series of aircraft, such as the Douglas O-38 and its descendants, were typically low and slow and used for direct Army liaison, artillery spotting, and observation. The OA series of observation amphibians were mostly Army variants of better known Navy types, such as the Consolidated PBY Catalina. These were in practice more utility aircraft than dedicated reconnaissance platforms. In December 1941, complacency and inadequate leadership led to the failure to detect the Japanese task force north of Hawaii from the air. Also, the Americans labored under the handicap that much equipment was assigned to Britain as fast as it could be produced.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38534810
| 1,161,627 |
954,965 |
In 1871 Darwin published his own research on human ancestry in "The Descent of Man", concluding that humans "descended from a hairy quadruped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears", which would be classified amongst the Quadrumana along with monkeys, and in turn descended "through a long line of diversified forms" going back to something like the larvae of sea squirts. Critics promptly complained that this "degrading" image "tears the crown from our heads", but there is little evidence that it led to loss of faith. Among the few who did record the impact of Darwin's writings, the naturalist Joseph LeConte struggled with "distress and doubt" following the death of his daughter in 1861, before enthusiastically saying in the late 1870s there was "not a single philosophical question connected with our highest and dearest religious and spiritual interests that is fundamentally affected, or even put in any new light, by the theory of evolution", and in the late 1880s embracing the view that "evolution is entirely consistent with a rational theism". Similarly, George Frederick Wright (1838–1921) responded to Darwin's "Origin of Species" and Charles Lyell's 1863 "Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man" by turning to Asa Gray's belief that God had set the rules at the start and only intervened on rare occasions, as a way to harmonise evolution with theology. The idea of evolution did not seriously shake Wright's faith, but he later suffered a crisis when confronted with historical criticism of the Bible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=328815
| 954,460 |
1,038,130 |
In a delay line detector the electrons are accelerated to 500 eV between the back of the last MCP and a grid. They then fly for 5 mm and are dispersed over an area of 2 mm. A grid follows. Each element has a diameter of 1 mm and consists of an electrostatic lens focusing arriving electrons through a 30 µm hole of a grounded sheet of aluminium. Behind that, a cylinder of the same size follows. The electron cloud induces a 300 ps negative pulse when entering the cylinder and a positive when leaving. After that another sheet, a second cylinder follows, and a last sheet follows. Effectively the cylinders are fused into the center-conductor of a stripline. The sheets minimize cross talk between the layers and adjacent lines in the same layer, which would lead to signal dispersion and ringing. These striplines meander across the anode to connect all cylinders, to offer each cylinder 50 Ω impedance, and to generate a position dependent delay. Because the turns in the stripline adversely affect the signal quality their number is limited and for higher resolutions multiple independent striplines are needed. At both ends the meanders are connected to detector electronics. These electronics convert the measured delays into X- (first layer) and Y-coordinates (second layer). Sometimes a hexagonal grid and 3 coordinates are used. This redundancy reduces the dead space-time by reducing the maximum travel distance and thus the maximum delay, allowing for faster measurements. The microchannel plate detector must not operate over around 60 degree Celsius, otherwise it will degrade rapidly, bakeout without voltage has no influence.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30862351
| 1,037,589 |
2,129,512 |
Harold Smith founded OyaGen, Inc. in 2003. OyaGen is a biopharmaceutical company which develops therapies to fight viral illness through editing enzymes, with a focus on Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Founded with a seed fund by the University of Rochester and the Trillium Group, Smith has successfully brought in $6.5 million in Angel investment and $2.1 million in total federal grant support for OyaGen. In 2005, the company began preclinical trials on a drug that OyaGen believes will protect the body's natural A3G, which functions as an editing enzyme in mutating HIV DNA during its replication in such a way that the virus can no longer code for itself. In 2008, he edited a book for Wiley and Sons on RNA and DNA Editing that brought together the next generation of scientists working in the field to comment on their work and the future of the field. That same year, Smith, through the University of Rochester Medical Center, received a $100 thousand grant from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to aid in research for curing infectious diseases, such as HIV. The New York State Common Retirement Fund invested in OyaGen in 2006 and again in 2010. In February 2013, Cannabis Science, Inc. added Smith to its scientific advisory board. He was added to IGXBio's Scientific Advisory Board in 2014, as well as the Education Board at the American Health Council in August 2016. He continues as a professor at the University of Rochester, School of Medicine and Dentistry, teaching biochemistry and biophysics. Throughout his academic career, Smith has provided his expertise in reviewing grant proposals for the NIH as well as European and Israeli funding agencies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42927273
| 2,128,288 |
694,802 |
Claude Bernard, a French physiologist of the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle (National Museum of Natural History in English), formulated the concept of the "milieu interieur" in the mid-1800s. In 1865, Bernard described the perturbation of this internal state: "... there are protective functions of organic elements holding living materials in reserve and maintaining without interruption humidity, heat and other conditions indispensable to vital activity. Sickness and death are only a dislocation or perturbation of that mechanism" (Bernard, 1865). Walter Cannon, a professor of physiology at Harvard University coined the commonly used term, homeostasis, in his book "The Wisdom of the Body", 1932, from the Greek word "homoios", meaning similar, and "stasis", meaning position. In his work with animals, Cannon observed that any change of emotional state in the beast, such as anxiety, distress, or rage, was accompanied by total cessation of movements of the stomach ("Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage", 1915). These studies looked into the relationship between the effects of emotions and perceptions on the autonomic nervous system, namely the sympathetic and parasympathetic responses that initiated the recognition of the freeze, fight or flight response. His findings were published from time to time in professional journals, then summed up in book form in "The Mechanical Factors of Digestion", published in 1911.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=816012
| 694,439 |
717,254 |
When multiple copies of a polypeptide encoded by a gene form a complex, this protein structure is referred to as a multimer. When a multimer is formed from polypeptides produced by two different mutant alleles of a particular gene, the mixed multimer may exhibit greater functional activity than the unmixed multimers formed by each of the mutants alone. In such a case, the phenomenon is referred to as intragenic complementation (also called inter-allelic complementation). Intragenic complementation has been demonstrated in many different genes in a variety of organisms including the fungi "Neurospora crassa", "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" and "Schizosaccharomyces pombe"; the bacterium "Salmonella typhimurium"; the virus bacteriophage T4, an RNA virus and humans. In such studies, numerous mutations defective in the same gene were often isolated and mapped in a linear order on the basis of recombination frequencies to form a genetic map of the gene. Separately, the mutants were tested in pairwise combinations to measure complementation. An analysis of the results from such studies led to the conclusion that intragenic complementation, in general, arises from the interaction of differently defective polypeptide monomers to form a multimer. Genes that encode multimer-forming polypeptides appear to be common. One interpretation of the data is that polypeptide monomers are often aligned in the multimer in such a way that mutant polypeptides defective at nearby sites in the genetic map tend to form a mixed multimer that functions poorly, whereas mutant polypeptides defective at distant sites tend to form a mixed multimer that functions more effectively. Direct interaction of two nascent proteins emerging from nearby ribosomes appears to be a general mechanism for homo-oligomer (multimer) formation. Hundreds of protein oligomers were identified that assemble in human cells by such an interaction. The most prevalent form of interaction is between the N-terminal regions of the interacting proteins. Dimer formation appears to be able to occur independently of dedicated assembly machines. The intermolecular forces likely responsible for self-recognition and multimer formation were discussed by Jehle.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2161878
| 716,877 |
1,519,325 |
A notable point in 771's wartime history was that they started the chain that led to the sinking of the German battleship Bismarck. The Commanding Officer of HMS Sparrowhawk, Capt Henry Lockhart St John Fancourt, RN, had been ordered to identify and sink the Bismarck at the earliest opportunity. The two squadrons of Albacoress he had did not have sufficient range to attack the battleship whilst in harbour. He was relying on the Royal Air Force to carry out flights over Bergen, and inform the Royal Navy when the Battleship had left port. On 22 May 1941 RAF Coastal Command deemed the weather unsuitable for flight; however, Fancourt volunteered to put together a crew to fly 771's Martin Maryland twin-engined plane to carry out the sortie. Temporary Lieutenant (A) Noel Ernest Goddard, RNVR, at the time the Senior Pilot of 771 NAS, volunteered to pilot the sortie, with his crew of Acting Leading Airman John Walker Armstrong as TAG-WO and Leading Airman J. D. Milne as TAG-AG. The extremely experienced observer Commander Geoffry Alexander Rotherham, at the time the Air Station's XO, stepped up to act as Mission Commander. Goddard flew on instruments at low level over the sea, making landfall on target. Having identified that the ships had sailed already they attempted to radio their discovery back to RAF Coastal Command. However, they did not receive any reply. Rotherham decided to contact the Air Station directly on the Towed Target frequency and also fly directly to HMS Sparrowhawk's forward airfield, Sumburgh, where the Albacores were ready to intercept.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6617900
| 1,518,467 |
1,132,642 |
A CNN article from 2000 noted that "Though most of his peers concluded otherwise, Levin still holds that the robot tests he coordinated on the 1976 Viking lander indicated the presence of living organisms on Mars." A 2006 astrobiology textbook noted that "With unsterilized Terrestrial samples, though, the addition of more nutrients after the initial incubation would then produce still more radioactive gas as the dormant bacteria sprang into action to consume the new dose of food. This was not true of the Martian soil; on Mars, the second and third nutrient injections did not produce any further release of labeled gas." The 2011 edition of the same textbook noted that "Albet Yen of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory has shown that, under extremely cold and dry conditions and in a carbon dioxide atmosphere, ultraviolet light (remember: Mars lacks an ozone layer, so the surface is bathed in ultraviolet) can cause carbon dioxide to react with soils to produce various oxidizers, including highly reactive superoxides (salts containing O) When mixed with small organic molecules, superoxidizers readily oxidize them to carbon dioxide, which may account for the LR result. Superoxide chemistry can also account for the puzzling results seen when more nutrients were added to the soil in the LR experiment; because life multiplies, the amount of gas should have increased when a second or third batch of nutrients was added, but if the effect was due to a chemical being consumed in the first reaction, no new gas would be expected. Lastly, many superoxides are relatively unstable and are destroyed at elevated temperatures, also accounting for the "sterilization" seen in the LR experiment."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1072959
| 1,132,050 |
211,603 |
Preventive healthcare is especially important given the worldwide rise in prevalence of chronic diseases and deaths from these diseases. There are many methods for prevention of disease. One of them is prevention of teenage smoking through information giving. It is recommended that adults and children aim to visit their doctor for regular check-ups, even if they feel healthy, to perform disease screening, identify risk factors for disease, discuss tips for a healthy and balanced lifestyle, stay up to date with immunizations and boosters, and maintain a good relationship with a healthcare provider. In pediatrics, some common examples of primary prevention are encouraging parents to turn down the temperature of their home water heater in order to avoid scalding burns, encouraging children to wear bicycle helmets, and suggesting that people use the Air Quality Index (AQI) to check the level of pollution in the outside air before engaging in sporting activities. Some common disease screenings include checking for hypertension (high blood pressure), hyperglycemia (high blood sugar, a risk factor for diabetes mellitus), hypercholesterolemia (high blood cholesterol), screening for colon cancer, depression, HIV and other common types of sexually transmitted disease such as chlamydia, syphilis, and gonorrhea, mammography (to screen for breast cancer), colorectal cancer screening, a Pap test (to check for cervical cancer), and screening for osteoporosis. Genetic testing can also be performed to screen for mutations that cause genetic disorders or predisposition to certain diseases such as breast or ovarian cancer. However, these measures are not affordable for every individual and the cost effectiveness of preventive healthcare is still a topic of debate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1032780
| 211,495 |
1,617,412 |
The protein encoded by this gene is a member of the fibroblast growth factor receptor family, where amino acid sequence is highly conserved between members and throughout evolution. FGFR family members differ from one another in their ligand affinities and tissue distribution. A full-length representative protein would consist of an extracellular region, composed of three immunoglobulin-like domains, a single hydrophobic membrane-spanning segment and a cytoplasmic tyrosine kinase domain. The extracellular portion of the protein interacts with fibroblast growth factors, setting in motion a cascade of downstream signals, ultimately influencing mitogenesis and differentiation. The genomic organization of this gene, compared to members 1-3, encompasses 18 exons rather than 19 or 20. Although alternative splicing has been observed, there is no evidence that the C-terminal half of the IgIII domain of this protein varies between three alternate forms, as indicated for members 1-3. This particular family member preferentially binds acidic fibroblast growth factor and, although its specific function is unknown, it is overexpressed in gynecological tumor samples, suggesting a role in breast and ovarian tumorigenesis. In a meta-analisis study, the functional polymorphism Gly388Arg (rs351855) of FGFR4 was observed to be significantly associated with nodal involvement and overall survival in patients with different types of cancer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14125672
| 1,616,499 |
535,363 |
Unfortunately, Wegener provided no convincing mechanism for this drift, and his ideas were not generally accepted during his lifetime. Arthur Homes accepted Wegener's theory and provided a mechanism: mantle convection, to cause the continents to move. However, it was not until after the Second World War that new evidence started to accumulate that supported continental drift. There followed a period of 20 extremely exciting years where the Theory of Continental Drift developed from being believed by a few to being the cornerstone of modern Geology. Beginning in 1947 research found new evidence about the ocean floor, and in 1960 Bruce C. Heezen published the concept of mid-ocean ridges. Soon after this, Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed that the oceanic crust forms as the seafloor spreads apart along mid-ocean ridges in seafloor spreading. This was seen as confirmation of mantle convection and so the major stumbling block to the theory was removed. Geophysical evidence suggested lateral motion of continents and that oceanic crust is younger than continental crust. This geophysical evidence also spurred the hypothesis of paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of the Earth's magnetic field recorded in magnetic minerals. British geophysicist S. K. Runcorn suggested the concept of paleomagnetism from his finding that the continents had moved relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. Tuzo Wilson, who was a promoter of the sea floor spreading hypothesis and continental drift from the very beginning, added the concept of transform faults to the model, completing the classes of fault types necessary to make the mobility of the plates on the globe function. A symposium on continental drift was held at the Royal Society of London in 1965 must be regarded as the official start of the acceptance of plate tectonics by the scientific community. The abstracts from the symposium are issued as Blacket, Bullard, Runcorn;1965.In this symposium, Edward Bullard and co-workers showed with a computer calculation how the continents along both sides of the Atlantic would best fit to close the ocean, which became known as the famous "Bullard's Fit". By the late 1960s the weight of the evidence available saw Continental Drift as the generally accepted theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56516812
| 535,084 |
2,037,570 |
The school was made known first nationally and eventually worldwide to U.S. enterprises and to U.S. allies involved in the development of peaceful uses of atomic energy, and who were interested in educating and training designated scientific and engineering personnel at its unique venue. In 1959, ORSORT accepted its first international enrollments. Applications to enroll required strict clearance from the Atomic Energy Commission. Tuition fees partially offset school operating costs. Courses listed in their 1965 curricula included Analysis, Chemical Technology, Economics of Nuclear Power, Engineering Science, Experimental Physics, Nuclear Systems Laboratory, Hazards Study, Health Physics, Instrumentation and Controls, Materials, Mathematics, Meteorology, Physics, Reactor Operating Experience and Shielding. Scientific and engineering graduates of the one-year program earned certificates of completion and were awarded the degree of Doctor of Pile Engineering (D.O.P.E.). ORSORT turned out up to 100 graduates a year, many of whom became leaders in the nuclear industry, such as a former Secretary of Energy, James D. Watkins. The total number of ORSORT graduates was 976. In addition to 19 US students from the Atomic Energy Commission, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and US utilities, the last graduating class of 1965 included engineering and scientific personnel sponsored by their governments in Australia, India, Israel, Japan, Netherlands, Pakistan, Philippines and South Africa.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27934732
| 2,036,395 |
1,301,816 |
Captorhinids are a clade of small to very large lizard-like reptiles that date from the late Carboniferous through the Permian. Their skulls were much stronger than those of their relatives, the Protorothyrididae, and had teeth that were better able to deal with tough plant material. The postcranial skeleton is very similar to that of advanced reptiliomorph amphibians, so much in fact that the amphibian Seymouriamorpha and Diadectomorpha were thought to be reptiles and grouped together in "Cotylosauria" as the first reptiles in the early 20th century. Captorhinids have broad, robust skulls that are generally triangular in shape when seen in dorsal view. The premaxillae are characteristically downturned. The largest captorhinid, the herbivorous "Moradisaurus", could reach an estimated snout-vent length of 2 meters (6.5 feet). Early, smaller forms possessed single rows of teeth, and were likely carnivorous or omnivorous, while the larger, more derived captorhinids belonging to the subfamily Moradisaurinae were herbivorous and developed multiple (up to 11) rows of teeth in the jaws alongside propalinal (back and forth) jaw motion, which created an effective apparatus for grinding and shredding plant matter.Histological and SEM analysis of captorhinid tail vertebrae concluded in a 2018 study that captorhinids were the first amniotes to develop caudal autotomy as a defensive function. In studied specimens a split line is present in certain caudal vertebrae that is similar to those found in modern reptiles that perform caudal autonomy. This behaviour represented significant evolutionary benefit for the animals, allowing for escape and distracting predators, as well as minimizing blood loss at an injury site.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4071551
| 1,301,102 |
162,133 |
The last and longest lasting of the 19th century recessions was the Long Depression, which began with the financial Panic of 1873 and induced a twenty three-year period of worldwide anemic growth and recession cycles which only ended in the late 1890s. The bursting of a railroad speculation bubble in the United States, heavily financed via London, was a major factor in the initial shock. British foreign investment fell sharply, but it took some years for record high domestic investments to fall as well. The initial Depression lasted between 1873 and 1879, and was marked above all by price deflation, and therefore declining profitability for industrialists and financiers. Shrinking returns and a generally unfavorable economic climate meant that investment as a percentage of Britain's National wealth, both overseas and at home, fell from an average of 12.6% between 1870 and 1874, to 9.7% between 1875 and 1896. The sluggish world market, which was at its weakest in the 1880s, was keenly felt in the export-reliant economy of the UK. British quinquennial export averages did not return to their pre-1873 levels (£235 million between 1870 and 1874) until 1895–99, slumping to £192 million in 1879. The recovery, moreover, was weaker than the mid-century growth in exports, because British manufactures were struggling to compete with domestically produced products in nations like Germany and the United States, where steep exclusionary tariffs had been enforced in response to the economic crisis. Prices on commodities in Britain fell as much as 40% in the 1870s, with a downward pressure on wages which led to a general perception among the working classes of financial hardship and decline.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33643110
| 162,048 |
1,838,862 |
During the two or three years that Mary Shelley spent writing the "Spanish and Portuguese Lives" from 1834 or 1835 to 1837, she also wrote a novel, "Falkner" (1837), experienced the death of her father, William Godwin, started a biography of him, and moved to London after her son, Percy Florence Shelley, entered Trinity College, Cambridge. She had more difficulty with these "Lives" than with the other volumes' biographies, writing to her friend Maria Gisborne: "I am now about to write a Volume of Spanish & Portugeeze Lives – This is an arduous task, from my own ignorance, & the difficulty of getting books & information". According to Lisa Vargo, a recent editor of the "Spanish and Portuguese Lives", Spanish books were hard to come by in England and not much was known regarding Shelley's subjects. However, Shelly ended one plaintive letter to another friend: "The best is that the very thing which occasions the difficulty makes it interesting – namely – the treading in unknown paths & dragging out unknown things – I wish I could go to Spain." While living in Harrow, she refused to go to the British Library in London, writing: "I would not if I could – I do not like finding myself a stray bird among strange men in a character assimililating to their own". At this time, the British Library had special tables for women in the reading room. While some scholars see her refusal to work there as a mark of "feminist protest" others see it as "matter of comfort and practicality", since the reading rooms were "noisy, badly lit, and poorly ventilated". Shelley's continual problems with finding sources mean that her biographies are based on relatively few works. However, Vargo writes that "there is always a sense of an engaged and intelligent mind at work weighing what should be included, what seems accurate". Shelley tended to focus on obtaining accounts written by people who knew the authors, and when translations of the authors' works were unavailable or poor, she provided her own.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17481711
| 1,837,813 |
2,215,527 |
1. Efficient elementary instruction should be available to every child to enable the working class to benefit from scientific instruction.2. In order for this to be effective, regular attendance of the child for a sufficient period must be obtained.3. Elementary schools should teach drawing, physical geography and "the phenomena of nature".4. All those who are not obliged to leave school before the age of 14 should be taught science.5. Parliament and the nation should consider immediately the reorganization of secondary education and the introduction of more scientific teaching.6. Certain endowed schools in the relevant districts should be reconstituted as science schools. Exhibitions open to public competition would enable children of every grade to rise from the lowest to the highest school.7. Fees alone cannot adequately fund colleges of science and schools of scientific education: the State, the localities, endowments or other benefactors could contribute.8. Centres of industry are the ideal locations for such colleges and schools due to the possibilities of combining science with practice, and also because some pupils would not be able to live far away from home.9. The agricultural districts in particular and the provinces of England in general do not enjoy sufficient State grants for scientific education.10. These provinces of England are entitled to increased funding.11. Increased pay for science teachers would probably ensure the establishment and permanence of elementary science classes.12. The Public Libraries and Museums Act should be amended to enable public bodies to charge slightly more for scientific purposes.13. The managers of teacher training colleges should devote more time to instructing elementary teachers in theoretical and applied science.14. Teachers in elementary day schools should be paid on the basis of the results for teaching science to older scholars. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge should grant degrees in science.15. A closer relationship between government institutions for scientific instruction in London would increase the efficiency of each institution.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29873624
| 2,214,267 |
495,921 |
Although DHCA is necessary for some procedures, the use of anesthesia can provide optimum operation time and organ protection but can also have serious impacts on cellular demand, brain cells, and serious systemic inflammatory results. Possible disadvantages of DHCA includes alteration in organ functions of the liver, kidney, brain, pancreas, intestines and smooth muscles due to cellular damage. Permanent neurological injury has been seen in 3-12% of patients when using DHCA. Cases of partial or complete limb motor loss, impaired language, visual defects, and cognitive decline have all been reported as consequences of DHCA. Other neurological complications are increase risk for seizures postoperative due to delayed return of cellular blood flow to the brain. When compared to Moderate Hypothermia (temperature dropped to 26-31 °C), there was less bleeding volume experienced during surgery thus leading to less use of packed red blood cells or plasma post surgery. Longer recovery time postoperatively have been noted with DHCA as compared to Moderate Hypothermia, but the length of hospital stay and death has no correlated difference. Most patients can tolerate 30 minutes of DHCA without significant neurological dysfunction or adverse effects, but after an extended period of 40 minutes or more, prevalence of increase brain injury have been noted.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6891706
| 495,665 |
2,143,600 |
ICES Statistical Rectangles (aka "ICES Rectangles") is a gridded, latitude-longitude based area notation system covering the north-east Atlantic region developed by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) in the 1970s, for simplified analysis and visualization of spatial data of relevance to that organization's interests. The individual rectangles that make up the system each measure 1 degree of longitude by 0.5 degrees of latitude and are intended to be roughly square in real world use in the ICES region of interest, approximately 30 nautical miles by 30 nautical miles (55×55 km) at 60°N, although the actual width varies with latitude, gradually becoming wider than they are high south of 60°N, and narrower further north. The grid covers the region from 36°N to 85°30'N and from 44°W to 69°E (quoted as 68°30') using a set of alphanumeric identifiers, with row of latitude (identifiers 01 through 99, from south to north) cited first, then column of longitude (identifiers A0-A3, then B0-B9, C0-C9 etc., from west to east). The last used column identifier is M8; column identifiers A4-A9, and prefix "I" (uppercase "i") i.e. columns "I"0-"I"9 are not used. The resulting grid is 113 columns by 99 rows, comprising 11,187 labelled 1×0.5 degree cells. An example cell designation is 37F3, which designates the 1×0.5 degree rectangle of which the south-west corner is 54°00'N, 03°00'E. The grid covers both land and sea areas across its designated region, but as per the interests of its originating body, is typically employed for use with marine data such as analysis of marine resources, fishing activities, seabed habitat, etc., refer example references below. The full extent of the grid is visible in published figures such as Figs. 5-8 in Williamson "et al"., 2017.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69103054
| 2,142,369 |
183,931 |
A solar flyer has also been proposed by Geoffrey A. Landis in place of a balloon, and the idea has been featured from time to time since the early 2000s. Venus has a high albedo, and reflects most of the sunlight that shines on it making the surface quite dark, the upper atmosphere at 60 km has an upward solar intensity of 90%, meaning that solar panels on both the top and the bottom of a craft could be used with nearly equal efficiency. In addition to this, the slightly lower gravity, high air pressure and slow rotation allowing for perpetual solar power make this part of the planet ideal for exploration. The proposed flyer would operate best at an altitude where sunlight, air pressure, and wind speed would enable it to remain in the air perpetually, with slight dips down to lower altitudes for a few hours at a time before returning to higher altitudes. As sulfuric acid in the clouds at this height is not a threat for a properly shielded craft, this so-called "solar flyer" would be able to measure the area in between 45 km and 60 km indefinitely, for however long it takes for mechanical error or unforeseen problems to cause it to fail. Landis also proposed that rovers similar to Spirit and Opportunity could possibly explore the surface, with the difference being that Venus surface rovers would be "dumb" rovers controlled by radio signals from computers located in the flyer above, only requiring parts such as motors and transistors to withstand the surface conditions, but not weaker parts involved in microelectronics that could not be made resistant to the heat, pressure and acidic conditions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6410946
| 183,834 |
1,978,157 |
While at FHCRC, Weintraub continued and extended his prior studies of chromatin structure and function. Another of his contributions was developing the technique of using antisense RNA to create specific mutant phenotypes in vertebrate organisms. Perhaps the work for which Weintraub is best known was his laboratory's discovery and characterization of "myoD", the first master regulatory gene. When expressed, the myoD gene produces a protein referred to as MyoD (or MyoD1), which can bind certain DNA sequences, stop cell division, and elicit an entire program of muscle cell differentiation. In a series of sequential experiments, Weintraub and his students showed that myoD was able to convert fibroblasts (connective tissue cells) into myoblasts (skeletal muscle cells). Later studies by the same group of investigators at FHCRC further characterized the structural and functional characteristics of "myoD" and its nuclear-localized protein product, which were found to be present in organisms as diverse as nematode worms, frogs, mice, and humans. During the final years of his life, Weintraub's work used myoD to delve broadly and deeply into the areas of regulatory proteins, gene expression, and the molecular control of cell differentiation. As part of this work, his lab pioneered a molecular biology technique known as the Selection And Amplification Binding (SAAB) assay, which is used to find the DNA-binding sites for proteins.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44554443
| 1,977,019 |
550,277 |
The chip is located behind the retina and utilizes microphotodiode arrays (MPDA) which collect incident light and transform it into electrical current stimulating the retinal ganglion cells. As natural photoreceptors are far more efficient than photodiodes, visible light is not powerful enough to stimulate the MPDA. Therefore, an external power supply is used to enhance the stimulation current. The German team commenced in vivo experiments in 2000, when evoked cortical potentials were measured from Yucatán micropigs and rabbits. At 14 months post implantation, the implant and retina surrounding it were examined and there were no noticeable changes to anatomical integrity. The implants were successful in producing evoked cortical potentials in half of the animals tested. The thresholds identified in this study were similar to those required in epiretinal stimulation. Later reports from this group concern the results of a clinical pilot study on 11 participants with retinitis pigmentosa. Some blind patients were able to read letters, recognize unknown objects, localize a plate, a cup and cutlery. Two of the patients were found to make microsaccades similar to those of healthy control participants, and the properties of the eye movements depended on the stimuli that the patients were viewing—suggesting that eye movements might be useful measures for evaluating vision restored by implants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17198736
| 549,989 |
293,476 |
While radar was being developed during World War II, there arose an urgent need for a high-power microwave generator that worked at shorter wavelengths, around 10 cm (3 GHz), rather than the 50 to 150 cm (200 MHz) that was available from tube-based generators of the time. It was known that a multi-cavity resonant magnetron had been developed and patented in 1935 by Hans Hollmann in Berlin. However, the German military considered the frequency drift of Hollman's device to be undesirable, and based their radar systems on the klystron instead. But klystrons could not at that time achieve the high power output that magnetrons eventually reached. This was one reason that German night fighter radars, which never strayed beyond the low-UHF band to start with for front-line aircraft, were not a match for their British counterparts. Likewise, in the UK, Albert Beaumont Wood proposed in 1937 a system with "six or eight small holes" drilled in a metal block, differing from the later production designs only in the aspects of vacuum sealing. However, his idea was rejected by the Navy, who said their valve department was far too busy to consider it.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20861
| 293,318 |
251,907 |
Because of the broad variety of operating conditions, these devices must meet specific requirements concerning their rate and duration of cooling, their power source, and their adherence to health and safety regulations. Among other criteria are the user's need for physical mobility and autonomy. For example, active-liquid systems operate by chilling water and circulating it through a garment; the skin surface area is thereby cooled through conduction. This type of system has proven successful in certain military, law enforcement, and industrial applications. Bomb-disposal technicians wearing special suits to protect against improvised explosive devices (IEDs) use a small, ice-based chiller unit that is strapped to one leg; a liquid-circulating garment, usually a vest, is worn over the torso to maintain a safe core body temperature. By contrast, soldiers traveling in combat vehicles can face microclimate temperatures in excess of and require a multiple-user, vehicle-powered cooling system with rapid connection capabilities. Requirements for hazmat teams, the medical community, and workers in heavy industry vary further.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=75654
| 251,774 |
667,869 |
Despite women's tendency to perform better than men academically, there are flaws involving stereotyping, lack of information, and family influence that have been found to affect women's involvement in science. Stereotyping has an effect, because people associate characteristics such as nurturing, kind, and warm or characteristics like strong and powerful with a particular gender. These character associations lead people to stereotype that certain jobs are more suitable to a particular gender. Lack of information is something that many institutions have worked hard over the years to improve by making programs such as the IFAC project (Information for a choice: empowering women through learning for scientific and technological career paths) which investigated low women participation in science and technology fields at high school to university level. However, not all efforts were as successful, "Science: it's a girl thing" campaign, which has since been removed, received backlash for further encouraging women that they must partake in "girly" or "feminine" activities. The idea being that if women are fully informed of their career choices and employability, they will be more inclined to pursue STEM field jobs. Women also struggle in the sense of lacking role models of women in science. Family influence is dependent on education level, economic status, and belief system. Education level of a student's parent matters, because oftentimes people who have higher education have a different opinion on education's importance than someone that does not. A parent can also be an influence in the sense that they want their children to follow in their footsteps and pursue a similar occupation, especially in women, it's been found that the mother's line of work tends to correlate with their daughters. Economic status can influence what kind of higher education a student might get. Economic status may influence their education depending on whether they are a work bound student or a college bound student. A work bound student may choose a shorter career path to quickly begin making money or due to lack of time. The belief system of a household can also have a big impact on women depending on their family's religious or cultural viewpoints. There are still some countries that have certain regulations on women's occupation, clothing, and curfew that limit career choices for women. Parental influence is also relevant because people tend to want to fulfill what they could not have as a child. Unfortunately, women are at such a disadvantage because not only must they overcome societal norms but then they also have to outperform men for the same recognition, studies show.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3135183
| 667,520 |
1,594,223 |
Rafelski studied physics at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University in Frankfurt, Germany, where he received his PhD in the spring of 1973 working with Walter Greiner on strong fields and muonic atom tests of QED. In 1973 he began a series of postdoctoral fellowships: first at the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia) with Abraham Klein, then at the Argonne National Laboratory near Chicago where he worked with John W. Clark of Washington University in St. Louis and Michael Danos of National Bureau of Standards (now National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)). In spring 1977 Rafelski moved for a few months to work at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Germany, then continued on to a fellowship at CERN, where he worked with Rolf Hagedorn and John S. Bell; Rafelski remains associated with CERN to this day. In the fall of 1979 Rafelski was appointed tenured associate professor at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University where he taught for 4 years, while collaborating closely with Hagedorn and with Berndt Müller and , whom Rafelski mentored in his PhD work. Rafelski then accepted the chair of Theoretical Physics at the University of Cape Town (South Africa) where he created a Theoretical Physics and Astrophysics Institute before moving to The University of Arizona in the fall of 1987. During these years he was also a guest scientist at NIST in Washington, D.C. His interests in muon-catalyzed fusion and other table-top fusion methods led him to a collaboration led by Steven E. Jones working at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. The start-up of experimental work on quark–gluon plasma has led to another enduring collaboration with the University of Paris 7-Jussieu involving Jean Letessier.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23520574
| 1,593,326 |
1,977,022 |
The next year, Jefferson published 200 copies of his "Notes on the State of Virginia". The section on the minerals and animals of Virginia included a discussion of the "Mammoth". He rejected the idea that the mammoth could be extinct and drew from the lore of local indigenous people that to speculate that it may survive in the unexplored regions to the north and west of North America. He speculated that it had become locally extirpated in the east because the indigenous people had killed so much of the local game to trade their skins with European colonists. Jefferson refuted the proposal that the Big Bone Lick molars were hippopotamus molars while the tusks were of elephants by noting that both the tusks and molars are always found associated but with no elephant-like molars or hippopotamus bones present to make up the rest of the animals. He therefore concluded it was simpler to ascribe the remains to a single kind of animal. He also noted that the cusps on the teeth and the large size of its body distinguished it from both modern elephants and hippopotamus and the local climate was too cold for both besides. Jefferson disagreed with proposals that the Ohio River region must once have been warm enough to sustain elephant populations, but thought that the "mammoth" was instead an elephant-like animal suited to colder climates. Jefferson also saw the existence of the colossal mammoth as a strong rebuttal against the idea that the life of the New World was degenerate compared to life in the Old World. The mammoth quickly became a symbol of American patriotism and equality with the Old World. In 1795 future president William Henry Harrison filled 13 large barrels full of fossils taken from Big Bone Lick. He sent the fossils by boat to Pittsburgh, however since the specimens never made it they may have been lost in a shipwreck. During the 1790s James Taylor also made many trips to Big Bone Lick.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37798921
| 1,975,884 |
519,466 |
Inspired by a collection on ""Trade and Market in the early Empires"" edited by Karl Polanyi, the substantivists conducted a wide comparative study of market behavior in traditional societies where such markets were embedded in kinship, religion and politics. They thus remained focused on the social and cultural processes that shaped markets, rather than on the individual focused study of economizing behavior found in economic analysis. George Dalton and Paul Bohannon, for example, published a collection on markets in sub-Saharan Africa. "Pedlars and Princes: Social Development and Economic Change in Two Indonesian Towns" by Clifford Geertz compared the entrepreneurial cultures of Islamic Java with Hinduized Bali in the post-colonial period. In Java, trade was in the hands of pious Muslims, whereas in Bali, larger enterprises were organized by aristocrats. Over time, this literature was refocused on "informal economies", those market activities lying on the periphery of legal markets. Modernization theory of development had led economists in the 1950s and 1960s to expect that traditional forms of work and production would disappear in developing countries. Anthropologists found, however, that the sector had not only persisted, but expanded in new and unexpected ways. In accepting that these forms of productions were there to stay, scholars began using the term informal sector, which is credited to the British anthropologist Keith Hart in a study on Ghana in 1973. This literature focuses on the "invisible work" done by those who fall outside the formal production process, such as the production of clothing by domestic workers, or those who are bound labourers in sweatshops. As these studies have shifted to the informal sector of western economies, the field has been dominated by those taking a political economy approach.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=418436
| 519,197 |
1,311,160 |
Irrational Games brought another 2K Games subsidiary, 2K Marin, aboard to help build out the architecture and details of Columbia. Irrational's director of design Bill Gardner stated that the scope of Columbia was much more expansive than Rapture in terms of virtual space, using an example of the whole of one "BioShock" level, the "Medical Pavilion", able to easily fit into a beach on Columbia, a fraction of the overall level there, and thus necessitating the additional help. The Irrational team reviewed much of the American culture and propaganda at the turn of the 20th century, using the artwork to create some of the in-game posters. Levine commented that at the time, such imagery was "really subtle", and considered that their re-envisioning of these posters within "Columbia" was "a great way to communicate ideas visually". Other sources of inspiration for the game's art included photographs from before and after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, and from Sears-Roebuck catalogs from the turn of the century. Another source of inspiration for the art style was developed by considering "Infinite" to represent "The Fourth of July, 1912", just as "BioShock" resonated with the theme of "New Years Eve 1959". By selecting this hypothetical date, the team quickly identified films to draw imagery from, like "The Music Man", "Meet Me in St. Louis", and "Hello, Dolly" which exhibited ideal views of Americana at the turn of the 20th century. The bright, open-air environments of Columbia presented a challenge to the team to keep aspects of the horror genre within the game; Levine stated they took some inspiration from Stanley Kubrick's "The Shining" and David Lynch's "Blue Velvet", transforming an "antiseptic environment" into the "scariest ******* place [one's] ever seen". Other film inspirations for the game include: "Angel Heart", "Beauty and the Beast", "O Brother, Where Art Thou?" and "There Will Be Blood".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38977195
| 1,310,442 |
461,927 |
Both etoposide and teniposide are naturally occurring semi-synthetic derivatives of podophyllotoxins and are important anti-cancer drugs that function to inhibit TopII activity. Etoposide is synthesized from podophyllum extracts found in the North American May Apple plant and the North American Mandrake plant. More specifically, Podophyllotoxins are spindle poisons that cause inhibition of mitosis by blocking mitrotubular assembly. In relation, etoposide functions to inhibit the cell cycle progression at the pre-mitotic stage (late S and G2) by breaking strands of DNA via the interaction with DNA and TopII or by the formation of free radicals. Etoposide has shown to be one of the most active drugs for small cell lung cancer (SCLC), testicular carcinoma and malignant lymphoma. Studies have indicated that some major therapeutic activity for the drug has been found in small cell bronchogenic carcinoma, germ cell malignancies, acute non-lymphocytic leukemia, Hodgkin's disease and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Additionally, studies have shown when treated with etoposide derivatives there is an anti-leukemic dose response that differ compared to the normal hematopoietic elements. Etoposide is a highly schedule-dependent drug and is typically administered orally and recommended to take twice the dosage for effective treatment. However, with the selective dosage, etoposide treatment is dose limiting proposing toxic effects like myelosupression (leukopenia) and primarily hematologic. Furthermore, around 20-30% of patients who take the recommended dosage can have hematologic symptoms such as alopecia, nausea, vommitting and stomatitis. Despite the side effects, etoposide has demonstrated activity in many diseases and could contribute in combination chemotherapeutic regimens for these cancer related diseases.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6688255
| 461,698 |
559,078 |
One major question for neuroscientists in the early twentieth century was the physiology of nerve impulses. In 1902 and again in 1912, Julius Bernstein advanced the hypothesis that the action potential resulted from a change in the permeability of the axonal membrane to ions. Bernstein was also the first to introduce the Nernst equation for resting potential across the membrane. In 1907, Louis Lapicque suggested that the action potential was generated as a threshold was crossed, what would be later shown as a product of the dynamical systems of ionic conductances. A great deal of study on sensory organs and the function of nerve cells was conducted by British physiologist Keith Lucas and his protege Edgar Adrian. Keith Lucas' experiments in the first decade of the twentieth century proved that muscles contract entirely or not at all, this was referred to as the all-or-none principle. Edgar Adrian observed nerve fibers in action during his experiments on frogs. This proved that scientists could study nervous system function directly, not just indirectly. This led to a rapid increase in the variety of experiments conducted in the field of neurophysiology and innovation in the technology necessary for these experiments. Much of Adrian's early research was inspired by studying the way vacuum tubes intercepted and enhanced coded messages. Concurrently, Josepht Erlanger and Herbert Gasser were able to modify an oscilloscope to run at low voltages and were able to observe that action potentials occurred in two phases—a spike followed by an after-spike. They discovered that nerves were found in many forms, each with their own potential for excitability. With this research, the pair discovered that the velocity of action potentials was directly proportional to the diameter of the nerve fiber and received a Nobel Prize for their work.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4794482
| 558,789 |
1,343,019 |
In 1834, he resigned his post and set off west again on an expedition led by Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth, this time accompanied by the naturalist John Kirk Townsend. They travelled through Kansas, Wyoming, and Utah, and then down the Snake River to the Columbia. Nuttall then sailed across the Pacific Ocean to the Hawaiian Islands in December. He returned in the spring of 1835 and spent the next year botanizing in the Pacific Northwest, an area already covered by David Douglas. On the Pacific coast, Nuttall heard of the ship "Alert" leaving San Diego in May 1836, bound for Boston. It is here that he encounters Richard Henry Dana Jr., a former student of his at Harvard who had set sail from Boston on a two-year voyage to the California coast at about the same time Nuttall had begun his expedition. Dana writes in his memoir, "Two Years Before the Mast" (1840), of his amazement at seeing his old professor "strolling about San Diego beach, in a sailor's pea jacket, with a wide straw hat, and barefooted, with his trousers rolled up to his knees, picking up stones and shells." Nuttall was taken on the "Alert" as a passenger along with many of his flora and fauna specimens, which he brought back to Boston to be cataloged and preserved for posterity. Dana writes that though the professor spent much of the voyage in his cabin, he had some occasions to speak with Nuttall about his botanizing while Dana was at the helm of the ship "on a calm night" and was amused to hear his fellow shipmates refer to Nuttall as "Old Curious" for all the curiosities he conveyed on board. Once around the Horn, some of the sights on the trip through the South Atlantic prompted Nuttall to emerge from his quarters: upon sighting Isla de los Estados off the tip of Cape Horn, Nuttall told the Captain of the "Alert" that he would have liked to explore that place; and Nuttall also enjoyed the sight of dolphins swimming near the ship.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=386446
| 1,342,283 |
1,818,020 |
Cognitive humor processing refers to the neural circuitry and pathways that are involved in detecting incongruities of various situations presented in a humorous manner. Over the past decade, many studies have emerged utilizing fMRI studies to describe the neural correlates associated with how a human processes something that is considered "funny". Conceptually, humor is subdivided into two elements: cognitive and affective. The cognitive element, known as humor detection, refers to understanding the joke. Usually, this is characterized by the perceiver attempting to comprehend the disparities between the punch line and prior experience. The affective element, otherwise known as humor appreciation, is involved with enjoying the joke and producing visceral, emotional responses depending on the hilarity of the joke. This ability to comprehend and appreciate humor is a vital aspect of social functioning and is a significant part of the human condition that is relevant from a very early age. Humor comprehension develops in parallel with growing cognitive and language skills during childhood, while its content is mostly influenced by social and cultural factors. A further approach is described which refers to humor as an attitude related to strains. Humorous responses when confronted with troubles are discussed as a skill often associated with high social competence. The concept of humor has also been shown to have therapeutic effects, improving physiological systems such as the immune and central nervous system. It also has been shown to help cope with stress and pain. In sum, humor proves to be a personal resource throughout the life span, and helps support the coping of everyday tasks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41122131
| 1,816,985 |
498,526 |
Jowett found a friend and correspondent in Florence Nightingale, but whether there was any romantic attachment is unclear. It has been suggested that he belatedly proposed marriage, but was rejected, and lived the latter part of his life in regret that he never knew matrimonial bliss. Jowett's didactic and pedagogic nature tended him towards instruction of her complicated character accusing her of exaggeration, an emotional intensity occasioned by hysteria. He was a father figure, paternalistic towards a deeply conservative woman, religious, self-censoring and strict in her conduct. Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian Civil Service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowett was one of the commission. He had two brothers, William and Alfred who had served and died in India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical interest in Indian affairs. After the Second Royal Commission in May 1859 he called Philomela 'the Governess of Governors of India' for her robust dealings with the poor conditions in Calcutta "the natives themselves...educated to cleanliness & health by the enforcement of sanitary regulations in the large towns." When an old man he visited Claydons, where Margaret Verney donated him a print portrait of Florence which he later bequested in his will to Somerville College. A. Sorabji, an Indian writer, was a student barrister at Somerville College in 1890s, when the Master of Balliol, pointing to the picture declared her love for him: the story was never confirmed. In another story entirely Margot Tennant later wife of Henry Asquith, befriended Jowett, only to learn that he had had a "violent...very violent" relationship with Nightingale. Jowett was an "éminence grise" of liberal theology but could be somewhat chaotic in his recollections.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=231263
| 498,269 |
2,170,697 |
By weakening the crust in a localized area, a preferential region of strain can develop concentrating the flow of material. Ductile rocks deeper in the crust will be able to move towards the potential gradient, whereas brittle rocks near the surface will fracture when subject to increased strain. The transition between brittle deformation and ductile deformation is determined by the temperature which is generally controlled by depth as well as rheology. Weak hot minerals, below the ductile transition, with significant partial melt move into the area underlying the thinned crust as a result of the pressure gradient being decreased in the thin area. At a certain point, the pressure will decrease substantially moving from convergent basement rock into thinned crust. This causes rapid decompression at relatively stable and raised isotherms. Decompression melting occurs, which increases the proportion of partial melt within the material and causes rapid heat advection towards the surface. Continued convergent plate movement focuses the flow of material into the syntaxial areas with the localized weakness permitting upward escape as an accommodation mechanism. This process solves the fundamental problem of material being forced into a confined space by creating an outlet. The result of which creates a positive feedback with erosion focusing uplift which transports more weak rock vertically enhancing erosive capabilities. Areas of consistent elevation in river valleys and mountains with relief can be maintained by high exhumation rates of relatively young weak rocks. The ages of minerals in the area will be younger than the surrounding crust due to cooling occurring in an area with a steeper thermal gradient at shallower depths. Mature tectonic aneurysm systems, such as the Nanga Parbat, can have very high local reliefs of young rocks due to consistent erosion maintaining the elevation in the erosive area and vertical strain forcing material up along the proximal edges.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33737566
| 2,169,459 |
1,875,624 |
Glaciers never reached Maryland during the later Ice Age. However, they still affected the local environment as when water was trapped frozen in glaciers it caused the local sea levels to drop. The local climate was cold and the local flora correspondingly different. The local wildlife was also different and included such animals as mastodons. During warmer periods the glaciers would melt and sea levels rise. Clams, oysters, and snails lived in these higher waters and were preserved in the eastern part of the state. On land, Pleistocene Maryland was home to a great diversity of mammals. During the middle of that epoch, Maryland was covered in a moist woodland habitat. Around this time a cavity in the limestone composing an Allegany County hill served as a death trap for many unwary animals over an extended period. Among the preserved remains were animals from very warm, intermediate and very cold climates, documenting the changes in the make up of the local wildlife in response to the planet's changing climate. The mammals typifying the warm "southern" fauna included some of the bats, peccaries, and a tapir. A crocodile added a reptilian element to this "southern" fauna. The intermediate latitude-type fauna was characterized by a badger, a variety of bears, deer, a mastodon, otter, and a puma-like animal. The mammals more typical of northern habitats included elk, a fisher, hare, lemming, mink, jumping mouse, muskrat, pika, porcupine, long tailed shrew, red squirrel, and wolverine. Large animals are conspicuously absent from the deposit and few of the fossils suggest anything larger than a modern black bear. Also conspicuous is the absence of many kinds of animal that are common in the Pleistocene deposits in the United States like bison, camels, giant ground sloths, musk oxen, relatives of modern elephants, and saber teeth.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37798948
| 1,874,547 |
808,868 |
Compared to graphene oxide, which has been widely reported as an antibacterial agent, TiC MXene shows lack of antibacterial properties. On the other hand, MXene of TiC MXene shows a higher antibacterial efficiency toward both Gram-negative E. coli and Gram-positive B. subtilis. Colony forming unit and regrowth curves showed that more than 98% of both bacterial cells lost viability at 200 μg/mL TiC colloidal solution within 4 h of exposure. Damage to the cell membrane was observed, which resulted in release of cytoplasmic materials from the bacterial cells and cell death. The principal in vitro studies of cytotoxicity of 2D sheets of MXenes showed promise for applications in bioscience and biotechnology. Presented studies of anticancer activity of the TiC MXene was determined on two normal (MRC-5 and HaCaT) and two cancerous (A549 and A375) cell lines. The cytotoxicity results indicated that the observed toxic effects were higher against cancerous cells compared to normal ones. The mechanisms of potential toxicity were also elucidated. It was shown that TiC MXene may affect the occurrence of oxidative stress and, in consequence, the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Further studies on TiC MXene revealed potential of MXenes as a novel ceramic photothermal agent used for cancer therapy. In neuronal biocompatibility studies, neurons cultured on TiC are as viable as those in control cultures, and they can adhere, grow axonal processes, and form functional networks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44354911
| 808,438 |
1,518,067 |
In addition to the process of protein folding, transport and degradation, this Hsp70 member can preserve the function of mutant proteins. Nonetheless, effects of these mutations can still manifest when Hsp70 chaperones are overwhelmed during stress conditions. Hsp72 also protects against DNA damage and participates in DNA repair, including base excision repair (BER) and nucleotide excision repair (NER). Furthermore, this protein enhances antigen-specific tumor immunity by facilitating more efficient antigen presentation to cytotoxic T cells. It is also involved in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway through interaction with the AU-rich element RNA-binding protein 1. The gene is located in the major histocompatibility complex class III region, in a cluster with two closely related genes which encode similar proteins. Finally, Hsp72 can protect against disrupted metabolic homeostasis by inducing production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin 1β, and interleukin-6 in immune cells, thereby reducing inflammation and improving skeletal muscle oxidation. Though at very low levels under normal conditions, HSP72 expression greatly increases under stress, effectively protecting cells from adverse effects in various pathological states.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14024984
| 1,517,209 |
1,744,185 |
On November 18, 2007, the NRU reactor was shut down for routine maintenance. This shutdown was voluntarily extended when AECL decided to install seismically-qualified emergency power systems (EPS) to two of the reactor's cooling pumps (in addition to the AC and DC backup power systems already in place), as required as part of its August 2006 operating license extension by the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission (CNSC). This resulted in a worldwide shortage of radioisotopes for medical treatments because AECL had not pre-arranged for an alternate supply. On December 11, 2007, the House of Commons of Canada, acting on what the government described as "independent expert" advice, passed emergency legislation authorizing the restarting of the NRU reactor with one of the two seismic connections complete (one pump being sufficient to cool the core), and authorizing the reactor's operation for 120 days without CNSC approval. The legislation, C-38, was passed by the Senate and received Royal Assent on December 12. Prime Minister Stephen Harper accused the "Liberal-appointed" CNSC for this shutdown which "jeopardized the health and safety of tens of thousands of Canadians". Others viewed the actions and priorities of the Prime Minister and government in terms of protecting the eventual sale of AECL to private investors. The government later announced plans to sell part of AECL in May 2009.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2802690
| 1,743,201 |
1,145,595 |
Other marine organisms draw neuroscientists and neurobiologists to the MBL each summer, where a history of research into sensory physiology and behavior has been established. Haldan Keffer Hartline, an MBL summer investigator in the 1920s and early 1930s, uncovered several basic mechanisms of photoreceptor function through his studies on the horseshoe crab. Hartline shared the 1967 Nobel Prize with summer MBL colleague George Wald, who described the molecular basis of photoreception by showing that the light-sensitive rhodopsin consists of retinal, a slightly modified form of vitamin A, coupled to a photoreceptor protein. Another long-term summer investigator, Stephen W. Kuffler, is credited with "founding" the science of neurobiology in the mid-1960s at Harvard Medical School and he also initiated instruction in neurobiology at the MBL (Barlow et al., 1993:175-234; 203-234). Albert Szent-Györgyi (Nobel Laureate in 1937) conducted research at the MBL from 1947 to 1986, most significantly on the biochemical nature of muscular contraction. In the 1950s and 1960s, Frederik Bang and Jack Levin at the MBL discovered that the blood of the horseshoe crab clotted when exposed to bacterial endotoxins even in vanishingly small amounts. From this basic research, a reagent, Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL), was developed that can detect minute amounts of bacterial toxins. The LAL test has resulted in dramatic improvement in the quality of drugs and biological products for intravenous injection.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391313
| 1,144,994 |
309,674 |
During the Cold War period the Americans did their best to challenge the Soviets, but the playing field wasn't level. The Soviet athletes were funded by the state and trained full-time, while the US strictly obeyed the amateur rules, and its athletes were primarily self-financed students who were significantly younger and less experienced than the Soviet veterans. In addition to that, the Soviets developed a state-sponsored doping system, and supplied performance-enhancing drugs to the vast majority of their athletes. Furthermore, they heavily invested in the development of a similar system in their satellite nation, East Germany, with a specific goal of making East Germans highly competitive in swimming and track and field, so that they can reduce the number of medals the Americans win in their signature sports. Unfortunately for the US, the Soviet strategy worked, and the gap between the USSR and US widened every four years until the collapse of the Soviet Union. In 1972, the Soviets won 50 gold and 99 total medals to the Americans' 33 and 94; in 1976, the USSR amassed 49 gold and 125 total medals to the Americans' 34 and 94; 1980 Olympics were boycotted by the US and its allies, the Soviets retaliated in 1984 by boycotting the LA Olympics together with their satellites; finally, in 1988, the USSR won 55 gold and 132 total medals to the Americans' 36 and 94 (the US finished third at those games, losing even to the East Germans). In 1992, the Soviets still fielded a team despite the dissolution of their state, yet the margin of their victory over the Americans became narrower: 45 gold and 112 total medals to the Americans' 37 and 108. By 1996, every former Soviet republic formed its own National Olympic Committee, and the countries participated as independent nations, with Russia assuming the Soviet place in the IOC and inheriting Soviet achievements as by far the largest of the former Soviet republics. So, in 1996, the Americans finally managed to return to the top spot in the medal rankings, winning 44 gold and 101 total medals compared to 26 gold and 63 total medals won by the second-placed Russians, thanks to the partial abolition of the amateur rules in the early 1990s (the American athletes still weren't state-sponsored, unlike their foreign counterparts, but they were now eligible for prize money and sponsorships). They were still disadvantaged by these rules in those sports where they weren't abolished (i.e., boxing, baseball, where Cubans continued to field state-sponsored pros against American amateurs), but the situation started improving.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2112059
| 309,507 |
760,536 |
Conan and Jimmy soon begin to socialize and also decide to raid the ship, respectively to save Lana and to steal its goods. The attempt fails and they are punished and forced into labor by the captain. The group is eventually brought to Industria and separated and reunited again various times, as the situation on that island further degenerates due to further natural disasters and the deteriorating social fabric, turning more and more into a dictatorship under the Director. Over the course of the story, he is the only irredeemable figure, devoid of any scruples and ever greedy for power at any cost. All the other characters, including the minor ones, develop significantly in response to events and in particular after being exposed to the selfless example of Conan. A pure love story also develops with Lana. After multiple separations and various challenges, the group eventually locates Dr. Rao, restores access to solar power just in time to salvage another ship and evacuate Industria just before another cataclysmic earthquake, and finally destroys the super-weapon which the Director was trying to deploy in order to maintain his hegemony over High Harbour and all the other remaining lands. As the last legacy of the society responsible for the apocalypse dies off, nature continues its recovery process, new families are founded, and the younger, still innocent but now more mature Lana and Conan set sail to build a new world that keeps only the positive aspects of the past.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=626891
| 760,130 |
546,221 |
The AIF's requirements for manpower and equipment constrained the Militia during the early years of the war. At the outbreak of the Pacific War the main Army units in Australia were five Militia infantry divisions—the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th Divisions—two Militia cavalry divisions—the 1st and 2nd Cavalry Divisions—and the AIF 1st Armoured Division. The Volunteer Defence Corps (VDC), which was a part-time volunteer force of 100,000 men based on the British Home Guard, was also available for local defence. In addition, by early 1942 there were 12,000 garrison force personnel—mostly reservist veterans of World War I—organised into 13 garrison battalions for coastal defence and five battalions and two companies for internal security tasks, including guarding prisoner of war camps. Yet at this time only 30 percent of Militia units were on full-time duty, with the remainder periodically undertaking three month-long mobilisations. The Militia was also poorly armed, and there was insufficient equipment to be issued to all units if they were mobilised. In response to the Japanese threat following the outbreak of the Pacific War and the capture of the 8th Division in Malaya, the condition of the Militia became a pressing concern, after largely having been ignored since 1940. Several middle-ranking and senior officers of the AIF were subsequently posted to Militia units and formations to give them experience. Meanwhile, the Army was forced to move units between Militia divisions so that the most combat-ready could be sent to areas believed to be under the greatest threat of attack. Some battalions were amalgamated, and although some were later separated and reformed, others were disbanded altogether. After the "Defence (Citizen Military Forces) Act 1943" was passed Militia units were able to serve outside Australian territory in the South West Pacific Area from January 1943, though the 11th Brigade was the only major formation to do so.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22738876
| 545,935 |
395,655 |
Heavy metals can degrade air, water, and soil quality, and subsequently cause health issues in plants, animals, and people, when they become concentrated as a result of industrial activities. Common sources of heavy metals in this context include mining and industrial wastes; vehicle emissions; motor oil; fuels used by ships and heavy machineries; construction works; fertilisers; pesticides; paints; dyes and pigments; renovation; illegal depositing of construction and demolition waste; open-top roll-off dumpster; welding, brazing and soldering; glassworking; concrete works; roadworks; use of recycled materials; DIY Metal Projects; burning of joss paper; open burning of waste in rural area; contaminated ventilation system; food contaminated by the environment or by the packaging; armaments; lead–acid batteries; electronic waste recycling yard; and treated timber; aging water supply infrastructure; and microplastics floating in the world's oceans. Recent examples of heavy metal contamination and health risks include the occurrence of Minamata disease, in Japan (1932–1968; lawsuits ongoing as of 2016); the Bento Rodrigues dam disaster in Brazil, high levels of lead in drinking water supplied to the residents of Flint, Michigan, in the north-east of the United States and 2015 Hong Kong heavy metal in drinking water incidents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46659847
| 395,460 |
1,642,575 |
Huxley studied physics at Christ's College, Cambridge in 1941. During his second year, his education was interrupted by the Second World War, and he joined the Royal Air Force as a radar officer. He worked on the development of radar equipment for during 1943 to 1947, for which he was later honoured a Member of the Order of the British Empire (MBE). His expertise in mechanical and electrical devices became useful throughout his scientific career. After completing his service, he returned to Cambridge for his final year, and he received his BA in physics in 1948. The war had completely diminished his interest in physics, particularly on the horrors of atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He therefore joined Cambridge University to become the first PhD student in a newly formed Laboratory of Molecular Biology, then a small Medical Research Council MRC unit founded by Max Perutz and John Kendrew, who supervised him. (The LMB was then a small "hut" near the famous Cavendish Laboratory.) He was initially given X-ray analysis of proteins, but he turned to muscle. (The protein study was given to the other student Francis Crick, of the eventual DNA fame.) From there he earned his PhD in 1952 in molecular biology. For his thesis titled "Investigations in Biological Structures by X-Ray Methods. The Structure of Muscle", he used low-angle, X-ray scattering of live muscle fibers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3383286
| 1,641,648 |
1,159,179 |
A blastema (Greek "βλάστημα", "offspring") is a mass of cells capable of growth and regeneration into organs or body parts. The changing definition of the word "blastema" has been reviewed by Holland (2021). A broad survey of how blastema has been used over time brings to light a somewhat involved history. The word entered the biomedical vocabulary in 1799 to designate a sinister acellular slime that was the starting point for the growth of cancers, themselves, at the time, thought to be acellular, as reviewed by Hajdu (2011, Cancer 118: 1155-1168). Then, during the early nineteenth century, the definition broadened to include growth zones (still considered acellular) in healthy, normally developing plant and animal embryos. Contemporaneously, cancer specialists dropped the term from their vocabulary, perhaps because they felt a term connoting a state of health and normalcy was not appropriate for describing a pathological condition. During the middle decades of the nineteenth century, Schleiden and Schwann proposed the cell theory, and Remak and Virchow insisted that cells can only be generated by division of existing ones. Consequently, the conception of the blastema changed from acellular to cellular. More specifically, the term came to designate a population of embryonic cells that gave rise to a particular tissue. In short, the term blastema started being used to refer to what modern embryologists increasingly began calling a rudiment or Anlage. Importantly, the term blastema did not yet refer to a mass of undifferentiated-looking cells that accumulates relatively early in a regenerating body part. For instance, Morgan (1900), does not use the term even once in his classic book, “Regeneration.” It was not until the eve of World War 1 that Fritsch (1911, Zool. Jb. Zool. Physiol. 30: 377-472) introduced the term blastema in the modern sense, as now used by contemporary students of regeneration.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2880535
| 1,158,565 |
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