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This phenomenon was not understood until S.L.A. Marshall (Brigadier General and military historian) undertook interview studies of WWII infantry immediately following combat engagement. Marshall's well-known and controversial book, Men Against Fire, revealed that only 15% of soldiers fired their rifles with the purpose of killing in combat. Following acceptance of Marshall's research by the US Army in 1946, the Human Resources Research Office of the US Army began implementing new training protocols which resemble operant conditioning methods. Subsequent applications of such methods increased the percentage of soldiers able to kill to around 50% in Korea and over 90% in Vietnam. Revolutions in training included replacing traditional pop-up firing ranges with three-dimensional, man-shaped, pop-up targets which collapsed when hit. This provided immediate feedback and acted as positive reinforcement for a soldier's behavior. Other improvements to military training methods have included the timed firing course; more realistic training; high repetitions; praise from superiors; marksmanship rewards; and group recognition. Negative reinforcement includes peer accountability or the requirement to retake courses. Modern military training conditions mid-brain response to combat pressure by closely simulating actual combat, using mainly Pavlovian classical conditioning and Skinnerian operant conditioning (both forms of behaviorism).Modern marksmanship training is such an excellent example of behaviorism that it has been used for years in the introductory psychology course taught to all cadets at the US Military Academy at West Point as a classic example of operant conditioning. In the 1980s, during a visit to West Point, B.F. Skinner identified modern military marksmanship training as a near-perfect application of operant conditioning.Lt. Col. Dave Grossman states about operant conditioning and US Military training that:It is entirely possible that no one intentionally sat down to use operant conditioning or behavior modification techniques to train soldiers in this area…But from the standpoint of a psychologist who is also a historian and a career soldier, it has become increasingly obvious to me that this is exactly what has been achieved.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=128027
| 355,817 |
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The cavitation phenomenon can be controlled to enhance the performance of high-speed marine vessels and projectiles, as well as in material processing technologies, in medicine, etc. Controlling the cavitating flows in liquids can be achieved only by advancing the mathematical foundation of the cavitation processes. These processes are manifested in different ways, the most common ones and promising for control being bubble cavitation and supercavitation. The first exact classical solution should perhaps be credited to the well-known solution by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1868. The earliest distinguished studies of academic type on the theory of a cavitating flow with free boundaries and supercavitation were published in the book "Jets, wakes and cavities" followed by "Theory of jets of ideal fluid". Widely used in these books was the well-developed theory of conformal mappings of functions of a complex variable, allowing one to derive a large number of exact solutions of plane problems. Another venue combining the existing exact solutions with approximated and heuristic models was explored in the work "Hydrodynamics of Flows with Free Boundaries" that refined the applied calculation techniques based on the principle of cavity expansion independence, theory of pulsations and stability of elongated axisymmetric cavities, etc. and in "Dimensionality and similarity methods in the problems of the hydromechanics of vessels".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7807
| 141,612 |
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Boyd theorized that large organizations such as corporations, governments, or militaries possessed a hierarchy of OODA loops at tactical, grand-tactical (operational art), and strategic levels. In addition, he stated that most effective organizations have a highly decentralized chain of command that uses objective-driven orders, or directive control, rather than method-driven orders, to harness the mental capacity and creative abilities of individual commanders at each level. In 2003, the power to the edge concept took the form of a DOD publication "Power to the Edge: Command... Control... in the Information Age," by Dr. David S. Alberts and Richard E. Hayes. Boyd argued that such a structure creates a flexible "organic whole" that is quicker to adapt to rapidly-changing situations. He noted, however, that any such highly decentralized-organization would necessitate a high degree of mutual trust and a common outlook that came from prior shared experiences. The headquarters needs to know that the troops are perfectly capable of forming a good plan for taking a specific objective, and the troops need to know that the headquarters does not direct them to achieve certain objectives without good reason.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=163161
| 222,026 |
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This is an architecturally outstanding Neolithic chambered tomb on the mainland of Orkney, Scotland—probably dating to the early 3rd millennium BC, and where the setting Sun at midwinter shines down the entrance passage into the central chamber (see Newgrange). In the 1990s further investigations were carried out to discover whether this was an accurate or an approximate solar alignment. Several new aspects of the site were discovered. In the first place the entrance passage faces the hills of the island Hoy, about 10 miles away. Secondly, it consists of two straight lengths, angled at a few degrees to each other. Thirdly, the outer part is aligned towards the midwinter sunset position on a level horizon just to the left of Ward Hill on Hoy. Fourthly the inner part points directly at the Barnhouse standing stone about 400m away and then to the right end of the summit of Ward Hill, just before it dips down to the notch between it at Cuilags to the right. This indicated line points to sunset on the first Sixteenths of the solar year (according to A. Thom) before and after the winter solstice and the notch at the base of the right slope of the Hill is at the same declination. Fourthly a similar 'double sunset' phenomenon is seen at the right end of Cuilags, also on Hoy; here the date is the first Eighth of the year before and after the winter solstice, at the beginning of November and February respectively—the Old Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc. This alignment is not indicated by an artificial structure but gains plausibility from the other two indicated lines. Maeshowe is thus an extremely sophisticated calendar site which must have been positioned carefully in order to use the horizon foresights in the ways described.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2864
| 799,340 |
1,410,882 |
The McIntyre and McKitrick comment was accepted for publication by "Geophysical Research Letters". (MM05) reported a technical statistical error in the (MBH98) method, which they said would produce hockey stick shapes from random data. This claim was given widespread publicity and political spin. Scientists found that the issues raised by McIntyre and McKitrick were minor and did not affect the main conclusions of MBH98 or . Mann himself had already stopped using the criticised statistical method in 2001, when he changed over to the RegEM climate field reconstruction method. To balance dense networks of tree-ring proxies against sparse proxy temperature records such as lake sediments, ice cores or corals, MBH 1998 (and 1999) used principal component analysis (PCA) to find the leading patterns of variation (PC1, PC2, PC3 etc.), with an objective method establish how many significant principal components should be kept so that the patterns put together characterized the original dataset. McIntyre and McKitrick highlighted the effect of centering over the 1902–1980 period rather than the whole 1400–1980 period which would have changed the order of principal components so that the warming pattern of high altitude tree ring data was demoted from PC1 to PC4, but instead of recalculating the objective selection rule which increased the number of significant PCs from two to five, they only kept PC1 and PC2. This removed the significant 20th century warming pattern of PC4, discarding data that produced the "hockey stick" shape, Subsequent investigation showed that the "hockey stick" shape remained with the correct selection rule.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5354105
| 1,410,090 |
1,280,853 |
Fully recuperated and optimistic, he returned home to The Mount, Shrewsbury. He discussed his ideas with his father and asked for advice about Emma. Speaking from experience, Doctor Robert Waring Darwin told his son to conceal religious doubts which could cause "extreme misery... Things went on pretty well until the husband or wife became out of health, and then some women suffered miserably by doubting about the salvation of their husbands, thus making them likewise to suffer." Charles drew up a list with two columns on a scrap of paper. Under "Marry" he listed benefits, "Children–if it please God–Constant companion & friend in old age will feel interested in one,–object to be beloved and played with, better than a dog anyhow", while under "Not Marry" he put "Freedom to go where one liked ... Not forced to visit relatives ... to have the expense and anxiety of children ... fatness & idleness ... if many children forced to earn one's bread ...". He jotted down further thoughts, then concluded "My God, it is intolerable to think of spending ones whole life, like a neuter bee, working, working, & nothing after all. – No, no won't do. – Imagine living all one's day solitarily in smoky dirty London House. – Only picture to yourself a nice soft wife on a sofa with good fire, & books & music perhaps – Compare this vision with the dingy reality of Grt. Marlbro' St. Marry–Marry–Marry Q.E.D."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1632764
| 1,280,158 |
915,410 |
Tukey reportedly came up with the idea during a meeting of President Kennedy's Science Advisory Committee discussing ways to detect nuclear-weapon tests in the Soviet Union by employing seismometers located outside the country. These sensors would generate seismological time series. However, analysis of this data would require fast algorithms for computing DFTs due to the number of sensors and length of time. This task was critical for the ratification of the proposed nuclear test ban so that any violations could be detected without need to visit Soviet facilities. Another participant at that meeting, Richard Garwin of IBM, recognized the potential of the method and put Tukey in touch with Cooley. However, Garwin made sure that Cooley did not know the original purpose. Instead, Cooley was told that this was needed to determine periodicities of the spin orientations in a 3-D crystal of helium-3. Cooley and Tukey subsequently published their joint paper, and wide adoption quickly followed due to the simultaneous development of Analog-to-digital converters capable of sampling at rates up to 300 kHz.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=352702
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Lenin understood that economic conditions were dire, so he opened up markets to a greater degree of free trade, hoping to motivate the population to increase production. Under the NEP, not only were "private property, private enterprise, and private profit largely restored in Lenin's Russia," but Lenin's regime turned to international capitalism for assistance, willing to provide "generous concessions to foreign capitalism." Lenin took the position that in order to achieve socialism, he had to create "the missing material prerequisites" of modernization and industrial development that made it imperative for Soviet Russia to "fall back on a centrally supervised market-influenced program of state capitalism". Lenin was following Karl Marx's precepts that a nation must first reach "full maturation of capitalism as the precondition for socialist realization." Future years would use the term Marxism–Leninism to describe Lenin's approach to economic policies which were seen to favor policies that moved the country toward communism. The main policy Lenin used was an end to grain requisitions and instead instituted a tax on the peasants, thereby allowing them to keep and trade part of their produce. At first, this tax was paid in kind, but as the currency became more stable in 1924, it was changed to a cash payment. This increased the peasants' incentive to produce, and in response production jumped by 40% after the drought and famine of 1921–22.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40229586
| 402,570 |
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Adults of the species "A. zitteli" stood around tall at the shoulders and in length. They were massive, slow-moving animals with forelimbs adapted for pulling strongly backward rather than swinging forward, a feature typical of animals that punt themselves through shallow water or walk on soft, sticky ground. Fossils are found in sediments deposited in coastal swamps and warm, humid, heavily-vegetated lowland forests across what is now Africa and Arabia. The most noticeable features of "Arsinoitherium" were a pair of enormous horns above the nose and a second pair of tiny knob-like horns over the eyes. These were structurally similar to the horns of modern bovids. While reconstructions usually show them as similar to the ossicones of giraffes, in life each bony core may have been covered, like the horn cores of bovids, with a large horn of keratin. Both males and females had horns. While some investigators have described a larger and a smaller species from the same site, others have identified the difference in body and tooth size as sexual dimorphism. The skeleton is robust and the limbs were columnar, similar to those of elephants; the hips were also elephant-like, and arsinotheres were not built to run. "Arsinoitherium" had a full complement of 44 teeth, which is the primitive state of placental mammalian dentition. However, the genus had a unique and highly specialized way of chewing, shifting the jaw joint to produce constant pressure along its continuous row of teeth; it has been reconstructed as a highly selective browser.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2050678
| 565,862 |
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The B-17 began operations in World War II with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army. The 19th Bombardment Group had deployed to Clark Field in the Philippines a few weeks before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor as the first of a planned heavy bomber buildup in the Pacific. Half of the group's B-17s were wiped out on 8 December 1941 when they were caught on the ground during refueling and rearming for a planned attack on Japanese airfields on Formosa. The small force of B-17s operated against the Japanese invasion force until they were withdrawn to Darwin, in Australia's Northern Territory. In early 1942, the 7th Bombardment Group began arriving in Java with a mixed force of B-17s and LB-30/B-24s. A squadron of B-17s from this force detached to the Middle East to join the First Provisional Bombardment Group, thus becoming the first American B-17 squadron to go to war against the Germans. After the defeat in Java, the 19th withdrew to Australia, where it continued in combat until it was sent home by General George C. Kenney when he arrived in Australia in mid-1942. In July 1942, the first USAAF B-17s were sent to England to join the Eighth Air Force. Later that year, two groups moved to Algeria to join Twelfth Air Force for operations in North Africa. The B-17s were primarily involved in the daylight precision strategic bombing campaign against German targets ranging from U-boat pens, docks, warehouses, and airfields to industrial targets such as aircraft factories. In the campaign against German aircraft forces in preparation for the invasion of France, B-17 and B-24 raids were directed against German aircraft production while their presence drew the Luftwaffe fighters into battle with Allied fighters.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4997
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In more recent years, small products called programmable logic relays (PLRs) or smart relays, have become more common and accepted. These are similar to PLCs and are used in light industries where only a few points of I/O are needed, and low cost is desired. These small devices are typically made in a common physical size and shape by several manufacturers and branded by the makers of larger PLCs to fill out their low-end product range. Most of these have 8 to 12 discrete inputs, 4 to 8 discrete outputs, and up to 2 analog inputs. Most such devices include a tiny postage-stamp-sized LCD screen for viewing simplified ladder logic (only a very small portion of the program being visible at a given time) and status of I/O points, and typically these screens are accompanied by a 4-way rocker push-button plus four more separate push-buttons, similar to the key buttons on a VCR remote control, and used to navigate and edit the logic. Most have a small plug for connecting via RS-232 or RS-485 to a personal computer so that programmers can use simple applications in general-purpose OS like MS Windows, macOS or Linux, that have user-friendly (G)UIs, for programming instead of being forced to use the tiny LCD and push-button set for this purpose. Unlike regular PLCs that are usually modular and greatly expandable, the PLRs are usually not modular or expandable, but their price can be two orders of magnitude less than a PLC, and they still offer robust design and deterministic execution of the logic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24992
| 69,478 |
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The application of Monte Carlo tree search to Go algorithms provided a notable improvement in the late 2000s decade, with programs finally able to achieve a low-dan level: that of an advanced amateur. High-dan amateurs and professionals could still exploit these programs' weaknesses and win consistently, but computer performance had advanced past the intermediate (single-digit "kyu") level. The tantalizing unmet goal of defeating the best human players without a handicap, long thought unreachable, brought a burst of renewed interest. The key insight proved to be an application of machine learning and deep learning. DeepMind, a Google acquisition dedicated to AI research, produced AlphaGo in 2015 and announced it to the world in 2016. AlphaGo defeated Lee Sedol, a 9 dan professional, in a no-handicap match in 2016, then defeated Ke Jie in 2017, who at the time continuously held the world No. 1 ranking for two years. Just as checkers had fallen to machines in 1995 and chess in 1997, computer programs finally conquered humanity's greatest Go champions in 2016–2017. DeepMind did not release AlphaGo for public use, but various programs have been built since based on the journal articles DeepMind released describing AlphaGo and its variants.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=227021
| 480,590 |
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In the 1930s, the need for establishing research organisations for the development of natural resources and new industries in India began to emerge. Eminent citizens such as C. V. Raman, Lt. Col. Seymour Sewell and J. C. Ghosh had proposed the creation of an advisory board of scientific research. Sir Richard Gregory, then editor of "Nature", was among the first people who officially reported to the British Government. After visiting scientific departments and universities in India in 1933, Gregory submitted to Samuel Hoare, Secretary of State for India, regarding the need of scientific organisation similar to the DSIR in Britain. Indian scientists at Calcutta and Bangalore initiated schemes to launch a National Institute of Sciences and an Indian Academy of Sciences, respectively. At the Fifth Industries Conference in 1933, the Provincial Governments of Bombay, Madras, Bihar and Orissa unanimously reiterated their demand for a co-ordinating forum for industrial research. Hoare advised the Viceroy, Lord Willingdon, to support the demand. However, in May 1934, Willingdon replied to Hoare saying, "The creation of a Department of Scientific and Industrial Research in India to promote the application of research to natural resources does not appear to be necessary." While the Indian DSIR was rejected, the colonial government provided a small concession. It instead offered to create an Industrial Intelligence and Research Bureau, which came into operation in April 1935 under the Indian Stores Department. The Bureau's limited resources (with a budget of ₹1.0 lakh per annum) made it impossible to initiate major research and industrial activities as had been hoped for; it was mainly concerned with testing and quality control.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1303719
| 206,855 |
1,890,102 |
The SLC25A5 enzyme is an important constituent in apoptotic signaling and oxidative stress, most notably as part of the mitochondrial death pathway and cardiac myocyte apoptosis signaling. Programmed cell death is a distinct genetic and biochemical pathway essential to metazoans. An intact death pathway is required for successful embryonic development and the maintenance of normal tissue homeostasis. Apoptosis has proven to be tightly interwoven with other essential cell pathways. The identification of critical control points in the cell death pathway has yielded fundamental insights for basic biology, as well as provided rational targets for new therapeutics a normal embryologic processes, or during cell injury (such as ischemia-reperfusion injury during heart attacks and strokes) or during developments and processes in cancer, an apoptotic cell undergoes structural changes including cell shrinkage, plasma membrane blebbing, nuclear condensation, and fragmentation of the DNA and nucleus. This is followed by fragmentation into apoptotic bodies that are quickly removed by phagocytes, thereby preventing an inflammatory response. It is a mode of cell death defined by characteristic morphological, biochemical and molecular changes. It was first described as a "shrinkage necrosis", and then this term was replaced by apoptosis to emphasize its role opposite mitosis in tissue kinetics. In later stages of apoptosis the entire cell becomes fragmented, forming a number of plasma membrane-bounded apoptotic bodies which contain nuclear and or cytoplasmic elements. The ultrastructural appearance of necrosis is quite different, the main features being mitochondrial swelling, plasma membrane breakdown and cellular disintegration. Apoptosis occurs in many physiological and pathological processes. It plays an important role during embryonal development as programmed cell death and accompanies a variety of normal involutional processes in which it serves as a mechanism to remove "unwanted" cells.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40566060
| 1,889,019 |
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The SLC25A31 enzyme is an important constituent in apoptotic signaling and oxidative stress, most notably as part of the mitochondrial death pathway and cardiac myocyte apoptosis signaling. Programmed cell death is a distinct genetic and biochemical pathway essential to metazoans. An intact death pathway is required for successful embryonic development and the maintenance of normal tissue homeostasis. Apoptosis has proven to be tightly interwoven with other essential cell pathways. The identification of critical control points in the cell death pathway has yielded fundamental insights for basic biology, as well as provided rational targets for new therapeutics a normal embryologic processes, or during cell injury (such as ischemia-reperfusion injury during heart attacks and strokes) or during developments and processes in cancer, an apoptotic cell undergoes structural changes including cell shrinkage, plasma membrane blebbing, nuclear condensation, and fragmentation of the DNA and nucleus. This is followed by fragmentation into apoptotic bodies that are quickly removed by phagocytes, thereby preventing an inflammatory response. It is a mode of cell death defined by characteristic morphological, biochemical and molecular changes. It was first described as a "shrinkage necrosis", and then this term was replaced by apoptosis to emphasize its role opposite mitosis in tissue kinetics. In later stages of apoptosis the entire cell becomes fragmented, forming a number of plasma membrane-bounded apoptotic bodies which contain nuclear and or cytoplasmic elements. The ultrastructural appearance of necrosis is quite different, the main features being mitochondrial swelling, plasma membrane breakdown and cellular disintegration. Apoptosis occurs in many physiological and pathological processes. It plays an important role during embryonal development as programmed cell death and accompanies a variety of normal involutional processes in which it serves as a mechanism to remove "unwanted" cells.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16858498
| 2,048,330 |
1,399,271 |
Terminal ballistics research at BRL studied the underlying effects of weapons upon striking their target. BRL researchers in this field conducted experimental and theoretical work on the impact behavior of projectiles and investigated topics such as the mechanisms of penetration, fragmentation, wound ballistics, detonation, shockwave propagation, and combustion. During the post-World War II era in particular, BRL intensified its terminal ballistics research in response to the Army's need for more destructive weapon systems with greater firepower and the rapid advancement of instruments that could provide more precise data about a weapon's terminal effectiveness. This division of the lab also focused on investigating nuclear physics and participated in nuclear blast field tests. BRL developed and provided all instrumentation for measuring air blasts, shock velocities, and hydrostatic pressures for Operation Buster-Jangle and Operation Tumbler-Snapper in 1952, Operation Upshot-Knothole in 1953, Operation Castle in 1954, and Operation Teapot in 1955. The laboratory also conducted air blast research during Operation Blowdown in 1963 and Operation Distant Plain in 1966 and 1967. In addition, a large portion of the basic research was directed toward the development of predictive mathematical models and computer programs. While terminal ballistics played a large role in weapon design and evaluation, BRL used the experimental data to develop protective technologies as well, including various kinds of tank armor. The lab also conducted research into the effects of laser beams starting in the 1960s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30865936
| 1,398,496 |
590,957 |
The nineteenth-century positivists concept of measurable deterministic time became untenable as Henri Bergson exposed his radical idea that the human experience of time was a creative process associated with biological evolution. He rejected the division of space into separate measurable units. Both Bergson and William James described the intellect as an instrumental tool, a by-product of evolution. The intellect was no longer considered a cognitive faculty able to grasp reality in an impartial manner. Instead, argued Bergson, we should rely on intuition to inspired creative insights in both the sciences and the arts. His third major work, "Creative Evolution", the most widely known and most discussed of his books, appeared in 1907, constituting one of the most profound and original contributions to the philosophical consideration of evolution. The proto-Cubists would have known of his work through, amongst others, Gertrude Stein a student of William James. Stein had recently purchased, following the 1905 Salon d'Automne, Matisse's "Woman with a Hat (La femme au chapeau)" and Picasso's "Young Girl with Basket of Flowers". With James's supervision, Stein and fellow student, Leon Mendez Solomons, performed experiments on "normal motor automatism", a phenomenon hypothesized to occur in people when their attention is divided between two simultaneous intelligent activities such as writing and speaking, yielding examples of writing that appeared to represent "stream of consciousness".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38781217
| 590,655 |
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The lesions in PTFL consists of infiltrates containing rapidly proliferating centrocytes and centroblasts that lack the t(14:18)(q32:q21.3) translocation but nonetheless often overexpress the "BCL2" gene. These cells may show a loss of heterozygosity at 1p36 (20-50% of cases) that results in decreased expression of the "TNFRSF14" gene (see Pathophysiology section) as well as mutations in the "IRF8" (10-50% of cases), which contributes to the development and function of B cells, and the "MAP2K1" gene (10-40% of cases), which regulates activation of the ERK cell signaling pathway. More than 2 dozen other genes have been reported to be mutated in rare cases of PTFL but in general the genetic abnormalities found in this disorder are fewer and less complex than those in other types of FL. PTFL has an indolent, relapsing and remitting course with a 5-year survival rate of >95%. Patients diagnosed with PTFL have been treated with chemotherapy, surgery, and combinations of these treatments. In general, these patients did well (100% survival with <5% of cases relapsing regardless of treatment modality). More recently, 36 patients have been treated with surgical resection alone followed by observation; all these patients survived with only one having a relapse. Thus, PTFL appears to be a highly indolent type of FL in which multiple studies have reported overall and progression-free survival rates of 100% and >90%, respectively, for >2 years and an estimated probability of 5-year event-free survival rate of ~96%. The therapeutic regimens versus follow-up observations that best treat this disorder in children, adolescents, and adults (adults may require different treatments than children and adolescents) requires further study.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3034995
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After receiving his doctorate in 1951, Salam returned to Lahore at the Government College University as a Professor of Mathematics where he remained till 1954. In 1952, he was appointed professor and Chair of the Department of Mathematics at the neighbouring University of the Punjab. In the latter capacity, Salam sought to update the university curriculum, introducing a course in Quantum mechanics as a part of the undergraduate curriculum. However, this initiative was soon reverted by the Vice-Chancellor, and Salam decided to teach an evening course in Quantum Mechanics outside the regular curriculum. While Salam enjoyed a mixed popularity in the university, he began to supervise the education of students who were particularly influenced by him. As a result, Riazuddin remained the only student of Salam who had the privilege to study under Salam at the undergraduate and post-graduate level in Lahore, and post-doctoral level in Cambridge University. In 1953, Salam was unable to establish a research institute in Lahore, as he faced strong opposition from his peers. In 1954, Salam took fellowship and became one of the earliest fellows of the Pakistan Academy of Sciences. As a result of 1953 Lahore riots, Salam went back to Cambridge and joined St John's College, and took a position as a professor of mathematics in 1954. In 1957, he was invited to take a chair at Imperial College, London, and he and Paul Matthews went on to set up the Theoretical Physics Department at Imperial College. As time passed, this department became one of the prestigious research departments that included well known physicists such as Steven Weinberg, Tom Kibble, Gerald Guralnik, C. R. Hagen, Riazuddin, and John Ward.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=304427
| 241,749 |
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Nanoengineered porous electrodes have the advantage of short diffusion distances, room for expansion and contraction, and high activity. In 2006 an example of a three dimensional engineered ceramic oxide based on lithium titanate was reported that had dramatic rate enhancement over the non-porous analogue. Later work by Vaughey et al., highlighted the utility of electrodeposition of electroactive metals on copper foams to create thin film intermetallic anodes. These porous anodes have high power in addition to higher stability as the porous open nature of the electrode allows for space to absorb some of the volume expansion. In 2011, researchers at University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign discovered that wrapping a thin film into a three-dimensional nanostructure can decrease charge time by a factor of 10 to 100. The technology is also capable of delivering a higher voltage output. In 2013, the team improved the microbattery design, delivering 30 times the energy density 1,000x faster charging. The technology also delivers better power density than supercapacitors. The device achieved a power density of 7.4 W/cm/mm. In 2019, the team develop a high areal and volumetric capacity 3D-structured Sn/C anode by using a two steps electroplating process, which exhibits a high volumetric/areal capacity of ∼879 mA h/cm3/6.59 mA h/cm2 after 100 cycles at 0.5 C and 750 mA h/cm3 and 5.5 mA h/cm2 (delithiation) at 10 C with a 20%v/v Sn loading in a half-cell configuration.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=42601555
| 1,221,758 |
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Gangs are a steadily growing problem in metropolitan and suburban areas alike. And as crime increases, government and local law enforcement officials have been struggling to deter and eliminate these criminally active groups. In order to effectively shrink and extinguish gangs, efforts must be focused on deterring youth from falling into criminal activities. The elaboration principle may help researchers determine why young adults join these gangs, in turn reducing violence and crime. Robert Agnew's "Strain Theory" identifies five types of strain on youth that seem to detect and predict criminal behavior, two of which can be traced back to the elaboration principle. Research has suggested that a youth's interaction with delinquent peers as well as the mere existence of gangs in the individuals neighborhood are strong indicators of gang joining activity. In many cases, young adults are searching for companionship and excitement, two items that gangs readily provide to at-risk-children. These gangs represent a family, people to look up to, and are much more exciting than the classroom to many children. In terms of the elaboration principle, a child may be influenced by an older gang member or classmate to join a gang. An article by Jerome and Glenda Blakemore explains that low-self esteem is a primary reason for gang participation. This child then becomes an in-group member of the gang, and continues the cycle of recruiting other individuals into a life of crime. If community members can establish a strategy limiting children's contact with gangs, as well as reducing contact and association with other delinquent children, youth-at-risk may be less enticed by gangs, and instead encouraged to join after-school programs and engage in activities that keep them off of the streets. By engaging in positive activities and groups, the elaboration principle can be used to reduce the influence of gangs and potentially reduce crime and gang size altogether.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37879363
| 1,910,124 |
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UNO played its first season as an Independent in 1997-98. On October 17, 1997, a sellout crowd at the Civic Auditorium saw the team for the first time in a 3–2 exhibition loss to the University of Manitoba. Despite a midseason ten-game losing streak, the Mavericks finished with an encouraging 12–18–3 record. The Mavericks earned a surprising sweep over traditional powerhouse Denver and a 4–3 road victory over Maine, a night after losing 11–0. The team sold out all 19 of their home games to finish second in the NCAA in attendance. Following UNO's first season, the Mavericks made the somewhat surprising decision to apply for membership to the Central Collegiate Hockey Association. Many expected the school to seek admission to the Western Collegiate Hockey Association, as the conference was a better geographic fit and included UNO's Division II North Central Conference rivals Minnesota State, North Dakota, and St. Cloud State. However, the school was intrigued by matchups against big-name foes like Michigan, Ohio State, and Notre Dame, and was accepted into the CCHA on June 24, 1998. UNO would become a full member of the conference starting with the 1999–2000 season. The Mavericks struggled in their second season as an independent, starting the season 2–18–0 en route to an 11–24–0 record. UNO won only one of seven games against future CCHA opponents, a 6–1 victory over Bowling Green. Despite the poor record, the school once again sold out all of its home games, finishing third in the NCAA in home attendance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22283832
| 1,165,061 |
10,035 |
The day after he took over the project, Groves took a train to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed. On 29 September 1942, United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire of land by eminent domain at a cost of $3.5 million. An additional was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the condemnation order, which came into effect on 7 October. Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail. By mid-November U.S. Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in. Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations; others had settled there after being evicted to make way for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s or the Norris Dam in the 1930s. The ultimate cost of land acquisition in the area, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $2.6 million, which worked out to around $47 an acre. When presented with Public Proclamation Number Two, which declared Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the Governor of Tennessee, Prentice Cooper, angrily tore it up.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603
| 10,031 |
1,612,778 |
Mathematical modeling can provide useful context for the rational design, validation and prioritization of novel cancer drug targets and their combinations. Network-based modeling and multi-scale modeling have begun to show promise in facilitating the process of effective cancer drug discovery. Using a systems network modeling approach, Schoerberl et al. identified a previously unknown, complementary and potentially superior mechanism of inhibiting the ErbB receptor signaling network. ErbB3 was found to be the most sensitive node, leading to Akt activation; Akt regulates many biological processes, such as proliferation, apoptosis and growth, which are all relevant to tumor progression. This target driven modelling has paved way for first of its kind clinical trials. Bekkal et al. presented a nonlinear model of the dynamics of a cell population divided into proliferative and quiescent compartments. The proliferative phase represents the complete cell cycle (G (1)-S-G (2)-M) of a population committed to divide at its end. The asymptotic behavior of solutions of the nonlinear model is analysed in two cases, exhibiting tissue homeostasis or tumor exponential growth. The model is simulated and its analytic predictions are confirmed numerically.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39198919
| 1,611,873 |
1,900,078 |
William purchased a building that was standing at the south-west corner of Grove Street and Western Avenue and opened his business. The location was a good one - it was on what was then called the Wabash Road a day's journey from Chicago, which guaranteed the tavern a steady supply of prospective customers for many years. At about the same time he purchased a stone quarry about a mile south-west of the settlement (where Robbins, Illinois now stands) and operated it concurrently with the inn, although apparently without as much success. He was a member of the school board when Blue Island built its first brick schoolhouse in 1856, and served as clerk and later as assessor for the township of Worth from 1854 until he died in 1860. William and Louise had five sons, including Edward, who was the father of the architect. Edward Seyfarth was active in community affairs on many levels. Not only did he own and operate the local hardware store, but in 1874 he was a charter member of the Blue Island Ancient Free and Accepted Masons and in 1890 was one of the founders of the Calumet State Bank. He served as village treasurer from 1880–1886 and as village trustee from 1886–1889 and again from 1893-1895. Over the years other members of the family were also active in the community - they were involved in banking, the board of education, and the Current Topics Club (later the Blue Island Woman's Club), who was largely responsible for the founding of the Blue Island Public Library. Charles A. Seyfarth was one of the founding members of the Blue Island Elks in 1916. (The architect was himself apparently a person of catholic interests - he was an active member of the Poultry Fancier's Association during the time that Blue Island was the headquarters for the Northeastern Illinois Fancier's Association in the early years of the 20th century).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24940492
| 1,898,992 |
1,191,626 |
On 27 May, the first fatalities were suffered when a MiG-21 and a MiG-27 jets were lost over Batalik Sector to enemy action and mechanical failure, respectively. The following day, a Mi-17 was lost- with the loss of all four of the crew- when it was hit by three Stingers while on an offensive sortie. These losses forced the Indian Air Force to reassess its strategy. The helicopters were immediately withdrawn from offensive roles as a measure against the man-portable missiles in possession of the infiltrators. On 30 May, the Indian Air Force called into operation the Mirage 2000 which was deemed the best aircraft capable of optimum performance under the conditions of high-altitude seen in the zone of conflict. Mirage 2000s not only had better defence equipment compared to the MiGs, but also gave IAF the ability to carry out aerial raids at night. The MiG-29s were used extensively to provide fighter escort to the Mirage 2000. The Mirages successfully targeted enemy camps and logistic bases in Kargil and within days, their supply lines were severely disrupted. Mirage 2000s were used for strikes on Muntho Dhalo and the heavily defended Tiger Hill and paved the way for their early recapture. At the height of the conflict, the IAF was conducting over forty sorties daily over the Kargil region. By 26 July, the Indian forces had successfully liberated Kargil from Pakistani forces.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9196710
| 1,190,991 |
354,388 |
The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in Charles Barkla's and Henry Moseley's X-ray absorption studies. Moseley's work did not directly concern the study of electron shells, because he was trying to prove that the periodic table was not arranged by weight, but by the charge of the protons in the nucleus. However, because in a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons, this work was extremely important to Niels Bohr who mentioned Moseley's work several times in his interview of 1962. Moseley was part of Rutherford's group, as was Niels Bohr. Moseley measured the frequencies of X-rays emitted by every element between calcium and zinc, and found that the frequencies became greater as the elements got heavier, leading to the theory that electrons were emitting X-rays when they were shifted to lower shells. This led to the conclusion that the electrons were in Kossel's shells with a definite limit per shell, labeling the shells with the letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q. The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. Barkla, who worked independently from Moseley as an X-ray spectrometry experimentalist, first noticed two distinct types of scattering from shooting X-rays at elements in 1909 and named them "A" and "B". Barkla described these two types of X-ray diffraction: the first was unconnected with the type of material used in the experiment, and could be polarized. The other second diffraction beam he called "fluorescent" because it depended on the irradiated material. It was not known what these lines meant at the time, but in 1911 Barkla decided there might be scattering lines previous to "A", so he began at "K". However, later experiments indicated that the K absorption lines are produced by the innermost electrons. These letters were later found to correspond to the "n" values 1, 2, 3, etc. that were used in the Bohr model. They are used in the spectroscopic Siegbahn notation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19916615
| 354,205 |
1,613,144 |
In July 2009, at the Ford Michigan Proving Grounds, Barbara Buatois set two world records in one weekend. Buatois, a 32-year-old French woman, first broke the existing women's record on Friday July 17, covering 82.12 km (51.03 mi). This broke the existing women's mark by 12%, and gave her the title of the 6th fastest human to have done the One Hour. However, her 84.02 km (52.20 mi) on late Sunday evening moved her up to the title of the 4th fastest human (man or woman) to have done the One Hour. She rode a vehicle called the Varna Tempest, designed and built by Georgi Georgiev of Canada. The Ford oval is around 8 km, with 60% of the course turns and 40% straightaways. It had been rebuilt and repaved the year prior to these attempts. The elevation of the course is flat at 295 meters above sea level, hence this is considered a low-altitude location (<700 meters) per IHPVA/WHPVA rules. Barbara Buatois went on to set the ladies 200-meter top speed record of 75 mph at Battle Mountain in 2009 and 2010, and also finish the 2010 RAAM Race Across America as the #1 lady finisher. She used a Stock recumbent for this ride across America.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45517370
| 1,612,239 |
2,218,609 |
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is a common material for open microfluidic devices that introduces additional advantages and disadvantages. The adsorption of small biological molecules from cell culturing samples as well as the release of oligomers into the culture medium have both been posed as issues of using PDMS for biological studies, however these can be reduced by adopting pretreatment procedures to create optimal environments. Advantages of using PDMS include the ease of surface modification, low cost, biocompatibility, and optical transparency. In addition, PDMS is an attractive material to use for generating oxygen gradients for cell culturing in studies that involve monitoring ROS governed cellular pathways due to its oxygen permeability. Plastics such as polystyrene can be used to create microfluidic devices by embossing and bonding methods, CNC milling, injection molding, or stereolithography. Devices created with polystyrene by these methods include microfluidic platforms that integrate several microfluidic systems, creating arrays to study several cell cultures simultaneously. Another type of material that is used for open-microfluidic cell culturing is paper-based microfluidics. Cell culturing on paper-based microfluidic devices is accomplished either by encapsulating cells in a hydrogel or directly seeding them in stacked cellulose filter papers and the cell culture medium is passively transported to the culture areas. A major advantage of this type of open-microfluidics includes the low cost, the variety of dimensions of porous papers that are commercially available, improved cell viability, adhesion, and migration over tissue culture plates. In addition, it is an attractive substrate for 3D cell culture devices due to its ability to incorporate essential characteristics such as oxygen and nutrient gradients, fluid flow that can control cell migration, and stacking filter papers with different cells suspended in hydrogel to monitor cellular interactions or complex populations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60405154
| 2,217,347 |
397,920 |
Resnik married Oldak on July 14, 1970. Her mother attended the wedding; two sets of invitations were sent out, one describing her as her father's daughter, and the other as her mother's. Upon graduation from Carnegie Mellon, Resnik and Oldak moved to Moorestown, New Jersey, where they both worked for RCA. She was a design engineer on missile and radar projects and won the Graduate Study Program Award. She performed circuit design for the missile and surface radar division. While at RCA, she worked for the Navy building custom integrated circuitry for the phased-array radar control systems and developed electronics and software for NASA's sounding rocket and telemetry systems programs. An academic paper she wrote on special purpose integrated circuitry caught the attention of NASA during this time. She registered for master's degree evening courses at the University of Pennsylvania. In 1971, Oldak was accepted into Georgetown University Law Center, and they moved to Washington, D.C. Resnik continued to work for RCA, transferring to its office in Springfield, Virginia, and she continued pursuing her master's degree at the University of Maryland. She then entered a doctoral program. Resnik and Oldak divorced in 1975—he wanted children and she did not—but they remained in contact and on good terms.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=316815
| 397,724 |
116,090 |
Although wholesale module prices remained flat at around $3.50 to $4.00/W in the early 2000s due to high demand in Germany and Spain afforded by generous subsidies and shortage of polysilicon, demand crashed with the abrupt ending of Spanish subsidies after the market crash of 2008, and the price dropped rapidly to $2.00/W. Manufacturers were able to maintain a positive operating margin despite a 50% drop in income due to innovation and reductions in costs. In late 2011, factory-gate prices for crystalline-silicon photovoltaic modules suddenly dropped below the $1.00/W mark, taking many in the industry by surprise, and has caused a number of solar manufacturing companies to go bankrupt throughout the world. The $1.00/W cost is often regarded in the PV industry as marking the achievement of grid parity for PV, but most experts do not believe this price point is sustainable. Technological advancements, manufacturing process improvements, and industry re-structuring, may mean that further price reductions are possible. The average retail price of solar cells as monitored by the Solarbuzz group fell from $3.50/watt to $2.43/watt over the course of 2011. In 2013 wholesale prices had fallen to $0.74/W. This has been cited as evidence supporting 'Swanson's law', an observation similar to the famous Moore's Law, which claims that solar cell prices fall 20% for every doubling of industry capacity. The Fraunhofer Institute defines the 'learning rate' as the drop in prices as the cumulative production doubles, some 25% between 1980 to 2010. Although the prices for modules have dropped quickly, current inverter prices have dropped at a much lower rate, and in 2019 constitute over 61% of the cost per kWp, from a quarter in the early 2000s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=652531
| 116,045 |
1,478,699 |
On 3 March 2016, DARPA awarded Aurora Flight Sciences $89.4 million to build and demonstrate their LightningStrike concept, beating out the other three competitors. The LightningStrike is a tilting-wing design powered by one Rolls-Royce AE1107C turboshaft engine, the same type used on the V-22 Osprey, that generates electric power via three Honeywell generators to run 24 distributed ducted fans, three each in the forward canards and 18 across the main wing. Rather than using conventional engines like all the other entrants, the aircraft relies on "distributed electric propulsion," where the three generators that produce three megawatts (4,023 horsepower) of electricity, as much as a commercial wind turbine, power individual motors that drive the fans; each wing fan uses a 100 kW motor, and each canard fan a 70 kW motor. The air vehicle will weigh between , about the size of a UH-1Y Venom, and cruise faster than 300 knots, 50 knots faster than the V-22. Phase II of the VTOL X-Plane project will fabricate two air vehicles before flight testing, planned by September 2018. A 20 percent-scale demonstrator, weighing 325 lb (147 kg) using wings and canards made of carbon composites and 3D-printed plastics, was flown on 29 March 2016. The full-scale aircraft will be designated the XV-24A.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41433557
| 1,477,866 |
1,410,688 |
The possibilities finally narrowed down to intermolecular forces, and the development of electron microscopy in the 1950s, which revealed the micro-structure of the setae on the gecko's foot, provided further proof to support this hypothesis. The problem was finally solved in 2000 by a research team led by biologists Kellar Autumn of Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon, and Robert Full at the University of California at Berkeley. They showed that the underside of a gecko toe typically bears a series of ridges, which are covered with uniform ranks of setae, and each seta further divides into hundreds of split ends and flat tips called spatulas (see figure on the right). A single seta of the tokay gecko is roughly 110 micrometers long and 4.2 micrometers wide. Each of a seta's branches ends in a thin, triangular spatula connected at its apex. The end is about 0.2 micrometers long and 0.2 micrometers wide. The adhesion between gecko's foot and the surfaces is exactly the result of the Van der Waals force between each seta and the surface molecules. A single seta can generate up to 200 μN of force. There are about 14,400 setae per square millimeter on the foot of a tokay gecko, which leads to a total number of about 3,268,800 setae on a tokay gecko's two front feet. From the equation for intermolecular potential:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2547900
| 1,409,896 |
15,913 |
After earning a Doctor of Science degree in astronautics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Aldrin was selected as a member of NASA's Astronaut Group 3, making him the first astronaut with a doctoral degree. His doctoral thesis, "Line-of-Sight Guidance Techniques for Manned Orbital Rendezvous", earned him the nickname "Dr. Rendezvous" from fellow astronauts. His first space flight was in 1966 on Gemini 12 during which he spent over five hours on extravehicular activity. Three years later, Aldrin set foot on the Moon at 03:15:16 on July 21, 1969 (UTC), nineteen minutes after Armstrong first touched the surface, while command module pilot Michael Collins remained in lunar orbit. A Presbyterian elder, Aldrin became the first person to hold a religious ceremony on the Moon when he privately took communion. Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy "of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth" before the end of the decade.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65777
| 15,908 |
1,990,049 |
A novel biodegradable, tough elastomer has been developed from poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) for use in creation of a nerve guidance conduit. PGS was originally developed for soft tissue engineering purposes to specifically mimic ECM mechanical properties. It is considered an elastomer because it is able to recover from deformation in mechanically dynamic environments and to effectively distribute stress evenly throughout regenerating tissues in the form of microstresses. PGS is synthesized by a polycondensation reaction of glycerol and sebacic acid, which can be melt processed or solvent processed into the desired shape. PGS has a Young's modulus of 0.28 MPa and an ultimate tensile strength greater than 0.5 MPa. Peripheral nerve has a Young's modulus of approximately 0.45 MPa, which is very close to that of PGS. Additionally, PGS experiences surface degradation, accompanied by losses in linear mass and strength during resorption. Following implantation, the degradation half-life was determined to be 21 days; complete degradation occurred at day 60. PGS experiences minimal water absorption during degradation and does not have detectable swelling; swelling can cause distortion, which narrows the tubular lumen and can impede regeneration. It is advantageous that the degradation time of PGS can be varied by changing the degree of crosslinking and the ratio of sebacic acid to glycerol. In a study by Sundback et al. (2005), implanted PGS and PLGA conduits had similar early tissue responses; however, PLGA inflammatory responses spiked later, while PGS inflammatory responses continued to decreases.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11088829
| 1,988,906 |
1,251,153 |
As climate change continues to disrupt a host of rangeland functions, the Society for Range Management has declared: "The Society for Range Management is committed to promoting adaptation to and mitigation of climate change through the sponsorship of workshops, symposia, research and educational publications, and appropriate policy recommendations. The Society will strive to maximize opportunities and minimize challenges posed by climate change to promote productive rangeland ecosystems that ensure food security, human livelihoods, and continued delivery of diverse ecosystem services." Emerging evidence suggests that rangelands are extremely vulnerable to the threats of climate change, as more severe heatwaves, droughts, evaporation, and catastrophic flood events will consequentially alter ecological states, and negatively affect forage production, both of which will negatively impact ecosystem functioning and the sustainable production of ecosystem services. In an open letter to the White House in 2017, the president of the SRM offered President Trump the society's support in seeking management strategies to mitigate climate-induced phenomenon like drought and forest fires, a subject which was brought to the national debate stage and which has received significant controversial push-back by Trump and his administration. Likewise in 2021 the SRM and several other institutions sent an open letter to President Biden urging for more research and development funding to be provisioned toward agricultural and food systems research, especially as climate change threatened national security of ag resources.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50283749
| 1,250,475 |
792,444 |
Specific substrates include testosterone, progesterone, androstenedione, epitestosterone, cortisol, aldosterone, and deoxycorticosterone. Outside of dihydrotestosterone, much of the physiological role of 5α-reduced steroids is unknown. Beyond reducing testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, 5alpha-reductase enzyme isoforms I and II reduce progesterone to dihydroprogesterone (DHP) and deoxycorticosterone to dihydrodeoxycorticosterone (DHDOC). In vitro and animal models suggest subsequent 3alpha-reduction of DHT, DHP and DHDOC lead to steroid metabolites with effects on cerebral function achieved by enhancing GABAergic inhibition. These neuroactive steroid derivatives enhance GABA via allosteric modulation at GABA(A) receptors and have anticonvulsant, antidepressant and anxiolytic effects, and also alter sexual and alcohol related behavior. 5α-dihydrocortisol is present in the aqueous humor of the eye, is synthesized in the lens, and might help make the aqueous humor itself. Allopregnanolone and THDOC are neurosteroids, with the latter having effects on the susceptibility of animals to seizures. In socially isolated mice, 5α-R1 is specifically down-regulated in glutamatergic pyramidal neurons that converge on the amygdala from cortical and hippocampal regions. This down-regulation may account for the appearance of behavioral disorders such as anxiety, aggression, and cognitive dysfunction. 5α-dihydroaldosterone is a potent antinatriuretic agent, although different from aldosterone. Its formation in the kidney is enhanced by restriction of dietary salt, suggesting it may help retain sodium as follows:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1245377
| 792,019 |
1,927,317 |
In 2005, the sequence of the 1918 Spanish influenza was completed. Accompanied with phylogenetic analysis, it was possible to supply a detailed account of the virus' evolution and behavior, in particular its adaptation to humans. Following the sequencing of the Spanish influenza, the pathogen was also reconstructed. When inserted into mice, the pathogen proved to be incredibly deadly. The 2001 anthrax attacks shed light on the possibility of bioterrorism as being more of a real than imagined threat. Bioterrorism was anticipated in the Iraq war, with soldiers being inoculated for a smallpox attack. Using technologies and insight gained from reconstruction of the Spanish influenza, it may be possible to prevent future deadly planted outbreaks of disease. There is a strong ethical concern however, as to whether the resurrection of old viruses is necessary and whether it does more harm than good. The best avenue for countering such threats is coordinating with organizations which provide immunizations. The increased awareness and participation would greatly decrease the effectiveness of a potential epidemic. An addition to this measure would be to monitor natural water reservoirs as a basis to prevent an attack or outbreak. Overall, communication between labs and large organizations, such as Global Outbreak Alert and Response Network (GOARN), can lead to early detection and prevent outbreaks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21787394
| 1,926,213 |
1,430,995 |
He used mathematics in the subject. The development of the mathematical description of the behaviour of optical systems was at the centre of his life's work in physics – the application of which produced so many world-famous inventions. He chose to remain at Reading in the post of Professor of Applied Physical Optics until his official retirement in 1984, declining the numerous top appointments he was offered. He believed the continuation of his teaching and research work to be more important and far more rewarding personally. However, he took great delight in having conferred on him the Honorary Fellowships of all the medical Royal Colleges in Britain, together with the highest awards of many of the world's premier scientific bodies including (in 1973) the Fellowship of the Royal Society itself. He was awarded the 1990 Lister Medal for his contributions to surgical science. The corresponding Lister Oration, given at the Royal College of Surgeons of England, was delivered on 11 April 1991, and was titled 'The development of the modern endoscopes – present and future prospects'. This award, for his work on endoscopes, was unusual in that normally it is made to someone working in the field of medicine. He was awarded the 1978 Frederic Ives Medal by the OSA.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18770211
| 1,430,191 |
1,509,846 |
One of the earliest thinkers of the modern age to postulate the potentials of artificial life, separate from artificial intelligence, was math and computer prodigy John von Neumann. At the Hixon Symposium, hosted by Linus Pauling in Pasadena, California in the late 1940s, von Neumann delivered a lecture titled "The General and Logical Theory of Automata." He defined an "automaton" as any machine whose behavior proceeded logically from step to step by combining information from the environment and its own programming, and said that natural organisms would in the end be found to follow similar simple rules. He also spoke about the idea of self-replicating machines. He postulated a machine – a kinematic automaton – made up of a control computer, a construction arm, and a long series of instructions, floating in a lake of parts. By following the instructions that were part of its own body, it could create an identical machine. He followed this idea by creating (with Stanislaw Ulam) a purely logic-based automaton, not requiring a physical body but based on the changing states of the cells in an infinite grid – the first cellular automaton. It was extraordinarily complicated compared to later CAs, having hundreds of thousands of cells which could each exist in one of twenty-nine states, but von Neumann felt he needed the complexity in order for it to function not just as a self-replicating "machine", but also as a universal computer as defined by Alan Turing. This "universal constructor" read from a tape of instructions and wrote out a series of cells that could then be made active to leave a fully functional copy of the original machine and its tape. Von Neumann worked on his automata theory intensively right up to his death, and considered it his most important work.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7754370
| 1,508,996 |
717,708 |
One of the most effective types of RAM comprises arrays of pyramid shaped pieces, each of which is constructed from a suitably lossy material. To work effectively, all internal surfaces of the anechoic chamber must be entirely covered with RAM. Sections of RAM may be temporarily removed to install equipment but they must be replaced before performing any tests. To be sufficiently lossy, RAM can be neither a good electrical conductor nor a good electrical insulator as neither type actually absorbs any power. Typically pyramidal RAM will comprise a rubberized foam material impregnated with controlled mixtures of carbon and iron. The length from base to tip of the pyramid structure is chosen based on the lowest expected frequency and the amount of absorption required. For low frequency damping, this distance is often 60 cm (24"), while high-frequency panels are as short as 7,5-10 cm (3-4"). Panels of RAM are typically installed on the walls of an EMC test chamber with the tips pointing inward to the chamber. Pyramidal RAM attenuates signal by two effects: scattering and absorption. Scattering can occur both coherently, when reflected waves are in-phase but directed away from the receiver, or incoherently where waves are picked up by the receiver but are out of phase and thus have lower signal strength. This incoherent scattering also occurs within the foam structure, with the suspended carbon particles promoting destructive interference. Internal scattering can result in as much as 10 dB of attenuation. Meanwhile, the pyramid shapes are cut at angles that maximize the number of bounces a wave makes within the structure. With each bounce, the wave loses energy to the foam material and thus exits with lower signal strength. An alternative type of RAM comprises flat plates of ferrite material, in the form of flat tiles fixed to all interior surfaces of the chamber. This type has a smaller effective frequency range than the pyramidal RAM and is designed to be fixed to good conductive surfaces. It is generally easier to fit and more durable than the pyramidal type RAM but is less effective at higher frequencies. Its performance might however be quite adequate if tests are limited to lower frequencies (ferrite plates have a damping curve that makes them most effective between 30–1000 MHz). There is also a hybrid type, a ferrite in pyramidal shape. Containing the advantages of both technologies, the frequency range can be maximized while the pyramid remains small (10 cm).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4148025
| 717,331 |
57,642 |
The steady competition between the MCP35 and the SA-35 to make the original Hi-Power relevant in the current market stirred up a great interest among both Hi-Power fans and new shooters. On 18 January 2022, after a four year hiatus, FN announced they would resume production of the Browning Hi-Power, albeit with a number of upgraded features. FN named the 2022 redesign the "FN High Power" and incorporated a number of features to help it compete with the improved Hi-Power clones being made by GİRSAN and Springfield Armory. FN incorporated a number of changes that would make the classic Hi-Power design more modern and ergonomic. The most significant changes included opening up the top of the slide to increase the size of the ejection port to ensure reliable feeding and ejection, incorporating an ambidextrous slide lock and reversible magazine release, a completely different takedown that is faster and simpler, and redesigning the barrel and recoil spring. Other changes FN made include removing the magazine disconnect safety, adding an extended beavertail and redesigned hammer to eliminate the issue of hammer bite, several sets of redesigned grips, new sights compatible with the FN 509 dovetail pattern, wider slide serrations, different colored PVD or stainless steel finish offerings and 17 round magazines. The new FN High Powers will be made at FN's Columbia, South Carolina factory in the United States. At SHOT show 2022, GİRSAN announced new color offerings for the MCP35, including two-tone and gold, as well as the MCP35 "Match", which incorporated a number of designs intended to cater to target shooters, such as an integrated 1913 picatinny rail for accessories, ergonomic grips, a shorter hammer throw, beveled and flared magwell, a flat target trigger and raised target sights with a fiber optic front sight.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=95218
| 57,618 |
2,162,350 |
The Australian Catholic University Strathfield Campus is of state aesthetic significance for the high quality architectural design of its key elements and for its landscaping and vistas including the avenue of Canary Island Date Palm trees. The Mount Royal element of the Edmund Rice building is a fine example of the "Victorian Italianate" style designed by Harry C. Kent and considered to be one of his best residential works. The fine finishes of the villa, such as the cast iron lace, encaustic tiling and stained glass, exemplify Victorian industry and the aspirations and way of life of the wealthy at that time. The Barron Memorial Chapel and the Mullens Building and their associated arcades are excellent examples of the Interwar Romanesque Style. The place has aesthetic significance for its collection of architectural designs by a single architectural firm over more than half a century, Sheerin & Hennessy (later Hennessy, Hennessy & Co). Three courtyards have aesthetic significance, being formed between key architectural elements of the campus. There is a high degree of consistency, integrity and quality in both the architecture and landscape design across most of the site. The palm trees, planted by the Christian Brothers, make a significant contribution to the setting. Religious statutory serve as reminders of the Brother's occupation over many years. The original gates to Mount Royal continue to address Albert Road. Principal view corridors are as approached up Albert Road, along Barker Street from the east and from directly outside the main entrance on Barker Road. "Visitors to Mount Saint Mary remark on its beauty, its peaceful atmosphere and its fine array of buildings with their varied styles of architecture".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62880865
| 2,161,115 |
1,221,305 |
His book "Rockets – the Future of Travel Beyond the Stratosphere" (1944) describes the early rockets at VfR and more futuristic projects to reach the moon using a 3-stage rocket "as high as 1/3 of the Empire State Building" – a very good estimate of the height of the Saturn V rocket designed 20 years later. His works from the 1950s and '60s are regarded as classics of popular science and include "The Conquest of Space" 1949 (with Chesley Bonestell), "The Conquest of the Moon" (with Wernher von Braun and Fred Whipple, 1953), and "Beyond the Solar System" (1964). His book, "Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel", (1957) was cited in the "Space Handbook: Astronautics and its Applications", a staff report of the Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration of the U.S. House of Representatives, which provided non-technical information about spaceflight to U.S. policy makers. Ley had a regular science column called "For Your Information" in "Galaxy Science Fiction" from March 1952 until his death. Ley participated in "Man in Space", a 1955 episode of "Disneyland" which explained spaceflight to a large television audience. Fellow "Galaxy" columnist Floyd C. Gale wrote that Ley "has become as familiar to TV audiences as Howdy Doody". In the late 1950s, he designed for Monogram models a range of space vehicles. The kits included informational booklets on space travel written by Ley. He also consulted for the Tom Corbett, Space Cadet series of children's science fiction books and TV series, as well as the 1959 feature film entitled "The Space Explorers." Robert A. Heinlein honored him by mentioning a future "Leyport" on the Moon in his 1952 juvenile novel "The Rolling Stones." Likewise and long after his death, Larry Niven and Steven Barnes named a future Space Shuttle the “Willy Ley” in their 1982 novel "The Descent of Anansi".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=421035
| 1,220,647 |
134,152 |
One view of Biosphere 2 was that it was "the most exciting scientific project to be undertaken in the United States since President John F. Kennedy launched us toward the moon". Others called it "New Age drivel masquerading as science". John Allen and Roy Walford did have mainstream credentials. John Allen held a degree in Metallurgical-Mining Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines, and an MBA from the Harvard Business School. Roy Walford received his doctorate of medicine from the University of Chicago and taught at UCLA as a Professor of Pathology for 35 years. Mark Nelson obtained his Ph.D. in 1998 under Professor H.T. Odum in ecological engineering further developing the constructed wetlands used to treat and recycle sewage in Biosphere 2, to coral reef protection along the Yucatán coast where the corals were collected. Linda Leigh obtained her PhD with a dissertation on biodiversity and the Biosphere 2 rainforest working with Odum. Abigail Alling, Mark van Thillo and Sally Silverstone helped start the Biosphere Foundation where they worked on coral reef and marine conservation and sustainable agricultural systems. Jane Poynter and Taber MacCallum co-founded Paragon Space Development Corporation which has studied the first mini-closed system and the first full animal life cycle in space and assisted in setting world records in high altitude descents.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=216362
| 134,097 |
1,641,506 |
Prior to training with the HEG device, patients are given a standardized pre test, most often the Test of Variables of Attention (TOVA), to assess baseline cognitive functioning. Patient progress will be tracked using the same measure at the beginning and end of every neurotherapy session. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) assessments may also be conducted pre and post treatment, depending on the patient's disorder. Training sessions are typically 45 minutes to an hour in length, with intermittent breaks. At the outset, all sessions are performed at a certified neurotherapy provider's clinic (though some at-home options are now available) and begin 2-3 times weekly in frequency. Depending on the patient, training may last from a couple of months to a couple of years. High variability in red light activity (large range from low to high output) is typically characteristic of people with problems of the prefrontal cortex. Low variability is associated with more normal functioning. The ratio of red/infrared light refraction is displayed as a visual signal on a computer monitor and may also be translated into an auditory signal in which higher pitch corresponds to greater oxygenation. During a HEG training session patients attempt to increase the signal generated by the HEG sensor. Progress is measured by reduced variability.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1806538
| 1,640,579 |
779,242 |
Some controversy was raised by physicist Gerald Holton (1978) who pointed out that Millikan recorded more measurements in his journal than he included in his final results. Holton suggested these data points were omitted from the large set of oil drops measured in his experiments without apparent reason. This claim was disputed by Allan Franklin, a high energy physics experimentalist and philosopher of science at the University of Colorado. Franklin contended that Millikan's exclusions of data did not substantively affect his final value of "e", but did reduce the statistical error around this estimate "e". This enabled Millikan to claim that he had calculated "e" to better than one half of one percent; in fact, if Millikan had included all of the data he had thrown out, the standard error of the mean would have been within 2%. While this would still have resulted in Millikan having measured "e" better than anyone else at the time, the slightly larger uncertainty might have allowed more disagreement with his results within the physics community. While Franklin left his support for Millikan's measurement with the conclusion that concedes that Millikan may have performed "cosmetic surgery" on the data, David Goodstein investigated the original detailed notebooks kept by Millikan, concluding that Millikan plainly states here and in the reports that he included only drops that had undergone a "complete series of observations" and excluded no drops from this group of complete measurements. Reasons for a failure to generate a complete observation include annotations regarding the apparatus setup, oil drop production, and atmospheric effects which invalidated, in Millikan's opinion (borne out by the reduced error in this set), a given particular measurement.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=187344
| 778,825 |
1,911,936 |
"P. vortex" is a social microorganism: when grown on under growth conditions that mimic natural environments such as hard surfaces it forms colonies of 109-1012 cells with remarkably complex and dynamic architectures (Figure 1). Being part of a large cooperative, the bacteria can better compete for food resources and be protected against antibacterial assaults. Under laboratory growth conditions, similar to other social bacteria, "P. vortex" colonies behave much like a multi-cellular organism, with cell differentiation and task distribution. "P. vortex" is marked by its ability to generate special aggregates of dense bacteria that are pushed forward by repulsive chemotactic signals sent from the cells at the back. These rotating aggregates termed vortices (Figure 2), pave the way for the colony to expand. The vortices serve as building blocks of colonies with special modular organization (Figure 1). Accomplishing such intricate cooperative ventures requires sophisticated cell-cell communication, including semantic and pragmatic aspects of linguistics. Communicating with each other using a variety of chemical signals, bacteria exchange information regarding population size, a myriad of individual environmental measurements at different locations, their internal states and their phenotypic and epigenetic adjustments. The bacteria collectively sense the environment and execute distributed information processing to glean and assess relevant information. The information is then used by the bacteria for reshaping the colony while redistributing tasks and cell epigenetic differentiations, for collective decision-making and for turning on and off defense and offense mechanisms needed to thrive in competitive environments, faculties that can be perceived as social intelligence of bacteria.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30427075
| 1,910,837 |
370,516 |
The name "operations demo" (demonstration of operations), which appeared after the completion of the technology demonstration stage ("technology demo"), was a bureaucratic compromise that allowed to justify the funding of "Ingenuity's" "extra" flights after the previous stage was completed. Operations here refers to the joint work of two teams, "Perseverance" and "Ingenuity", proving the viability of the entire concept of the research complex, in which the planetary rover is a multifunctional self-propelled "scientific combine", and the aircraft is its auxiliary operational unit. In practice, already from the 6th flight, the work went beyond the demonstration of the interaction of vehicles. Engineers continued to identify "weak spots", not all of which could be identified in tests on Earth. In this work, the "Ingenuity" team has demonstrated the ability "to improve beyond what has been achieved". By the end of 2021, it turned out that the already distant deadlines for the possible implementation of improvements are pushed back by at least another 10 years. In the new 10-year concept of space exploration for the period up to 2032, the emphasis is on cheaper or low-cost projects. There are no plans to send "Curiosity/Perseverance"-class scientific laboratories to Mars, and funding for Martian projects is frozen to the level necessary to complete the Mars sample-return campaign.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56300556
| 370,322 |
1,564,410 |
Authors supportive of psychoanalysis have criticized "The Foundations of Psychoanalysis". The psychologist Margaret Chernack Beaudoin, the philosopher Gregory A. Trotter, and the scholar of rhetoric Alan G. Gross, have criticized its treatment of Ricœur. Beaudoin maintained that Grünbaum was mistaken to attribute to Ricœur the view that language is primary for psychoanalysis and that symptoms should be assimilated to linguistic expressions. She also argued that Grünbaum mistakenly claimed that Ricoeur endorsed Lacan's views and quoted Freud out of context to support "a purely causal interpretation of Freudian theory". Trotter maintained that Grünbaum mistakenly denied that "psychical reality is sufficiently different from material reality as to warrant different epistemic standards", and accused him of misunderstanding Ricœur. The psychiatrist Edwin R. Wallace IV criticized the work for its discussion of suggestion and understanding of analytic practice, as well as its reliance on a "positivistic vision of science." The philosopher Jonathan Lear argued that Grünbaum's arguments about the scientific status of psychoanalysis, like most criticisms and defenses of psychoanalysis, are irrelevant. He considered Grünbaum's account of Freud tendentious. The psychoanalyst W. W. Meissner argued that Grünbaum "forces psychoanalytic propositions into artificial positions that do not reflect the actuality of analytic practice." He suggested that Grünbaum's standard of verification was impossible not only for psychoanalysis but for "all forms of psychological knowledge". He credited Grünbaum with providing "informed criticism of the philosophical bases of psychoanalysis", but concluded that the "value of his argument falls short of providing a useful basis for advancing psychoanalytic knowledge and particularly for promoting the quest for pertinent standards of validation within psychoanalysis."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34449875
| 1,563,523 |
6,394 |
"In situ" investigations have been performed on Mars by the "Viking" landers, "Spirit" and "Opportunity" rovers, "Phoenix" lander, and "Curiosity" rover. Evidence suggests that the planet was once significantly more habitable than it is today, but whether living organisms ever existed there remains unknown. The "Viking" probes of the mid-1970s carried experiments designed to detect microorganisms in Martian soil at their respective landing sites and had positive results, including a temporary increase of production on exposure to water and nutrients. This sign of life was later disputed by scientists, resulting in a continuing debate, with NASA scientist Gilbert Levin asserting that "Viking" may have found life. Tests conducted by the "Phoenix Mars" lander have shown that the soil has an alkaline pH and it contains magnesium, sodium, potassium and chloride. The soil nutrients may be able to support life, but life would still have to be shielded from the intense ultraviolet light. A 2014 analysis of Martian meteorite EETA79001 found chlorate, perchlorate, and nitrate ions in sufficiently high concentration to suggest that they are widespread on Mars. UV and X-ray radiation would turn chlorate and perchlorate ions into other, highly reactive oxychlorines, indicating that any organic molecules would have to be buried under the surface to survive.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14640471
| 6,391 |
334,261 |
During the 1960s, the campus was the location of significant political protest. Prior to the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, protests about local racial segregation which began quietly in Franklin Street restaurants led to mass demonstrations and disturbance. The climate of civil unrest prompted the 1963 Speaker Ban Law prohibiting speeches by communists on state campuses in North Carolina. The law was immediately criticized by university Chancellor William Brantley Aycock and university President William Friday, but was not reviewed by the North Carolina General Assembly until 1965. Small amendments to allow "infrequent" visits failed to placate the student body, especially when the university's board of trustees overruled new Chancellor Paul Frederick Sharp's decision to allow speaking invitations to Marxist speaker Herbert Aptheker and civil liberties activist Frank Wilkinson; however, the two speakers came to Chapel Hill anyway. Wilkinson spoke off campus, while more than 1,500 students viewed Aptheker's speech across a low campus wall at the edge of campus, christened "Dan Moore's Wall" by "The Daily Tar Heel" for Governor Dan K. Moore. A group of UNC-Chapel Hill students, led by Student Body President Paul Dickson, filed a lawsuit in U.S. federal court, and on February 20, 1968, the Speaker Ban Law was struck down. In 1969, campus food workers of Lenoir Hall went on strike protesting perceived racial injustices that impacted their employment, garnering the support of student groups and members of the university and Chapel Hill community.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=89510
| 334,083 |
1,605,129 |
In the 1630s, with the involvement of foreign engineers, the construction of arms metallurgical factories began in the central part of Russia. Despite the construction of more than 20 state and private factories in the central region in the 17th century, the country experienced a shortage of metal and continued to buy it abroad. In 1629, 25 thousand poods of iron bars were bought in Sweden. To meet the needs of the Ural and Siberian enterprises (primarily salt-making) and settlements settled by Russians, iron was purchased in the central regions. At the same time, the cost of the metal increased sharply with the distance to the east due to transport costs. The impetus for the development of the Ural industry at the beginning of the 17th century was the plans of the authorities to create metallurgical enterprises in the eastern regions of Russia. After his trip abroad, Peter I, realizing the shortage of coal in the central regions and the need to strengthen weapons potential, ordered the construction of mining plants in the Urals, providing them with engineers from Tula, Kashira and other factories. The Ural factories were built on the model of factories in central Russia, which, in turn, were created using the French, German and Swedish types. The rapid development of the metallurgical industry in the Urals in the 17th-18th centuries was facilitated by the abundance of rich natural alloyed (copper, chromium and vanadium) ores in the region, as well as the availability of accessible forest and water resources. The lack of railways led to the development of a large number of small mines. Iron ore reserves were considered practically inexhaustible, while copper ore reserves, on the contrary, were quickly depleted, which led to the closure of 40 copper smelters in the Western Urals in the late 17th - first half of the 18th century.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=66141214
| 1,604,227 |
1,724,072 |
Transylvania prospered during Bethlen's reign. He did not restrict the liberties of the Three Nations, but exercised royal prerogatives to limit their influence on state administration. From 1615 at least two-thirds of those who attended the Diet were delegates appointed by him. He introduced a mercantilist economic policy, encouraging the immigration of Jews and Baptist craftsmen from the Holy Roman Empire, creating state monopolies and promoting export. The Diet controlled only about 10% of state revenuesaround 70,000 florins from the annual income of about 700,000 florinsfrom the 1620s. Bethlen set up a permanent army of mercenaries. He forbade Székely communers from choosing serfdom to avoid military service in 1619 and increased the tax payable by Székely serfs in 1623. He often granted nobility to serfs, but the Diet of 1619 requested him to stop this practise. The Diet also prohibited the Romanians from bearing arms in 1620 and 1623. Bethlen set up the first academy in Transylvania, promoted the building of schools and his subjects' studies abroad (especially in England), and punished those landowners who denied an education to children of serfs. Laws prohibiting religious innovations were repeated in 1618 and the Diet obliged the Sabbatariansa community who adopted Jewish customsto join one of the four official denominations. He planned to convert the Romanians to Calvinism and tried to convince Cyril Lucaris, Patriarch of Constantinople, to assist him, but the latter refused, emphasizing the "blood ties" between the Romanians of Transylvania, Wallachia and Moldavia. During the Thirty Years' War, Bethlen made an alliance with the Protestant Union and invaded Royal Hungary three times between 1619 and 1626. He was elected king of Hungary in August 1620, but a year later he renounced this title. In exchange, he received seven counties in Upper Hungary to rule during his lifetime.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4745801
| 1,723,102 |
565,840 |
In April 2020, a small group of children with evidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection or exposure to COVID-19 were found to display clinical features corresponding to the diagnostic criteria of Kawasaki disease, sometimes accompanied by shock. Kawasaki disease is a rare syndrome which mainly affects young children (adult onset has occasionally been reported). It is a form of vasculitis, where blood vessels become inflamed throughout the body, and it results in a persistent fever. Recovery typically occurs spontaneously, though some children later develop mid-sized or giant coronary artery aneurysms in the heart – a potentially fatal complication. Symptoms of toxic shock (a syndrome caused by bacterial toxins) occasionally occur – an association sometimes referred to as 'Kawasaki shock syndrome', which is characterized by systolic hypotension or signs of poor perfusion. While the exact cause of Kawasaki disease is unknown, one plausible explanation is that it may stem from an infection triggering an autoimmune and/or autoinflammatory response in children who are genetically predisposed. No specific diagnostic test exists for Kawasaki disease, and its recognition is based on various combinations of clinical and laboratory findings (including persistent fever, widespread rashes, enlarged lymph nodes, conjunctivitis, changes to the mucous membranes, and swollen hands and feet).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63895130
| 565,550 |
316,374 |
The role of the tank in World War I strategy is often poorly understood. Its supporters saw it as the weapon of victory, and many observers since have accused the high commands (especially the British) of shortsightedness in this matter, particularly in view of what tanks have achieved since. Nevertheless, the World War I tank's limitations, imposed by the limits of contemporary engineering technology, have to be borne in mind. They were slow (men could run, and frequently walk, faster); vulnerable (to artillery) due to their size, clumsiness and inability to carry armour against anything but rifle and machine gun ammunition; extremely uncomfortable (conditions inside them often incapacitating crews with engine fumes and heat, and driving some mad with noise); and often despicably unreliable (frequently failing to make it to their targets due to engine or track failures). This was the factor behind the seemingly mindless retention of large bodies of cavalry, which even in 1918, with armies incompletely mechanised, were still the only armed force capable of moving significantly faster than an infantryman on foot. It was not until the relevant technology (in engineering and communications) matured between the wars that the tank and the airplane could be forged into the co-ordinated force needed to truly restore manoeuvre to warfare.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=91515
| 316,205 |
430,087 |
MUOS WCDMA radios can transmit simultaneous voice, video and mission data on an Internet Protocol-based system connected to military networks. MUOS radios operate from anywhere around the world at speeds comparable to 3G smartphones. MUOS radios can also work under dense cover, such as jungle canopies and urban settings. The MUOS operates as a global cellular service provider to support the warfighter with modern cell phone-like capabilities, such as multimedia. It converts a commercial third generation (3G) Wideband Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA) cellular phone system to a military UHF SATCOM radio system using geosynchronous satellites in place of cell towers. By operating in the Ultra high frequency (UHF) frequency band, a lower frequency band than that used by conventional terrestrial cellular networks, the MUOS provides warfighters with the tactical ability to communicate in "disadvantaged" environments, such as heavily forested regions where higher frequency signals would be unacceptably attenuated by the forest canopy. Connections may be set up on demand by users in the field, within seconds, and then released just as easily, freeing resources for other users. In alignment with more traditional military communications methods, pre-planned networks can also be established either permanently or per specific schedule using the MUOS' ground-based Network Management Center.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2088185
| 429,875 |
627,955 |
For IBU competitions, the total weight of the unloaded rifle has to be between . The current weight limit was established around the 1986 season after Glen Eberle had showed the world a new and lighter stock design. At that time olympic biathlon rifles usually weighed well over 5 kg, and it was a common belief that a rifle needed to be somewhat heavy in order to be stable enough to shoot accurately, particularly with the fast heart rate and shortness of breath experienced during a biathlon race. Another contribution to the relatively high weight was to make the stocks stronger, since biathlon stocks commonly were known to be at risk of breaking around the pistol grip area when the athlete fell. Eberle set out to make a stronger and lighter design, and received a research grant from the United States Olympic Committee. He consulted engineers, biomechanical experts and NASA scientists, and the work resulted in a design which combined wood of Sitka spruce and carbon fiber composite materials. This resulted in a biathlon stock that was 1.6 kg lighter than any on the market, a substantial weight saving on a 20 km biathlon race. In addition to being easier to carry while skiing, Eberle also felt he had demonstrated that an athlete with a lightweight, but well balanced and ergonomically correct rifle, would shoot better than with the conventional heavy rifles. The Eberle stock quickly became popular, with most athletes competing with either the Eberle stock or similar designs. After some initial resistance, the world biathlon governing body accepted the new low weight design, and used it as a standard for the current 3.5 kg limit.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56656728
| 627,620 |
1,184,618 |
Atlas of the journey included 19 maps, 13 different types of islands, 2 ice islands, and 30 different drawings. In 1949, the original sketching album of Pavel Mikhailov was discovered in the collection of the State Historical Museum. It consisted of 47 pages, where the author depicted types of islands, landscapes, portraits of local citizens. Taking into consideration that there was no naturalist on board, Mikhailov was trying his best to depict samples of flora and fauna, fixing each feather in birds or fish flakes. In 2012, the Russian Museum in Saint Petersburg published bilingual (Russian and English) edition of reproductions of 209 watercolours and drawings by Mikhailov that related to both the expedition of Bellingshausen and Lazarev, and to the expedition of and Friedrich von Lütke that was aimed to discover the shores of the Bering Sea and the central part of the Pacific Ocean in 1826–1829. According to Bulkeley, who was the author of the first generic English-language research on Bellingshausen, the Russian Antarctic expedition was "in the information vacuum". Only in 1928 Yuly Shokalsky reanalyzed the report of the head of the expedition. The second edition of the "Dvukratnye izyskanija" was released only in 1949 edited by Evgeniy Sjvede; however, the volume was abbreviated; the 1960 edition was also abridged, but the nature of the exemptions was different. In 1963 Mikhail Belov first printed an expedition report card, consisting of 15 sheets. In the preface to this publication, it was stated that neither Bellingshausen's final report to the Ministry of the Sea Forces nor his initial report had ever been released. In 2014 Bulkeley noticed that without any particular reason, historiographic interest to the expedition had decreased. Generalized publications on the course and results of the expedition ceased to be issued, and Soviet and Western researchers focused on the private aspects of Russian visits to Australia and the Oceanian islands. In 1988–1992 Barratt (University of British Columbia) published a 4-volume monograph "'Russia and the South Pacific, 1696–1840".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40880361
| 1,183,990 |
591,550 |
By February 2019, Ariane Group and the French government space agency CNES began work on a new "acceleration platform" called ArianeWorks to develop new launchers, including reusable ones, which included teams from both companies working "under one roof." The joint operation was to have a more flexible working environment than traditional Ariane projects, and was intended to explicitly be open to "new players and internationally." By September 2019, the results from two low-cost demonstrators were expected soon, and a more robust flight demonstrator called Themis was projected to one day make use of some parts of the earlier demonstration projects and would use the larger reusable Prometheus rocket engine. The Themis prototype was to be built by Paris prototyping company MyCTO. In the event, the ESA contracted with ArianeGroup in December 2020 to build the Themis resusable rocket stage demonstrator, and provided an initial for the first development phase. The program objective is to be able to demonstrate to European governments by 2022 a range of technologies needed to meet European reusable rocket technology needs such that competitive launcher options could be developed in Europe to compete in the 2030s global launch market.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46963268
| 591,248 |
11,756 |
In 2006, the media-services provider Netflix held the first "Netflix Prize" competition to find a program to better predict user preferences and improve the accuracy of its existing Cinematch movie recommendation algorithm by at least 10%. A joint team made up of researchers from AT&T Labs-Research in collaboration with the teams Big Chaos and Pragmatic Theory built an ensemble model to win the Grand Prize in 2009 for $1 million. Shortly after the prize was awarded, Netflix realized that viewers' ratings were not the best indicators of their viewing patterns ("everything is a recommendation") and they changed their recommendation engine accordingly. In 2010 The Wall Street Journal wrote about the firm Rebellion Research and their use of machine learning to predict the financial crisis. In 2012, co-founder of Sun Microsystems, Vinod Khosla, predicted that 80% of medical doctors jobs would be lost in the next two decades to automated machine learning medical diagnostic software. In 2014, it was reported that a machine learning algorithm had been applied in the field of art history to study fine art paintings and that it may have revealed previously unrecognized influences among artists. In 2019 Springer Nature published the first research book created using machine learning. In 2020, machine learning technology was used to help make diagnoses and aid researchers in developing a cure for COVID-19. Machine learning is recently applied to predict the green behavior of human-being. Recently, machine learning technology is also applied to optimise smartphone's performance and thermal behaviour based on the user's interaction with the phone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=233488
| 11,751 |
1,216,267 |
Originally invented by Kevin D. Fraser of San Francisco. The prototype utilized existing ultrasonic intrusion alarm technology coupled to conventional industrial timers, with basic switching elements. First prototype was crafted on a plywood base; the first model required a separate transmitter and receiver processing 20,200 cycles per second of sound energy. Mr. Fraser was employed by and developed the device for the Embarcadero Center high-rise office complex in San Francisco, and as such employee did not profit from the invention. He took the concept to Unisec security devices and had them build a single piece transceiver based on 277VAC - the level of electricity used for commercial lighting in the Embarcadero Center complex. Four hundred of these units were installed under a newly named UNENCO brand, and installed in the bathrooms of the four high-rise towers. This was an immediate success. This application received Congressional Mention for Kevin Fraser's efforts, as well as various Pacific Gas & Electric awards. Noted local columnist Herb Cain made mention that one should not sit too long in the stalls at Embarcadero Center, and the word caught on regarding the technology. While not receiving a patent, Mr. Fraser was acknowledged by the Association of Energy Engineers (AEE) as the inventor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7583854
| 1,215,615 |
1,912,687 |
In the tournament quarterfinals at Madison Square Garden, Georgetown faced New York University, which had defeated the Hoyas 16 times in their last 21 meetings dating back to the 1921–1922 season and was the 2-to-1 favorite of New York City sportswriters, but Georgetown won in an upset, 55-36, with Mahnken scoring 18 points for the Hoyas. In the semifinals, the Hoyas were 3-to-1 underdogs to DePaul under first-year head coach Ray Meyer and led by their dominating center George Mikan. Following Ripleys strategy for the game, Kraus and Georgetown sophomore guard Billy Hassett kept Mikan busy in the middle while Hoya center Mahnken scored with outside shooting. The plan did succeed in allowing Georgetown to score, but also left Mikan fairly free to score for DePaul at the other end; despite this, Georgetown closed to 28-23 when Hoya guard Lloyd Potolicchio scored on a 50-foot (15-meter) shot at the buzzer at the end of the first half. The Hoyas pulled ahead in the second half, but Mahnken fouled out with 10 minutes left. Ripley put Henry Hyde, seven inches shorter than Mikan, in to play center. Hyde managed to keep Mikan in check, and Georgetown upset DePaul 53-49, prompting a Hoya fan to shout "Believe it or not...by Ripley!", a quote which received wide publicity. Hassett, a very reliable passer and outside shooter for the Hoyas, had 11 points in the game.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41560752
| 1,911,588 |
729,667 |
Also in 1994, DARPA started the Smart Modules Program to develop a modular, "humionic" approach to wearable and carryable computers, with the goal of producing a variety of products including computers, radios, navigation systems and human-computer interfaces that have both military and commercial use. In July 1996, DARPA went on to host the "Wearables in 2005" workshop, bringing together industrial, university, and military visionaries to work on the common theme of delivering computing to the individual. A follow-up conference was hosted by Boeing in August 1996, where plans were finalized to create a new academic conference on wearable computing. In October 1997, Carnegie Mellon University, MIT, and Georgia Tech co-hosted the IEEE International Symposium on Wearables Computers (ISWC) in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The symposium was a full academic conference with published proceedings and papers ranging from sensors and new hardware to new applications for wearable computers, with 382 people registered for the event. In 1998, the Microelectronic and Computer Technology Corporation created the Wearable Electronics consortial program for industrial companies in the U.S. to rapidly develop wearable computers. The program preceded the MCC Heterogeneous Component Integration Study, an investigation of the technology, infrastructure, and business challenges surrounding the continued development and integration of micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) with other system components.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33109
| 729,283 |
382,541 |
These and other articles describe new challenges and solutions to use BCI technology to help persons with DOC. One major challenge is that these patients cannot use BCIs based on vision. Hence, new tools rely on auditory and/or vibrotactile stimuli. Patients may wear headphones and/or vibrotactile stimulators placed on the wrists, neck, leg, and/or other locations. Another challenge is that patients may fade in and out of consciousness, and can only communicate at certain times. This may indeed be a cause of mistaken diagnosis. Some patients may only be able to respond to physicians' requests during a few hours per day (which might not be predictable ahead of time) and thus may have been unresponsive during diagnosis. Therefore, new methods rely on tools that are easy to use in field settings, even without expert help, so family members and other persons without any medical or technical background can still use them. This reduces the cost, time, need for expertise, and other burdens with DOC assessment. Automated tools can ask simple questions that patients can easily answer, such as "Is your father named George?" or "Were you born in the USA?" Automated instructions inform patients that they may convey yes or no by (for example) focusing their attention on stimuli on the right vs. left wrist. This focused attention produces reliable changes in EEG patterns that can help determine that the patient is able to communicate. The results could be presented to physicians and therapists, which could lead to a revised diagnosis and therapy. In addition, these patients could then be provided with BCI-based communication tools that could help them convey basic needs, adjust bed position and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning), and otherwise empower them to make major life decisions and communicate.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=623686
| 382,346 |
222,907 |
Common among all of the different specifications and types are the following steps: Prior to passivation, the object must be cleaned of any contaminants and generally must undergo a validating test to prove that the surface is 'clean.' The object is then placed in an acidic passivating bath that meets the temperature and chemical requirements of the method and type specified between customer and vendor. While nitric acid is commonly used as a passivating acid for stainless steel, citric acid is gaining in popularity as it is far less dangerous to handle, less toxic, and biodegradable, making disposal less of a challenge. Passivating temperatures can range from ambient to 60 °C, or , while minimum passivation times are usually 20 to 30 minutes. After passivation, the parts are neutralized using a bath of aqueous sodium hydroxide, then rinsed with clean water and dried. The passive surface is validated using humidity, elevated temperature, a rusting agent (salt spray), or some combination of the three. The passivation process removes exogenous iron, creates/restores a passive oxide layer that prevents further oxidation (rust), and cleans the parts of dirt, scale, or other welding-generated compounds (e.g. oxides).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=175622
| 222,798 |
25,333 |
Reports say that Russian forces are having to repair damaged Ukrainian tanks; the Russian Defence Ministry says these tanks are for pro-Russian forces. The Ukrainian Defence Ministry's Chief Directorate of Intelligence claims that Russia has stopped making new tanks. Due to the fighting in Ukraine the Russian Victory Day parade will be reduced by some 35%, purely in ground combat vehicles or systems. The parade on 9 May 2022, according to the official guide, would feature only 25 Russian combat systems and 131 ground combat vehicles. Compared to last year where it featured 198 vehicles and 35 combat systems. In particular there is a shortage of display ready T-80 and they are using older equipment to make up numbers. An example is usage of tank transporters in lieu of actual tanks. Likewise the T-14 Armata, Kurganets-25 and VPK-7829 Bumerang are both stuck at three numbers for the Victory Day parade. The same number since 2015, possibly indicating that production has frozen as other reports have suggested, due to sanctions. As of 6 May, at least 12 generals have been killed in Ukraine, according to the Ukrainian Ministry of Defense. Russia has not commented on these claims. Colonel Steve Ganyard (retired), told ABCNews, that: "It suggests that the generals need to be at the front lines to ensure that their troops are conducting the battle plan in the way that they want. But that also suggests a lack of confidence in their troops if they need to be that far forward with that many senior folks." Ukraine further claims that some 317 officers have been killed. A third of whom are senior command staff. In a tweet the UK MoD said that the Russian officer corps was suffering "devastating losses" particularly in the junior to mid officer ranks.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1094752
| 25,324 |
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Since the discovery of antibiotics, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics, but in the 2000s there has been concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that practitioners may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side-effects; for example, antibiotics like aminoglycosides (such as amikacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, streptomycin, etc.) used for the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis and cystic fibrosis can cause respiratory disorders, deafness and kidney failure. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry research and development. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial returns are less likely to cover the cost of development than for other pharmaceuticals. In 2011, Pfizer, one of the last major pharmaceutical companies developing new antibiotics, shut down its primary research effort, citing poor shareholder returns relative to drugs for chronic illnesses. However, small and medium-sized pharmaceutical companies are still active in antibiotic drug research. In particular, apart from classical synthetic chemistry methodologies, researchers have developed a combinatorial synthetic biology platform on single cell level in a high-throughput screening manner to diversify novel lanthipeptides.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1914
| 185,753 |
836,104 |
Mining of uranium ore can disrupt the environment around the mine. However with modern in-situ leaching technology this impact can be reduced compared to "classical" underground- or open-pit mining. Disposal of spent nuclear fuel is controversial, with many proposed long-term storage schemes under intense review and criticism. Nuclear reprocessing and breeder reactors which can decrease the need for storage of spent fuel in a deep geological repository have faced economic and political hurdles but are in some use in Russia, India, China, Japan and France, which are among the countries with the highest nuclear energy production outside the United States. However, the U.S. has not undertaken significant efforts towards either reprocessing or breeder reactors since the 1970s instead relying on the once through fuel cycle. Diversion of fresh- or low-burnup spent fuel to weapons production presents a risk of nuclear proliferation, however all nuclear weapons states derived the material for their first nuclear weapon from (non-power) research reactors or dedicated "production reactors" and/or uranium enrichment. Finally, some parts the structure of the reactor itself becomes radioactive through neutron activation and will require decades of storage before it can be economically dismantled and in turn disposed of as waste. Measures like reducing the Cobalt content in steel to decrease the amount of Cobalt-60 produced by neutron capture can reduce the amount of radioactive material produced and the radiotoxicity that originates from this material. However, part of the issue is not radiological but regulatory as most countries assume any given object that originates from the "hot" (radioactive) area of a nuclear power plant or a facility in the nuclear fuel cycle is ipso facto radioactive, even if no contamination or neutron irradiation induced radioactivity is detectable.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14163295
| 835,655 |
383,971 |
It was later shown by Howard Percy Robertson (1949) and others (see Robertson–Mansouri–Sexl test theory), that it is possible to derive the Lorentz transformation entirely from the combination of three experiments. First, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that the speed of light is independent of the "orientation" of the apparatus, establishing the relationship between longitudinal (β) and transverse (δ) lengths. Then in 1932, Roy Kennedy and Edward Thorndike modified the Michelson–Morley experiment by making the path lengths of the split beam unequal, with one arm being very short. The Kennedy–Thorndike experiment took place for many months as the Earth moved around the sun. Their negative result showed that the speed of light is independent of the "velocity" of the apparatus in different inertial frames. In addition it established that besides length changes, corresponding time changes must also occur, i.e., it established the relationship between longitudinal lengths (β) and time changes (α). So both experiments do not provide the individual values of these quantities. This uncertainty corresponds to the undefined factor formula_54 as described above. It was clear due to theoretical reasons (the group character of the Lorentz transformation as required by the relativity principle) that the individual values of length contraction and time dilation must assume their exact relativistic form. But a direct measurement of one of these quantities was still desirable to confirm the theoretical results. This was achieved by the Ives–Stilwell experiment (1938), measuring α in accordance with time dilation. Combining this value for α with the Kennedy–Thorndike null result shows that "β" must assume the value of relativistic length contraction. Combining "β" with the Michelson–Morley null result shows that "δ" must be zero. Therefore, the Lorentz transformation with formula_55 is an unavoidable consequence of the combination of these three experiments.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=91100
| 383,776 |
1,698,730 |
The "noblemen and gentlemen" may have had the final word in cricket's governance during the 18th century but the professionals certainly had a voice, as illustrated by two famous incidents. In September 1771, when Chertsey played Hambledon at Laleham Burway, Chertsey's Thomas White introduced a bat that was fully as wide as the wicket. He was not actually cheating because there was no limit on bat size at the time, rather he was probably making a point in order to force an issue because straight bats were still new, having been introduced in the 1760s, and it is believed that there was no standard. The Hambledon professionals objected and their senior bowler Thomas Brett wrote out a formal protest that was signed by himself, his captain Richard Nyren and senior batsman John Small, all three being professional players. Brett's action brought about a change in the Laws, as confirmed in 1774, whereby the maximum width of the bat was set at four and one quarter inches. This ruling remains intact. In May 1775, master batsman Small was involved in the incident which resulted in the introduction of the third (middle) stump in the wicket. The wicket in 1775 still consisted of two uprights and a crosspiece, as it had from time immemorial. In a single wicket match played at the Artillery Ground, the great Chertsey bowler Lumpy Stevens (another professional) beat Small at least three times only for the ball to pass "through" the wicket without disturbing it, and Small won the match for Hambledon. Like Brett before him, Stevens protested and his petition was granted soon afterwards, although research has discovered that the introduction of the third stump in practice was gradual and the two-stump wicket did continue in places for a number of years yet.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30187735
| 1,697,776 |
728,230 |
The role of science and scholarship in PAR is another source of difference. In the Lewinian tradition, "there is nothing so practical as a good theory". Accordingly, the scientific logic of developing theory, forming and testing hypotheses, gathering measurable data and interpreting the results plays a central role. While more clinically oriented, psychosociology in France also emphasizes the distinctive role of formal research and academic work, beyond problem solving in specific contexts. Many PAR practitioners critical of mainstream science and its overemphasis on quantitative data also point out that research based on qualitative methods may be theoretically-informed and rigorous in its own way. In other traditions, however, PAR keeps great distance from both academic and corporate science. Given their emphasis on pluralism and living knowledge, many practitioners of grassroots inquiry are critical of grand theory and advanced methods for collaborative inquiry, to the point of abandoning the word "research" altogether, as in participatory action learning. Others equate research with any involvement in reflexive practice aimed at assessing problems and evaluating project or program results against group expectations. As a result, inquiry methods tend to be soft and theory remains absent or underdeveloped. Practical and theoretical efforts to overcome this ambivalence towards scholarly activity are nonetheless emerging.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2819542
| 727,846 |
548,088 |
"Aviation Week" describes Blackstar as a two-stage-to-orbit system, the first stage of which is a delta-winged supersonic jet (which "Aviation Week" referred to as the SR-3). Its description of SR-3 is similar to the North American B-70 Valkyrie Mach 3 strategic bomber, and to patents filed in the 1980s by Boeing. The SR-3 would carry a second, smaller airframe, codenamed the XOV (eXperimental Orbital Vehicle) underneath, between its two laterally separated engine-banks, each containing 2 or 3 engines. This rocket-powered spaceplane, with similarities to the X-20 Dyna-Soar project, would be released by its mothership at an altitude of around 100,000 feet. The XOV would then light its rocket motor (aerospike engines, similar to those used by the Lockheed Martin X-33), and could achieve both suborbital and orbital flight; one source quoted by "Aviation Week" estimates the XOV could reach an orbit of above the Earth, depending on payload and mission profile. The XOV would then reenter the atmosphere and glide back to any landing site where it would land horizontally on a conventional runway. This combination of jet-powered mothership and a smaller rocket-powered spaceplane resembles the civilian Tier One spaceplane system as well as NASA's X-15, but capable of much higher velocities and thus of attaining orbit. Readers are cautioned to examine the challenges involved in supersonic separation of vehicles as opposed to the more common subsonic separation of ordnance from aircraft, but this separation from the belly might be easier than from the top, which proved to be problematic on the Lockheed D-21/M-21.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4296767
| 547,801 |
94,605 |
Before the modern medical era, the main means for studying the internal structures of the body were dissection of the dead and inspection, palpation and auscultation of the living. It was the advent of microscopy that opened up an understanding of the building blocks that constituted living tissues. Technical advances in the development of achromatic lenses increased the resolving power of the microscope and around 1839, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann identified that cells were the fundamental unit of organization of all living things. Study of small structures involved passing light through them and the microtome was invented to provide sufficiently thin slices of tissue to examine. Staining techniques using artificial dyes were established to help distinguish between different types of tissue. Advances in the fields of histology and cytology began in the late 19th century along with advances in surgical techniques allowing for the painless and safe removal of biopsy specimens. The invention of the electron microscope brought a great advance in resolution power and allowed research into the ultrastructure of cells and the organelles and other structures within them. About the same time, in the 1950s, the use of X-ray diffraction for studying the crystal structures of proteins, nucleic acids and other biological molecules gave rise to a new field of molecular anatomy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=674
| 94,564 |
1,275,582 |
On the other hand, Thompson built one of the most successful LNER designs, the class B1 4-6-0, which was a simple two-cylinder design mixed traffic engine. The B1 was based loosely on Gresley's class B17. The prototype for the B1 was a B17/1 modified with a higher pressure boiler and with its centre cylinder removed. The design proved to be free-steaming, economical and simple to maintain, though some details caused issues in due course. The small amount of balancing of the reciprocating masses (in order to reduce hammer-blow) made for a rough ride and a significant degree of vibration in the cab, and eventually the reciprocating mass percentage was increased. More than 400 B1s were built between 1946 and 1952: British Railways continued B1 production after nationalisation. The Diagram 100A boiler used in the class formed the basis for the rebuilding of many pre-grouping classes, including the class O4 2-8-0 freight locos. The Thompson B1 equalled the LMS Black Five locomotives during the inter-regional exchange trials in the first year of British Railways. The B1 was also cheaper to build than the Black Five. The B1 had poor and very inconsistent ride quality, unlike the relatively smooth riding qualities of a number of Gresley designs, though it must be considered that fundamentally a locomotive with a rear truck/Cartazzi arrangement does generally ride better than one without, and even Gresley's classes reflected this. Poor riding remains a characteristic of the two preserved B1s.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2965683
| 1,274,890 |
92,268 |
In 1990, American engineer Gilbert Hyatt was awarded U.S. Patent No. 4,942,516, which was based on a 16-bit serial computer he built at his Northridge, California home in 1969 from boards of bipolar chips after quitting his job at Teledyne in 1968; though the patent had been submitted in December 1970 and prior to Texas Instruments' filings for the TMX 1795 and TMS 0100, Hyatt's invention was never manufactured. This nonetheless led to claims that Hyatt was the inventor of the microprocessor and the payment of substantial royalties through a Philips N.V. subsidiary, until Texas Instruments prevailed in a complex legal battle in 1996, when the U.S. Patent Office overturned key parts of the patent, while allowing Hyatt to keep it. Hyatt said in a 1990 "Los Angeles Times" article that his invention would have been created had his prospective investors backed him, and that the venture investors leaked details of his chip to the industry, though he did not elaborate with evidence to support this claim. In the same article, "The Chip" author T.R. Reid was quoted as saying that historians may ultimately place Hyatt as a co-inventor of the microprocessor, in the way that Intel's Noyce and TI's Kilby share credit for the invention of the chip in 1958: "Kilby got the idea first, but Noyce made it practical. The legal ruling finally favored Noyce, but they are considered co-inventors. The same could happen here." Hyatt would go on to fight a decades-long legal battle with the state of California over alleged unpaid taxes on his patent's windfall after 1990, which would culminate in a landmark Supreme Court case addressing states' sovereign immunity in "Franchise Tax Board of California v. Hyatt (2019)".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19553
| 92,227 |
1,454,294 |
In the 1960s, surgeons at Jacobi performed the world's first successful clinical coronary artery bypass surgery; on May 2, 1960, Robert H. Goetz performed a right internal thoracic artery-to-right coronary artery anastomosis using a tantalum ring in a 38-year-old man. Cardiac catheterization on postoperative day 14 showed a patent stented anastomosis. The patient was anticoagulated with warfarin and remained free of angina for a year. He died at Jacobi on June 23, 1961, of a posterior wall myocardial infarction. Autopsy was not performed, and the long-term patency of the anastomosis was not established. They established the first NIH Clinical Research Center for the care and study of critically injured patients in the country. The center's work with severely burned patients led it to develop a new, highly effective method of hyperalimentation which was quickly adapted in burn protocols worldwide. Its research also prompted the use of germ-free isolators in the operating room and at the bedside to prevent infection. Using this brand new technology, Jacobi obstetricians delivered the first “germ-free” baby in the world. The center also studied and successfully treated patients with serious metabolic and genetic disorders, such as atherosclerosis and Wilson's Disease. Jacobi anesthesiologists developed the Gertie Marx Spinal Needle, named after Gertie F. Marx, a standard still used today for administration of the epidural block during labor. Jacobi neurologists isolated chemical markers which made it possible to identify carriers of Tay–Sachs disease, a deadly genetic disorder.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4654529
| 1,453,474 |
263,303 |
For more general applications, it is preferred to have a lower DBTT to ensure the material has a wider ductility range. This ensures that sudden cracks are inhibited so that failures in the metal body are prevented. It has been determined that the more slip systems a material has, the wider the range of temperatures ductile behavior is exhibited at. This is due to the slip systems allowing for more motion of dislocations when a stress is applied to the material. Thus, in materials with a lower amount of slip systems, dislocations are often pinned by obstacles leading to strain hardening, which increases the materials strength which makes the material more brittle. For this reason, FCC structures are ductile over a wide range of temperatures, BCC structures are ductile only at high temperatures, and HCP structures are often brittle over wide ranges of temperatures. This leads to each of these structures having different performances as they approach failure (fatigue, overload, and stress cracking) under various temperatures, and shows the importance of the DBTT in selecting the correct material for a specific application. For example, zamak 3 exhibits good ductility at room temperature but shatters when impacted at sub-zero temperatures. DBTT is a very important consideration in selecting materials that are subjected to mechanical stresses. A similar phenomenon, the glass transition temperature, occurs with glasses and polymers, although the mechanism is different in these amorphous materials. The DBTT is also dependent on the size of the grains within the metal, as typically smaller grain size leads to an increase in tensile strength, resulting in an increase in ductility and decrease in the DBTT. This increase in tensile strength is due to the smaller grain sizes resulting in grain boundary hardening occurring within the material, where the dislocations require a larger stress to bypass the grain boundaries and continue to propagate throughout the material. It has been shown that by continuing to refine ferrite grains to reduce their size, from 40 microns down to 1.3 microns, that it is possible to eliminate the DBTT entirely so that a brittle fracture never occurs in ferritic steel (as the DBTT required would be below absolute zero).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=87019
| 263,164 |
730,350 |
Ellen G. White's visions prompted several books by one of her followers, George McCready Price, leading to the 20th-century revival of flood geology. After years selling White's books door-to-door, Price took a one-year teacher-training course and taught in several schools. When shown books on evolution and the fossil sequence which contradicted his beliefs, he found the answer in White's "revealing word pictures" which suggested how the fossils had been buried. He studied textbooks on geology and "almost tons of geological documents", finding "how the actual facts of the rocks and fossils, "stripped of mere theories", splendidly refute this evolutionary theory of the invariable order of the fossils, "which is the very backbone of the evolution doctrine"". In 1902, he produced a manuscript for a book proposing geology based on Genesis, in which the sequence of fossils resulted from the different responses of animals to the encroaching flood. He agreed with White on the origins of coal and oil, and conjectured that mountain ranges (including the Alps and Himalaya) formed from layers deposited by the flood which had then been "folded and elevated to their present height by the great lateral pressure that accompanied its subsidence". He then found a report describing paraconformities and a paper on thrust faults. He concluded from these "providential discoveries" that it was impossible to prove the age or overall sequence of fossils, and included these points in his self-published paperback of 1906, "Illogical Geology: The Weakest Point in the Evolution Theory". His arguments continued this focus on disproving the sequence of strata, and he ultimately sold more than 15,000 copies of his 1923 college textbook "The New Geology".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=543667
| 729,965 |
744,055 |
In 1873, Stanford approached Muybridge to photograph his favorite trotter Occident in action. Initially, Muybridge believed it was impossible to get a good picture of a horse at full speed. He knew of only a few examples of instantaneous photography made in London and Paris, that depicted street scenes. These were made in very practical conditions, with subjects moving towards the camera no faster than the ordinary walk of a man, in which the legs had not been essayed at all. He explained that photography simply had not yet advanced far enough to record a horse flashing by the camera. Stanford insisted, and Muybridge agreed to try. The first experiments were executed over several days. To create the needed bright backdrop, white sheets were collected and Occident was trained to walk past them without flinching. Then more sheets were gathered to lay over the ground, so the legs would be clearly visible, and Occident was trained to walk over them. Muybridge developed a spring-activated shutter system, leaving an opening of 1/8 of an inch, and in the end, managed to reduce the shutter speed to a reported 1/500th of a second. Nonetheless, the best result was a very blurry and shadowy image of the trotting horse. Muybridge was far from satisfied with the result, but to his surprise, Stanford reacted very enthusiastically after carefully studying the foggy outlines of the legs in the picture. Although Stanford agreed that the photograph was not successful regarding image quality, it was satisfactory as proof of his theory. Most of the previous depictions and descriptions had indeed been wrong. Before leaving his customer, Muybridge promised to concentrate his thoughts on coming up with a faster photographic process for the project. Although Stanford later claimed he did not contemplate publishing the results, the local press was informed and it was hailed as a triumph in photography by the "Daily Alta California". The image itself remained unpublished and has not yet resurfaced.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=26044155
| 743,661 |
1,769,563 |
Vitali Vitaliev of The Institution of Engineering and Technology calls the book "a magnificent monograph that stands out among the multiple books on Chernobyl simply because it tells us the truth – the whole unadulterated truth – about one of the worst disasters in history." and comments on the effort to downplay the effects: "Let's face it: the minimisation and even trimming-up of history's worst nuclear catastrophe has become a popular sport with some Western intellectuals, among whom I can count some deluded colleagues and friends. They keep repeating like a mantra the ‘magic’ number 62, the official death toll immediately after the 1986 explosion. By doing so, not only do they ignore the plight of tens of thousands of victims of the disaster, many of them children, who have since died of different forms of radiation sickness and cancer, they overlook the treacherous nature of the nuclear contamination and residual radiation capable of manifesting themselves years and even centuries after the tragic event. As Brown, a distinguished American scholar, herself remarks in the final part of her book: “Ignorance about low-dose exposure is, I have argued, partly deliberate.” and goes on to note: "Why were – and are – they doing it? The publishers of ‘Manual for Survival’ rightly suggest in the jacket blurb that the motivation for “(Western) scientists and diplomats from international organisations ... to bury and discredit the evidence” is that they were “worried that this evidence would blow the lid on the effects of massive radiation, released from weapons testing during the Cold War.”
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40786659
| 1,768,568 |
17,090 |
John Grier Hibben became president in 1912 and would remain in the post for two decades. On October 2, 1913, the Princeton University Graduate College was dedicated. When the United States entered World War I in 1917, Hibben allocated all available University resources to the government. As a result, military training schools opened on campus and laboratories and other facilities were used for research and operational programs. Overall, more than 6,000 students served in the armed forces, with 151 dying during the war. After the war, enrollment spiked and the trustees established the system of selective admission in 1922. From the 1920s to the 1930s, the student body featured many students from preparatory schools, zero Black students, and dwindling Jewish enrollment because of quotas. Aside from managing Princeton during WWI, Hibben introduced the senior thesis in 1923 as a part of The New Plan of Study. He also brought about great expansion to the university, with the creation of the School of Architecture in 1919, the School of Engineering in 1921, and the School of Public and International Affairs in 1930. By the end of his presidency, the endowment had increased by 374 percent, the total area of the campus doubled, the faculty experienced impressive growth, and the enrollment doubled.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23922
| 17,085 |
156,324 |
The practice of wearing academic regalia in the United States dates to the Colonial Colleges period, and was heavily influenced by European practices and styles. Students of most colonial colleges were required to wear the "college habit" at most times – a practice that lasted until the eve of the American Civil War in many institutions of higher learning. In some rare instances the practice has persisted, such as at , where members of the student honor society, along with most professors, continue to wear the gown to class. After the Civil War, academic regalia was generally only worn at ceremonies or when representing the institution. There was not, however, any standardization among the meanings behind the various costumes. In 1893, an Intercollegiate Commission made up of representatives from leading institutions and chaired by President of Columbia Seth Low was created, to establish an acceptable system of academic dress. The commission met at Columbia University in 1895 and adopted a code of academic regalia, which prescribed the cut and style and materials of the gowns, as well as determined the colors which were to represent the different fields of learning. These rules were soon adopted by Columbia's peer institutions, including Harvard, Yale, and Princeton. In 1932 the American Council on Education (ACE) authorized the appointment of a committee to determine whether revision and completion of the academic code adopted by the conference of the colleges and universities in 1895 is desirable at this time, and, if so, to draft a revised code and present a plan for submitting the code to the consideration of the institutional members of the council.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=337921
| 156,252 |
1,015,998 |
No specimens approaching these extreme sizes have been reported since the middle of the 20th century. This lack of giant individuals is corroborated by commercial octopus fishers; none of those interviewed by Cosgrove & McDaniel (2009) had caught a single animal weighing more than in the previous 20 years, among many thousands harvested over that period. Octopus specialist Roland Anderson, a biologist with the Seattle Aquarium for more than 30 years, had long sought, unsuccessfully, to find a giant Pacific octopus weighing more than . In an attempt to raise a truly enormous specimen, Anderson fed a number of captive males "ad libitum". The heaviest animal (nicknamed 'Big') attained a peak weight of and its largest suckers measured in diameter. Anderson suggested the species might now be maturing at a smaller size as a result of toxicant bioaccumulation, which could explain the lack of truly gigantic specimens in recent times. In particular, high concentrations of heavy metals and PCBs have been identified in the digestive glands of wild giant Pacific octopuses, likely originating from their preferred prey, the red rock crab ("Cancer productus"). A preliminary study found that aquarium animals fed equal quantities of raw sea food and live "C. productus" (caught locally in Elliott Bay) matured at a smaller size, reached a lower maximum weight ( mean), and had higher concentrations of most heavy metals, than those fed solely on raw sea food ( mean, including the aforementioned specimen).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8375147
| 1,015,475 |
247,903 |
Despite the strong promotion of management rationalization measures, the company's business performance never recovered. The reason is, on October 25, 1949, GHQ issued a "Memorandum on the total removal of restrictions on the production and sale of automobiles". As a result, the production and sale of automobiles became free in principle, but about the supply of production materials, the allocation and distribution system by the Ministry of International Trade and Industry remained, and the prices of materials and automobiles remained regulated. Moreover, while the controlled prices of materials were gradually raised thereafter, while the controlled prices of automobiles remained unchanged until April 1950, the profitability of the automobile business remained extremely difficult. Not only Toyota Motor Corporation but also Nissan Motor Corporation and Isuzu Motors Corporation deteriorated in business performance. For the four and a half months from November 16, 1949 to March 31, 1950, the loss was 76.52 million yen, so Toyota Labor Union judged that the personnel cut was inevitable, and a quasi-fighting system was established in March of the same year. Since then, labor-management negotiations have intensified into long-standing disputes. Under such tension, Kiichiro, who was originally hypertensive, became ill, so negotiations with the labor union were handled by the management army instead of Kiichiro. However, On April 22, 1950, the company announced that it would carry out 1,600 voluntary retirements to the labor union. On the other hand, since the company had promised not to lay off its personnel, the union naturally became furious and continued with extreme strikes. The strikes continued daily for about two months after the declaration, which caused production in April and May to drop 70% from its previous average. Since the company would be destroyed as it is, on June 5, 1950, Kiichiro announced that he would resign as the president to take on this series of responsibilities. By his retirement, the strike ended finally. Everyone was shocked by Kiichiro's resignation, and the union also had a respect for Kiichiro.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4670679
| 247,775 |
405,888 |
De Marignac was the first to prepare the metal in 1864, when he reduced niobium chloride by heating it in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Although de Marignac was able to produce tantalum-free niobium on a larger scale by 1866, it was not until the early 20th century that niobium was used in incandescent lamp filaments, the first commercial application. This use quickly became obsolete through the replacement of niobium with tungsten, which has a higher melting point. That niobium improves the strength of steel was first discovered in the 1920s, and this application remains its predominant use. In 1961, the American physicist Eugene Kunzler and coworkers at Bell Labs discovered that niobium–tin continues to exhibit superconductivity in the presence of strong electric currents and magnetic fields, making it the first material to support the high currents and fields necessary for useful high-power magnets and electrical power machinery. This discovery enabled—two decades later—the production of long multi-strand cables wound into coils to create large, powerful electromagnets for rotating machinery, particle accelerators, and particle detectors.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21275
| 405,688 |
2,249,054 |
After defending his thesis, Weiss stayed for two years in Cambridge, including the 1937/38 academic year, when he taught a course in quantum electrodynamics. Then there were two semesters spent in the Queen's University Belfast, where he lectured on mathematical mechanics. During this time, he wrote a long article giving the quaternion equations for the special relativity and for the motion of a charged particle emitting electromagnetic radiation. After the Second World War broke out, on 5 September 1939, Weiss expressed his desire to work for national defense. However, at that time, he did not have British citizenship, so on 12 May 1940, during a visit to Cambridge he was interned and in July sent to a special camp in Quebec. There he, along with many colleagues (Max Perutz, Hermann Bondi, Walter Heitler, Klaus Fuchs) lectured at the improvised university organized by interned scientists. Meanwhile, his sister Helene with the help of the Society for the Protection of Science and Learning has taken a number of steps to bring back her brother; Born, Dirac, Paul Ewald, Ralph Fowler and other colleagues wrote on his behalf. Finally, in December 1940, it was decided to release Weiss, and in January 1941 he had left the camp.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50626122
| 2,247,782 |
2,162,257 |
With his blunt, direct, and at times profane style, Gee was no stranger to creating enemies and sparking controversies. One of the great controversies of his tenure as president was his feud with Sam Rayburn, the congressman representing Hunt County and an alumnus of the college; the feud apparently began with the conservative and segregationist Gee's opposition to the changes in the Democratic Party and Rayburn's apparent support for them, especially the New Deal and the President's Committee on Civil Rights, appointed by Harry S. Truman in 1946. In 1948, Gee backed G. C. Morris of Greenville, then a state senator, in his effort to defeat Rayburn in the 1948 Democratic primary. While Morris had demonstrated strong support for higher education while serving in Austin, Reynolds declared Gee's decision "a daring gamble to support the opponent of one who was arguably the most powerful man in Congress and indisputably ET's most distinguished alumnus". Despite Gee helping to organize a "Morris-For-Congress Club" and even dropping campaign fliers from an airplane over Commerce and Greenville, Rayburn won the primary handily, leading many to fear that the congressman might retaliate against Gee. Although he declared "I didn't want anything to do with Gee", Rayburn developed a relationship with Frank Young, the Dean of the College, and in 1949 and 1950 helped ETSTC obtain an Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps unit and funding for a new vocational agriculture program.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49869717
| 2,161,022 |
638,326 |
1992 – Duisburg, Germany – (29 June – 13 July) – The venue, a large sports complex, was playing host to over 500 competitors engaged in 10 World Junior Championships. There were initially some problems with overcrowding, but these were quickly sorted out by the organisers. There was a commentary room where those who had finished their games could benefit from the expert opinion of Grandmaster Helmut Pfleger. TV screens were displayed throughout the venue to cover the positions on the top boards. Peter Leko of Hungary, the world's youngest IM at the time, played in the U-14 event and was expected to win with an enormous Elo rating advantage over his closest rival. However, his opponents had not read the script and he finished a disappointing fourth. There was a shock too in the Girls' U-14 section, when the Romanian Corina Peptan, top seed and national champion at 14, only managed to secure the silver medal. In contrast, the U-18 events went according to expectation with Sakaev (in the Boys/Open) and Kadimova (in the Girls) totally dominant. There was a good showing from the English contingent; by comparison other western European nations failed miserably. McShane won the Boys/Open U-10 event, despite being the youngest competitor at 8. Ruth Sheldon took silver in the U-12 Girls and Harriet Hunt a bronze in the U-14 Girls, even though she was heavily outrated.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=295488
| 637,987 |
269,844 |
This standard method is recognized by EPA, which is labeled Method 5210B in the "Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater." In order to obtain BOD, dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in a sample must be measured before and after the incubation period, and appropriately adjusted by the sample corresponding dilution factor. This analysis is performed using 300 mL incubation bottles in which buffered dilution water is dosed with seed microorganisms and stored for 5 days in the dark room at 20 °C to prevent DO production via photosynthesis. The bottles have traditionally been made of glass, which required cleaning and rinsing between samples. A SM 5210B approved, disposable, plastic BOD bottle is available which eliminates this step. In addition to the various dilutions of BOD samples, this procedure requires dilution water blanks, glucose glutamic acid (GGA) controls, and seed controls. The dilution water blank is used to confirm the quality of the dilution water that is used to dilute the other samples. This is necessary because impurities in the dilution water may cause significant alterations in the results. The GGA control is a standardized solution to determine the quality of the seed, where its recommended BOD concentration is 198 mg/L ± 30.5 mg/L. For measurement of carbonaceous BOD (cBOD), a nitrification inhibitor is added after the dilution water has been added to the sample. The inhibitor hinders the oxidation of ammonia nitrogen, which supplies the nitrogenous BOD (nBOD). When performing the BOD test, it is conventional practice to measure only cBOD because nitrogenous demand does not reflect the oxygen demand from organic matter. This is because nBOD is generated by the breakdown of proteins, whereas cBOD is produced by the breakdown of organic molecules.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=420598
| 269,697 |
838,415 |
However, convergence has a downside. Particularly in initial forms, converged devices are frequently less functional and reliable than their component parts (e.g., a mobile phone's web browser may not render some web pages correctly, due to not supporting certain rendering methods, such as the iPhone browser not supporting Flash content). As the number of functions in a single device escalates, the ability of that device to serve its original function decreases. As Rheingold asserts, technological convergence holds immense potential for the "improvement of life and liberty in some ways and (could) degrade it in others". He believes the same technology has the potential to be "used as both a weapon of social control and a means of resistance". Since technology has evolved in the past ten years or so, companies are beginning to converge technologies to create demand for new products. This includes phone companies integrating 3G and 4G on their phones. In the mid 20th century, television converged the technologies of movies and radio, and television is now being converged with the mobile phone industry and the Internet. Phone calls are also being made with the use of personal computers. Converging technologies combine multiple technologies into one. Newer mobile phones feature cameras, and can hold images, videos, music, and other media. Manufacturers now integrate more advanced features, such as video recording, GPS receivers, data storage, and security mechanisms into the traditional cellphone.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=206586
| 837,966 |
54,436 |
As the P-38H, 600 of these stop-gap Lightnings with an improved 20 mm cannon and a bomb capacity of were produced on one line beginning in May 1943 while the near-definitive P-38J began production on the second line in August 1943. The Eighth Air Force was experiencing high-altitude and cold-weather issues which, while not unique to the aircraft, were perhaps more severe as the turbosuperchargers upgrading the Allisons were having their own reliability issues, making the aircraft more unpopular with senior officers out of the line. This was a situation unduplicated on all other fronts where the commands were clamoring for as many P-38s as they could get. Both the P-38G and P-38H models' performances were restricted by an intercooler system integral to the wing's leading edge, which had been designed for the YP-38's less powerful engines. At the higher boost levels, the new engine's charge air temperature would increase above the limits recommended by Allison and would be subject to detonation if operated at high power for extended periods of time. Reliability was not the only issue, either. For example, the reduced power settings required by the P-38H did not allow the maneuvering flap to be used to good advantage at high altitude. All these problems really came to a head in the unplanned P-38H and sped the Lightning's eventual replacement in the 8th Air Force; fortunately, the 15th Air Force was glad to get them.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041
| 54,413 |
224,558 |
The use of images had greatly increased during this period, and had generated a growing opposition among many in the church, although the progress and extent of these views is now unclear. Images in the form of mosaics and paintings were widely used in churches, homes and other places such as over city gates, and had since the reign of Justinian I been increasingly taking on a spiritual significance of their own, and regarded at least in the popular mind as capable of possessing capacities in their own right, so that "the image acts or behaves as the subject itself is expected to act or behave. It makes known its wishes ... It enacts evangelical teachings, ... When attacked it bleeds, ... [and] In some cases it defends itself against infidels with physical force ...". Key artefacts to blur this boundary emerged in c. 570 in the form of miraculously created "acheiropoieta" or "images not made by human hands". These sacred images were a form of contact relic, which additionally were taken to prove divine approval of the use of icons. The two most famous were the Mandylion of Edessa (where it still remained) and the Image of Camuliana from Cappadocia, by then in Constantinople. The latter was already regarded as a palladium that had won battles and saved Constantinople from the Persian-Avar siege of 626, when the Patriarch paraded it around the walls of the city. Both were images of Christ, and at least in some versions of their stories supposedly made when Christ pressed a cloth to his face (compare with the later, western Veil of Veronica and Turin shroud). In other versions of the Mandylion's story it joined a number of other images that were believed to have been painted from the life in the New Testament period by Saint Luke or other human painters, again demonstrating the support of Christ and the Virgin for icons, and the continuity of their use in Christianity since its start. G. E. von Grunebaum has said "The iconoclasm of the eighth and ninth centuries must be viewed as the climax of a movement that had its roots in the spirituality of the Christian concept of the divinity."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9790552
| 224,444 |
954,962 |
Within a decade most scientists had started espousing evolution, but from the outset some expressed opposition to the concept of natural selection and searched for a more purposeful mechanism. In 1860 Richard Owen attacked Darwin's "Origin of Species" in an anonymous review while praising "Professor Owen" for "the establishment of the axiom of "the continuous operation of the ordained becoming of living things"". In December 1859 Darwin had been disappointed to hear that Sir John Herschel apparently dismissed the book as "the law of higgledy-pigglety", and in 1861 Herschel wrote of evolution that "[a]n intelligence, guided by a purpose, must be continually in action to bias the direction of the steps of change–to regulate their amount–to limit their divergence–and to continue them in a definite course". He added "On the other hand, we do not mean to deny that such intelligence may act according to law (that is to say, on a preconceived and definite plan)". The scientist Sir David Brewster (1781–1868), a member of the Free Church of Scotland, wrote an article called "" (1862) in which he rejected many Darwinian ideas, such as those concerning vestigial organs or questioning God's perfection in his work. Brewster concluded that Darwin's book contained both "much valuable knowledge and much wild speculation", although accepting that "every part of the human frame had been fashioned by the Divine hand and exhibited the most marvellous and beneficent adaptions for the use of men".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=328815
| 954,457 |
813,766 |
Regulation on industry funded biomedical research has seen great changes since Samuel Hopkins Adams declaration. In 1906 congress passed the Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906. In 1912 Congress passed the Shirley Amendment to prohibit the wide dissemination of false information on pharmaceuticals. The Food and Drug Administration was formally created in 1930 under the McNarey Mapes Amendment to oversee the regulation of Food and Drugs in the United States. In 1962 the Kefauver-Harris Amendments to the Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act made it so that before a drug was marketed in the United States the FDA must first approve that the drug was safe. The Kefauver-Harris amendments also mandated that more stringent clinical trials must be performed before a drug is brought to the market. The Kefauver-Harris amendments were met with opposition from industry due to the requirement of lengthier clinical trial periods that would lessen the period of time in which the investor is able to see return on their money. In the pharmaceutical industry patents are typically granted for a 20-year period of time, and most patent applications are submitted during the early stages of the product development. According to Ariel Katz on average after a patent application is submitted it takes an additional 8 years before the FDA approves a drug for marketing. As such this would leave a company with only 12 years to market the drug to see a return on their investments. After a sharp decline of new drugs entering the US market following the 1962 Kefauver-Harris amendments economist Sam Petlzman concluded that cost of loss of innovation was greater than the savings recognized by consumers no longer purchasing ineffective drugs. In 1984 the Hatch-Waxman Act or the Drug Price Competition and Patent Term Restoration Act of 1984 was passed by congress. The Hatch-Waxman Act was passed with the idea that giving brand manufacturers the ability to extend their patent by an additional 5 years would create greater incentives for innovation and private sector funding for investment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2245783
| 813,333 |
910,385 |
Voyager's world flight takeoff took place on the longest runway at Edwards AFB at 8:01 am local time on December 14, 1986, with 3,500 of the world's press in attendance. As the plane accelerated, the tips of the wings, which were heavily loaded with fuel, were damaged as they unexpectedly flew down and scraped against the runway, ultimately causing pieces (winglets) to break off at both ends (the pilot had wanted to gain enough speed that the inner wings, rather than the fragile outer wings, would lift the plane; in 67 test flights, the plane had never been loaded to capacity). The aircraft accelerated very slowly and needed approximately 14,200 feet (2.7 mi; 4.3 km) of the runway to gain enough speed to lift from the ground, the wings arching up dramatically just before take-off. The two damaged winglets remained attached to the wings by only a thin layer of carbon fiber and were removed by flying the Voyager in a slip, which introduced side-loading, tearing the winglets off completely. Some of the carbon fiber skin was pulled off in the process, exposing the blue foam core. Burt Rutan following with pilot Mike Melvill determined that Voyager was still within its performance specifications despite the damage and decided to allow the flight to continue. During the flight, the two pilots had to deal with extremely cramped quarters. To reduce stress, the two had originally intended to fly the plane in three-hour shifts, but flight handling characteristics while the plane was heavy prevented routine changeovers, and they became very fatigued. Dick Rutan reportedly stayed at the controls without relief for almost the first three days of the flight.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=294064
| 909,906 |
305,119 |
In response to the inequalities in the industrializing economy of late 18th century Britain pamphleteers and agitators such as Thomas Spence and Thomas Paine began to advocate for social reform. As early as the 1770s Spence called for the common ownership of land, democratically run decentralized government, and welfare support especially for mothers and children. His views were detailed in his self-published pamphlets such as Property in Land Every One's Right in 1775 and The Meridian Sun in 1796. Thomas Paine proposed a detailed plan to tax property owners to pay for the needs of the poor in his pamphlet "Agrarian Justice (1797)." Due to their dedication to social equality and democracy, Condorcet and Paine can be seen as the predecessors of social democracy. Charles Hall wrote "The Effects of Civilization on the People in European States" (1805), denouncing capitalism's effects on the poor of his time. In the post-revolutionary period in the decade after the French Revolution of 1789, activists and theorists like François-Noël Babeuf and Philippe Buonarroti spread egalitarian ideas that would later influence the early French labour and socialist movements. The views of Babeuf, Sylvain Maréchal, and Restif de la Bretonne specifically formed the basis for the emerging concepts of revolutionary socialism and modern communism. These social critics criticized the excesses of poverty and inequality of the Industrial Revolution, and advocated reforms such as the egalitarian distribution of wealth and the transformation of society into one where private property is abolished and the means of production are owned collectively.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47246185
| 304,957 |
1,071,395 |
The sacoglossans can use the chloroplasts of the algae on which they feed, which they keep alive for hours to months after their ingestion. They maintain the cells and metabolise the photosynthetic products; this process is termed kleptoplasty, and the sacoglossans are the only animals to employ it; some ciliates and foramanifera (protists) also employ the strategy. Sacoglossans have been known to survive for months living solely on the photosynthetic products of their acquired plastids. This process is somewhat mystifying, as the upkeep of chloroplasts usually requires interaction with genes encoded in the plant cell nucleus. This seems to suggest that the genes have been laterally transferred from algae to the animals. DNA amplification experiments on "Elysia chlorotica" adults and eggs using "Vaucheria litorea" derived primers revealed the presence of psbO, an algal nuclear gene. These results were likely an artefact, as most recent results based on transcriptomic analysis and sequencing of genomic DNA from the slug's eggs reject the hypothesis that lateral gene transfer supports kleptoplast longevity. Sacoglossans are able to choose which method of feeding they use. The switch from active feeding to photosynthesis in sacoglossans is triggered by the shortage of food resources, and typically not preferred. If food is readily available, the animal will actively consume it. Starvation periods (with photosynthesis and no active feeding) vary between species of sacoglossans from less than a week to over four months, and photosynthesis is used as a last-resort mechanism to avoid mortality. Another unclear step in the process is how the chloroplasts are protected from digestion, and how they adapt to their new position in animal cells without the membranes that would control their environment in the algae.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=764446
| 1,070,841 |
1,256,755 |
Giordano Bruno and Johannes Kepler suggested the idea that the sun rotated on its axis. Sunspots were first observed telescopically on 18 December 1610 (Gregorian calendar, not yet adopted in England) by English astronomer Thomas Harriot, as recorded in his notebooks. On 9 March 1611 (Gregorian calendar, also not yet adopted in East Frisia) they were observed by Frisian medical student Johann Goldsmid (latinised name Johannes Fabricius) who subsequently teamed up with his father David Fabricius, a pastor and astronomer, to make further observations and to publish a description in a pamphlet in June 1611. The Fabricius' used camera obscura telescopy to get a better view of the solar disk, and like Harriot made observations shortly after sunrise and shortly before sunset. Johann was the first to realize that sunspots revealed solar rotation, but he died on 19 March 1616, aged 26 and his father a year later. Several scientists such as Johannes Kepler , Simon Marius, and Michael Maestlin were aware of the Fabricius' early sunspot work, and indeed Kepler repeatedly referred to it his writings. However, like that of Harriot, their work was otherwise not well known. Galileo Galilei almost certainly began telescopic sunspot observations around the same time as Harriot, given he made his first telescope in 1609 on hearing of the Dutch patent of the device, and that he had managed previously to make naked-eye observations of sunspots. He is also reported to have shown sunspots to astronomers in Rome, but we do not have records of the dates. The records of telescopic observations of sunspots that we do have from Galileo do not start until 1612, for when they are of unprecedented quality and detail as by then he had developed the telescope design and greatly increased its magnification. Likewise Christoph Scheiner had probably been observing the spots using an improved helioscope of his own design. Galileo and Scheiner, neither of whom knew of the work of Harriot or Fabricius vied for the credit for the discovery. In 1613, in Letters on Sunspots, Galileo refuted Scheiner's 1612 claim that sunspots were planets inside Mercury's orbit, showing that sunspots were surface features.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47390194
| 1,256,071 |
582,862 |
In 2022, Rostami et al advanced their theory. By means of a new multi-layer pseudo-spectral moist-convective Thermal Rotating Shallow Water (mcTRSW) model in a full sphere, they presented a possible equatorial adjustment beyond Gill's mechanism for the genesis and dynamics of the MJO. According to this theory, an eastward propagating MJO-like structure can be generated in a self-sustained and self-propelled manner due to nonlinear relaxation (adjustment) of a large-scale positive buoyancy anomaly, depressed anomaly, or a combination of them, as soon as this anomaly reaches a critical threshold in the presence of moist-convection at the equator. This MJO-like episode possesses a convectively coupled “hybrid structure” that consists of a “quasi equatorial modon”, with an enhanced vortex pair, and a convectively coupled baroclinic Kelvin wave (BKW), with greater phase speed than that of dipolar structure on the intraseasonal time scale. Interaction of the BKW, after circumnavigating all around the equator, with a new large-scale buoyancy anomaly may contribute to excitation of a recurrent generation of the next cycle of MJO-like structure. Overall, the generated "hybrid structure” captures a few of the crudest features of the MJO, including its quadrupolar structure, convective activity, condensation patterns, vorticity field, phase speed, and westerly and easterly inflows in the lower and upper troposphere. Although the moisture-fed convection is a necessary condition for the ``hybrid structure” to be excited and maintained in the proposed theory in this theory, it is fundamentally different from the moisture-mode ones. Because the barotropic equatorial modon and BKW also exist in “dry” environments, while there are no similar “dry” dynamical basic structures in the moisture-mode theories. The proposed theory can be a possible mechanism to explain the genesis and backbone structure of the MJO and to converge some theories that previously seemed divergent.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1666522
| 582,563 |
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