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Wilson seemed to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken "opponent" of preparedness. The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides [Britain and the German Empire] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly.". The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and canceling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31/June 1, 1916) saw the main German High Seas Fleet engage in a monumental yet inconclusive clash with the far stronger Grand Fleet of the Royal Navy. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor-plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged the German Empire to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, Berlin thought, with the German Empire victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25604889
| 372,185 |
1,938,546 |
Martin Fisher started KickStart International with Nick Moon in 1991 as a "non-profit organization that develops and markets new technologies for use in Africa". It develops technologies advocating understanding the cultural factors surrounding making money in Africa rather than an approach of giving away technology with expertise that has little to do with Africa's ability to make a living. Moon and Fisher believe that "the poor people don't need handouts, they need concrete opportunities to use their skills and initiative". Fisher further states that "our approach is to design, market, and sell simple tools that poor entrepreneurs buy and use to create profitable new small businesses and earn a decent income". He also stresses the need to build tools that can be supported in Africa using limited materials and assembly methods. They have designed and marketed a number of tools focusing on farming in African countries of Kenya, Tanzania and Mali because 80 percent of the poor are farmers having only two assets: land and the skill of farming. For example, KickStart had created a Hip Pump selling for $34.00 allowing a farmer to use the motion of her or his hips against a lever as a drive mechanism. The pump is capable of lifting water from six meters below the ground to 13 meters above it to allow a farmer to irrigate about three-quarters of an acre in eight hours. Other technologies have included pressing oil seeds, making building blocks from compacted soil, baling hay and producing a latrine cover. These technologies are being mass-produced in Africa. The company has successfully sold over 63,000 pumps (Perlin, 2006) and estimates that 42,000 new micro-enterprises have been started using KickStart equipment such as this pump generating more than 42 million US dollars per year in new profits and wages. Fisher and Moon further estimate that they have helped 200,000 people escape from poverty. They have been successful in Africa because they have focused on:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30256549
| 1,937,436 |
2,201,377 |
Born into the Boston Brahmin upper class Forbes family, Alexander Forbes's father was William Hathaway Forbes and his mother was Edith Emerson Forbes, the daughter of Ralph Waldo Emerson. From 1889 to 1899 Alexander Forbes attended Milton Academy. There he particularly liked the physics and advanced Greek taught by James Hattrick Lee. For the academic year 1899–1900, Forbes did not pursue formal education but spent time on the Forbes family's Wyoming cattle ranch, camped in the Bighorn Mountains, worked briefly in a Maine electro-chemical mill, and travelled in the Pacific Coast states until the beginning of summer 1900; during that summer he visited "Switzerland, France, Holland, England, and Scotland." In the autumn of 1900 he matriculated at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1904 with an A.B. As an undergraduate student, he joined several clubs, including the Institute of 1770, the Hasty Pudding Theatricals, the Signet Society, and Delta Phi. For the academic year 1904–1905 he was a graduate student in zoology, learning rudimentary electrophysiology under the supervision of George Howard Parker. After receiving his A.M. degree in 1905, Forbes spent another year away from formal education. He and one of his brothers camped in a cabin on the shore of Wyoming's Lake Solitude. They chopped wood, hunted elk, and studied books on chemistry and astronomy. From 1906 to 1910 he studied medicine at Harvard Medical School. During those years he was the coauthor of a paper with William Ernest Castle, the coauthor of a paper with Lawrence Joseph Henderson, and the author of two papers without a coauthor. In 1910 Forbes received his M.D. degree and married Charlotte Irving Grinnell (1884–1982). In Harvard Medical School's department of physiology (chaired from 1906 to 1942 by W. B. Cannon), Forbes was an instructor from 1910 to 1921, an associate professor from 1921 to 1936, and a full professor from 1936 to 1948, retiring as professor emeritus in 1948.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71644253
| 2,200,124 |
1,248,656 |
The wharf borer’s name is of importance to fisherman, sailors, and quarrymen who work along coastal areas. Damage done to old ships and docks by the wharf borer is a good indication of how old the vessels are as the beetles only attack old timber. The presence of wharf borers and the simultaneous destruction can be accepted as a safety precaution to repair docks and ships to avoid dangerous accidents. It is known as a secondary pest, because the larva mainly feed on damp and decaying wood found along waterways and coastlines. The network of tunnels form when wharf borer larvae burrow and ingest the rotten wood, weakening the mechanical support given by the wood. This leads to increased damages in plumbing and rotting timbers. Oak, poplar, and pine are some of the timbers attacked by the wharf borer, indicating its development in both soft and hard woods. It is best to correct the wood moisture problems and remove the source of infected decaying wood. The beetles, generally only a nuisance between June to August, can be controlled by the application of a residual insecticide (such as permethrin). This can be applied to the wall and floor junctions of dwellings and offices. These adults can also be simply vacuumed or picked up and discarded. The larvae is found to be a pest of telegraph poles and fences where dogs have urinated. In Toronto, a large number of adults were discovered in a newspaper office, especially attracted to toilets. In America, Drooz (1953) reported that the insect was responsible for very costly damage to foundations underneath buildings in Milwaukee, Wisconsin.To protect stored archaeological timbers from the damaging effects of wharf borers, a procedure has been developed to control the attacks. The first measure calls for checking the particular area for infestation by the insects. Next, the extent of infestation in the stored timbers is determined. Once the degree of damage has been recorded, the timbers need to be isolated and quarantined. The storage area and the infected timbers are subjected to an appropriate treatment system which is compatible with future conservation treatment systems.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14089766
| 1,247,980 |
1,856,687 |
Since 2016, Timothy Insoll has run as PI an ERC Advanced Grant funded project, "Becoming Muslim: Conversion to Islam and Islamisation in Eastern Ethiopia" (694254 ERC-2015-AdG). Initial funding for fieldwork in Harar (2014) and Harlaa (2015 and 2016) was provided by the British Academy and the Van Berchem Foundation. The ERC research team has included ceramic, archaeobotany, zooarchaeology, osteology, and isotopic specialists and a project postdoctoral researcher, GIS specialist, Dr Nadia Khalaf. The project has established archaeological chronologies for Harar and Harlaa, both previously unexcavated, which show that Harar was founded subsequent to Harlaa in the mid-15th century as the capital of the Sultanate of Adal. Whilst Harlaa was established in the mid-6th century and abandoned in the 15th century. Harlaa was a major trade and manufacturing centre, with a particular burst of activity between the 11th and 13th centuries attested by material from a cosmopolitan range of sources, China, Yemen, Iran, Central Asia, Egypt, India, and across the Horn of Africa. Carnelian beads and marine shell were worked using South Asian derived techniques. Evidence for the presence of Muslims - mosques, burials, and dated Arabic inscriptions - occurred from the mid-12th century. Isotopic analyses of teeth from Muslim and non-Muslim burials suggested significantly different Islamisation processes to the Gao region with greater population mobility between urban and rural environments and less pastoralist conversion being influential factors. The research outcomes have been presented in numerous publications, and in a tri-lingual interpretative display, "Harlaa - Lost City of the Medieval Sultanate of Harla, Ethiopia", installed in a community site museum at Ganda Biyo (Harlaa). A conference, "Archaeological Perspectives on Conversion to Islam and Islamisation in Africa," and a special section in the journal "Antiquity", “Cosmopolitanism in Medieval Ethiopia” (2021), also resulted from the research in eastern Ethiopia.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38891541
| 1,855,619 |
2,041,348 |
Francis Joseph Crean was born to Catholic parents in Dublin. After serving in the Second Boer War with his well known brother Thomas Joseph Crean, he emigrated to Canada and worked as a timber-cruiser for Bell Brothers Lumber Company. From February 1908, he was working in Ottawa as a clerk with the Department of the Interior. Concern was mounting during this time that inefficient land use would result in the necessity to expand agricultural lands beyond the North Saskatchewan River and this region of potential cultivation was promoted to the public as the New Northwest. Crean was assigned to report on some thirty-four million acres of land and his small expedition team was mobilized by the use of some canoes and horses. Crean's findings in north central Saskatchewan extending to the Churchill River, appeared promising, with detail of his report including extensive mapping and photographic imagery. He also recorded the soil types, present conditions of local crops grown by natives and fur traders as well as the general topography. His subsequent commission to lead another party into northeastern Alberta in 1909 saw him travel as far as Clearwater River in the north and to Athabasca to the west. His reports for both expeditions were published in 1910 but conflicting findings from further investigations by the department into the region concluded that it would not be suitable for cultivation by future settlers. Instead the land was set aside to form what is now Prince Albert National Park. Crean resigned from the department in 1913 and later served in the First World War first with the 12th Regiment, Canadian Mounted Rifles and then as a Lieutenant in the Canadian Militia with the 12th Manitoba Dragoons.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65859738
| 2,040,168 |
1,365,771 |
Earthquakes manifest itself in movement of earth surface. Remote sensing can also help earthquake studies by two aspects. One is to better understand the local ground condition. For instance some soil type, which is prone to liquefaction (e.g. saturated loose alluvial material), do more damage under vibration and therefore earthquake hazard zoning may help in reducing property loss. Another one is to locate historical earthquakes in neotectonism (past 11000 years) and analysis its spatial distribution, and hence fault zones with structural ruptures are mapped for further investigations. From a geodetic perspective, the radar technique (SAR Interferometry, also called InSAR) provides land displacement measurement up to cm scale. SAR interferometry is a technology utilizing multiple SAR images recording the backscattering of microwave signal. The returning signal can be used to estimate the distance between ground and satellite. When two images are obtained at the same point but at different time, some pixels showing delayed returns reveal displacement, assuming no ground change. A displacement map (interferogram) is generated to visualize the changes with a precision up to a half of the wavelength i.e. cm grade. Another similar technique is Global Positioning System (GPS), which records the displacement with time of discrete points through trilateration of microwave GPS satellite signals. The same idea and principle to measure ground displacement could also be extended to other natural hazards monitoring, such as volcanisms, landslides and avalanches. The mid-IR thermal (11–12 micrometer) satellite images have shown some thermal fields in geological active areas, such as lineation and fault systems. Aside from these long-lived thermal fields, there are some positive thermal anomalies of 3–4 °C on land surface or around −5 °C for sea water in earthquake epicenter areas. The contrast appears 7–14 days prior to the earth movement. Though the observation is supported by laboratory experiments, the possible causes of these differences are still debatable.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55514078
| 1,365,015 |
1,784,420 |
Transcranial magnetic stimulation has been gaining increasing interest as an alternative tool for studying the relationships between specific cortical areas and brain function, particularly because its non-invasive nature is advantageous over CSM. Additionally, because of the increasing body of research focused on investigating the many medical uses of TMS, it could eventually have more applications than CSM. For example, this procedure been successfully used to measure the speed of conduction in central motor pathways, making it a useful tool for those studying multiple sclerosis. Similarly, TMS is also being researched for its possibilities as a long-term and possibly more cost-effective therapeutic alternative for treating chronic psychiatric disorders such as major depression as well as its use as a means of in aiding in stroke recovery. However, although therapeutic TMS is promising overall, its success is still unclear and has not been upheld in a number of studies. This is true relating to studies of Parkinson's patients who were given long-term TMS therapy. Although it initially appeared as if these subjects gained improved performance in motor coordination tests, these results are inconsistently reproducible. The same type of results are seen in studies in schizophrenia where it has been shown that cognitive performance in schizophrenic patients treated with TMS is highly variable. Such results suggest that evidence of the effects of TMS are lacking and this technique's neurobiological mechanisms are still not well understood. Because of these uncertainties, research on this method is ongoing and much is still to be determined about its exact effect on the activation state of the brain. Comparatively, CSM, having the advantages of the more researched technique, is often still preferred.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31175897
| 1,783,416 |
2,018,416 |
Crichton signed a new contract with Fiskars which planned to open a facility in Helsinki. He travelled to England in the autumn of 1853 to purchase the needed machinery, and returned in January 1854 to oversee its installation in Hakaniemi. But global politics interfered with the project. The United Kingdom and France entered the Crimean War against Russia on 28 March. The war made importing machinery impossible and, as a British citizen, Crichton decided to return to the UK to wait until the war ended. The same evening he went to pick up his passport, military and Finnish police waited for him, told him to collect his drawings and notes, and ordered him to leave for Saint Petersburg with the papers, which travelled with him, in a sealed envelope. He was escorted by an officer and a policeman. When Crichton arrived in the city he was treated well but was not allowed to leave the arrest room. After spending few days under arrest, he asked for permission to talk to the department leader. When Crichton asked if they had found anything sensitive in his papers the answer was negative, but he was told that he was going to be sent to Moscow. Crichton mentioned his granduncle Sir William Crichton, who had worked before as a doctor for Grand Duke Nicholas, before he had become Tsar Nicholas II. The department leader answered that this might change the decision and advised him that the case would be investigated. As a result, Crichton was released and sent just twenty miles away from the city to Sir William Crichton who welcomed him warmly. Crichton spent two months with his granduncle during which time he met General Alexander Wilson, who was managing the state-owned Alexandrosk factory and Izhorsk Works in Kolpino. Wilson hired Crichton as chief engineer in Kolpino. Soon after he also organised a place for Samuel Owen who had had to leave the Rurik project after the outbreak of the war; Owen moved to Kolpino with his family.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48740213
| 2,017,253 |
659,202 |
As vice president, Gore promoted the development of what he referred to as the "Information Superhighway". This was discussed in detail a few days after winning the election in November 1992 in "The New York Times" article "Clinton to Promote High Technology, With Gore in Charge." They planned to finance research "that will flood the economy with innovative goods and services, lifting the general level of prosperity and strengthening American industry." Specifically, they were aiming to fund the development of "robotics, smart roads, biotechnology, machine tools, magnetic-levitation trains, fiber-optic communications, and national computer networks. Also earmarked are a raft of basic technologies like digital imaging and data storage." These initiatives were met with some skepticism from critics who claimed that "the initiative is likely to backfire, bloating Congressional pork, and creating whole new categories of Federal waste." These initiatives were outlined in the report "Technology for America's Economic Growth". In September 1993, they released a report calling for the creation of a "nationwide information superhighway," which would primarily be built by private industry. Gary Stix commented on these initiatives a few months prior in his May 1993 article for "Scientific American", "Gigabit Gestalt: Clinton and Gore embrace an activist technology policy." Stix described them as a "distinct statement about where the new administration stands on the matter of technology ... Gone is the ambivalence or outright hostility toward government involvement in little beyond basic science. Although Gore is most famous for his political career and environmental work, he is also noted for his creation of the internet." Campbell-Kelly and Aspray further note in "Computer: A History of the Information Machine":
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11714059
| 658,857 |
694,079 |
Bioelectricity work began in earnest at the beginning of the 20th century. Since then, several waves of research produced important functional data showing the role that bioelectricity plays in the control of growth and form. In the 1920s and 1930s, E. J. Lund and H. S. Burr were some of the most prolific authors in this field. Lund measured currents in a large number of living model systems, correlating them to changes in patterning. In contrast, Burr used a voltmeter to measure voltage gradients, examining developing embryonic tissues and tumors, in a range of animals and plants. Applied electric fields were demonstrated to alter the regeneration of planaria by Marsh and Beams in the 1940s and 1950s, inducing the formation of heads or tails at cut sites, reversing the primary body polarity. The introduction and development of the vibrating probe, the first device for quantitative non-invasive characterization of the extracellular minute ion currents, by Lionel Jaffe and Richard Nuccittelli, revitalized the field in the 1970s. They were followed by researchers such as Joseph Vanable, Richard Borgens, Ken Robinson, and Colin McCaig, among many others, who showed roles of endogenous bioelectric signaling in limb development and regeneration, embryogenesis, organ polarity, and wound healing. C.D. Cone studied the role of resting potential in regulating cell differentiation and proliferation and subsequent work has identified specific regions of the resting potential spectrum that correspond to distinct cell states such as quiescent, stem, cancer, and terminally differentiated (Figure 5).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55498066
| 693,716 |
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In 2011 at a meeting with funding agencies, Yuste proposed the goal of developing technologies to "record every spike from every neuron" and then co-authored together with George M. Church, Paul Alivisatos, Ralph Greenspan, and Michael Roukes a white paper to elaborate this idea as a large-scale scientific project (then called the "Brain Activity Map Project") modeled on the Human Genome Project. Two years later then president Barack Obama announced the US BRAIN Initiative that now funds neuroscience research in over 500 laboratories and is slated to last until 2025. Yuste has warned against spreading the funds of the initiative too thin and argued that a focused effort is required to develop the technologies needed for large-scale, real-time brain imaging with single-neuron resolution that would be made available at observatory-like centers to the scientific community. Yuste has also spearheaded the development of ethical guidelines for neurotechnology and AI (ref Goering 2016 and Yuste 2017), proposing that five new NeuroRights be added to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, to protect human mental privacy, identity, agency and equal access to cognitive enhancement and also prevent algorithm biases. In 2018, professor Yuste was awarded the Tällberg/Eliasson Foundation prize due to his commitment to exploring the ethical implications of using emerging AI in the field of neurotechnology. This prize, which is "awarded annually to outstanding leaders who demonstrate the willingness and capacity to address the complexity of 21st-century challenges in innovative, risk-taking, and ethical ways, and whose work is global in aspiration or implication and is rooted in universal values" is a substantial honor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56451610
| 1,679,980 |
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Korolev was sent to prison, where he wrote many appeals to the authorities, including Stalin himself. Following the fall of NKVD head Nikolai Yezhov, the new chief Lavrenti Beria chose to retry Korolev on reduced charges in 1939; but by that time Korolev was on his way from prison to a Gulag forced labour camp in Kolyma in the far east of Siberia, where he spent several months in a gold mine before word reached him of his retrial. Work camp conditions of inadequate food, shelter, and clothing killed thousands of prisoners each month. Korolev sustained injuries, including possibly a heart attack and lost most of his teeth from scurvy before being returned to Moscow in late 1939. When he reached Moscow, Korolev's sentence was reduced to eight years. However, due to the intervention by his old mentor, Andrei Tupolev, he was relocated to a prison for scientist and engineers in September 1940. These were labor camps where scientists and engineers worked on projects assigned by the Communist party leadership. The "Central Design Bureau 29" (CKB-29, ЦКБ-29) of the NKVD, served as Tupolev's engineering facility, and Korolev was brought here to work. During World War II, this "sharashka" designed both the Tupolev Tu-2 bomber and the Petlyakov Pe-2 dive bomber. The group was moved several times during the war, the first time to avoid capture by advancing German forces. Korolev was moved in 1942 to the "sharashka" of Kazan OKB-16 under Glushko. Korolev and Glushko designed the RD-1 kHz auxiliary rocket motor tested in an unsuccessful fast-climb Lavochkin La-7R. Korolev was isolated from his family until 27 June 1944 when healong with Tupolev, Glushko and otherswas finally discharged by special government decree, although the charges against him were not dropped until 1957.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=86655
| 138,157 |
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Image processing is crucial to convert raw data into useful information. For imaging remote sensing, where spectral data are collected and recorded in pixels of an image, a two dimensional representation. After removal of noise and calibration, images are then geo-referenced to relate pixel to real-life geography. The first-hand data are then corrected to remove noise such as atmospheric disturbance, structural effects and distortion. Remote sensing data are often validated by ground truth, which usually serves as training data in image classification to ensure quality. The image interpretation could be achieved by an interpreter or computation. The reliability of the map interpreted is high only if the expert has a thorough understanding of geomorphology, how the surface landscape could be shaped by possible interactions of numerous factors and the limitation of the method. Although there exist a wealth of experiences is present for visual interpretation of aerial photos, the method is time-consuming and prone to human errors. Digital supervised or unsupervised landform classification employing crisp or fuzzy clustering logic have opened new possibility to the viable solutions. However, computation algorithms are subject to scale dependence matters and arbitrary definition of class boundaries. The presence of vegetation cover and rugged terrain may also reduce the applicability. Statistical and computational algorithms to identify correlations are developing vigorously for image analysis. For example, the emergence of non-parametric classifiers such as neural network becomes an alternative in classifying massive data.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55514078
| 1,365,026 |
719,982 |
A complete fistula treatment center includes investigative services like laboratory work, radiology, and a blood bank, to ensure that the medical history of patients is clearly understood before treatment options are evaluated. The surgical services would include operating theaters, postoperative wards, and anesthetic services. Physiotherapy and social-reintegration services are also necessary to arm women affected by obstetric fistula with the tools necessary to re-enter a society from which they have been ostracised. The size of the facility should be tailored to the need in the area, and the most successful centers work in collaboration with other treatment centers and organizations, forming a larger network of resources. The cost of salaries, single-use medical equipment, up to date technology and equipment, and maintenance of infrastructure, collectively provide large economic burdens to treatment centers. A barrier also arises when governments and local authorities require that approval be obtained prior to the construction of centers. There is an uneven distribution of specialized health care providers due to the below optimal training and supervision of health works and the low wages of fistula surgeons. Most fistula surgeons come from developed countries and are brought to developing countries, the nations more often affected by fistula, by a variety of organizations. An example of a well functioning treatment center is in Bangladesh where a facility has been created in association with the Dhaka Medical College Hospital with support from the United Nations Population Fund. Here, 46 doctors and 30 nurses have been trained and have successfully doubled the number of fistula cases addressed and operated on. Another example is a fistula unit in N'djamena, Chad, which has a mobile clinic that travels to rural, hard-to-reach areas, to provide services, and works in association with Liberty Hospital. The World Health Organization has created a manual articulating necessary principles for surgical and pre- and post- operative care regarding obstetric fistula, providing a beneficial outline for affected nations. Treatment centers are crucial for the survival of obstetric fistula patients and well-equipped centers help the emotional, physical, and psychological aspects of their lives.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=231286
| 719,602 |
1,402,742 |
Engineered nanomaterials are key building blocks of the current generation solar cells. Today's best solar cells have layers of several different semiconductors stacked together to absorb light at different energies but still only manage to use approximately 40% of the Sun's energy. Commercially available solar cells have much lower efficiencies (15-20%). Nanostructuring has been used to improve the efficiencies of established photovoltaic (PV) technologies, for example, by improving current collection in amorphous silicon devices, plasmonic enhancement in dye-sensitized solar cells, and improved light trapping in crystalline silicon. Furthermore, nanotechnology could help increase the efficiency of light conversion by utilizing the flexible bandgaps of nanomaterials, or by controlling the directivity and photon escape probability of photovoltaic devices. Titanium dioxide (TiO) is one of the most widely investigated metal oxides for use in PV cells in the past few decades because of its low cost, environmental benignity, plentiful polymorphs, good stability, and excellent electronic and optical properties. However, their performances are greatly limited by the properties of the TiO materials themselves. One limitation is the wide band gap, making TiO only sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light, which just occupies less than 5% of the solar spectrum. Recently, core–shell structured nanomaterials have attracted a great deal of attention as they represent the integration of individual components into a functional system, showing improved physical and chemical properties (e.g., stability, non-toxicity, dispersibility, multi-functionality), which are unavailable from the isolated components. For TiO nanomaterials, this core–shell structured design would provide a promising way to overcome their disadvantages, thus resulting in improved performances. Compared to sole TiO material, core–shell structured TiO composites show tunable optical and electrical properties, even new functions, which are originated from the unique core–shell structures.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10209776
| 1,401,955 |
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Another significant feature of Figure 2 is the distinct colour change between surface sediments and those deeper. This gradient of colour change, though continuous, is known as the apparent redox potential discontinuity depth (ARPD) when reduced to an average transition point. When properly considered in conjunction with local geology and bioturbation levels, the depth and character of the ARPD can provide profound insights into the interactions between sediment geochemistry and biologic activity. Graf's review (1992) supports the early observations of Jorgensen & Fenchel (1970) that sediments can be divided into oxic, suboxic, and anoxic levels with fundamental consequences for biota. They defined these boundaries as occurring at the >300 mV (oxidation reduction potential) level for oxic and less than 100 mV for anoxic chemoclines (with suboxic in between) as presented in Figure 3. The vertical position of these boundaries can vary seasonally and locally in response to detrital supply and mixing (due to bioturbation or physically mediated mixing) as fast as 1 cm d-1. Anoxic sediments tend to be toxic to most animals because of free HS and low pH. In this reducing environment, heavy metals can also precipitate. Some heavy metals, like cadmium and copper, are stabilised as sulphides and do not readily dissolve, but can be remobilised quickly and pollute boundary layer water if oxic conditions are restored (Graf 1992). The sediment penetration of chemical species from overlying waters to these layers will depend heavily upon the size and shape of sediment grains. Using a fluid bromide tracer, Dicke (in Graf 1992) found molecular diffusion alone to penetrate soft sediments to 4 cm in one day and 8 cm after 4 days. Bioturbation can accelerate this process by up to a factor of ten. Thus, the chemoclines affect and are, in turn, affected by benthic organisms. Besides exclusion and bioturbation effects of aerobic organisms, Fenchel and Riedl (1970) pioneered investigations into an unusual fauna inhabiting the suboxic regions of sediment. Clearly, SPI tools have much to offer in investigations of this sort.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14917968
| 2,054,845 |
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The human counterpart of the role of the amygdala was then observed in the 20th century at the height of psychosurgery. Professor Hirotaro Narabayashi and his colleagues were the first researchers to carry out stereotactic amygdalotomy for the treatment of abnormal aggression and hyperexcitability in a series of 60 patients with psychological disturbances. The procedure was performed under a stereotactic frame devised by Professor Narabayashi and involved the administration 0.6-0.8ml mixture of oil-wax to destroy the lateral groups of the amygdala nucleus, localized via pneumoencephalography. The clinical results revealed a marked reduction in emotional disturbances amongst 85% of the cases. Following Narabayashi's study, there have been over 1000 cases of amygdalotomy reported in clinical trials as a last-resort treatment for severe intractable aggressive disorders. Around the same time, Hatai Chitanondh utilized a slightly different technique of stereotactic amygdalotomy using an injection of an olive oil mixture to induce lesions to mechanically block signals in the amygdala. The results revealed an improvement in social adaptability of all seven patients. In the late 1960s and 1970s, Balasubramaniam and Ramamurthi investigated the largest clinical patient series to undergo stereotactic amygdalotomy for aggression behaviours. The procedure was performed via high-frequency current generating electrodes inserted stereotactically to induce several small thermal lesions, creating a total lesion volume of 1800mm, a size that is larger than the amygdala. The improvement in maladaptive behavior in patients, including hyperexcitability, rebellious behavior, and destructive behavior, ranged from moderate to high. The development of MRI technology in the recent 20th century has enabled a more accurate and efficient process of amygdalotomy, with easier localization of amygdala regions during neuro-navigation as well as the use of advanced radiofrequency generating electrode to induce surgical lesions. Despite these recent advances in technology, there has been a decline in clinical cases of amygdalotomy for treatment of maladaptive behavior, with growing skepticism in the medical community of the cost-benefits of the procedure and partly due to a greater reliance on pharmacological treatments
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60613001
| 1,069,296 |
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Drugs such as opium, alcohol, and certain plants have been used for millennia by humans to ease suffering or change awareness, but until the modern scientific era knowledge of how the substances actually "worked" was quite limited, most pharmacological knowledge being more a series of observation than a coherent model. The first half of the 20th century saw psychology and psychiatry as largely phenomenological, in that behaviors or themes which were observed in patients could often be correlated to a limited variety of factors such as childhood experience, inherited tendencies, or injury to specific brain areas. Models of mental function and dysfunction were based on such observations. Indeed, the behavioral branch of psychology dispensed altogether with what actually happened inside the brain, regarding most mental dysfunction as what could be dubbed as "software" errors. In the same era, the nervous system was progressively being studied at the microscopic and chemical level, but there was virtually no mutual benefit with clinical fields—until several developments after World War II began to bring them together. Neuropsychopharmacology may be regarded to have begun in the earlier 1950s with the discovery of drugs such as MAO inhibitors, tricyclic antidepressants, thorazine and lithium which showed some clinical specificity for mental illnesses such as depression and schizophrenia. Until that time, treatments that actually targeted these complex illnesses were practically non-existent. The prominent methods which "could" directly affect brain circuitry and neurotransmitter levels were the prefrontal lobotomy, and electroconvulsive therapy, the latter of which was conducted without muscle relaxants and both of which often caused the patient great physical and psychological injury.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2917198
| 1,192,630 |
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Indeed, when John Napier discovered logarithms for computational purposes in the early 17th century, there followed a period of considerable progress by inventors and scientists in making calculating tools. The apex of this early era of formal computing can be seen in the difference engine and its successor the analytical engine both by Charles Babbage. Babbage never completed constructing either engine, but in 2002 Doron Swade and a group of other engineers at the Science Museum in London completed Babbage's difference engine using only materials that would have been available in the 1840s. By following Babbage's detailed design they were able to build a functioning engine, allowing historians to say, with some confidence, that if Babbage would have been able to complete his difference engine it would have worked. The additionally advanced analytical engine combined concepts from his previous work and that of others to create a device that, if constructed as designed, would have possessed many properties of a modern electronic computer, such as an internal "scratch memory" equivalent to RAM, multiple forms of output including a bell, a graph-plotter, and simple printer, and a programmable input-output "hard" memory of punch cards which it could modify as well as read. The key advancement which Babbage's devices possessed beyond those created before his was that each component of the device was independent of the rest of the machine, much like the components of a modern electronic computer. This was a fundamental shift in thought; previous computational devices served only a single purpose, but had to be at best disassembled and reconfigured to solve a new problem. Babbage's devices could be reprogramed to solve new problems by the entry of new data, and act upon previous calculations within the same series of instructions. Ada Lovelace took this concept one step further, by creating a program for the analytical engine to calculate Bernoulli numbers, a complex calculation requiring a recursive algorithm. This is considered to be the first example of a true computer program, a series of instructions that act upon data not known in full until the program is run.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=386519
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Active research into microplasma sputtering for conductive interconnect thin film deposition poses a potential additive manufacturing alternative to costly semiconductor industry production standards. Novel microputterers, operating with a continuously fed cathodic wire, employ print head reactors consisting of the wire terminus, two positively biased electrodes, and two opposing negatively charged focus electrodes to generate a microplasma environment within a sub-millimeter target-to-substrate separation space. As in traditional sputtering, the incited plasma bombards the exposed target surface, ejecting individual atoms which are then incident on the substrate surface, forming a conductive thin film. Contrasted with traditional applications, microplasma sputtering offers numerous advantages, including limited to no post-processing requirements, as controlled positioning of the substrate can produce precise patterning without the need for subsequent photolithographic masking and etching, and versatility of substrate form, in that microsputterers are not constrained to planar deposition. Additionally, atmospheric conditions permitted by this method eliminate the substantial cost barrier presented by the necessity for the expensive, complex vacuum systems in which contemporary sputtering operations are performed. To date this technique has failed to achieve the resolution of industry standard microelectronics, with pinnacle pathway width results of approx. 9μm, but noted potential for improvements to process gas flow and possible post-processing enhancements stand to assist in closing the gap. Given the method’s relatively low cost and its broad versatility, attaining production quality on par with modern industry standards could potentially stand to spur a revolution in mass-customizable electronics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18446530
| 1,151,643 |
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In the first three building phases belonging to the Wietenberg Culture small houses of about 20-25 square meters were documented. They were constructed of wooden posts and wattle covered by daub, some daub walls were ornamented with spirals. The flours were of pisé. Such constructions leave few traces and are archaeologically almost invisible, so that only a minor number could be documented. Inside the houses storage pits and fireplaces were found, separate storage areas for vessels are attested, too. In addition, special fireplaces used in cultic activities existed near the houses. They consist of round burnished clay surfaces decorated with spirals; in pits below them fragments of miniature wheels and wagons were found. On the basis of palynological and archaeozoological data, the diet mainly consisted of einkorn wheat, barley and bromus, cattle, sheep, pigs and goats. A lucky find is a vessel from a pit containing the carbonized rests of a gruel made inter alia of acorns and meat. The cemetery was placed on the north border of the settlement; so far two urn graves were excavated. Presumably only a very small part of the population was actually buried, the Wietenberg Culture´s cemeteries are generally very small. In the case of Rotbav, the dead were well burnt, then the bones were collected and put in the funerary urn, which was put in a bigger pit and surrounded by river snail shells. The characteristic find category of this period is the fine pottery, which was produced in large numbers and extensively decorated. The hard, well-burnt red or black ware bears incisions, stamps and impressions, which were finally filled with a white substance, probably made of bones or lime. The earlier pottery shows geometrical motifs, in the second and third phase S- and Z-shaped hooks appear, which were most probably abstract representations of animals with a symbolic meaning in the community´s cosmology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41546643
| 2,153,628 |
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To conclude this section on treating brain tumors with BNCT using reactor neutron sources, a clinical trial that was carried out by Stenstam, Sköld, Capala and their co-workers in Studsvik, Sweden, using an epithermal neutron beam produced by the Studsvik nuclear reactor, which had greater tissue penetration properties than the thermal beams originally used in the United States and Japan, will be briefly summarized. This study differed significantly from all previous clinical trials in that the total amount of BPA administered was increased (900 mg/kg), and it was infused i.v. over 6 hours. This was based on experimental animal studies in glioma bearing rats demonstrating enhanced uptake of BPA by infiltrating tumor cells following a 6-hour infusion. The longer infusion time of the BPA was well tolerated by the 30 patients who were enrolled in this study. All were treated with 2 fields, and the average whole brain dose was 3.2–6.1 Gy (weighted), and the minimum dose to the tumor ranged from 15.4 to 54.3 Gy (w). There has been some disagreement among the Swedish investigators regarding the evaluation of the results. Based on incomplete survival data, the MeST was reported as 14.2 months and the time to tumor progression was 5.8 months. However, more careful examination of the complete survival data revealed that the MeST was 17.7 months compared to 15.5 months that has been reported for patients who received standard therapy of surgery, followed by radiotherapy (RT) and the drug temozolomide (TMZ). Furthermore, the frequency of adverse events was lower after BNCT (14%) than after radiation therapy (RT) alone (21%) and both of these were lower than those seen following RT in combination with TMZ. If this improved survival data, obtained using the higher dose of BPA and a 6-hour infusion time, can be confirmed by others, preferably in a randomized clinical trial, it could represent a significant step forward in BNCT of brain tumors, especially if combined with a photon boost.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32637211
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To Münsterberg the most pressing question was the "selection of those personalities which by their mental qualities are especially fit for a particular kind of economic work." Basically fitting the person with the correct skill set with the correct position to maximize their productivity, and to select those that have "fit personalities and reject the unfit ones." He gives many reasons why it's difficult to select or place the correct person to any given vocation and says that certain qualities cannot be taken alone to determine a person's suitability for a position including their education, training, technical abilities, recommendation of previous employers, personal impressions of the person "the mental dispositions which may still be quite undeveloped and which may unfold only under the influence of special conditions in the surroundings; but, on the other side, it covers the habitual traits of the personality, the features of the individual temperament and character, of the intelligence and of the ability, of the collected knowledge and of the acquired experience. All variations of will and feeling, of perception and thought, of attention and emotion, of memory and imagination." That in reality having confidence in those prior factors is completely unfounded because he believes that "A threefold difficulty exists. In the first place, young people know very little about themselves and their abilities. When the day comes on which they discover their real strong points and their weaknesses, it is often too late. They have usually been drawn into the current of a particular vocation, and have given too much energy to the preparation for a specific achievement to change the whole life-plan once more. The entire scheme of education gives to the individual little chance to find himself. A mere interest for one or another subject in school is influenced by many accidental circumstances, by the personality of the teacher or the methods of instruction, by suggestions of the surroundings and by home traditions, and accordingly even such a preference gives rather a slight final indication of the individual mental qualities. Moreover, such mere inclinations and interests cannot determine the true psychological fitness for a vocation."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=917279
| 429,285 |
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The association of elevated intraocular pressure (IOP) and glaucoma was first described by Englishman Richard Banister in 1622: "...that the Eye be grown more solid and hard, then naturally it should be...". Angle-closure glaucoma was treated with cataract extraction by John Collins Warren in Boston as early as 1806. The invention of the ophthalmoscope by Hermann Helmholtz in 1851 enabled ophthalmologists for the first time to identify the pathological hallmark of glaucoma, the excavation of the optic nerve head due to retinal ganglion cell loss. The first reliable instrument to measure intraocular pressure was invented by Norwegian ophthalmologist Hjalmar August Schiøtz in 1905. About half a century later, Hans Goldmann in Berne, Switzerland, developed his applanation tonometer which still today - despite numerous new innovations in diagnostics - is considered the gold standard of determining this crucial pathogenic factor. In the late 20th century, further pathomechanisms beyond elevated IOP were discovered and became the subject of research like insufficient blood supply – often associated with low or irregular blood pressure – to the retina and optic nerve head. The first drug to reduce IOP, pilocarpine, was introduced in the 1870s; other major innovations in pharmacological glaucoma therapy were the introduction of beta blocker eye drops in the 1970s and of prostaglandin analogues and topical (locally administered) carbonic anhydrase inhibitors in the mid-1990s.. Early surgical techniques like iridectomy and fistulating methods have recently been supplemented by less invasive procedures like small implants, a range of options now widely called MIGS (micro-invasive glaucoma surgery).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=74748
| 49,615 |
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Validation is a particular issue with political-military simulations, since much of the data produced is subjective. One controversial doctrine that arose from early post-WWII simulations was that of "signalling"—the idea that by making certain moves, it is possible to send a message to your opponent about your intentions: for example, by conspicuously conducting field exercises near a disputed border, a nation indicates its readiness to respond to any hostile incursions. This was fine in theory, and formed the basis of east–west interaction for much of the cold war, but was also problematic and dogged by criticism. An instance of the doctrine's shortcomings can be seen in the bombing offensives conducted by the United States during the Vietnam War. US commanders decided, largely as a result of their "Sigma" simulations, to carry out a limited bombing campaign against selected industrial targets in North Vietnam. The intention was to signal to the North Vietnamese high command that, whilst the United States was clearly capable of destroying a much greater proportion of their infrastructure, this was in the nature of a warning to scale down involvement in the South 'or else'. Unfortunately, as an anonymous analyst said of the offensive (which failed in its political aims), "they either didn't understand, or did understand but didn't care". It was pointed out by critics that, since both Red and Blue teams in Sigma were played by Americans—with common language, training, thought processes and background—it was relatively easy for signals sent by one team to be understood by the other. Those signals, however, did not seem to translate well across the cultural divide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10280894
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Toxicity issues associated with the lead content in perovskite solar cells strains the public perception and acceptance of the technology. The health and environmental impact of toxic heavy metals has been much debated in the case of CdTe solar cells, whose efficiency became industrially relevant in the 1990s. Although, CdTe is a thermally and chemically very stable compound with a low solubility product, "K", of 10 and, accordingly, its toxicity was revealed to be extremely low, rigorous industrial hygiene programmes and recycling commitment programmes have been implemented. In contrast to CdTe, hybrid perovskites are very unstable and easily degrade to rather soluble compounds of Pb or Sn with "K"=4.4×10 which significantly increases their potential bioavailability and hazard for human health, as confirmed by recent toxicological studies. Although the 50% lethal dose of lead [LD(Pb)] is less than 5 mg per kg of body weight, health issues arise at much lower exposure levels. Young children absorb 4–5 times as much lead as adults and are most susceptible to the adverse effects of lead. In 2003, a maximum blood Pb level (BLL) of 5 μg/dL was imposed by the World Health Organization, which corresponds to the amount of Pb contained in only 25 mm of the perovskite solar module. Furthermore, the BLL of 5 μg/dL was revoked in 2010 after the discovery of decreased intelligence and behavioral difficulties in children exposed to even lower values. Recently, Hong Zhang et al. reported a universal co-solvent dilution strategy to significantly reduce the toxic lead waste production, the usage of perovskite materials as well as the fabrication cost by 70%, which also delivers PCEs of over 24% and 18.45% in labotorary cells and modules, respectively.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43845714
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During the late 1990s, the U.S. Navy realized its Cold War-era cruisers and destroyers had been designed for open-ocean warfare and would be vulnerable in shallow coastal waters, where they would face dangers from high-speed boats, missile-firing fast-attack craft, small submarines, sea mines, and land and air-launched anti-ship missiles. The Navy's official solution was the DD-21, a large coastal warship that could absorb hits. Two Navy strategists, retired Captain Wayne Hughes and Vice Admiral Art Cebrowski, refined an opposing "Streetfighter" concept for a 1,000-ton small, specialized, and heavily armed vessel costing just $90 million (2001 dollars). Being small, light and numerous, the "Streetfighter" was envisioned as a "single-serving" ship to be abandoned once it suffered battle damage deemed "fatal" to the ship, made possible by its low cost. The concept of a manned expendable warship was contentious and the idea was not picked up. When Donald Rumsfeld was made Secretary of Defense in early 2001, he promised transformational approaches and doing jobs with fewer people. In October 2001, Cebrowski was assigned to head the Pentagon's new Office of Force Transformation, shortly after which Admiral Vernon Clark cancelled the DD-21 and replaced it with a "family" of ships, including the littoral combat ship, being motivated to produce ships cheaper and faster to increase fleet size. Clark declared the LCS was his "most transformational effort" and number-one budget priority in 2003.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=460005
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In 1981, the U.S. Air Force identified a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter (ATF) to replace the F-15 Eagle and F-16 Fighting Falcon. Code-named ""Senior Sky"", this air-superiority fighter program was influenced by emerging worldwide threats, including new developments in Soviet air defense systems and the proliferation of the Sukhoi Su-27 "Flanker"- and Mikoyan MiG-29 "Fulcrum"-class of fighter aircraft. It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon, including composite materials, lightweight alloys, advanced flight control systems and avionics, more powerful propulsion systems, and most importantly, stealth technology. In 1983, the ATF concept development team became the System Program Office (SPO) and managed the program at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. The demonstration and validation (Dem/Val) request for proposals (RFP) was issued in September 1985, with requirements placing a strong emphasis on stealth and supercruise. Owing to the immense investments required to develop the technology needed to achieve performance goals, teaming between companies was encouraged. Of the seven bidding companies, Lockheed and Northrop were selected on 31 October 1986. Lockheed, through its Skunk Works division, then teamed with Boeing and General Dynamics while Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas, and the two contractor teams undertook a 50-month Dem/Val phase, culminating in the flight test of two technology demonstrator prototypes, the YF-22 and the YF-23, respectively. Concurrently, Pratt & Whitney and General Electric were awarded contracts to develop the YF119 and YF120 engines respectively for the ATF engine competition.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299
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Beard and his family moved back to England in 1884 and took a postdoctoral opportunity at Owens College. Due to his previous history at the school, he ultimately earned a (BSc) from the institution. Beard's initial research interests involved the "evolutionary development of sensory organs in fish". Finishing his postdoctoral opportunity in 1889, Beard went back to Germany and became the personal assistant of Friedrich Leopold August Weismann, a professor of enormous stature. Between April and June 1889, Beard visited Black Lake in upper New York State. Black Lake, described as "nature's fish hatchery", was a perfect place for Beard to study Lepidosteus osseus (American bill fish). By his departure from the lake, Beard had collected an extensive amount of material that would help develop his notable trophoblastic theory. Upon studying microscope slides of early-stage Lepidosteus, Beard discovered "sensory neurons located within the dorsal zone of the spinal cord, which were assembled and subsequently disassembled in the course of the fish's early development. This transient nervous system persisted until it was replaced by the development of the dorsal root ganglia". In other words, Lepidosteus "produced two nervous systems in consecutive order, the first of which group outside the normal embryonic development of the latter". This was Beard's first exposure to breaks from traditional evolutionary theory, which thought progression occurred gradually only in a linear fashion. Likewise, the counterintuitive finding regarding Lepidosteus embryology helped Beard think against the grain of the dogma of the day. These cells, later named Rohan-Beard cells, and their curious patterns (development and disappearance) became one of the first known descriptions of apoptosis. Beard published his findings in "Lepidosteus", and even mused about alternating generations in animals in a manner similar to those found in plants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43789744
| 1,893,592 |
1,842,337 |
The CNMS is housed in a new 80,000-square foot building on Chestnut Ridge adjacent to the Spallation Neutron Source. Construction of the facility began in August 2003 and was completed in April 2005, with the research program beginning operation in October 2005. The four-level main building comprises wet and dry laboratories, office space, and common areas to promote interaction among staff, long-term research guests, and users. It is equipped with a wide range of specialized tools for synthesis, characterization, and integration of hard and soft materials. The 10,000-square foot nanofabrication research laboratory, housed in a one-level wing of the building, includes clean rooms and an area designed to meet the requirements of electron beam imaging and writing instruments (low electromagnetic field, low vibration, low acoustic noise). The Nanomaterials Theory Institute provides collaborative work spaces, visualization equipment, and high-speed connections to the terascale computing facilities of Oak Ridge's National Center for Computational Sciences and the national Leadership Scientific Computing Facility. The intense neutron beams of the Spallation Neutron Source and of the recently upgraded High Flux Isotope Reactor afford unique opportunities for fundamental studies of the structure and dynamics of nanoscale materials. The CNMS provides a gateway to these and other Oak Ridge user facilities, including electron microscopy, for users whose research can benefit from access to multiple facilities.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=707340
| 1,841,285 |
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After working in the industry, Flory left to work at Cornell University for a lectureship. The lectureship was with the George Fisher Baker Non-Residents. During the lectureship, Flory was able to study and understand a way to treat the effect of the excluded volume. According the nobelprize.org polymers, “would be nonasymptotic with the length of the chain, that is the fear of the contribution by the exclusion of the segment of the chain from the space occupied would increase without a limit as the chain is lengthened. This was the volume on the configuration of polymer chains. In 1957, Flory and his family decided to make the move to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The reason he and his family moved from New York to Pennsylvania was for him to be able to develop a program of basic research in chemistry at the Carnegie Mellon Institute. After his work at the Carnegie Mellon Institute, he accepted a professorship position at Stanford University in the department of chemistry. While he was at Stanford University, he changed his direction of research. The change of view in his studies has to do with the spatial configuration having to do with chain molecules. This have to do with configuration treatments having to do with chain molecules. The treatment is the dependent properties through mathematical methods. Not only is mathematical methods the only treatment but so is the thermodynamics of solutions. After his retirement he Flory remained still very active in the world of chemistry. He was a consultant for Dupont and IBM, not long after he retired. Flory also was involved with the study of the foundations in the Soviet Union started off by the professor MV Volkenstein and his collaborators. He also worked with the late professor of Kazuo Nagai in Japan. He felt the need to fight for scientists who were oppressed in various countries. In addition, he also spoke as the “Voice of America”, during a broadcast in Eastern Europe as well as Soviet Union. Flory also worked for the “Committee on Human Rights” which is known as the National Academy of Sciences from 1979 to 1984. During 1980, he worked as a delegate at the scientific forum in Hamburg.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1178722
| 1,278,048 |
1,685,129 |
When Humboldt first began his studies of organisms and the environment he claimed that he wanted to "reorganize the general connections that link organic beings and to study the great harmonies of Nature". He is often considered one of the world's first genuine ecologists. Humboldt succeeded in developing a comprehensive science that joined the separate branches of natural philosophy under a model of natural order founded on the concept of dynamic equilibrium. Humboldt's work reached far beyond his personal expeditions and discoveries. Figures from all across the globe participated on his work. Some such participants included French naval officers, East India Company physicians, Russian provincial administrators, Spanish military commanders, and German diplomats. As was mentioned previously, Charles Darwin carried a copy of Humboldt's "Personal Narrative" aboard H.M.S. Beagle. Humboldt's projects, particularly those related to natural philosophy, played a significant role in the influx of European money and travelers to Spanish America in increasing numbers in the early 19th century. Sir Edward Sabine, a British scientist, worked on terrestrial magnetism in a manner that was certainly Humboldtian. Also, British scientist George Gabriel Stokes depended heavily on abstract mathematical measurement to deal with error in a precision instrument, certainly Humboldtian science. Maybe the most prominent figure whose work can be considered representative of Humboldtian science is geologist Charles Lyell. Despite a lack of emphasis on precise measurement in geology at the time, Lyell insisted on precision in a Humboldtian manner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8243937
| 1,684,184 |
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The center's Industrial Associates program provides access to center information, expertise, training and other benefits for a yearly subscription fee. The program was started in 1983 with the creation of the Institute for Chemical and Biological Process Analysis. CBE's Standardized Biofilm Methods research group (SBM) focuses on issues of interest to companies developing new products addressing biofilm formation. Researchers develop, refine, and publish quantitative methods for growing, treating, sampling, and analyzing biofilm bacteria. SBM laboratory members work with international standard-setting organizations to secure approval of biofilm methods by the standard-setting community. Under a contract with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the SBM conducts laboratory research to support the development and standardization of test methods for measuring the performance of antimicrobial products—including those for biofilm bacteria—and provide statistical services related to EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs Antimicrobial Testing Program. The CBE developed the anti-microbial testing standards adopted in 2018 by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The standards are the first to apply specifically to bacterial biofilms. The standards are an outgrowth of research by CBE faculty member Darla Goeres, research professor of regulatory science. The standards provide a certification framework for companies to verify that their products are effective against biofilm bacteria and to label them accordingly, with a statement similar to the “Kills 99.9% of bacteria” found on bottles of bleach and other cleaners. According to CBE biostatistician Al Parker, antimicrobial manufacturers are eager to attain the certification because of growing awareness about bacterial biofilms. Public health entities such as hospitals — which routinely sterilize medical equipment such as surgical devices — are particularly interested, he said. “There’s been a paradigm shift,” said Parker, whose statistical analysis played a central role in shaping the testing framework.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45523355
| 2,155,097 |
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The Council, a raucous bunch with feisty opinions, met at the spacious home of science fiction author Larry Niven. The men mostly talked hard-edge tech, the women policy. Pournelle stirred the pot and turned up the heat. Amid the buffet meals, saunas and hot tubs, well-stocked open bar, and myriad word processors, fancies simmered and ideas cooked, some emerging better than half-baked...Finally, we settled on recommending a position claiming at least the moral high ground, if not high orbits. Defense was inevitably more stabilizing than relying on hair-trigger offense, we argued. It was also more principled. And eventually, the Soviet Union might not even be the enemy, we said - though we had no idea it would fade so fast. When that happened, defenses would still be useful against any attacker, especially rogue nations bent on a few terrorist attacks. There were plenty of science fiction stories, some many decades old, dealing with that possibility. The Advisory Council met in August of 1984 in a mood of high celebration. Their pioneering work had yielded fruits unimaginable in 1982 - Reagan himself had proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative, suggesting that nuclear weapons be made "impotent and obsolete". The Soviets were clearly staggered by the prospect. (Years later I heard straight from a senior Soviet advisor that the U.S. SDI had been the straw that broke the back of the military's hold on foreign policy. That seems to be the consensus now among the diplomatic community, though politically SDI is a common whipping boy, its funding cut.)Participant David Mitchell added this history update on March 18, 2021:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18979417
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The combinatorial power of carbon is manifested in the composition of the molecular populations detected in circum- and interstellar media (see the Astrochemistry.net web site). The number and the complexity of carbon-containing molecules are significantly higher than those of inorganic compounds, presumably all over the universe. One of the most abundant C-containing three-atoms molecule observed in space is hydrogen cyanide (HCN). The chemistry of HCN has thus attracted attention in origin of life studies since the earliest times, and the laboratory synthesis of adenine from HCN under presumptive prebiotic conditions was reported as early as 1961. The intrinsic limit of HCN stems from its high reactivity, which leads in turn, to instability and the difficulty associated with its concentration and accumulation in unreacted form. The “Warm Little Pond” in which life is supposed to have started, as imagined by Charles Darwin and re-elaborated by Alexander Oparin, had most likely to reach sufficiently high concentrations to start creating the next levels of complexity. Hence the necessity of a derivative of HCN that is sufficiently stable to survive for time periods extended enough to allow its concentration in the actual physico-chemical settings, but that is sufficiently reactive to originate new compounds in prebiotically plausible environments. Ideally, this derivative should be able to undergo reactions in various directions, without prohibitively high energy barriers, thus allowing the production of different classes of potentially prebiotic compounds. Formamide fulfils all these requirements and, due to its significantly higher boiling point (210 °C), enables chemical synthesis in a much broader temperature range than water.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54292633
| 1,996,856 |
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As to contamination of confined aquifer, which is a source of technical and household water supply for Pripyat city (the largest city in Chernobyl area), it also does not pose immediate health threat due to permanent monitoring of water delivery system. In case any indexes of radioactive content exceed the norm, withdrawal of water from local boreholes will be suspended. Yet such situation poses a certain economic risk due to high expenditures necessary for ensuring alternative water supply system . At the same time, lethal doses of radiation in unconfined aquifer retain substantial prospective danger due to their considerable capacity of migration to confined aquifer and subsequently to surface water, primarily in the Pripyat River. This water can furthermore enter tributaries of the Dnieper River and Kiev Reservoir. In this way the number of animals and people using contaminated water for domestic purposes can drastically increase. Considering that Dnieper is one of the key water arteries of Ukraine, in case of breaching of integrity of the “Shelter” or long-lived waste repositories, extensive spill of radionuclides in groundwater can reach the scale of national emergency. According to official position of the monitoring staff, such scenario is unlikely because before getting to the Dnieper the content of Strontium-90 is usually considerably diluted in the Pripyat River and Kiev Reservoir. Yet this assessment is considered inaccurate by some experts due to imperfect evaluation model implemented Thus groundwater contamination led to a paradoxical situation in the realm of public health: direct exposure to radiation by using contaminated subsurface water for household purposes is incomparably less than indirect impact caused by nuclides migration to cultivated lands. In this regard, can be distinguished on-site and off-site health risks from contaminants in groundwater network of the exclusion zone Low on-site risks are produced by direct water takeoff for drinking and domestic needs. It was calculated that even if hypothetical residents use water on the territory of radioactive waste dumps, the risks would be far below admissible levels. Such results can be explained by underground water purification during its hydrological transportation in surface waters, rains and snowmelt Primary health risks are off-site, posed by radionuclide contamination of agricultural lands and caused, among other factors, by groundwater migration through unconfined aquifer. This process eventually leads to internal irradiation of people using food from the contaminated areas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59803219
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In 1892, Paul Blocq and Gheorghe Marinescu first described the presence of plaques in grey matter. They referred to the plaques as 'nodules of neuroglial sclerosis'. In 1898, Emil Redlich reported plaques in three patients, two of whom had clinically verified dementia. Redlich used the term 'miliary sclerosis' to describe plaques because he thought they resembled millet seeds, and he was the first to refer to the lesions as 'plaques'. In the early 20th century, Oskar Fischer noted their similarity to actinomyces 'Drusen' (geode-like lesions), leading him to call the degenerative process 'drusige Nekrose'. Alois Alzheimer is often credited with first linking plaques to dementia in a 1906 presentation (published in 1907), but this short report focused mainly on neurofibrillary tangles, and plaques were only briefly mentioned. Alzheimer's first substantive description of plaques appeared in 1911. In contrast, Oskar Fischer published a series of comprehensive investigations of plaques and dementia in 1907, 1910 and 1912. By 1911 Max Bielschowsky proposed the amyloid-nature of plaque deposits. This was later confirmed by Paul Divry, who showed that plaques that are stained with the dye Congo Red show the optical property of birefringence, which is characteristic of amyloids in general. In 1911, Teofil Simchowicz introduced the term 'senile plaques' to denote their frequent presence in the brains of older individuals. In 1968, a quantitative analysis by Gary Blessed, Bernard Tomlinson and Martin Roth confirmed the association of senile plaques with dementia. Henryk Wisniewski and Robert Terry coined the term 'neuritic plaques' in 1973 to designate plaques that include abnormal neuronal processes (neurites). An important advance in 1984 and 1985 was the identification of Aβ as the protein that forms the cores of plaques. This discovery led to the generation of new tools to study plaques, particularly antibodies to Aβ, and presented a molecular target for the development of potential therapies for Alzheimer's disease. Knowledge of the amino acid sequence of Aβ also enabled scientists to discover genetic mutations that cause autosomal dominant Alzheimer's disease, all of which increase the likelihood that Aβ will aggregate in the brain.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2218004
| 819,444 |
1,871,235 |
In the 21st century, Canada's government has shown renewed interest in the acquisition of military technology, especially with its commitment to the war in Afghanistan. Equipment has been improved, including the CF-18 fighter with addition of laser-guided bombs and there are plans to update the Aurora patrol aircraft. The air force has also taken possession of the gigantic new C-17 Globemaster III long-range transport aircraft and has begun to renew the fleet of Hercules transport aircraft. The army has acquired the new Leopard 2 tank and C-777 long-range gun, and in 2009 announced the acquisition of the Close Combat Vehicle. In 2003, the Forces took possession of their first tactical unmanned aerial vehicle (TUAV), the French-designed CU-161 Sperwer, and the Heron UAV in February 2009. Used for the war in Afghanistan, these machines provide an intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) capability for the Forces. In 2008, the Air Force announced that it would acquire its first attack helicopters (Griffons equipped with light machine guns) for service there as well. In 2006, the Navy undertook the Halifax Class Modernization/Frigate Equipment Life Extension Project (HCM/FELIX) to modernize its 12 Halifax Class Frigates. New equipment will include improved computer fire control systems, sensors and the decoy-based Rheinmettal Multi Ammunition Softkill System, a passive missile defence system. Acquisitions pending include the CH-148 Cyclone ASW helicopter, the Chinook helicopter, new Arctic patrol vessels for the navy and a new ice breaker for the Canadian Coast Guard. In July 2010, the Government of Canada announced the C$9 billion purchase of 65 F-35A fighters for delivery beginning in 2016.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29991137
| 1,870,158 |
1,370,831 |
Leta started her professional career, as a teacher at two high schools in Nebraska. The first of these was in DeWitt, Nebraska, Harry Hollingworth's hometown. She was the assistant principal of the high school for one year. Her second teaching position was in the town of McCook. This position lasted for two years. She flourished at these jobs until she moved to New York where her fiancé was finishing up his doctorate under Cattell. When he obtained an assistant professorship at Barnard College, Harry was able to afford to move Leta to New York with him. They were married on December 31, 1908. Leta Hollingworth intended on teaching in New York, but soon discovered that the city had a policy stating that married women were not allowed to teach. She continued writing and busied herself with housework, yet this proved to be unrewarding and she found herself bored, frustrated, and began to develop depression. It was difficult to bear the fact that, despite her training, she was unable to contribute financially. She tried to go on to graduate school but was barred due to gender discrimination at the time. She began to question the role society expected of women and the inequality of women's opportunities. As a result, her career interests changed to education and sociology. Her luck turned around in 1911 when Harry was offered a position in Coca Cola to conduct a study on caffeine. Harry hired Leta as his research assistant where she was able to obtain enough money to attend graduate school at Columbia University and the Teachers College. In 1913, she received her master's degree in education at Columbia and began working for the Clearing House for Mental Defectives to administer Binet intelligence tests in 1914. Quickly she became the top scorer and New York City's first civil service psychologist while filling a post at Bellevue Hospital as chief of the psychological lab. Hollingworth continued on her academic journey to study educational psychology under the supervision of Edward L. Thorndike. During this decade Leta also fought for women's suffrage and belonged the progressive era group the Feminist Alliance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14276414
| 1,370,075 |
977,230 |
In 2011, the university's executive MBA program for students from China came under scrutiny after an article in the Springfield News-Leader questioned the financial relationship between Missouri State and its Hong Kong-based agent, alleging that students were paying double the amount that MSU was receiving. The executive MBA program accepts cohorts of students who come through a sponsor: a provincial or municipal government agency, a university, or a corporation. Missouri State's agent, the International Management Education Corporation (IMEC), identifies and develops relationships with sponsors, who identify and prepare students, screening them for work experience, a minimum grade-point average at the undergraduate level (2.75) and English language proficiency. IMEC then provides MSU with a cohort of a minimum of 30 students, and the sponsors send MSU the students' applications for review. The fees students pay vary by sponsor and range from $15,000 to $22,000. IMEC was contracted to pay Missouri State between $10,103 and $11,886 per student; resulting in between 20 and 55 percent of the student fee being retained by IMEC. IMEC defended the fees claiming they cover marketing/promotion/recruiting and the related overhead costs as well as additional costs including intensive English training, exams, advice on applications and documentations, visa application fees and service and orientations provided by IMEC. University officials defended the program and arrangement stating that it had allowed Missouri State to quickly grow the executive MBA program without having to spend university resources recruiting and marketing overseas. The program has had 370 students since it started in 2007. However, the chair of the Faculty Senate said professors have periodically raised questions about the quality and oversight of the various China initiatives, and had prepared a list of questions for the president in light of the article, expressing a desire to ensure that proper oversight was in place to avoid compromising quality. Following translation and re-publication of information from the News-Leader article by Chinese newspapers, MSU reported that it received calls from several program sponsor organizations in China that they would no longer participate in the program. The university continued to defend the program, arguing that mistranslations of the article had provided an incorrect view of the program's academic rigor and stating that it intended to meet with sponsors and answer any questions about the program.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=187859
| 976,719 |
1,417,128 |
The roots of evidence-based design could go back to 1860 when Florence Nightingale identified fresh air as "the very first canon of nursing," and emphasized the importance of quiet, proper lighting, warmth and clean water. Nightingale applied statistics to nursing, notably with "Diagram of the causes of mortality in the army in the East". This statistical study led to advances in sanitation, although the germ theory of disease was not yet fully accepted. The evidence-based design movement began much later in the 1970s with Archie Cochranes's book "Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services". to collect, codify, and disseminate "evidence" gathered in randomised controlled trials relative to the built environment. A 1984 study by Roger Ulrich found that surgical patients with a view of nature suffered fewer complications, used less pain medication and were discharged sooner than those who looked out on a brick wall; and laid the foundation for what has now become a discipline known as evidence-based design. Studies exist about the psychological effects of lighting, carpeting and noise on critical-care patients, and evidence links physical environment with improvement of patients and staff safety, wellness and satisfaction. Architectural researchers have studied the impact of hospital layout on staff effectiveness, and social scientists studied guidance and wayfinding. Architectural researchers have conducted post-occupancy evaluations (POE) to provide advice on improving building design and quality. While the EBD process is particularly suited to healthcare, it may be also used in other fields for positive health outcomes and provision of healing environments.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1935842
| 1,416,330 |
1,169,791 |
After the Reformation, Scotland's universities underwent a series of reforms associated with Andrew Melville, who returned from Geneva to become principal of the University of Glasgow in 1574. A distinguished linguist, philosopher and poet, he had trained in Paris and studied law at Poitiers, before moving to Geneva and developing an interest in Protestant theology. Influenced by the anti-Aristotelian Petrus Ramus, he placed an emphasis on simplified logic and elevated languages and sciences to the same status as philosophy, allowing accepted ideas in all areas to be challenged. He introduced new specialist teaching staff, replacing the system of "regenting", where one tutor took the students through the entire arts curriculum. Metaphysics were abandoned and Greek became compulsory in the first year followed by Aramaic, Syriac and Hebrew, launching a new fashion for ancient and biblical languages. Glasgow had probably been declining as a university before his arrival, but students now began to arrive in large numbers. He assisted in the reconstruction of Marischal College, Aberdeen, and in order to do for St Andrews what he had done for Glasgow, he was appointed Principal of St Mary's College, St Andrews, in 1580. The University of Edinburgh developed out of public lectures were established in the town 1540s on law, Greek, Latin and philosophy, under the patronage of Mary of Guise. These evolved into the "Tounis College", which would become the University of Edinburgh in 1582. The results were a revitalisation of all Scottish universities, which were now producing a quality of education the equal of that offered anywhere in Europe. Under the Commonwealth, the universities saw an improvement in their funding, as they were given income from deaneries, defunct bishoprics and the excise, allowing the completion of buildings including the college in the High Street in Glasgow. They were still largely seen as a training school for clergy, and came under the control of the hard line Protestors, who were generally favoured by the regime because of their greater antipathy to royalism, with Patrick Gillespie being made Principal at Glasgow. After the Restoration there was a purge of the universities, but much of the intellectual advances of the preceding period was preserved. The five Scottish universities recovered with a lecture-based curriculum that was able to embrace economics and science, offering a high quality liberal education to the sons of the nobility and gentry. It helped the universities to become major centres of medical education and would put Scotland at the forefront of Enlightenment thinking.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18943753
| 1,169,172 |
1,371,054 |
To make an organoid, an embryoid (tissue that has some embryonic features) grown from natural stem cells is used. Embryos have three layers: endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm. Each turns into various body parts. The nervous system grows from the ectoderm (which also contributes dental enamel and the epidermis). Ectodermal cells were placed into gel droplets and floated in a nutrient broth in a rotating bioreactor, which supported cell growth without forming by the container. After ten days the organoid developed neurons. After 30 days it displayed regions similar to parts of brains. Lacking a blood supply, cerebral organoids reach about 4 mm across and can last a year or more. The general procedure can be broken down into 5 steps. First human pluripotent stem cells are cultured. They are then allowed to cultivate into an embryoid body. Next the cell culture is induced to form a neuroectoderm. The neuroectoderm is then grown in a matrigel droplet. The matrigel provides nutrients and the neuroectoderm starts to proliferate and grow. It's important to note that, while these cells are self organizing, replication of specific brain regions in cerebral organoid counterparts is achieved by the addition of extracellular signals to the organoid environment during different stages of development; these signals were found to create change in cell differentiation patterns, thus leading to recapitulation of the desired brain region. Normally, SMAD inhibition is used in usual cerebral organoid culturing processes; recent studies show that inhibition of this process generates microglia in cerebral organoids. It's important to note that the lack of vasculature limits the size the organoid can grow. This has been the major limitation in organoid development; recently, however, new methods using a spinning bioreactor have allowed an increase in the availability of nutrients to cells inside the organoid. This last step has been the key breakthrough in organoid development. Spinning bioreactors have been used increasingly in cell culture and tissue growth applications. The reactor is able to deliver faster cell doubling times, increased cell expansion and increased extra-cellular matrix components when compared to statically cultured cells.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40466325
| 1,370,297 |
1,101,518 |
Early in August, Horner's associate Bob Makela discovered the Dino Ridge Quarry, containing extensive ceratopid remains, on the land of farmer Ricky Reagan. Continual rainfall hampered operations that year. On 20 June 1986, a crew of sixteen returned to reopen the quarry. A large and dense concentration of bones, a bonebed, was excavated, with up to forty bones per square metre being present. This was interpreted as representing an entire herd that had perished. In late August 1986, Horner and preparator Carrie Ancell on the land of Gloria Sundquist discovered a second horned dinosaur site, at one mile distance from the first, called the Canyon Bone Bed, in which two relatively complete skulls were dug up. The skulls had to be removed from a rather steep cliff and weighed about half a tonne when plastered. They were airlifted by a Bell UH-1 Iroquois of the United States Army National Guard into trucks to be transported. The aberrant build of these skulls first suggested to Horner that they might represent an unknown taxon. Unexpectedly benefiting from a grant of $204,000 by the MacArthur Fellows Program, Horner was able to reopen the two bonebed quarries in 1987. That year almost all fossils were removed that could be accessed without using mechanised earth-moving equipment. Also, an additional horned dinosaur skull was excavated from a somewhat younger layer. In 1988, more ceratopid material was found in a more southern site, the Blacktail Creek North. In the second week of June 1989, student Scott Donald Sampson in the context of his doctoral research with a small crew reopened the Canyon Bone Bed, while Patrick Leiggi that summer with a limited number of workers restarted excavating the Dino Ridge Quarry. The same year, Horner himself found more horned dinosaur fossils at the Blacktail Creek North. In 1990, the expeditions were ended because the reservation allowed access to commercial fossil hunters who quickly strip-mined sites with bulldozers, through a lack of proper documentation greatly diminishing the scientific value of the discoveries.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1792393
| 1,100,957 |
730,353 |
In 1938, Price, with a group of Adventists in Los Angeles, founded what became the "Deluge Geology Society" (DGS), with membership restricted to those believing that the creation week comprised "six literal days, and that the Deluge should be studied as the cause of the major geological changes since creation". Not all DGS-adherents were Adventists; early members included the Independent Baptist Henry M. Morris and the Missouri Lutheran Walter E. Lammerts. The DGS undertook field-work: in June 1941 their first "Bulletin" hailed the news that the Paluxy River dinosaur trackways in Texas appeared to include human footprints. Though Nelson had advised Price in 1939 that this was "absurd" and that the difficulty of human footprints forming during the turmoil of the deluge would "knock the Flood theory all to pieces", in 1943 the DGS began raising funds for "actual excavation" by a Footprint Research Committee of members including the consulting geologist Clifford L. Burdick. Initially they tried to keep their research secret from "unfriendly scientists". Then in 1945, to encourage backing, they announced giant human footprints, allegedly defeating "at a single stroke" the theory of evolution. The revelation that locals had carved the footprints, and an unsuccessful field trip that year, failed to dampen their hopes. However, by then doctrinal arguments had riven the DGS. The most extreme dispute began in late 1938 after Harold W. Clark observed deep drilling in oil fields and had discussions with practical geologists which dispelled the belief that the fossil sequence was random, convincing him that the evidence of thrust faults was "almost incontrovertible". He wrote to Price, telling his teacher that the "rocks do lie in a much more definite sequence than we have ever allowed", and proposing that the fossil sequence was explained by ecological zones before the flood. Price reacted with fury, and despite Clark emphasising their shared belief in literal recent Creation, the dispute continued. In 1946 Clark set out his views in a book, "The New Diluvialism", which Price denounced as "Theories of Satanic Origin".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=543667
| 729,968 |
1,206,052 |
The discovery of the photoacoustic effect dates back to 1880, when Alexander Graham Bell was experimenting with long-distance sound transmission. Through his invention, called "photophone", he transmitted vocal signals by reflecting sun-light from a moving mirror to a selenium solar cell receiver. As a byproduct of this investigation, he observed that sound waves were produced directly from a solid sample when exposed to beam of sunlight that was rapidly interrupted with a rotating slotted wheel. He noticed that the resulting acoustic signal was dependent on the type of the material and correctly reasoned that the effect was caused by the absorbed light energy, which subsequently heats the sample. Later Bell showed that materials exposed to the non-visible (ultra-violet and infra-red) portions of the solar spectrum can also produce sounds and invented a device, which he called "spectrophone", to apply this effect for spectral identification of materials. Bell himself and later John Tyndall and Wilhelm Röntgen extended these experiments, demonstrating the same effect in liquids and gases. However, the results were too crude, dependent on ear detection, and this technique was soon abandoned. The application of the photoacoustic effect had to wait until the development of sensitive sensors and intense light sources. In 1938 Mark Leonidovitch Veingerov revived the interest in the photoacoustic effect, being able to use it in order to measure very small carbon dioxide concentration in nitrogen gas (as low as 0.2% in volume). Since then research and applications grew faster and wider, acquiring several fold more detection sensitivity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35891052
| 1,205,407 |
758,645 |
Public schools across the country were badly hurt by the Great Depression, as tax revenues fell in local and state governments shifted funding to relief projects. Budgets were slashed, and teachers went unpaid. During the New Deal, 1933–39, President Franklin Roosevelt and his advisers were hostile to the elitism shown by the educational establishment. They refused all pleas for direct federal help to public or private schools or universities. They rejected proposals for federal funding for research at universities. But they did help poor students, and the major New Deal relief programs built many schools buildings as requested by local governments. The New Deal approach to education was a radical departure from educational best practices. It was specifically designed for the poor and staffed largely by women on relief. It was not based on professionalism, nor was it designed by experts. Instead it was premised on the anti-elitist notion that a good teacher does not need paper credentials, that learning does not need a formal classroom and that the highest priority should go to the bottom tier of society. Leaders in the public schools were shocked: They were shut out as consultants and as recipients of New Deal funding. They desperately needed cash to cover the local and state revenues that had disappeared during the depression, they were well organized, and made repeated concerted efforts in 1934, 1937, and 1939, all to no avail. The conservative Republican establishment headed collaborated with for so long was out of power and Roosevelt himself was the leader in anti-elitism. The federal government had a highly professional Office of Education; Roosevelt cut its budget and staff, and refused to consult with its leader John Ward Studebaker. The Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) programs were deliberately designed to not teach skills that would put them in competition with unemployed union members. The CCC did have its own classes. They were voluntary, took place after work, and focused on teaching basic literacy to young men who had quit school before high school.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9083795
| 758,239 |
1,902,886 |
In the early years of the twentieth century the school's isolated and underdeveloped mountainous location precluded its growth. Even when Lumpkin County did receive its first railroad in the 1910s there was still no direct rail to Dahlonega. Price's death in 1911 added to the school's struggle, as he was by far its most prominent supporter. In that same year a fire consumed Bostwick Hall as well as a large portion of the school's library. Consequently, the destruction of these facilities hindered NGAC's ability to accommodate and house all of the applicants that sought enrollment at the school. The hardships faced by NGAC were further compounded during the 1920s by a series of ineffectual and unpopular school presidents. In the final years of his presidency Gustavus R. Glenn found disfavor with the trustees. Many of them felt that his competency had been compromised by the complacency that he had developed during the service of his lengthy presidency (1904-1922: the longest presidency in NGAC history up to that point). Glenn resigned before the trustees ever attempted to remove him. He was replaced by the more ambitious Marion DuBose who served as president for a mere three years. DuBose was criticized for trying to implement to much change to the college too quickly. Efforts of his such as working to disband the preparatory department, and eliminating the BS and AB degrees in agriculture were seen by much of the faculty and students as too progressive and needlessly ardent. Eighty-four students, roughly half of the student population, signed a petition expressing their dissatisfaction with DuBose's performance, however it did nothing to affect his presidency. In 1925 pressure from alumni finally persuaded DuBose to resign. Throughout the remainder of the 1920s conditions for NGAC began to improve. Infrastructural improvements such as a new modernized waterworks, the addition of female dormitories, and a new bus line from Gainesville to Dahlonega helped to improve the image and accessibility of the school. During a 1928 visit to the school, Governor Lamartine Hardman admiringly noticed the improved state of the university's campus and declared that he would seek a greater appropriation for the institution.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38647111
| 1,901,795 |
2,146,747 |
In 1990 the Karelian Branch of the USSR AS was transformed into the Karelian Research Centre of the USSR AS, and in 1991 it was renamed as the Karelian Research Centre RAS. A. F. Titov became the new president (1991 onwards). In 1991 the Northern Water Problems Institute was established through transformation from the Water Problems Department. The institutes began transition to legal and financial independence. Institutes of Geology, Northern Water Problems, Forest Research, Department of Mathematics and Data Analysis became legal entities in 1993, Institute of Biology in 1997, and Institutes of HLL and Economics in 1998. New departments were established: Editing and Publishing, Financial and Economic, Maintenance and Procurements, Repair and Construction, Programming Group. In 1996 the Department of Economics was transformed into the Institute of Economics. In 1999 the Department of Mathematics and Data Analysis was reorganized into the Institute of Applied Mathematical Research. The process of transforming KarRC RAS departments into institutes and legal entities was thus completed. Staff reduction and aging, social insecurity of scientists were progressing, the prestige of science in Russia was declining. Russian science was underfinanced. Fund-raising had to be activated to win grants, contracts, etc. KarRC RAS enlarged the number of its interdisciplinary programmes and projects, widened partnerships with various organizations and institutions in Karelia, Russia and other countries. It managed to improve the working environment for some auxiliary units and services. The main outcome of the last decade of the 20th century is probably the fact that despite all the hardships academic science had gone through KarRC RAS has managed to preserve the bulk of its human and scientific resources, gradually adapted to the new circumstances without compromising much of the amount and quality of its scientific products, and generated a solid background for future development. Funding still remained the main challenge, being mostly received from the federal budget but in amounts clearly insufficient for normal operation. Search for additional sources has become constant.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13185497
| 2,145,516 |
782,283 |
Dialyzer technology initially outpaced the ability of clinicians to apply it to patients. In the 1920s, the first dialysis catheter was created using thin fragile glass tubes. Early methods required surgical incision to reach large vessels, which carried a large risk of major bleeding. The first somewhat permanent, reliable dialysis access, the Scribner Teflon Shunt, was invented nearly 40 years later and allowed a patient with kidney failure to survive 11 more years. As medicine and surgery have grown more sophisticated, more patients now live with chronic renal disease than ever before. The most common type of dialysis in the United States is hemodialysis, which can be performed through several types of vascular access. The arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is the preferred method. Arteriovenous fistula are created surgically by directly connecting an artery and a vein, most commonly in the arm. An arteriovenous graft (AVG) relies on the same principle but bridges the gap between the artery and vein with a medical-grade prosthetic shunt. Over time, altered flow mechanics can result in changes within the involved vessels. Vascular narrowing, thrombosis, aneurysms and pseudoaneurysms are commonly encountered complications over the life of an AVF or AVG. Interventional radiologists can use angiography to evaluate these structures (commonly called a Fistulogram) and treat dysfunctional access with angioplasty, stenting, and thrombectomy. Most patients require regular evaluation and treatment to keep their access working. When possible, AVFs are preferred to AVGs due to their relatively lower complication rate and longer patency. The Fistula First initiative works to promote physician and patient awareness about the benefits of first attempting hemodialysis through a fistula. There are a few devices (endo AVF) that are being utilized by interventional radiologists to percutaneously create fistulas in a minimally invasive fashion.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=457620
| 781,864 |
2,175,158 |
These difficulties to detect the presence of NUMT can be problematic. Translocated mitochondrial sequences in the nuclear genome have the potential to get amplified in addition to, or even instead of, the authentic target mtDNA sequence which can seriously confound population genetic and phylogenetic analyses since mtDNA has been widely used for population mapping, evolutionary and phylogenic studies, species identification by DNA barcode, diagnosis of various pathologies, and forensic medicine. This simultaneous amplification of NUMT with free extrachromosomal mtDNA, additionally, prevents one from determining the exact number of NUMT fragments in the genome of different organisms, such as "Aedes aegypti" mosquitoes, especially those in which extended translocation of mtDNA fragments occur. This makes the diagnosis of certain mitochondrial disorders challenging. For instance, a large NUMT pseudogene was found on chromosome 1, while more recent analysis of the same sequence led to a conclusion that sperm mtDNA has mutations that cause low sperm mobility. Another example would be the recent report describing a heteroplasmic mtDNA molecule containing five linked missense mutations dispersed over the contiguous mtDNA CO1 and CO2 genes in Alzheimer’s disease patients, however, the more recent studies using PCR, restriction endonuclease site variant assays, and phylogenic analysis proposed that the nuclear CO1 and CO2 sequences revealed that they diverged from modern human mtDNAs early in hominid evolution about 770,000 years before and these preserved NUMTs could cause Alzheimer's disease. One of the possible ways of preventing from such erroneous result is an amplification and comparison of heterogeneous sequence, comprises both mtDNA and nDNA, with the obtained results from Sanger sequencing of purified and enriched mtDNA as shown in figure 4. Although this method is easy and only a few primers are required, it will prevent from a substantial error in phylogenetic studies of a population and all the previously mentioned false results.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8564084
| 2,173,914 |
1,588,382 |
White will be forever remembered in Manchester as the founder of the hospital and a formidable surgeon, and often acclaimed as the "father of conservative surgery". Nonetheless it is as a man midwife that he like Dr William Hunter in London really made his mark. In this field, however White was unique. During much of this time he was in charge of Midwifery for the Poor of Manchester and surrounding districts. His major work a Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying-in Women, was published in 1773 and went through some five editions. It was published not only in the United Kingdom but also in the USA and then translated and printed in Germany and France. In it he suggested significant changes in the care of women in pregnancy, during childbirth and in the puerperium. Medical students today will learn of the apparently seminal work of Ignazz Semmelweis in changing the course of maternity care from 1845-1860. However almost all of the suggestions that Semmelweis was to make had been encouraged and practiced by Charles White of Manchester starting a century before and detailed in this remarkable book. In it he describes the prevailing practice. The room for a woman to deliver in was often crowded. A fire was lit, the windows were all shut, the curtains stitched. The woman was encouraged to lie flat and be completely covered by blankets. After delivery she was confined in a horizontal position for days so that the lochia tended to remain in the vagina stagnating and festering. He made a point of having the room cooled, the windows to be opened to encourage a flow of fresh air. He insisted on hygienic conditions, regular hand washing, changes of bed linen, towels and sponges and instruments. Although unaware specifically of bacteria he urged not only scrupulous cleaning but also separate bed chambers for women in labour. Where this was not possible then if any woman developed fever she should be isolated for a week or ten days to prevent spread of the fever. In such a case, after the woman had left the hospital, the room should be scrubbed including the woodwork, the curtains and floor. He even advocated where possible stoving with brimstone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21438344
| 1,587,488 |
1,145,582 |
Writing in 1972, Lewis Thomas both explained and praised the nature of the MBL as a scientific institution. He wrote about it in his recurring "New England Journal of Medicine" column called "Notes of a Biology-Watcher", in an installment called "The MBL"; the essay was later collected into the volume titled "". He said of the MBL of that day, "Today, it stands as the uniquely national center for biology in this country; it is the National Biological Laboratory without being officially designated (or yet funded) as such. Its influence on the growth and development of biologic science has been equivalent to that of many of the country's universities combined, for it has had its pick of the world's scientific talent for each summer's research and teaching. […] Someone has counted thirty Nobel Laureates who have worked at the MBL at one time or another. It is amazing that such an institution, exerting so much influence on academic science, has been able to remain so absolutely autonomous. It has, to be sure, linkages of various kinds, arrangements with outside universities for certain graduate programs, and it adheres delicately, somewhat ambiguously, to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution just up the street. But it has never come under the domination of any outside institution or governmental agency, nor has it ever been told what to do by any outside group. […] There is no way of predicting what the future will be like for an institution such as the MBL. One way or another, it will evolve. It may shift soon into a new phase, with a year-round program for teaching and research and a year-round staff, but it will have to accomplish this without jeopardizing the immense power of its summer programs, or all institutional hell will break loose. It will have to find new ways for relating to the universities, if its graduate programs are to expand as they should. It will have to develop new symbiotic relations with the Oceanographic Institute, since both places have so much at stake. And it will have to find more money, much more — the kind of money that only federal governments possess — without losing any of its own initiative. It will be an interesting place to watch, in the years ahead."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391313
| 1,144,981 |
312,472 |
Positive assortative mating raises the chances of a given trait being passed on to the couple's offspring, strengthens the bond between the parents, and increases genetic similarity between family members, whereupon in-group altruism and inclusive fitness are enhanced. That the two partners are culturally compatible reduces uncertainty in lifestyle choices and ensures social support. In some cases, homogamy can also increase the couple's fertility and the number of offspring surviving till adulthood. On the other hand, there is evolutionary pressure against mating with people too genetically similar to oneself, such as members of the same nuclear family. In addition, children born into parents who are cousins have an increased risk of autosomal recessive genetic disorders, and this risk is higher in populations that are already highly ethnically homogeneous. Children of more distantly related cousins have less risk of these disorders, though still higher than the average population.Therefore, humans tend to maximize the genetic similarity of their mates while avoiding excessive inbreeding or incest. First-cousin marriages nowadays are rare and are in fact prohibited in a number of jurisdictions worldwide. In general, humans seem to prefer mates who are (the equivalent of) second or higher-parity cousins. Genetic analyses suggest that the genomic correlation between spouses is comparable to that between second cousins. In the past, there was indeed some awareness of the dangers of inbreeding, as can be seen in legal prohibitions in some societies, while the current era, better transportation infrastructure makes it less likely to occur. Moreover, modern transportation has diminished residential propinquity as a factor in assortative mating. But cultural anthropologists have noted that avoidance of inbreeding cannot be the sole basis for the incest taboo because the boundaries of the incest prohibition vary widely between cultures, and not necessarily in ways that maximize the avoidance of inbreeding. A study indicated that between 1800 and 1965 in Iceland, more children and grandchildren were produced from marriages between third or fourth cousins (people with common great-great- or great-great-great-grandparents) than from other degrees of consanguinity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41162624
| 312,304 |
1,736,294 |
Jeremiah, a three-time letterman for the Indians, got his career started with a bang, producing an 18–4 mark in his first year, breaking the team record for wins and post the second-best winning percentage. The team would continue to play well under their new coach, earning winning records each year until they dominated the college hockey landscape in 1941–42, going 21–2, setting a host of team records and being named as the national collegiate champion. Jeremiah would leave after the championship to serve in the military for the duration of World War II but the team continued to play well in his absence. Dartmouth was one of the few programs that played through the duration of the war and over the next three seasons the team did not lose a single game. Utilizing three coaches (two of them serving jointly) the program went 26–0–1 and sported future Hall of Fame members Dick Rondeau, Charlie Holt and Bill Riley. Jeremiah returned for the team's 1945–46 season and did not appear to have missed a step, posting two tremendous years before the first NCAA tournament was announced for 1948. The Indians continued to trounce their competition, going 20–2 during the season and with the best record in the nation they were the first team selected from the east. With Riley brothers Bill and Joe leading the attack Dartmouth rolled over tournament host Colorado College 8–4 and met Michigan in the final. The Wolverines took a one-goal lead twice in the opening frame but the Indians were able to match them both times. The roles reversed in the second period with Dartmouth briefly pulling ahead but entering the final period the score was tied 4–4. The Indians faltered in the third, allowing 4 Michigan goals and lost the game 8–4. Despite the disappointment Joe Riley was named the most outstanding player in the tournament
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26673818
| 1,735,317 |
525,736 |
As of 2013, with the majority of English-speaking ICEB member-countries having officially adopted UEB, there remain barriers to implementation and deployment. Besides ICEB member-nations, there are also many other countries with blind citizens that teach and use English: India, Hong Kong/China, Pakistan, the Philippines, and so on. Many of these countries use non-UEB math notation, for English-speaking countries specifically, versions of the Nemeth Code were widespread by 1990 (in the United States, Western Samoa, Canada including Quebec, New Zealand, Israel, Greece, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, and Lebanon) in contrast to the similar-to-UEB-but-not-identical Taylor notation in 1990 (used by the UK, Ireland, Australia, Nigeria, Hong Kong, Jordan, Kenya, Sierra Leone, Singapore, and Zimbabwe). Some countries in the Middle East used Nemeth and Taylor math-notations as of 1990, i.e. Iran and Saudi Arabia. As of 2013, it is unclear whether the English-using blind populations of various ICEB and non-ICEB nations will move to adopt the UEB, and if so, at what rate. Beyond official adoption rates in schools and by individuals, there are other difficulties. The vast majority of existing Braille materials, both printed and electronic, are in non-UEB encodings. Furthermore, other technologies that compete with braille are now ever-more-widely affordable (screen readers for electronic-text-to-speech, plus physical-pages-to-electronic-text software combined with high-resolution digital cameras and high-speed document scanners, and the increasing ubiquity of tablets/smartphones/PDAs/PCs). The percentage of blind children who are literate in braille is already declining—and even those who know some system tend not to know UEB, since that system is still very new. Still, as of 2012 many of the original goals for UEB have already been fully or partially accomplished:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1845709
| 525,463 |
1,104,376 |
The introduction of the absorption materials reduces the velocity of sound through the line, as discovered by Bailey in his original work. Bradbury published his extensive tests to determine this effect in an AES journal article in 1976 and his results agreed that heavily damped lines could reduce the velocity of sound by as much as 50%, although 35% is typical in medium damped lines. Bradbury's tests were carried out using fibrous materials, typically longhaired wool and glass fibre. These kinds of materials however produce highly variable effects that are not consistently repeatable for production purposes. They are also liable to produce inconsistencies due to movement, climatic factors and effects over time. High specification acoustic foams, developed by manufacturers such as PMC, with similar characteristics to longhaired wool, provide repeatable results for consistent production. The density of the polymer, the diameter of the pores and the sculptured profiling are all specified to provide the correct absorption for each speaker model. The quantity and position of the foam is critical to engineer a low-pass acoustic filter that provides adequate attenuation of the upper bass frequencies, whilst allowing an unimpeded path for the low bass frequencies. Although the result may require a lot of modeling and testing, the starting point is usually based on one of three basic principles. Filling the entire tube treats the TL as a damper, aiming at completely eliminating the rear wave. Filling half the cross section throughout the line's entire length treats the TL as an infinite baffle, basically damping high frequencies and wall-to-wall resonances. Filling the tube from the driver to half the tube's length aims at a quarter-wave resonator, leaving the fundamental tone with its velocity maxima at the open end of the tube intact, while damping all the overtones.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44224558
| 1,103,813 |
1,079,585 |
Abbe was born 23 January 1840 in Eisenach, Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, to Georg Adam Abbe and Elisabeth Christina Barchfeldt. He came from a humble home – his father was a foreman in a spinnery. Supported by his father's employer, Abbe was able to attend secondary school and to obtain the general qualification for university entrance with fairly good grades, at the Eisenach Gymnasium, which he graduated from in 1857. By the time he left school, his scientific talent and his strong will had already become obvious. Thus, in spite of the family's strained financial situation, his father decided to support Abbe's studies at the Universities of Jena (1857–1859) and Göttingen (1859–1861). During his time as a student, Abbe gave private lessons to improve his income. His father's employer continued to fund him. Abbe was awarded his |1970|p=6}}</ref> While at school, he was influenced by Bernhard Riemann and Wilhelm Eduard Weber, who also happened to be one of the Göttingen Seven. This was followed by two short assignments at the Göttingen observatory and at Physikalischer Verein in Frankfurt (an association of citizens interested in physics and chemistry that was founded by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1824 and still exists today). On 8 August 1863 he qualified as a university lecturer at the University of Jena. In 1870, he accepted a contract as an associate professor of experimental physics, mechanics and mathematics in Jena. In 1871, he married Else Snell, daughter of the mathematician and physicist Karl Snell, one of Abbe's teachers, with whom he had two daughters. He attained full professor status by 1879. He became director of the Jena astronomical and meteorological observatory in 1878. In 1889, he became a member of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences and Humanities. He also was a member of the Saxon Academy of Sciences. He was relieved of his teaching duties at the University of Jena in 1891. Abbe died 14 January 1905 in Jena. He was an atheist.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=524981
| 1,079,030 |
1,856,682 |
From 1992 to 1993 Insoll completed his PhD on trans-Saharan trade and Islamisation in the city of Gao and its surrounding region in eastern Mali, research that was continued in 1996 as part of a post-doctoral fellowship. This was instrumental in providing archaeological confirmation for the pre-Islamic occupation of the city and contributing to the dismantling of the ‘Arab stimulus’ hypothesis where indicators of complexity were thought to be externally derived. Instead, long-distance trans-Saharan trade networks were found to have been added onto earlier regional ones. Islam was adopted within an indigenous context and due to an Islamisation process staggered over several centuries. The discovery of a cache of approximately 70 hippopotamus tusks suggested elephant ivory was not the sole source of ivory used in the medieval Islamic world. Source analysis (LA-ICP-MS) of gold indicated that coins being minted by the Almoravid dynasty in North Africa were struck from the same West African gold. Subsequent similar source analysis of carnelian beads, the first in-depth study to be completed on this material using Laser Ablation Inductively coupled Mass Spectrometry, indicated that some were probably of Indian origin, and others of West African provenance. An extensive survey of carnelian sources was completed in Gujarat (2000) in partnership with Prof. Kuldeep Bhan of MS University, Vadodara, to facilitate this analysis. The results of the Gao research were published in two monographs, many other publications, and presented in an exhibition, "Medieval Trading Cities of the Niger: Gao and Timbuktu", in the John Addis Gallery at the British Museum (1998–1999), and subsequently formed part of the permanent display in the Musée Nationale, Bamako, Mali.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38891541
| 1,855,614 |
1,516,818 |
Mayly Sánchez (born in Caracas, 1972) Venezuelan-born particle physicist who researches at Iowa State University. In 2011, she was awarded the Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), the highest honor given by the United States to beginning scientists, who are in the early stages of their research careers. In 2013, she was named by the BBC as one of the top ten women scientists in Latin America. At Universidad de Los Andes, ULA in Mérida completed an undergraduate degree in physics in 1995, and won a scholarship for postgraduate work at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics in Trieste, Italy. Earning her diploma in high energy physics in 1996, she was accepted into a doctoral program at Tufts University outside of Boston, Massachusetts and completed her PhD in 2003. After graduation, Sánchez worked as postdoctoral researcher at Harvard University. In 2007 she was hired as assistant physicist at the US Energy Department's Argonne National Laboratory. In 2009 she joined the faculty of Iowa State University, where she is now an associate professor of physics and astronomy and Cassling Family Professor. Her research is part of the Long Baseline Neutrino Experiment (DUNE), which is planned to send an intense beam of neutrinos from the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Batavia, Illinois to a detector located at the Homestake Mine in South Dakota. The experiment is designed to help scientists understand how the universe formed and why neutrinos change form, especially when they pass through rock. Sánchez is also working on the Main Injector Neutrino Oscillation Search and NOνA experiments designed to study neutrino oscillations sent from Fermilab detectors in northern Minnesota, and she is a spokesperson of the Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment (ANNIE) at Fermilab. In 2012, the White House announced that Sánchez was one of the 2011 PECASE Award winners, which is the highest award granted by the United States to young scientists beginning their careers. In 2013, she was named by the BBC as one of the top ten women scientists in Latin America.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481
| 1,515,966 |
1,270,608 |
While at Cambridge University, Hua worked on applying the Hardy–Littlewood circle method towards problems in number theory. He produced seminal work on Waring's problem, which would establish his reputation within the international math community. In 1938, after the full outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War, Hua chose to return to China to Tsinghua, where he was appointed full professor despite not having any degree. At the time, with vast areas of China under Japanese occupation, Tsinghua University, Peking University, and Nankai University had merged into the Southwest Associated University in Kunming, capital of the southern province Yunnan. In spite of the hardships of poverty, enemy bombings, and relative academic isolation from the rest of the world, Hua continued to produce first-rate mathematics. During his eight years there, Hua studied Vinogradov's seminal method of estimating trigonometric sums and reformulated it in sharper form, in what is now known universally as Vinogradov's mean value theorem. This famous result is central to improved versions of the Hilbert–Waring theorem, and has important applications to the study of the Riemann zeta function. Hua wrote up this work in a booklet titled "Additive Theory of Prime Numbers" that was accepted for publication in Russia as early as 1940, but owing to the war, did not appear in expanded form until 1947 as a monograph of the Steklov Institute. In the closing years of the Kunming period, Hua turned his interests to algebra and analysis towards which he soon began to make original contributions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2337582
| 1,269,917 |
1,217,707 |
A process for inducing regeneration in skin was invented by Dr. Ioannis V. Yannas (then an assistant professor in the Fibers and Polymers Division, Department of Mechanical Engineering, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and Dr. John F. Burke (then chief of staff at Shriners Burns Institute in Boston, Massachusetts). Their initial objective was to discover a wound cover that would protect severe skin wounds from infection by accelerating wound closure. Several kinds of grafts made of synthetic and natural polymers were prepared and tested in a guinea pig animal model. By the late 1970s it was evident that the original objective was not reached. Instead, these experimental grafts typically did not affect the speed of wound closure. In one case, however, a particular type of collagen graft led to significant delay of wound closure. Careful study of histology samples revealed that grafts that delayed wound closure induced the synthesis of new dermis de novo at the injury site, instead of forming scar, which is the normal outcome of the spontaneous wound healing response. This was the first demonstration of regeneration of a tissue (dermis) that does not regenerate by itself in the adult mammal. After the initial discovery, further research led to the composition and fabrication of grafts that were evaluated in clinical trials. These grafts were synthesized as a graft copolymer of microfibrillar type I collagen and a glycosaminoglycan, chondroitin-6-sulfate, fabricated into porous sheets by freeze-drying, and then cross-linked by dehydrothermal treatment. Control of the structural features of the collagen scaffold (average pore size, degradation rate and surface chemistry) was eventually found to be a critical prerequisite for its unusual biological activity. In 1981 Burke and Yannas proved that their artificial skin worked on patients with 50 to 90 percent burns, vastly improving the chances of recovery and improved quality of life. John F. Burke also claimed, in 1981, "[The Artificial skin] is soft and pliable, not stiff and hard, unlike other substances used to cover burned-off skin."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20987851
| 1,217,054 |
702,175 |
1989 also saw the release of "Dungeon Explorer", developed by Atlus for the TurboGrafx-16, which is considered a pioneer title in the action RPG genre with its multiplayer cooperative gameplay, allowing up to five players to play simultaneously. That year also saw the release of "Super Hydlide", the Mega Drive port of the 1987 MSX action RPG "", which adopted the morality meter of its 1985 predecessor "" where the player's alignment changes depending on whether the player kills humans, good monsters, or evil monsters, and expanded its predecessor's time option, which speeds up or slows down the gameplay, with the introduction of an in-game clock setting day-night cycles and a need to sleep and eat. It also made other improvements such as cut scenes for the opening and ending, a combat system closer to "The Legend of Zelda", the choice between distinct character classes, and a weight system affecting the player's movement depending on the weight of carried equipment. "The Final Fantasy Legend", the first in the "SaGa" series, adopted "Final Fantasy II's" activity-based progression, expanding it with weapons that shatter with repeated use, and added new ideas such as a race of monsters that mutate depending on which fallen foes they consume. The game also introduced the concept of memento mori, with a theme revolving around death, while the plot consisted of loosely connected stories and sidequests rather than an epic narrative. That same year, "River City Ransom" featured elements of both the beat 'em up and action RPG genres, combining brawler combat with many RPG elements, including an inventory, buying and selling items, learning new abilities and skills, needing to listen for clues, searching to find all the bosses, shopping in the malls, buying items to heal, and increasing stats. It was also an early sandbox brawler reminiscent of "Grand Theft Auto".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32408675
| 701,810 |
270,964 |
Whereas the Würzburgers debated with Wundt mainly on matters of method, another German movement, centered in Berlin, took issue with the widespread assumption that the aim of psychology should be to break consciousness down into putative basic elements. Instead, they argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the "parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than vice versa. Thus, the school was named "Gestalt", a German term meaning approximately "form" or "configuration". It was led by Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967), and Kurt Koffka (1886–1941). Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher, Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932), who claimed that in addition to the sensory elements of a perceived object, there is an extra element which, though in some sense derived from the organization of the standard sensory elements, is also to be regarded as being an element in its own right. He called this extra element "Gestalt-qualität" or "form-quality". For instance, when one hears a melody, one hears the notes plus something in addition to them which binds them together into a tune – the "Gestalt-qualität". It is the presence of this "Gestalt-qualität" which, according to Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, but still retain its identity. Wertheimer took the more radical line that "what is given me by the melody does not arise ... as a secondary process from the sum of the pieces as such. Instead, what takes place in each single part already depends upon what the whole is", (1925/1938). In other words, one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly in vision, one sees the form of the circle first – it is given "im-mediately" (i.e. its apprehension is not mediated by a process of part-summation). Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1573230
| 270,816 |
1,561,322 |
In the early 1980s, a minimal hardware BOS setup might have comprised: North Star Horizon Z80 cpu 48Kbyte ram & 2x 5.25" SA-400 single-density double-sided minifloppy drive (each side used 35/40 tracks to give 176 Kb formatted, ie. BOS used the North Star NSDOS file system), Lynx 24x80 green vdu, DEC LA120 lineprinter/typewriter. Frequent diskette swapping was required during a program run, a good programmer/operator could minimise these essential changes by detailed logical planning. Not every business could quickly afford the newly available hard drives and many company managers were just reluctant to spend more and more upon what they already thought was expensive enough in the first place. Getting an accounts system up and running often involved countless hours poring over thousands of pages of illegible and inaccurate hand-written accounts in traditional ledger books. This is where the journal entry features came in really useful in order to bypass having to enter thousands of useless historical records, it was possible to reach an agreement with the accountants as to what figures should be given an initial fudge factor in order to artificially balance the software ledgers prior to going live with the new accounts system. The software was flexible enough to allow internal adjustments to data. The genius of CAP, or CAP-CPP as it was more correctly called, was to anticipate these technical problems and the initial reservations of a suspicious middle-management, and this was essentially the success of BOS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=238394
| 1,560,436 |
1,531,525 |
Drs. Carlton, Johannigman, and Farmer traveled to AMC at Scott AFB and presented their concept of operations. They also presented the concept to the Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC). Ultimately, JSOC established a Unit Type Code (UTC) for CCATT, and the first deployment followed thereafter. Joined by then Lt. Col. Steve Derdak, Maj. Bill Beninati, Maj Tom Grissom, Maj. Mike Wall, Lt. Col. Rick Hersack, and many other key individuals the program developed during Joint Task Force (JTF) deployments in Cuba/Haiti, Eastern Europe, and Africa. In the late 1990’s the graduate medical programs at Wilford Hall USAF Medical Center (59th Medical Wing) began to incorporate cardiovascular and critical care fellows into the CCAT teams. Dr. Jonathan Sheinberg and Dr. Walter Rustmann were the first fellows to participate in the CCAT team rotation. In addition to these several deployments from 1994–1996, there were numerous field exercises with various Air Evac units in CONUS and OCONUS as the UTC was further refined. CCATT teams were also deployed for civil disaster ICU medical support, including a 747 KAL crash in Guam, and a 707 cargo plane crash in Ecuador. The program fully realized its worth during the second Gulf War, when ICU casualty transport became a vital necessity. These ICU transport capabilities allowed trauma surgeons to perform far forward damage control surgery, knowing that these patients could be quickly transported rearward. Combined with other advances in field medical care, what resulted is the lowest died of wounds rate measured in modern times (testimony House Armed Services Committee, 2005, Lt.Gen. George "Peach" Taylor).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8563218
| 1,530,659 |
324,316 |
At the turn of the 20th century, Marconi began investigating a means to signal across the Atlantic to compete with the transatlantic telegraph cables. Marconi established a wireless transmitting station at Marconi House, Rosslare Strand, County Wexford, in 1901 to act as a link between Poldhu in Cornwall, England, and Clifden in Connemara, County Galway, Ireland. He soon made the announcement that the message was received at Signal Hill in St. John's, Newfoundland (now part of Canada), on 12 December 1901, using a kite-supported antenna for reception—signals transmitted by the company's new high-power station at Poldhu, Cornwall. The distance between the two points was about . It was heralded as a great scientific advance, yet there also was—and continues to be—considerable scepticism about this claim. The exact wavelength used is not known, but it is fairly reliably determined to have been in the neighbourhood of 350 meters (frequency ≈ 850 kHz). The tests took place at a time of day during which the entire transatlantic path was in daylight. It is now known (although Marconi did not know then) that this was the worst possible choice. At this medium wavelength, long-distance transmission in the daytime is not possible because of heavy absorption of the skywave in the ionosphere. It was not a blind test; Marconi knew in advance to listen for a repetitive signal of three clicks, signifying the Morse code letter "S". The clicks were reported to have been heard faintly and sporadically. There was no independent confirmation of the reported reception, and the transmissions were difficult to distinguish from atmospheric noise. A detailed technical review of Marconi's early transatlantic work appears in John S. Belrose's work of 1995. The Poldhu transmitter was a two-stage circuit.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12104
| 324,144 |
2,072,328 |
In the history of applied mathematics, McMahon's most significant contribution came late in life and was published posthumously. In 1902, McMahon had delivered an address to the Section on Mathematics and Astronomy, American Association for the Advancement of Science, then assembled at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, entitled “Some Recent Applications of the Function Theory to Physical Problems”. His work in the field of geometry had taken an “applied” direction, seeking those instances were the abstract theories of his discipline could be applied to the daily problems addressed by scientists and engineers. As theoretical statistics developed into a modern discipline, its practitioners were using geometrical representation in their presentations. The cross pollination of statistics with geometry led to increased interest in geometric theory. Professor Karl Pearson proposed that a specialist in geometry work out the trigonometry of higher-dimensioned plane space for all the relations between multiple correlation and partial correlation coefficients when variates are properties of the angles, edges and perpendiculars of sphero-polyhedron multiple space. A pure mathematician was needed to write, in effect, a treatise on “Spherical Polyhedrometry.” McMahon took up Pearson's charge as he was entering emeritus status. The Carnegie Institute had granted him a retirement annuity allowing him to step down as Chair of Cornell's Mathematics Department and spend his final years focused on new developments in the field. Renting a cottage in Key West, Florida, Professor McMahon and spouse Katherine Crane McMahon spent the Ithaca winter down in the Caribbean, while the professor worked on the new “Spherical Polyhedrometry”. The results were published the year after McMahon's death as the paper "Hyperspherical Geometry; and its Application to Correlation Theory for N Variables".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28079663
| 2,071,137 |
1,227,614 |
SEDs are very closely related to the field emission display (FED), differing only in the details of the emitter. FEDs use small spots containing hundreds of carbon nanotubes whose sharp tips give off electrons when placed in a strong electrical field. FEDs suffer from erosion of the emitters and require an extremely high vacuum to operate. For this reason, industry observers generally state that the SED is a more practical design. FEDs have one advantage the SED does not offer; since each sub-pixel has hundreds of emitters, "dead" emitters can be corrected by applying slightly more power to the working ones. In theory, this could increase yields because the chance of a pixel being completely dead is very low, and the chance that a screen has many dead pixels is greatly reduced. Sony has demonstrated a 26" FED drawing only 12 W showing a bright scene, SEDs should be even lower powered. Throughout the flat-screen introduction, several other technologies had been vying with LCDs and PDPs for market acceptance. Among these were the SED, the FED, and the organic light-emitting diode system that uses printable LEDs. All of these shared the advantages of low power use, excellent contrast ratio and color gamut, fast response times and wide viewable angles. All of them also shared the problem of scaling up manufacturing to produce large screens. Example systems of limited size, generally 13", have been shown for several years and are available for limited sales, but wide-scale production has not started on any of these alternatives.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1530649
| 1,226,953 |
167,843 |
After winning the Deutsch Prize, Santos-Dumont received letters from several countries, congratulating him; magazines published lavish, richly illustrated editions to reproduce his image and perpetuate the achievement; an Alexander Graham Bell interview in the "New York Herald" explored the reasons for Santos-Dumont's success, envy of other inventors, and the experiments that preceded him; tributes were paid in France, Brazil, England, where the English Aero Club offered a banquet, and several other countries. The president of Brazil, Campos Sales sent him prize money of 100 million réis following the proposal of Augusto Severo, as well as a gold medal with his effigy and an allusion to Camões: "Through skies never sailed before"; The Brazilian people were apathetic, and in January 1902, Albert I, Prince of Monaco invited him to continue his experiments in the Principality. He offered him a new hangar on the beach at La Condamine, and everything else Albert thought necessary for his comfort and safety, which was accepted; his success also inspired the creation of several biographies and influenced fictional characters, such as Tom Swift; That April, Santos-Dumont travelled to the United States, where he visited Thomas Edison's laboratories in New York. They discussed patents. The American asked Santos-Dumont to create the Aero Club of the US; when justifying not charging for demonstration flights in St Louis, Santos-Dumont said: "I am an amateur". After the meeting with Edison, Santos-Dumont told the American press that he did not intend to patent his aircraft. He was received at the White House in Washington, DC, by President Theodore Roosevelt and talked to U.S. Navy and Army officials about the possibility of using airships as a defence tool against submarines. In July 1902, after the creation of the Aeroclub of the US, Santos-Dumont announced a series of flights in American territory. These did not take place, confusing the media and American public opinion. He left New York in late 1902, without having made any flights, and the American public did not consider his inventions to be practical.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=152687
| 167,753 |
78,108 |
Taleb said:I don't particularly care about the usual. If you want to get an idea of a friend's temperament, ethics, and personal elegance, you need to look at him under the tests of severe circumstances, not under the regular rosy glow of daily life. Can you assess the danger a criminal poses by examining only what he does on an "ordinary" day? Can we understand health without considering wild diseases and epidemics? Indeed the normal is often irrelevant. Almost everything in social life is produced by rare but consequential shocks and jumps; all the while almost everything studied about social life focuses on the 'normal,' particularly with 'bell curve' methods of inference that tell you close to nothing. Why? Because the bell curve ignores large deviations, cannot handle them, yet makes us confident that we have tamed uncertainty. Its nickname in this book is GIF, Great Intellectual Fraud.More generally, decision theory, which is based on a fixed universe or a model of possible outcomes, ignores and minimizes the effect of events that are "outside the model". For instance, a simple model of daily stock market returns may include extreme moves such as Black Monday (1987), but might not model the breakdown of markets following the September 11, 2001 attacks. Consequently, the New York Stock Exchange and Nasdaq exchange remained closed till September 17, 2001, the most protracted shutdown since the Great Depression. A fixed model considers the "known unknowns", but ignores the "unknown unknowns", made famous by a statement of Donald Rumsfeld. The term "unknown unknowns" appeared in a 1982 "New Yorker" article on the aerospace industry, which cites the example of metal fatigue, the cause of crashes in Comet airliners in the 1950s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7361848
| 78,079 |
337,515 |
Biofilms may be highly heterogeneous and structurally complex and may attach to solid surfaces, or exist at liquid-air interfaces, or potentially even liquid-liquid interfaces. Bacterial biofilms are often made up of microcolonies (approximately dome-shaped masses of bacteria and matrix) separated by "voids" through which the medium (e.g., water) may flow easily. The microcolonies may join together above the substratum to form a continuous layer, closing the network of channels separating microcolonies. This structural complexity—combined with observations that oxygen limitation (a ubiquitous challenge for anything growing in size beyond the scale of diffusion) is at least partially eased by movement of medium throughout the biofilm—has led some to speculate that this may constitute a circulatory system and many researchers have started calling prokaryotic communities multicellular (for example ). Differential cell expression, collective behavior, signaling, programmed cell death, and (in some cases) discrete biological dispersal events all seem to point in this direction. However, these colonies are seldom if ever founded by a single founder (in the way that animals and plants are founded by single cells), which presents a number of theoretical issues. Most explanations of co-operation and the evolution of multicellularity have focused on high relatedness between members of a group (or colony, or whole organism). If a copy of a gene is present in all members of a group, behaviors that promote cooperation between members may permit those members to have (on average) greater fitness than a similar group of selfish individuals (see inclusive fitness and Hamilton's rule).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19172225
| 337,336 |
1,431,001 |
There are, however, physical limits to the image quality of a fibroscope. In modern terminology, a bundle of say 50,000 fibres gives effectively only a 50,000 pixel image – in addition to which, the continued flexing in use, breaks fibres and so progressively loses pixels. Eventually so many are lost that the whole bundle must be replaced (at considerable expense). Hopkins realised that any further optical improvement would require a different approach. Previous rigid endoscopes suffered from very low light transmittance and extremely poor image quality. The surgical requirement of passing surgical tools as well as the illumination system actually within the endoscope's tube – which itself is limited in dimensions by the human body – left very little room for the imaging optics. The tiny lenses of a conventional system required supporting rings that would obscure the bulk of the lens' area. They were also incredibly hard to manufacture and assemble – and optically nearly useless. The elegant solution that Hopkins devised (in the 1960s) was to use glass rods to fill the air-spaces between the 'little lenses', which could then be dispensed with altogether. These rods fitted exactly the endoscope's tube – making them self-aligning and requiring of no other support. They were much easier to handle and utilised the maximum possible diameter available. As with the fibroscopes, a bundle of glass-fibers would relay the illumination from a powerful external source. With the appropriate curvature and coatings to the rod ends and optimal choices of glass-types, all calculated and specified by Hopkins, the image quality was transformed – light levels were increased by as much as eightyfold with no heat; resolution of fine detail was finally achieved; colours were now true; and diameters as small as a few millimetres were possible. With a high quality 'telescope' of such small diameter, the tools and illumination system could be comfortably housed within an outer tube.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18770211
| 1,430,197 |
1,399,688 |
The general approach to how space travel is engineered is highly accurate; in particular, the design of the ships was based on actual engineering considerations rather than attempts to look aesthetically "futuristic". Many other science-fiction films give spacecraft an aerodynamic shape, which is superfluous in outer space (except for craft such as the Pan Am shuttle that are designed to function both in atmosphere and in space). Kubrick's science advisor, Frederick Ordway, notes that in designing the spacecraft "We insisted on knowing the purpose and functioning of each assembly and component, down to the logical labeling of individual buttons and the presentation on screens of plausible operating, diagnostic and other data." Onboard equipment and panels on various spacecraft have specific purposes such as alarm, communications, condition display, docking, diagnostic, and navigation, the designs of which relied heavily on NASA's input. Aerospace specialists were also consulted on the design of the spacesuits and space helmets. The space dock at Moon base Clavius shows multiple underground layers which could sustain high levels of air pressure typical of Earth. The lunar craft design takes into account the lower gravity and lighting conditions on the Moon. The Jupiter-bound "Discovery" is meant to be powered by a nuclear reactor at its rear, separated from the crew area at the front by hundreds of feet of fuel storage compartments. Although difficult to be recognized as such, actual nuclear reactor control panel displays appear in the astronaut's control area.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37415478
| 1,398,913 |
144,043 |
The acquisition of digital literacy is also important when it comes to starting and growing new ventures. The emergence of World Wide Web and digital platforms has led to a plethora of new digital products or services that can be bought and sold. Entrepreneurs are at the forefront of this development, using digital tools or infrastructure to deliver physical products, digital artifacts, or Internet-enabled service innovations. Research has shown that digital literacy for entrepreneurs consists of four levels (basic usage, application, development, and transformation) and three dimensions (cognitive, social, and technical). At the lowest level, entrepreneurs need to be able to use access devices as well as basic communication technologies to balance safety and information needs. As they move to higher levels of digital literacy, entrepreneurs will be able to master and manipulate more complex digital technologies and tools, enhancing the absorptive capacity and innovative capability of their venture. In a similar vein, if Small to Medium Enterprises(SME's) possess the ability to adapt to dynamic shifts in technology, then they can take advantage of trends, marketing campaigns as well as communication to consumers in order to generate more demand for their goods and services. Moreover, if entrepreneurs are digitally literate, then online platforms like social media can further help businesses receive feedback and generate community engagement that could potentially boost their business's performance as well as their brand image. A research paper published in The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business provides critical insight that suggests digital literacy has the greatest influence on the performance of SME entrepreneurs. The authors suggest their findings can help craft performance development strategies for said SME entrepreneurs and argue their research shows the essential contribution of digital literacy in developing business and marketing networks. Additionally, the study found digitally literate entrepreneurs are able to communicate and reach wider markets than non-digitally literate entrepreneurs because of the use web-management and e-commerce platforms supported by data analysis and coding. That said, constraints do exist for SME's to use e-commerce. Some of these constraints include lack of technical understanding of information technologies, high cost of internet access (especially for those in rural/underdeveloped areas), and other constraints.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5169750
| 143,985 |
1,516,764 |
Arnoldo Gabaldón (Trujillo, March 1, 1909 – Caracas, September 1, 1990) was a physician, researcher and politician. Graduated in 1928 earned a doctorate in medical sciences at the Universidad Central de Venezuela. In (Germany) completed a specialty at the Institute for Maritime and Tropical Diseases of Hamburg. Later traveling in 1935 to the United States as a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation to obtain a doctorate from Johns Hopkins University in hygiene sciences with speciality in protozoology. Back in Venezuela he was appointed to head the newly created Special Directorate of Malariology within the Ministry of Health and Welfare, a position he held until 1950. Under the direction of Gabaldón, Venezuela became the first country which organized a nationwide campaign against malaria by using DDT, which led to be the first to achieve eradication of the disease in a large area extension of the tropical zone. He also discovered new species of malarial parasites and devoted himself to studying the mosquito "Anopheles nuneztovari", action that catalyzed the recognition of educational needs and preparing managerial staff of the Ministry of Health, through the creation of the school that bears his name in Maracay, a deep and additional contribution. Between 1959 and 1964 President Rómulo Betancourt appointed him Minister of Health and Welfare and Gabaldón. He was the first professor of the Simón Bolívar Chair of Latin-American Studies at the University of Cambridge, England (1968–69) and directed post-doctoral studies at the Central University of Venezuela. Gabaldón wrote more than 200 papers published in national and international medical journals. Gabaldón was active as an expert of the World Health Organization (WHO) for malaria control in countries from 5 continents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481
| 1,515,912 |
975,933 |
In 1991, the species was provided legislated protection from bait fishing in South Carolina by calling on the management and regulation of the horseshoe crab fisheries, allowing only hand-collecting for biomedical applications and marine biological research. Without the need for LAL in biomedical use, the legal protection of the horseshoe crab is not guaranteed in the future, and they would again fall prey to overfishing and use as bait. In 1995, the nonprofit Ecological Research and Development Group (ERDG) was founded with the aim of preserving the four remaining species of horseshoe crab. Since its inception, the ERDG has made significant contributions to horseshoe crab conservation. ERDG founder Glenn Gauvry designed a mesh bag for whelk/conch traps, to prevent other species from removing the bait. This has led to a decrease in the amount of bait needed by approximately 50%. In the state of Virginia, these mesh bags are mandatory in whelk/conch fishery. The Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission in 2006 considered several conservation options, among them being a two-year ban on harvesting the animals, affecting both Delaware and New Jersey shores of Delaware Bay. In June 2007, Delaware Superior Court Judge Richard Stokes has allowed limited harvesting of 100,000 males. He ruled that while the crab population was seriously depleted by overharvesting through 1998, it has since stabilized, and that this limited take of males will not adversely affect either horseshoe crab or red knot populations. In opposition, Delaware environmental secretary John Hughes concluded that a decline in the red knot bird population was so significant that extreme measures were needed to ensure a supply of crab eggs when the birds arrived. Harvesting of the crabs was banned in New Jersey on March 25, 2008.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=372920
| 975,422 |
2,170,315 |
In 1990, Taylor's lab group published protocols for fungal PCR that were developed in Berkeley by a team including sabbatical visitor, Dr. Thomas J. White (who had directed the development of PCR - polymerase chain reaction - at CETUS corporation), postdoc Thomas D. Bruns and student Steven B. Lee. Their approach has been very influential in fungal evolution and ecology [ ]. Taylor and White continued their collaboration by focusing on the evolution of two human pathogenic fungi, "Coccidioides immitis" and "Histoplasma capsulatum". Taylor and colleagues also applied PCR to fungal phylogeny and fitting phylogeny to geologic time. As DNA sequencing costs dropped, they used population genetics to recognize fungal species and describe them, based solely on DNA variation. Their approach for phylogenetic recognition of fungal species has become the standard for mycology. Their work on species recognition led them to show that fungi have evolved reinforced barriers to mating, in this case the first evidence for female mate choice in a microbe. DNA sequence data were then used to detect recombination in fungi for which sex had never been observed, despite years of inquiry. The combination of nucleic acid phylogeny and detection of reproductive mode brought an end to the centuries-old practice of classifying fungi for which sex had been observed apart from those where the morphology of sex remained obscure. Taylor’s lab then turned to phylogenomics to find that human pathogenic fungi had evolved away from consuming plant cell walls toward consuming animal protein, suggesting that small mammals constitute a reservoir for some fungal diseases. Their next research featured the use of population genomics to identify genes under selection, followed by use of the gene’s function to form hypotheses for environmental features driving adaptation, and capped by testing the hypotheses by gene deletion - an approach they termed “reverse ecology”. Having characterized populations by genomics, they collaborated with Professors Louise Glass and Rachel Brem at UC Berkeley in genome wide association studies of fungal signaling. In the past decade, Taylor, in collaborations with Professor Tom Bruns and Dr. Peggy Lemaux of University of California, Berkeley, has used PCR identification of environmental samples to focus on fungal community ecology in indoor air, ectomycorrhizal forests, and the drought resistant crop plant, sorghum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=59876831
| 2,169,077 |
2,139,010 |
The first proof of concept test of an assembled Westinghouse-Aerojet rocket engine (NRX-A2) was conducted at Jackass Flats, Nevada on September 24, 1964, that provided six minutes of continuous operation. By April 23, 1965, the NRX-A3 provided sixteen minutes of operation and a three-minute restart and incorporated pulse cooling for the first time. In 1966 the NRX-A5/EST delivered two separate periods of full power totaling 30 minutes. On December, 1967 the NRX-A6 delivered sixty minutes of operation at full power and on June 11, 1969, the XE engine was started twenty times for a total of three hours and forty-eight minutes, eleven of which were at full power. By 1970, the proposed NERVA I concept vehicle that evolved out of this work was projected to be capable of delivering 1500 MW of power and 75,000 pounds of thrust. It also had a projected lifetime runtime of ten hours and could be started and stopped up to 60 times while delivering a specific impulse of 850 seconds. Its total weight was less than 15,000 pounds. Westinghouse and Aerojet were ready to begin construction of the first flight engines to be launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida beginning in 1973 when the program was canceled. The total amount spent on the project up to that time was $1.45 billion and more than 1,100 people were employed by the project. A NASA plan released in 1969 to land the first humans on Mars by 1981 using the NERVA engines was also quietly shelved at that time. Government funding for the NERVA program was ended in 1972 due to "lack of clear requirements for its capabilities." However, work on the project helped achieve major milestones in developing high-temperature/high-strength materials technology, which finds application in aerospace and a myriad of private-sector industries.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11907968
| 2,137,780 |
1,996,549 |
The first proof of concept test of an assembled Westinghouse-Aerojet rocket engine (NRX-A2) was conducted at Jackass Flats, Nevada on September 24, 1964 that provided six minutes of continuous operation. By April 23, 1965 the NRX-A3 provided sixteen minutes of operation and a three-minute restart and incorporated pulse cooling for the first time. In 1966 the NRX-A5/EST delivered two separate periods of full power totaling 30 minutes. On December, 1967 the NRX-A6 delivered sixty minutes of operation at full power and on June 11, 1969 the XE engine was started twenty times for a total of three hours and forty-eight minutes, eleven of which were at full power. By 1970, the proposed NERVA I concept vehicle that evolved out of this work was projected to be capable of delivering 1500 MW of power and 75,000 pounds of thrust. It also had a projected lifetime runtime of ten hours and could be started and stopped up to 60 times while delivering a specific impulse of 850 seconds. Its total weight was less than 15,000 pounds. Westinghouse and Aerojet were ready to begin construction of the first flight engines to be launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida beginning in 1973 when the program was canceled. The total amount spent on the project up to that time was $1.45 billion and more than 1,100 people were employed by the project. A NASA plan released in 1969 to land the first humans on Mars by 1981 using the NERVA engines was also quietly shelved at that time. Government funding for the NERVA program was ended in 1972 due to "lack of clear requirements for its capabilities." However, work on the project helped achieve major milestones in developing high-temperature/high-strength materials technology, which finds application in aerospace and a myriad of private-sector industries.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2936679
| 1,995,406 |
162,200 |
The UK's share of global manufacturing output had risen from 9.5% in 1830, to 22.9% in the 1870s. It fell to 13.6% by 1913, 10.7% by 1938, and 4.9% by 1973. Overseas competition, trade unionism, the welfare state, loss of the British Empire, and lack of innovation have all been put forward as explanations for the industrial decline. It reached a crisis point in the 1970s, with a worldwide energy crisis, high inflation, and a dramatic influx of low-cost manufactured goods from Asia. Coal mining quickly collapsed and practically disappeared by the 21st century. Railways were decrepit, more textile mills closed than opened, steel employment fell sharply, and the car-making industry suffered. The government decided in 1964 that underdeveloped or industrially obsolete areas with high unemployment would benefit from economic subsidy, and at least three aluminum smelters enjoyed subsidy "totaling some $144‐million and representing a 40 per cent investment grant for plant and machinery. The two largest smelters were fostered by the decision to authorize cheap bulk sales of electric power based on anticipated breakthroughs in nuclear power costs. High power costs in Britain previously militated against the electrolytic aluminum industry, which is an enormous power user... Another purpose of encouraging the development of domestic primary aluminum industry was to reduce imports. Previously, the only primary production in Britain was at British Aluminium's two small Scottish smelters, which had a total output of 39,000 tons" in 1970.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33643110
| 162,115 |
459,213 |
Economic theory is at present characterized by strong disagreements on which is the correct theory of value, distribution and growth. This also influences the attempts to find evolutionary explanations for modern tastes and preferences. For example an acceptance of the neoclassical theory of value and distribution lies behind the argument that humans have a poor intuitive grasp of the economics of the current environment which is very different from the ancestral environment. The argument is that ancestral environment likely had relatively little trade, division of labor, and capital goods. Technological change was very slow, wealth differences were much smaller, and possession of many available resources were likely zero-sum games where large inequalities were caused by various forms of exploitation. Humans, therefore, may have poor intuitive understanding of the benefits of free trade (causing calls for protectionism), the value of capital goods (making the labor theory of value appealing), and may intuitively undervalue the benefits of technological development. The same acceptance of the neoclassical thesis that demand for labour is a decreasing function of the real wage and that income differences reflect different marginal productivities of individual contributions (in labour or savings) lies behind the argument that persistence of pre-capitalist model of thinking may explain a tendency to see the number of available jobs as a zero-sum game with the total number of jobs being fixed which causes people to not realize that minimum wage laws reduce the number of jobs or to believe that an increased number of jobs in other nations necessarily decreases the number of jobs in their own nation, as well as a tendency to view large income inequality as due to exploitation rather than as due to individual differences in productivity. This, it is accordingly argued, may easily cause poor economic policies, especially since individual voters have few incentives to make the effort of studying societal economics instead of relying on their intuitions since an individual's vote counts for so little and since politicians may be reluctant to take a stand against intuitive views that are incorrect but widely held. Most non-neoclassical schools of thought would not judge calls for protectionism necessarily mistaken nor would agree that minimum wage laws reduce the number of jobs nor would reject the basic intuition imperfectly expressed by the labour theory of value and now more rigorously argued by modern Marxian-Sraffian theory (namely, that exploitation is present under capitalism too), and therefore would judge this specific evolutionary argument strictly to depend on a questionable theory of the working of market economies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162791
| 458,988 |
45,904 |
As of 2019, research continued in many fields. President Jenkins described his hope that Notre Dame would become "one of the pre-eminent research institutions in the world" in his inaugural address. The university has many multi-disciplinary research institutes, including the Medieval Institute, the Kellogg Institute for International Studies, the Kroc Institute for International Peace Studies, and the Center for Social Concerns. Recent research includes work on family conflict and child development, genome mapping, the increasing trade deficit of the United States with China, studies in fluid mechanics, computational science and engineering, supramolecular chemistry, and marketing trends on the Internet. , the university was home to the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Index, which ranks countries annually based on how vulnerable they are to climate change and how prepared they are to adapt. In the fiscal 2019, the university received the all-time high research funding of $180.6 million, an increase of $100 million from 2009 and a 27 percent increase from the previous year, with top funded and cutting-edge projects including vector-borne diseases, urbanism, environmental design, cancer, psychology, economics, philosophy of religion, particle physics, nanotechnology, and hypersonics. Notre Dame has a strong background in the humanities, with 65 National Endowment for the Humanities fellowships, more than any other university. Focus areas include anti-poverty economic strategy, the premier Medieval Institute, Latino studies, sacred music, Italian studies, Catholic studies, psychology, aging and stress, social good, and theology. In the sciences, research focuses and specialized centers include the Harper Cancer Research Institute, the Boler-Parseghian Center for Rare and Neglected Diseases, the Center for Nano Science and Technology, the Center for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, the Eck Institute for Global Health, the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics, the University of Notre Dame Environmental Research Center, Topology and Quantum Field Theory, the Nuclear Physics Research Group, and the Environmental Change Initiative.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=146269
| 45,886 |
162,134 |
To a great extent, Britain's economic difficulties were symptomatic of structural weaknesses that were beginning to manifest themselves by the 1870s. Economists have explained the relative slowdown in growth during the latter 19th century in terms of the Neoclassical growth model, in which the momentum from decades of growth was reaching an inevitable slow down. Endogenous growth theory suggests that this slowdown was attributable to national institutions and conditions, such as entrepreneurship, natural resources, and outward investment, rather than subject to a naturally occurring external model. It is not surprising then, that countries with markedly larger natural resources, and larger populations to draw from, should have overtaken the UK in terms of production by the end of the nineteenth century. Britain depended on imports to supplement her deficiencies of some natural resources, but the high cost of shipping made this impracticable when competing against the resource-rich giant, the United States. The result was clearly measured: the UK averaged 1.8% annual growth between 1873 and 1913, while the United States and Germany averaged 4.8% and 3.9% per annum respectively. Historians have criticized cultural and educational factors for contributing to a decline in the "entrepreneurial spirit" which had characterized the Industrial Revolution. The offspring of first and second-generation industrialists in the late 19th-century, raised in privilege and educated at aristocratically dominated public schools, showed little interest in adopting their father's occupations because of the stigma attached to working in manufacturing or "trade". Moreover, the curricula of the public schools and universities was overwhelmingly centered on the study of Classics, which left students ill-prepared to innovate in the manufacturing world. Many turned away from industry and entered the more "gentlemanly" financial sector, the law courts, or the civil service of the Empire.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33643110
| 162,049 |
1,038,688 |
In January 1959, an informal meeting was held involving individuals from both the Electronic Systems Laboratory and the Mechanical Engineering Department's Design Division. Formal meetings followed in April and May, which resulted in the "Computer-Aided Design Project". In December 1959, the Air Force issued a one-year contract to ESL for $223,000 to fund the project, including $20,800 earmarked for 104 hours of computer time at $200 per hour. This proved to be far too little for the ambitious program they had in mind In 1959 that was a lot of money. Newly graduated engineers were making perhaps $500 to $600 per month at the time. To augment the Air Force's commitment Ross replayed the success of the APT development model. The AED Cooperative Program which ultimately ran for a five-year period had outside corporate staff, deeply experienced design manpower on loan from companies . Some relocating to MIT for half a year to 14 or 18 months at a time. Ross later estimated this value at almost six million dollars in support of AED development work, systems research, compilers. AED was a machine independent software engineering job and an extension of ALGOL 60 the standard for the publication of algorithms by research computer scientists. Development started out in parallel on the IBM 709 and the TX-0 which later enabled projects to run at various sites. The engineering calculation and systems development system, AED, was released to the Public Domain in March 1965.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39469106
| 1,038,147 |
712,752 |
In studying humans, life history theory is used in many ways, including in biology, psychology, economics, anthropology, and other fields. For humans, life history strategies include all the usual factors—trade-offs, constraints, reproductive effort, etc.—but also includes a culture factor that allows them to solve problems through cultural means in addition to through adaptation. Humans also have unique traits that make them stand out from other organisms, such as a large brain, later maturity and age of first reproduction, a long lifespan, and a high level of reproduction, often supported by fathers and older (post-menopausal) relatives. There are a variety of possible explanations for these unique traits. For example, a long juvenile period may have been adapted to support a period of learning the skills needed for successful hunting and foraging. This period of learning may also explain the longer lifespan, as a longer amount of time over which to use those skills makes the period needed to acquire them worth it. Cooperative breeding and the grandmothering hypothesis have been proposed as the reasons that humans continue to live for many years after they are no longer capable of reproducing. The large brain allows for a greater learning capacity, and the ability to engage in new behaviors and create new things. The change in brain size may have been the result of a dietary shift—towards higher quality and difficult to obtain food sources—or may have been driven by the social requirements of group living, which promoted sharing and provisioning. Recent authors, such as Kaplan, argue that both aspects are probably important. Research has also indicated that humans may pursue different reproductive strategies.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3880495
| 712,380 |
1,646,942 |
Miller was born in [Van Wert, Ohio], into a family of artists. He spent most of his childhood sketching and painting to develop his artistic talent. At age 16 with the aid of a translator, he first visited the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation in South Dakota and began interviewing the remaining survivors of the Battle of Little Bighorn, most of whom were over 70 years old. Most of them had never before conveyed their stories to a white man. As the Indian warriors were a majority of the battle survivors, these assorted interviews proved very important to later historical study of Custer's fall. He went on to study art at the University of Michigan, New York University, and at the Grand Central School of Art under Harvey Dunn. He also worked privately with Winold Reiss, continuing his work on the Bighorn survivors with his family's blessing during the summer. In 1942, he went into service for the 14th Air Corps in China during World War II. By the time of his return to the United States, there were only 20 living survivors of the battle. Furthering his study of the Plains peoples, Miller learned 14 Indian languages, including sign languages, and was adopted into 16 separate Indian families. Eventually, he was given the name Chief Iron White Man by Black Elk, in honor of the Oglala Sioux medicine man who had been at Little Bighorn. He later served as a technical advisor for 25 "Western" films. A good friend of Korczak Ziolkowski, Miller organized the last reunion of the remaining 8 Bighorn survivors on June 3, 1948, at the dedication of the Crazy Horse Memorial. In 1971, he wrote an extensive article on the recollections of the Custer survivors for "American Heritage" magazine. In his later years, Miller and his wife, Jan, lived in Rancho Santa Fe, California, where he continued to paint and write until his death in 1992.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39118726
| 1,646,011 |
1,712,190 |
In August 2020, a working paper by the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) questioned major effects of many mitigation and suppression measures. The authors compared the development of casualties connected to SARS-CoV-2 until July 2020, in 25 US states and 23 countries that had counted more than 1.000 overall deaths each. From the date a state passed a threshold of 25 deaths, the statistical study observed a largely uniform development, independently from type and time frame of governmental interactions. Thus, the growth rate of casualties dropped to zero within 20–30 days, and the variability between regions was low, except at the beginning of the epidemics. The authors computed the effective reproduction number "R" with the aid of different models like the SIR model, and found it hovering around one everywhere after the first 30 days of the epidemic. Hence, they did not find evidence for an influence of lockdowns, travel restrictions or quarantines on virus transmission. For contradicting studies, they assume an omitted variable bias. Candidates for ignored effects could be voluntary social distancing, the structure of social interaction networks (some people contact more networks faster than others), and a natural tendency of an epidemics to spread quickly at first and slow down, which has been observed in former Influenza pandemics, but not yet completely understood. The reviewer Stephen C. Miller concludes “that human interaction does not conform to simple epidemiological models”.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65339945
| 1,711,225 |
1,706,368 |
In actuality, the term (in the present sense of a "larger view" of a subject than can be obtained by any single conventional action) pre-dates its use in Odum's work, being found for example in a book by Philip Bagby entitled "Culture and History: Prolegomena to the Comparative Study of Civilizations" published in 1959, who wrote, "[Someone should] invent a 'macroscope', an instrument which would ensure that the historian see only the larger aspects of history and blind him to the individual details", and also by W.H. Hargreaves and K.H. Blacker, who wrote in 1966 in the journal "Psychiatric Services": "The advent of the electronic digital computer is causing a revolution in the behavioral sciences comparable to the impact the microscope had on biology. Like the microscope, the computer provides a view that is beyond the capability of the naked eye. The computer is being used as a "macroscope," which enables us to perceive relationships based on larger patterns of information than we are otherwise able to integrate." Slightly earlier still, in the area of geography, in a 1957 article entitled "Geographer's Quest" for the "Centennial Review of Arts & Science", Lawrence M. Sommers and Clarence L. Vinge wrote: "What do we see? What are the inter-relationships that exist among the observed features? The near-views can, by means of mapping, be resolved with over-the-horizon views, and the map becomes a "macroscope" to help us understand the spatial organization of the Earth's phenomena.", while in a 1951 United States Department of Agriculture Appropriation Bill, discussing a recently passed Forestry Management Act, Perry H. Merrill, State Forestor of Vermont, is reported as saying: "Through [this Act] I feel that we have made a great headway ... instead of looking through a microscope, maybe we can look through a "macroscope", if you want to call it such."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64208794
| 1,705,410 |
2,099,305 |
Christopher Jones is an American vintage race car driver, innovator and venture investor with a strong interest and PhD in health economics, particularly as it applies to improving outcomes and reducing healthcare costs. In the early 2000s, he presented a report, first to then-British Chancellor Gordon Brown and then in the House of Commons, that led to policy changes to the maximum allowable number of transferred embryos during the course of a woman's in vitro fertilisation treatment. "The Times" in London reported that Jones' report induced immediate action by the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority but divided fertility doctors: half viewed this as a good policy from a public health vantage point, the other half viewed the move as over-regulation in personal affairs. Regardless, Jones showed in a co-authored letter that was published in the New England Journal of Medicine that twins are six-times more likely to occur following in vitro fertilisation, compared with natural conceptions, even when only one embryo was implanted. This led to cost-reductions to the National Health Services of GBP 60 million per year that would otherwise have been spent on ineffective treatments or neonatal intensive care due to excessive numbers of multiple births. He was appointed director of bilateral collaborations at the Center for Study of Multiple Birth, a non-profit devoted entirely to research into the health of multiples. Although few had heard of such a trend in 2003, Jones predicted and found that medical tourism and more particularly reproductive tourism away from the United Kingdom, along with an epidemic of multiple births, would be the likely results of fertility regulation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18987437
| 2,098,097 |
69,949 |
When the L85A1 and L86A1 were first sent into major combat during the Gulf War, individual performance was appalling. The L85A1 proved unreliable in semi-automatic mode, and slightly better in fully automatic mode, while the opposite was true of the L86A1. Specific complaints included: the poor quality plastic furniture fell apart and the gun was damaged easily; the magazine release catch was easily knocked accidentally and dropped the magazine; the catch on the top cover over the gas mechanism was too weak and constantly popped open, so it had to be taped down; only 26–28 rounds could be loaded in a magazine because the springs were weak (something that was also mentioned in training manuals, at least with regard to earlier Colt-produced magazines), and it also had to be kept very clean and the lips checked for dents. The magazine was made from aluminium and would deform if grasped too tightly. During firing this could choke the flow of rounds and result in a jam; the LSW had a small magazine capacity for its role and overheated after 120–150 rounds fired in bursts; the weapons were difficult to strip and reassemble, with the gas plug easily jamming in place and requiring an armorer to remove; the firing pin was too narrow and would snap; the back of the trigger surface was flat which with snow or dirt accumulating behind it would prevent the trigger from pulling back all the way and firing the gun; and ergonomic issues related to the safety catch, cocking lever, and the location and stiffness of the fire selector switch. During Operation Palliser and other intervention operations in Sierra Leone, it was discovered that the version of the safety plunger used for production weapons was made from cheap injection-moulded plastic that swelled when wet, potentially rendering weapons inoperative if they had been left on 'safe'. The SA80 initially gained a poor reputation amongst British soldiers as being unreliable and fragile, a fact picked up by the UK media, entertainment industry, and members of the House of Lords. Special Air Service sergeant Chris Ryan regarded the SA80s as being "poor-quality, unreliable weapons at the best of times, prone to stoppages, and it seemed pretty tough to have to rely on them".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=84350
| 69,922 |
1,213,038 |
Building science includes the analysis of HVAC systems for both physical impacts (heat distribution, air velocities, relative humidities, etc.) and for effect on the comfort of the building's occupants. Because occupants' perceived comfort is dependent on factors such as current weather and the type of climate the building is located in, the needs for HVAC systems to provide comfortable conditions will vary across projects. In addition, various HVAC control strategies have been implemented and studied to better contribute to occupants' comfort. In the U.S., ASHRAE has published standards to help building managers and engineers design and operate the system. In the UK, a similar guideline was published by CIBSE. Apart from industry practice, advanced control strategies are widely discussed in research as well. For example, closed-loop feedback control can compare air temperature set-point with sensor measurements; demand response control can help prevent electric power-grid from having peak load by reducing or shifting their usage based on time-varying rate. With the improvement from computational performance and machine learning algorithms, model prediction on cooling and heating load with optimal control can further improve occupants comfort by pre-operating the HVAC system. It is recognized that advanced control strategies implementation is under the scope of developing Building Automation System (BMS) with integrated smart communication technologies, such as Internet of Things (IoT). However, one of the major obstacles identified by practitioners is the scalability of control logics and building data mapping due to the unique nature of building designs. It was estimated that due to inadequate interoperability, building industry loses $15.8 billion annually in the U.S. Recent research projects like Haystack and Brick intend to address the problem by utilizing metadata schema, which could provide more accurate and convenient ways of capturing data points and connection hierarchies in building mechanical systems. With the support of semantic models, automated configuration can further benefit HVAC control commissioning and software upgrades.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3482223
| 1,212,386 |
574,085 |
From a very early age, Woodward was attracted to and engaged in private study of chemistry while he attended a public primary school, and then Quincy High School, in Quincy, Massachusetts. By the time he entered high school, he had already managed to perform most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's then widely used textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward contacted the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston (Baron von Tippelskirch ), and through him, managed to obtain copies of a few original papers published in German journals. Later, in his Cope lecture, he recalled how he had been fascinated when, among these papers, he chanced upon Diels and Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction. Throughout his career, Woodward was to repeatedly and powerfully use and investigate this reaction, both in theoretical and experimental ways. In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but neglected his formal studies badly enough to be excluded at the end of the 1934 fall term. MIT readmitted him in the 1935 fall term, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate, when his classmates were still graduating with their bachelor's degrees. Woodward's doctoral work involved investigations related to the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone. MIT required that graduate students have research advisors. Woodward's advisors were James Flack Norris and Avery Adrian Morton, although it is not clear whether he actually took any of their advice. After a short postdoctoral stint at the University of Illinois, he took a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and remained at Harvard in various capacities for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a title that freed him from teaching formal courses so that he could devote his entire time to research.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=261625
| 573,791 |
710,616 |
Clinical studies of very high dosages of MGA for breast cancer conducted in the 1980s observed markedly increased appetite and weight gain in treated patients despite them having advanced cancer. This led to potential interest in MGA as an appetite stimulant, and in 1986, a paper was published proposing the study and potential use of MGA in cachexia. MGA was subsequently studied for this indication and, following completion of phase III clinical trials, was approved as an oral suspension for the treatment of anorexia–cachexia syndrome due to cancer and other chronic conditions such as HIV/AIDS in the United States in 1993. Thereafter, the branded product, Megace ES, has been heavily promoted by its maker, Par Pharmaceutical, for treatment of unintentional weight loss in elderly patients, especially those living in long-term care facilities. In March 2013, Par settled a $45 million federal and multi-state criminal and civil lawsuit in which the company was accused of promoting the branded version of MGA, over the generic version, for use in treating non-AIDS-related geriatric wasting. This use was not approved as safe and effective by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and not covered by federal health care programs. The lawsuit claimed that Par marketed the product as effective for this use, despite having conducted no well-controlled studies to support a claim of greater efficacy for Megace ES, and prior knowledge of the severe adverse side effects for geriatric patients, including deep vein thrombosis, toxic reactions with impaired renal function, and mortality.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6657950
| 710,245 |
1,792,941 |
A 2010 study of the various American states' rural health offices found that telepharmacy in rural medical facilities varied in prevalence across the United States but was still not widespread, and that many states had not yet clearly defined regulations for telepharmacy in hospitals. Adoption and implementation of telepharmacy methods has been slow compared to the spread of the basic technologies involved (internet access, audio/video compression algorithms, microphones and video cameras), despite periodic predictions of a forthcoming boom in the industry. Aside from more intangible factors (such as physicians' and pharmacists' personal uneasiness with the lack of physical interaction with patients), the major obstacles to telepharmacy implementation appear to have been the lack of clear legal regulations for telepharmacy, and the lack of network and software systems to manage (and secure) all of the data used in a professional pharmacy. As of 2010, many of the telepharmacy facilities in active operation were operating as pilot programs or under temporary waivers issued by state regulators because many states still had no clear legal framework for the regulation of remote pharmaceutical sites without pharmacists. Even in states that had regulated retail telepharmacy practices, regulations were often not in place to permit the implementation of telepharmacy in hospital settings. For some pharmacy facilities that might otherwise consider telepharmacy, the cost and complexity of the infrastructure needed to manage patient data across multiple sites can be prohibitive. In addition to the computer hardware required for patient data storage, distribution and teleconferencing, telepharmacy programs must deploy network security tools and procedures adequate to protect patient medical information in compliance with HIPAA and other patient privacy regulations. In 2010 the North Dakota Telepharmacy Project estimated that the computer hardware needed for a typical retail installation costs US$17,300 per site, with an additional cost of US$5,000 to buy a mobile cart for a hospital installation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40076768
| 1,791,932 |
2,613 |
Dem/Val was focused on system engineering, technology development plans, and risk reduction over point aircraft designs; in fact, after the down-select, the Lockheed team completely changed the airframe configuration in the summer of 1987 due to weight analysis during detailed design, with notable changes including the wing planform from swept trapezoidal to diamond-like and a reduction in forebody planform area. Contractors made extensive use of analytical and empirical methods, including computational fluid dynamics, wind-tunnel testing, and radar cross-section (RCS) calculations and pole testing; the Lockheed team would conduct nearly 18,000 hours of wind-tunnel testing. Avionics development was marked by extensive testing and prototyping and supported by ground and flying laboratories. During Dem/Val, the SPO used the results of performance and cost trade studies conducted by contractor teams to adjust ATF requirements and delete ones that were significant weight and cost drivers while having marginal value. The short takeoff and landing (STOL) requirement was relaxed to delete thrust-reversers, saving substantial weight. As avionics was a major cost driver, side-looking radars were deleted, and the dedicated infra-red search and track (IRST) system was downgraded from multi-color to single color and then deleted as well. However, space and cooling provisions were retained to allow for the later addition of these components. The ejection seat requirement was downgraded from a fresh design to the existing McDonnell Douglas ACES II. Despite efforts by the contractor teams to rein in weight, the takeoff gross weight estimate was increased from to , resulting in engine thrust requirement increasing from to class.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66299
| 2,613 |
1,909,761 |
Electrical engineer F. Paul Carlson was hired by OGC as the vice-president for development in 1977 in the midst of a financial crisis, and became acting president in 1979. OGC purchased 100 acres of land adjacent to its 77-acre campus in 1980, and Carlson was elected president of the center. The additional land became the Science Park in 1982, a site for start-up companies intended as an endowment for OGC. Planar Systems, a Tek spin-off, began developing flat-panel displays there in 1984. Ground was broken for the Samuel L. Diack Memorial Library in 1979, and the building was completed in 1980, named in honor of the first chairman. The Computer Science building was completed in 1981, with Richard B. Kieburtz coming from State University of New York at Stony Brook to head the new department. Jacqueline Jackson, coordinator of a gifted education program in Portland Public Schools (Oregon), started the Saturday Academy, a science program for high school students at OGC and other area campuses, in May 1983. Vollum was awarded OGC's first honorary doctor of science degree in 1984. Carlson retired as academic president of OGC, and became president of the Oregon Graduate School Corporation and chairman of the OGC board of trustees in 1985. The OGC Corp. was formed to be the developer and landlord for Science Park after the withdrawal of Rembold Corp. The Science Park was intended to provide, in the form of an estimated $4M annual rent from tenants, the endowment that OGC sorely needed for its survival. Planar Systems was the first tenant, in August 1983. A campus quarterly magazine, "Visions", was begun in the spring of 1985, with historian Norman R. Eder as its managing editor and Georgiana Johnsrud as editor. The circulation of "Visions" reached a peak of ~15,000. Prolific author Lawrence E. Murr was a professor of MS&E and the vice-president for academic affairs during Carlson's term. Carlson returned briefly in 1986 as acting president of OGC upon Kahne's departure, then resigned as chairman of the board and took a job with Honeywell.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48411848
| 1,908,663 |
636,403 |
Subsequently led to the birth of the local institutions. Sdasysnkya of this institution in 1920 where it was only 138 thousand in 1926 exceeded there. The organization launched a quarterly magazine to remove 1921 and in June 1923, a quarterly bulletin (Vivrnptrika) was put out with him. Membership in this organization, it's Aesoshiatt 1928 (associate membership) had started to take the exams, every level of government engineering college b. S. C. The degree is considered equivalent. December 19, 1930, the then Viceroy Lord Irwin, the foundation of its own private building 8, Gokhale Road, in Calcutta. January 1, 1932, the company's office moved into the new building. September 9, 1935, in relation to a State Charter of the emperor George V accepted. In the second paragraph of the declaration of the institution, duties are described briefly as follows: "Indian engineers to meet the goals and objectives of the entity being established, they increase the general development of engineering and engineering science, their implementation in India and people associated with the organization and members of engineering-related topics Information And-in providing facilities to receive and give ideas." The branches of this institution slowly began spreading across the country. Timely Mysore, Hyderabad, London, Punjab and open its center in Bombay. May 1943 Associate Membership exams began to be taken twice a year. In 1944, four major categories of technical operations were established. Civil, Micanikl (mechanical), electrical (electrical), and General (General) Engineering. Different for each department head has to be elected for a term of three years. The Silver Jubilee was celebrated in 1945 in Calcutta. Bihar in 1947, Mdhyprant, Sindh, Balochistan and Tiruwankur, these four locations open new centers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=717742
| 636,064 |
787,220 |
Applications in brain-computer interfacing (BCI) have also been proposed. The P300 has a number of desirable qualities that aid in implementation of such systems. First, the waveform is consistently detectable and is elicited in response to precise stimuli. The P300 waveform can also be evoked in nearly all subjects with little variation in measurement techniques, which may help simplify interface designs and permit greater usability. The speed at which an interface is able to operate depends on how detectable the signal is despite "noise." One negative characteristic of the P300 is that the amplitude of the waveform requires averaging of multiple recordings to isolate the signal. This and other post-recording processing steps determine the overall speed of an interface. The algorithm proposed by Farwell and Donchin provides an example of a simple BCI that relies on the unconscious decision making processes of the P300 to drive a computer. A 6×6 grid of characters is presented to the subject, and various columns or rows are highlighted. When a column or row contains the character a subject desires to communicate, the P300 response is elicited (since this character is "special" it is the target stimulus described in the typical oddball paradigm). The combination of the row and column which evoked the response locates the desired character. A number of such trials must be averaged to clear noise from the EEG. The speed of the highlighting determines the number of characters processed per minute. Results from studies using this setup show that normal subjects could achieve a 95% success rate at 3.4–4.3 chars/min. Such success rates are not limited to non-disabled users; a study conducted in 2000 revealed that 4 paralyzed participants (one with complete paraplegia, three with incomplete paraplegia) performed as successfully as 10 normal participants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3522879
| 786,797 |
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