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The book does not limit itself to tedious records of battle because Al-Biruni found the social culture to be more important. The work includes research on a vast array of topics of Indian culture, including descriptions of their traditions and customs. Although he tried to stay away from political and military history, Biruni did indeed record important dates and noted actual sites of where significant battles occurred. Additionally, he chronicled stories of Indian rulers and told of how they ruled over their people with their beneficial actions and acted in the interests of the nation. His details are brief and mostly just list rulers without referring to their real names, and he did not go on about deeds that each one carried out during their reign, which keeps in line with Al-Biruni's mission to try to stay away from political histories. Al-Biruni also described the geography of India in his work. He documented different bodies of water and other natural phenomena. These descriptions are useful to today's modern historians because they are able to use Biruni's scholarship to locate certain destinations in modern-day India. Historians are able to make some matches while also concluding that certain areas seem to have disappeared and been replaced with different cities. Different forts and landmarks were able to be located, legitimizing Al-Biruni's contributions with their usefulness to even modern history and archeology.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271975
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An initial comprehensive study of 24 known cases was conducted by multiple doctors from various disciplines at the Mayo Clinic. They identified the cause of this neurological disease to be occupational exposure to aerosolized pig neural tissue. Investigators from the Minnesota Department of Health simultaneously determined that the 70 ppsi pressure used to liquefy and extract the pig brains caused the aerosolization of the pig neural tissue, sending it into the air in a fine mist. The workers closest in proximity to the "head" table, the area in the plant where high pressured air was used to evacuate the brain tissue from the pig's skull, were the most likely to be affected. The aerosolized mist was inhaled and readily absorbed into the workers' mucus membranes. The pig neural tissue was recognized by their systems as foreign and an immune response was initiated. The pig antigen was found most prominently in the nerve roots of the spine which were also swollen. Researchers determined that the irritation was due to the voltage-gated potassium channels being blocked. They identified 125 1-α-dendrotoxin as the antagonist that binds to and blocks the channels, causing an intracellular build-up of potassium ions which causes inflammation and irritation, and consequently, hyper-excitability in the peripheral nervous system. It is this hyper-excitability that leads to the tingling, numbness, pain, and weakness.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15588705
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Senior House is an L-shaped building, designed by William Welles Bosworth. The Doric portico over the entrance was added in the 1990s. It was used from its construction as a dormitory for undergraduates, until conversion to graduate housing in fall 2017. From the 1960s to 2017, the dorm had a counterculture that included student-painted murals, tolerance for drug use, acceptance of people who didn't fit into mainstream culture (including LGBT students), a tire swing, a red-white-and blue skull logo, the nickname "Haus", and the motto "Sport death, only life can kill you". The annual Steer Roast festival featured loud music, pit roast of a cow, and mud wrestling. Former residents include Roger Dingledine, developer of Tor. In 2016, MIT cited data that 21.1% of Senior House residents failed to graduate, compared to the campus average of 7.7%, and a confidential survey found a higher incidence of drug use than other dorms. The administration began a turnaround project that closed the dorm to freshmen and increased tutoring, mental health, and addiction services. After continued evidence of drug dealing in the building, the administration cancelled the 2017 Steer Roast, and in July announced conversion to graduate housing. Students protested and some faculty supported the move. The murals were covered and remaining undergraduates assigned to other dorms.
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Additional tests were conducted for US Army Ordnance officials at Springfield Armory in May 1917, and both weapons were unanimously recommended for immediate adoption. In order to avoid confusion with the belt-fed M1917 machine gun, the BAR came to be known as the "M1918" or "Rifle, Caliber .30, Automatic, Browning, M1918" according to official nomenclature. On 16 July 1917, 12,000 BARs were ordered from Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, which had secured an exclusive concession to manufacture the BAR under Browning's patents (Browning's was owned by Colt). However Colt was already producing at peak capacity (contracted to manufacture the Vickers machine gun for the British Army) and requested a delay in production while they expanded their manufacturing output with a new facility in Meriden, Connecticut. Due to the urgent need for the weapon, the request was denied and the Winchester Repeating Arms Company (WRAC) was designated as the prime contractor. Winchester gave valuable assistance in refining the BAR's final design, correcting the drawings in preparation for mass production. Among the changes made, the ejection pattern was modified (spent casings were directed to the right side of the weapon instead of straight up).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=378838
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The characters and acting received a mixed reception. Stephen Godfrey of "The Globe and Mail" rated their performances highly: "time has cemented Leonard Nimoy's look of inscrutability as Mr. Spock [...] DeForest Kelley as Dr. McCoy is as feisty as ever, and James Doohan as Scotty still splutters about his engineering woes. At a basic level, their exchanges are those of an odd assortment of grumpy, middle-aged men bickering about office politics. They are a relief from the stars, and a delight." Godfrey's only concern was that the reunion of the old cast threatened to make casual viewers who had never seen "Star Trek" feel like uninvited guests. Martin considered the characters more likable than those in comparable science fiction films. Conversely, Arnold felt that the acting of the main cast (Shatner in particular) was poor; "Shatner portrays Kirk as such a supercilious old twit that one rather wishes he'd been left behind that desk", he wrote. "Shatner has perhaps the least impressive movie physique since Rod Steiger, and his acting style has begun to recall the worst of Richard Burton." Vincent Canby of "The New York Times" wrote that the actors did not have much to do in the effects-driven film, and were "limited to the exchanging of meaningful glances or staring intently at television monitors, usually in disbelief". Stephen Collins and Persis Khambatta were more favorably received. Gene Siskel felt the film "teeter[ed] towards being a crashing bore" whenever Khambatta was not on screen,and Jack Kroll of "Newsweek" felt that she had the most memorable entrance in the film. "[Khambatta] is sympathetic enough to make one hope she'll have a chance to show less skin and more hair in future films", Godfrey wrote.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=277006
| 98,363 |
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This was not going to be a slow tactical final. Rogachova went to the front, quickly marked by Melinte and a third former Soviet, double 1983 medalist Yekaterina Podkopayeva. Left behind at the line, Liu rushed forward on the outside, chased by Boulmerka. In dead last place, Qu had to work her way around PattiSue Plumer and Mutola who had dropped back expecting to pick up the pieces with her finishing kick. Dorovskikh rushed to join the party at the front, followed by Qu who had a noticeably less refined running style, rocking from side to side, looking strained. Boulmerka aggressively stuck behind Rogachova at the front, the only one to break up the Unified former Soviet bloc at the front of the pack. 700 metres into the race, Qu rocked her way past Melinte and Liu onto third place Podkopayeva's back. As the two leaders started to break, Qu followed onto Boulmerka's back. With a lap to go, the field had strung out. Only the remaining green Unified team members were able to struggle to hold on to the three leaders with a gap back to Plummer and Mutola leading the second group. As she was falling back through the field, Melinte walked off the track at the end of the third lap. Mutola launched into what would be a long final kick, but after leaving Plummer, she wasn't making any headway. Down the backstretch, Boulmerka made her one move, accelerating past Rogachova. Rogachova couldn't answer, just holding her same speed. Dorovskikh stuck to Qu's back and made her move for bronze off the final turn. Qu looked at her and sprinted away gaining rapidly on Rogachova toward the finish. Boulmerka celebrated, flexing her muscles while the rest of the field looked exhausted. A little over a year later, Qu would set the world record that would last for 22 years.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13666682
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In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite imagery, and remote sensing provided efficient, precise methods for mapping physical features, such as coastlines, roads, buildings, watersheds, and topography. The United States Geological Survey has devised multiple new map projections, notably the Space Oblique Mercator for interpreting satellite ground tracks for mapping the surface. The use of satellites and space telescopes now allows researchers to map other planets and moons in outer space. Advances in electronic technology ushered in another revolution in cartography: ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps has created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also digital raster graphic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7294
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As part of DC's 2011 company-wide title relaunch, "The New 52", Katar Hol was re-established as the DCU's Hawkman, using the name Carter Hall. His origin has yet to be fully explained since he appears to not know his alien heritage, believing himself to be human. Issue #0 explains that Katar Hol was once a proud member of the Thanagarian race, adopted son of their king Thal Provis and lover to the princess Shayera Thal. Unlike other Thanagarians, he was a pacifist; desiring to find an end to centuries of war, he convinced the king to hold a peace conference. However the Daemonites took advantage of this to spread a deadly disease that quickly destroyed all Thanagarians' wings and killed their king. The new ruler, son of Provis and Katar's adoptive brother, Corsar, came to believe that only the Nth Metal could save them, but this desire for power sacrificed hundreds of lives, which was apparently rewarded when Katar was accidentally fused with it creating a full body armor and regenerating his wings. But seeing his brother's increasing insanity, Katar refused to let the metal power be distributed, leading to fighting between them and the death of Corsar. Shayera then vows to hunt down Hawkman, also blaming him for her father's death. He runs away in a stolen ship that ends up crashing on earth. During the "Rotworld" storyline Animal Man travels to a post-apocalyptic future where he is attacked by a Rot-corrupted Hawkman; this version is killed by Steel, Beast Boy and Black Orchid.
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Astatine is a radioactive element that has never been seen; a visible quantity would immediately be vaporised due to its intense radioactivity. It may be possible to prevent this with sufficient cooling. Astatine is commonly regarded as a nonmetal, less commonly as a metalloid and occasionally as a metal. Unlike its lighter congener iodine, evidence for diatomic astatine is sparse and inconclusive. In 2013, on the basis of relativistic modelling, astatine was predicted to be a monatomic metal, with a face-centered cubic crystalline structure. As such, astatine could be expected to have a metallic appearance; show metallic conductivity; and have excellent ductility, even at cryogenic temperatures. It could also be expected to show significant nonmetallic character, as is normally the case for metals in, or in the vicinity of, the p-block. Astatine oxyanions AtO, and are known, oxyanion formation being a tendency of nonmetals. The hydroxide of astatine At(OH) is presumed to be amphoteric. Astatine forms covalent compounds with nonmetals, including hydrogen astatide HAt and carbon tetraastatide CAt. At anions have been reported to form astatides with silver, thallium, palladium and lead. Pruszyński et al. note that astatide ions should form strong complexes with soft metal cations such as Hg, Pd, Ag and Tl; they list the astatide formed with mercury as Hg(OH)At.
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The jet engine program was waylaid by a lack of funding, which was primarily due to a prevailing attitude amongst high-ranking officials that the conflict could be won easily with conventional aircraft. Among these was Hermann Göring, head of the Luftwaffe, who cut the engine development program to just 35 engineers in February 1940 (the month before the first wooden mock-up was completed). The aeronautical engineer Willy Messerschmitt sought to maintain mass production of the piston-powered, 1935-origin Bf 109 and the projected Me 209. Major General Adolf Galland had supported Messerschmitt through the early development years, flying the Me 262 himself on 22 April 1943. By that time, the problems with engine development had slowed production of the aircraft considerably. One particularly acute problem was the lack of an alloy with a melting point high enough to endure the temperatures involved, a problem that had not been adequately resolved by the end of the war. After a November 1941 flight (with BMW 003s) ended in a double flameout, the aircraft made its first successful flight entirely on jet power on 18 July 1942, propelled by a pair of Jumo 004 engines.
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Ancestors of "Prochlorococcus" contributed to the production of early atmospheric oxygen. Despite "Prochlorococcus" being one of the smallest types of marine phytoplankton in the world's oceans, its substantial number make it responsible for a major part of the oceans', world's photosynthesis, and oxygen production. The size of "Prochlorococcus" (0.5 to 0.7 μm) and the adaptations of the various ecotypes allow the organism to grow abundantly in low nutrient waters such as the waters of the tropics and the subtropics (c. 40°N to 40°S); however, they can be found in higher latitudes as high up as 60° north but at fairly minimal concentrations and the bacteria's distribution across the oceans suggest that the colder waters could be fatal. This wide range of latitude along with the bacteria's ability to survive up to depths of 100 to 150 metres, i.e. the average depth of the mixing layer of the surface ocean, allows it to grow to enormous numbers, up to 3×10 individuals worldwide. This enormous number makes the "Prochlorococcus" play an important role in the global carbon cycle and oxygen production. Along with "Synechococcus" (another genus of cyanobacteria that co-occurs with "Prochlorococcus") these cyanobacteria are responsible for approximately 50% of marine carbon fixation, making it an important carbon sink via the biological carbon pump (i.e. the transfer of organic carbon from the surface ocean to the deep via several biological, physical and chemical processes). The abundance, distribution and all other characteristics of the "Prochlorococcus" make it a key organism in oligotrophic waters serving as an important primary producer to the open ocean food webs.
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Hegemonic masculinity has also been employed in studying media representations of men. Because the concept of hegemony helps to make sense of both the diversity and the selectiveness of images in mass media, media researchers have begun mapping the relations between different masculinities. Portrayals of masculinity in men's lifestyle magazines have been studied and researchers found elements of hegemonic masculinity woven throughout them. Commercial sports are a focus of media representations of masculinity, and the developing field of sports sociology found significant use of the concept of hegemonic masculinity. It was deployed in understanding the popularity of body-contact confrontational sports which function as an endlessly renewed symbol of masculinity and in understanding the violence and homophobia frequently found in sporting environments. Rugby union, rugby league, American football, and ice hockey, and the prevalence of injuries and concussions in these sports, is a particularly salient example of the impacts of hegemonic masculinity. With the dominant mode of hegemonic masculinity valuing emotionlessness, invulnerability, toughness, and risk-taking, concussions have become normalized. Players have accepted them as simply "part of the game". If a man does not play through a concussion, he risks being blamed for the team's loss, or labelled as effeminate. It is noble to play in pain, nobler to play in agony, and noblest if one never exhibits any sign of pain at all. Coaches buy into this unwritten code of masculinity as well, by invoking euphemisms such as "he needs to learn the difference between injury and pain", while also questioning a player's masculinity to get him back on the field quickly. Players, coaches, and trainers subscribe to the hegemonic model, thus creating a culture of dismissiveness, often resulting in concussions, which can lead to brain diseases like CTE.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9928314
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Strokes that occur in the brainstem may cause profound deficits, including locked-in syndrome, in which cognitive, emotional and linguistic abilities remain intact but all or almost all voluntary motor abilities are lost. Most people affected by this type of stroke rely on AAC strategies to communicate, since few recover intelligible speech or functional voice. The AAC strategies used vary with the individual's preferences and motor capabilities which may change over time. As eye movements are most likely to be preserved, eye blinks are frequently used for communication. Low-tech alphabet boards are often introduced immediately to provide the individual with basic communication. Partner-assisted scanning may be used, in which the AAC user signals when the desired letter is named by a communication partner. When vertical and horizontal eye movements are functional, a transparent alphabet board may be used in which the AAC user looks at the desired letter and this is acknowledged by the communication partner. Individuals with locked-in syndrome have difficulty using high-tech devices due to issues with motor control, vision, memory, alertness and linguistic ability. In particular, a voluntary, reliable and easily controlled muscle movement is necessary to access such a device, such as head, jaw, hand or finger movements. In some individuals, intensive practice, even long after the initial stroke, has been shown to increase the accuracy and consistency of head movements, which can be used to access a communication device.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2106968
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There are several implantable interfaces that are currently available for consumer use including deep brain stimulators, cochlear implants, and cardiac pacemakers. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has been effective at treating movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, and cochlear implants have helped many to improve their hearing by assisting stimulation of the auditory nerve. Because of their remarkable potential, MEAs are a prominent area of neuroscience research. Research suggests that MEAs may provide insight into processes such as memory formation and perception and may also hold therapeutic value for conditions such as epilepsy, depression, and obsessive-compulsive disorder . Clinical trials using interface devices for restoring motor control after spinal cord injury or as treatment for ALS have been initiated in a project entitled BrainGate (see video demo: BrainGate). MEAs provide the high resolution necessary to record time varying signals, giving them the ability to be used to both control and obtain feedback from prosthetic devices, as was shown by Kevin Warwick, Mark Gasson and Peter Kyberd. Research suggests that MEA use may be able to assist in the restoration of vision by stimulating the optic pathway.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20511935
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Attempts are often made to place traffic signals on a coordinated system so that drivers encounter a green wavea progression of green lights. The distinction between coordinated signals and synchronized signals is very important. Synchronized signals all change at the same time and are only used in special instances or in older systems. Coordinated (progressed) systems are controlled from a master controller and are set up so lights "cascade" (progress) in sequence so platoons of vehicles can proceed through a continuous series of green lights. A graphical representation of phase state on a two-axis plane of distance versus time clearly shows a "green band" that has been established based on signalized intersection spacing and expected vehicle speeds. In some countries (e.g. Germany, France and the Netherlands), this "green band" system is used to limit speeds in certain areas. Lights are timed in such a way that motorists can drive through without stopping if their speed is lower than a given limit, mostly 50 km/h (30 mph) in urban areas. This system is known as "grüne Welle" in German, "vague verte" in French, or "groene golf" in Dutch (English: "green wave"). Such systems were commonly used in urban areas of the United States from the 1940s, but are less common today. In the UK, Slough in Berkshire had part of the A4 experimented on with this. Many US cities set the green wave on two-way streets to operate in the direction more heavily traveled, rather than trying to progress traffic in both directions. But the recent introduction of the flashing yellow arrow (see article "Traffic-light signalling and operation") makes the lead-lag signal, an aid to progression, available with protected/permissive turns.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21844439
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To show support for vaccines against COVID-19, the Royal Society under the guidance of both Nobel prize-winner Venki Ramakrishnan and Sir Adrian Frederick Melhuish Smith added its power to shape public discourse and proposed "legislation and punishment of those who produced and disseminated false information" about the experimental medical interventions. This was brought to popular notice in January 2020 by a retired justice of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Lord Sumption, who in his broadside wrote "Science advances by confronting contrary arguments, not by suppressing them." The proposal was authored by sociologist Melinda Mills and approved by her colleagues on the "Science in Emergencies Tasking – COVID" in an October 2020 report entitled "COVID-19 vaccine deployment: Behaviour, ethics, misinformation and policy strategies". The SET-C committee favoured legislation from China, Singapore and South Korea, and found that "Singapore, for instance has the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act (POFMA), with four prominent (criminal) cases within the first months of the COVID-19 outbreak. POFMA also lifted any exemptions for internet intermediaries which legally required social media companies like Google, Facebook, Twitter and Baidu to immediately correct cases of misinformation on their platforms."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=496064
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An internationally renowned statistician and social scientist, Singer’s scholarly interests focus on improving the quantitative methods used in social, educational, and behavioral research. She is primarily known for her contributions to the practice of multilevel modeling, survival analysis, and individual growth modeling, and to making these and other statistical methods accessible to empirical researchers. Singer has published across a broad array of disciplines, including statistics, education, psychology, medicine, and public health. In addition to writing and co-writing nearly 100 papers and book chapters, she has also co-written three books: "By Design: Planning Better Research in Higher Education", and "Who Will Teach: Policies that Matter" (both published by Harvard University Press) and "Applied Longitudinal Data Analysis: Modeling Change and Event Occurrence" (published by Oxford University Press), which received honorable mention from the American Publishers Association for the best mathematics and statistics book of 2003. In 2018, having chaired a National Academy of Education panel on international education assessments, she was the lead editor on the resulting monograph .
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55507802
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In Europe, the Hands-On Universe project is led by Dr. Ferlet and Dr A.-L. Melchior. EU-HOU has been funded through the European Community (EC) program MINERVA (SOCRATES) for a two-year period (2004–2006), and through the European Community (EC) program COMENIUS (LifeLong Learning Program) for two two-year periods (2008–2010, 2010–2012). EU-HOU has extended to 15 EC countries, with national websites. The Pierre and Marie Curie University in Paris is the educational center for the EU-HOU project. The EU-HOU project has developed numerous free pedagogical resources that are available on the project's website. They include: (1) the multilingual SalsaJ software, which enables secondary school pupils to handle astronomical data and analyse them. An exercise series based on this software has been developed. Associated data can be downloaded directly from the software. (2) The EUHOUMW Small Radiotelescope Network developed in the framework of the Comenius project "Connecting classrooms to the Milky Way" enables secondary school pupils to access the instruments installed in five different European countries (France, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain). Children can observe the hydrogen from the Milky Way with these 3-metres radiotelescopes. Every operation can be performed from the Web interface, available in 17 different languages, which enables the learners to reconstruct the rotation curve of the Milky Way as well as its spiral arms. Pedagogical resources (teacher's manual, simulator of observation, archives, kinesthetic activities) have been tested in teacher's training, secondary school level, and also at the undergraduate level.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=20430586
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The drill hit oil in the spring of 1989, but only collected about . Gold stated, "It was not coming up at a rate at which you could sell it, but it showed there was oil down there." The drill then ran into technical problems and was stopped at a depth of . The hole was closed, but a second hole was opened for drilling closer to the "center of the impact ring where there was even less sedimentary rock". By October 1991, the drill hit oil into the ground, but many skeptics remained unconvinced of the site's prospects. One skeptic, Christer Akerman, the chief geologist of the Geological Survey of Sweden, remarked, "[t]here is every reason to stay calm and await the analysis of what they have found. The point is also that they will have to find commercially viable amounts, and it may be a long time before we know if they do." Geologist John R. Castaño concluded that there was insufficient evidence of the mantle as the hydrocarbon source and that it was unlikely that the Siljan site could be used as a commercial gas field. Some skeptics countered Gold's claims by suggesting that the oil found was actually contamination from the drilling. In 2019, a study of gases and secondary carbonate minerals revealed that long-term microbial methanogenesis has occurred in situ deep within the fracture system of the crater (for at least 80 million years) and with an obvious spatial link to seep oils of surficial sedimentary origin, at odds with Gold's theories of deep abiotic gas migration.
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Among domesticated animals, yaks ("Bos grunniens") are the highest dwelling animals of the world, living at . The yak is the most important domesticated animal for Tibet highlanders in Qinghai Province of China, as the primary source of milk, meat and fertilizer. Unlike other yak or cattle species, which suffer from hypoxia in the Tibetan Plateau, the Tibetan domestic yaks thrive only at high altitude, and not in lowlands. Their physiology is well-adapted to high altitudes, with proportionately larger lungs and heart than other cattle, as well as greater capacity for transporting oxygen through their blood. In yaks, hypoxia-inducible factor 1 ("HIF-1") has high expression in the brain, lung and kidney, showing that it plays an important role in the adaptation to low oxygen environment. On 1 July 2012 the complete genomic sequence and analyses of a female domestic yak was announced, providing important insights into understanding mammalian divergence and adaptation at high altitude. Distinct gene expansions related to sensory perception and energy metabolism were identified. In addition, researchers also found an enrichment of protein domains related to the extracellular environment and hypoxic stress that had undergone positive selection and rapid evolution. For example, they found three genes that may play important roles in regulating the bodyʼs response to hypoxia, and five genes that were related to the optimisation of the energy from the food scarcity in the extreme plateau. One gene known to be involved in regulating response to low oxygen levels, ADAM17, is also found in human Tibetan highlanders.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32625124
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Harold G. Craighead received his Bachelor of Science degree in physics, with High Honors, from the University of Maryland, College Park in 1974. He received his Ph.D. in physics from Cornell University in 1980. His thesis work involved an experimental study of the optical properties and solar energy applications of metal particle composites. From 1979 until 1984 he was a Member of Technical Staff in the Device Physics Research Department at Bell Laboratories. In 1984 he joined Bellcore, where he formed and managed the Quantum Structures research group. Craighead joined the faculty of Cornell University as a Professor in the School of Applied and Engineering Physics in 1989. From 1989 until 1995 he was Director of the National Nanofabrication Facility at Cornell. Craighead was Director of the School of Applied and Engineering Physics from 1998 to 2000 and the founding Director of the Nanobiotechnology Center from 2000 to 2001. He served as Interim Dean of the College of Engineering from 2001 to 2002 after which he returned to the Nanobiotechnology Center as Co-Director. He has been a pioneer in nanofabrication methods and the application of engineered nanosystems for research and device applications. Throughout his career he has contributed to numerous scientific journals with over 280 published papers. Craighead's recent research activity includes the use of nanofabricated devices for biological applications. His research continues to involve the study and development of new methods for nanostructure formation, integrated fluidic/optical devices, nanoelectromechanical systems and single molecule analysis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13441844
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Phase 1 Construction of the Sciencenter was accomplished as a result of valuable contributions by a steering committee, corporate lead support, individual and community donors, challenge grant campaign, and community volunteers. Emerson Power Transmission Corporation and Wegmans Food Markets donated cash. A $90,000 demonstration project grant for the heating system was provided by the New York State Electric and Gas Corporation. Many other local businesses assisted with donations of building materials or deep discounts on products and services. Restaurants provided food during the building periods, as did many individuals. Cornell fundraiser Sherri Bergman, anxious to join the challenge of creating a community-built science center, was hired to help with the project. The cash portion of the campaign was capped with a $100,000 challenge grant from the Kresge Foundation. A major commitment to a volunteer-built project was a first for the foundation. Groundbreaking officially took place at a ceremony in August 1992, and construction took place between August 1992 and May 1993, with 2,200 volunteers donating more than 40,000 hours of labor to the project. The grand opening took place on May 22, 1993, slightly less than ten months after groundbreaking. During the early days, visitors streamed into the museum at a rate of about 50,000 per year to interact with the exhibits and take part in the educational programs offered by the museum.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17460553
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None of the signalling systems discussed above are true telegraphs in the sense of a system that can transmit arbitrary messages over arbitrary distances. Lines of signalling relay stations can send messages to any required distance, but all these systems are limited to one extent or another in the range of messages that they can send. A system like flag semaphore, with an alphabetic code, can certainly send any given message, but the system is designed for short-range communication between two persons. An engine order telegraph, used to send instructions from the bridge of a ship to the engine room, fails to meet both criteria; it has a limited distance and very simple message set. There was only one ancient signalling system described that "does" meet these criteria. That was a system using the Polybius square to encode an alphabet. Polybius (2nd century BC) suggested using two successive groups of torches to identify the coordinates of the letter of the alphabet being transmitted. The number of said torches held up signalled the grid square that contained the letter. There is no definite record of the system ever being used, but there are several passages in ancient texts that some think are suggestive. Holzmann and Pehrson, for instance, suggest that Livy is describing its use by Philip V of Macedon in 207 BC during the First Macedonian War. Nothing else that could be described as a true telegraph existed until the 17th century. Possibly the first alphabetic telegraph code in the modern era is due to Franz Kessler who published his work in 1616. Kessler used a lamp placed inside a barrel with a moveable shutter operated by the signaller. The signals were observed at a distance with the newly invented telescope.
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| 120,097 |
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Initially it was the Australian Army which showed greatest interest in radar for controlling shore or harbour defence guns whilst the air force was principally interested in airborne ASV radar. The valve requirements for these radars was the key & the VT90 valve producing 1.5 metre wavelength (200 mc/s) was used for pulse generation which provided great economy. The RPL development of aerial duplexing (i.e. the antennae acts both as transmitter & receiver) was based on the invention of a very fast & reliable transmit/receive switch by RPL staff. In England in 1940 the invention of the resonant cavity magnetron by Randall & Boot in the laboratory of Mark Oliphant, at wavelength of 10 cm revolutionised allied radar & was taken to America in August 1940 as part of the Tizard Mission. As an extension of 10 cm developments for Australia, JPVM arranged through R G Casey the new Australian ambassador in Washington for him to establish a scientific liaison officer mainly to keep in contact with rapid developments at the Radiation Laboratory MIT & commercial firms involved such as Bell Labs. In return Australia was to assist US forces in radar matters when required which after commencement of hostilities with Japan became extremely urgent.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52676648
| 2,194,411 |
536,289 |
After the neutral weak currents caused by boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973, the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The theory of the strong interaction, to which many contributed, acquired its modern form around 1973–74. With the establishment of quantum chromodynamics, a finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a "standard model" based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravity, and which remains generally accepted within the domain to which it is designed to be applied. In the late 1970s, William Thurston introduced hyperbolic geometry into the study of knots with the hyperbolization theorem. The orbifold notation system, invented by Thurston, has been developed for representing types of symmetry groups in two-dimensional spaces of constant curvature. In 1978, Shing-Tung Yau deduced that the Calabi conjecture have Ricci flat metrics. In 1979, Daniel Friedan showed that the equations of motions of string theory are abstractions of Einstein equations of General Relativity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6134187
| 536,010 |
1,319,822 |
Though the oxidation strikes the nucleic strands randomly, particular residues are more susceptible to ROS, such hotspot sites being hit by ROS at a high rate. Among all the lesions discovered thus far, one of the most abundant in DNA and RNA is the 8-hydroxyguanine. Moreover, 8-hydroxyguanine is the only one measurable among all the RNA lesions. Besides its abundance, 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-oxodG) and 8-hydroxyguanosine (8-oxoG) are identified as the most detrimental oxidation lesions for their mutagenic effect, in which this non-canonical counterpart can faultily pair with both adenine and cytosine at the same efficiency. This mis-pairing brings about the alteration of genetic information through the synthesis of DNA and RNA. In RNA, oxidation levels are mainly estimated through 8-oxoG-based assays. So far, approaches developed to directly measure 8-oxoG level include HPLC-based analysis and assays employing monoclonal anti-8-oxoG antibody. The HPLC-based method measures 8-oxoG with an electrochemical detector (ECD) and total G with a UV detector. The ratio that results from comparing the two numbers provides the extent that the total G is oxidized. Monoclonal anti-8-oxoG mouse antibody is broadly applied to directly detect this residue on either tissue sections or membrane, offering a more visual way to study its distribution in tissues and in discrete subsets of DNA or RNA. The established indirect techniques are mainly grounded on this lesion’s mutagenic aftermath, such as the lacZ assay. This method was first set up and described by Taddei and was a potentially powerful tool to understand the oxidation situation at both the RNA sequence level and single nucleotide level.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4788141
| 1,319,096 |
1,526,933 |
Smagorinsky invited many scientists from outside the normal circle to provide the broadest perspective on weather forecasts. Very early in his career, he brought pioneering oceanographer Kirk Bryan to GFDL to account for oceanic influences on the weather; and shortly following World War II, with the nation still leery of Japan, he invited Suki Manabe, Yoshio Kurihara, and Kikuro Miyakoda to GFDL, valuing their scientific expertise and potential and ignoring the xenophobia that might have discouraged such international collaboration. He continued this practice of inviting scientists to GFDL who could take on the project of producing a comprehensive theory of atmospheric processes, valuing talent and creativity over what he regarded as irrelevant factors such as field or nationality. Jerry Mahlman, who succeeded Smagorinsky as director of GFDL at Princeton, writes that Smagorinsky "had no real interest in the 'university scientific culture' that still has a tendency to count scientific publications, rather than scientific achievements, as its measure of faculty success. Joe would have none of that. He wanted junior scientists such as us to focus on solving difficult scientific challenges of major relevance to NOAA, the United States, and the world. . . . Without Joe's support and encouragement, would Manabe have written the first paper on the science of global warming in 1967? Would Bryan have produced the world's first ocean model in 1970? Would Manabe and Bryan have produced the world's first coupled atmosphere–ocean model in 1972? Would I have produced the first comprehensive stratospheric dynamical/chemical model? Would Miyakoda have pioneered extended-range weather forecasting? For my research, the answer is: almost certainly not. Without the level of scientific and computational support provided by Joe, these achievements would have required at least another decade of development to achieve success."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5194620
| 1,526,069 |
1,127,702 |
The primary action that the newly formed militia saw was from the Fenians, a group of Irish radicals who made several attempts in the late 19th century to invade some parts of southern Canada from the United States. The period of the Fenian raids in the 1860s and early 1870s was the peak of the efficiency of the Canadian militia. In 1866, at the Battle of Ridgeway the Fenians defeated the Canada West militia owing to the inexperience of the militiamen, but in 1870 the Quebec militia drove back the Fenians at Trout River and Eccles Hill with little trouble. In 1869, Canada purchased for $1.5 million the vast proprietary colony of Rupert's Land run by the Hudson's Bay Company that comprised all of northern Quebec, northern Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, the Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. The 10,000 people, many of them Métis in the Red River Colony in what is now southern Manitoba, were not consulted about the sale, and under the leadership of Louis Riel rebelled, setting up a provisional government to negotiate their admission to Confederation. Donald Smith of the Hudson's Bay Company had been appointed to negotiate with Riel by Ottawa and arranged a settlement under which Canada would create a new province called Manitoba in exchange for the Métis laying down their arms. However, the execution of Thomas Scott, an Orangeman from Ontario, by the Métis, created much fury in Ontario, a province where the Loyal Orange Order was a major political force. To placate voters in Ontario, an expedition was sent to down the Red River Rebellion. In 1870, an Anglo-Canadian force consisting of the 400 men from British King's Royal Rifle Corps with the rest being Ontario militiamen, consisting of 1,044 men in total under the command of General Garnet Wolseley made a gruelling march across northern Ontario to the Red River colony. Riel fled and the rebellion ended without any fighting, and the terms already agreed upon between Smith and Riel were implemented with Manitoba becoming the 5th province
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3110164
| 1,127,125 |
1,279,803 |
A distinct advantage of microorganisms is that they naturally integrate motility and various biological functions in a conveniently miniaturised package, coupled with autonomous sensing and decision-making capabilities. They are able to adapt and thrive in complex "in vivo" environments and are capable of self-repair and self-assembly upon interaction with their surroundings. In that sense, self-sufficient microorganisms naturally function very similar to what we envision for artificially created microrobots: They harvest chemical energy from their surroundings to power molecular motor proteins that serve as actuators, they employ ion channels and microtubular networks to act as intracellular wiring, they rely on RNA or DNA as memory for control algorithms, and they feature an array of various membrane proteins to sense and evaluate their surroundings. All these abilities act together to allow microbes to thrive and pursue their goal and function. In principle, these abilities also qualify them as biological microrobots for novel operations like theranostics, the combination of diagnosis and therapy, if we are able to impose such functions artificially, for example, by functionalisation with therapeutics. Further, artificial extensions may be used as handles for external control and supervision mechanisms or to enhance the microbe's performance to guide and tailor its functions for specific applications.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69133408
| 1,279,108 |
1,524,364 |
As noted by Owhadi and collaborators, interplays between numerical approximation and statistical inference can also be traced back to Palasti and Renyi, Sard, Kimeldorf and Wahba (on the correspondence between Bayesian estimation and spline smoothing/interpolation) and Larkin (on the correspondence between Gaussian process regression and numerical approximation). Although the approach of modelling a perfectly known function as a sample from a random process may seem counterintuitive, a natural framework for understanding it can be found in information-based complexity (IBC), the branch of computational complexity founded on the observation that numerical implementation requires computation with partial information and limited resources. In IBC, the performance of an algorithm operating on incomplete information can be analyzed in the worst-case or the average-case (randomized) setting with respect to the missing information. Moreover, as Packel observed, the average case setting could be interpreted as a mixed strategy in an adversarial game obtained by lifting a (worst-case) minmax problem to a minmax problem over mixed (randomized) strategies. This observation leads to a natural connection between numerical approximation and Wald's decision theory, evidently influenced by von Neumann's theory of games. To describe this connection consider the optimal recovery setting of Micchelli and Rivlin in which one tries to approximate an unknown function from a finite number of linear measurements on that function. Interpreting this optimal recovery problem as a zero-sum game where Player I selects the unknown function and Player II selects its approximation, and using relative errors in a quadratic norm to define losses, Gaussian priors emerge as optimal mixed strategies for such games, and the covariance operator of the optimal Gaussian prior is determined by the quadratic norm used to define the relative error of the recovery.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69088046
| 1,523,503 |
1,561,249 |
Originally planned for December, a variety of problems delayed the first "Steinbock" raid until the night of 21/22 January 1944. Using every trick the RAF had developed, "Luftwaffe" pathfinders dropped white marker flares along the route and marked London in green. Throughout the raid the attackers dropped large quantities of "Düppel", which successfully jammed the 1.5 m band radars. A number of newer centrimetric sets had recently been deployed, and these were able to continue guiding the fighters to the best of their abilities given operator overload. Mosquitos of ADGB claimed 16 bombers destroyed or probable, while the new centimetric guided anti-aircraft artillery added another 9. A further 18 German aircraft never returned, having become lost or crashing while landing. This represented about 10% of the attacking force of 447 bombers. This sort of loss exchange ratio was greater than the "Luftwaffe" typically managed to achieve against the RAF, and great enough that continued missions with these sorts of losses would quickly deplete the force. For all of this effort, the bombers dropped a total of only 30 tons on the city, causing 14 killed and 74 injured, a tiny fraction of the nightly load during The Blitz. Hitler was apoplectic.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43764346
| 1,560,363 |
7,018 |
A multidisciplinary approach is important for improving quality of life; however, it is difficult to specify a 'core team' as many health services may be needed at different points in time. Multidisciplinary rehabilitation programs increase activity and participation of people with MS but do not influence impairment level. Studies investigating information provision in support of patient understanding and participation suggest that while interventions (written information, decision aids, coaching, educational programmes) may increase knowledge, the evidence of an effect on decision making and quality of life is mixed and low certainty. There is limited evidence for the overall efficacy of individual therapeutic disciplines, though there is good evidence that specific approaches, such as exercise, and psychological therapies are effective. Cognitive training, alone or combined with other neuropsychological interventions, may show positive effects for memory and attention though firm conclusions are not possible given small sample numbers, variable methodology, interventions and outcome measures. The effectiveness of palliative approaches in addition to standard care is uncertain, due to lack of evidence. The effectiveness of interventions, including exercise, specifically for the prevention of falls in people with MS is uncertain, while there is some evidence of an effect on balance function and mobility. Cognitive behavioral therapy has shown to be moderately effective for reducing MS fatigue. The evidence for the effectiveness of non-pharmacological interventions for chronic pain is insufficient to recommend such interventions alone, however their use in combination with medications may be reasonable.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50603
| 7,015 |
9,442 |
Bioinformatics involves the development of techniques to store, data mine, search and manipulate biological data, including DNA nucleic acid sequence data. These have led to widely applied advances in computer science, especially string searching algorithms, machine learning, and database theory. String searching or matching algorithms, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, were developed to search for specific sequences of nucleotides. The DNA sequence may be aligned with other DNA sequences to identify homologous sequences and locate the specific mutations that make them distinct. These techniques, especially multiple sequence alignment, are used in studying phylogenetic relationships and protein function. Data sets representing entire genomes' worth of DNA sequences, such as those produced by the Human Genome Project, are difficult to use without the annotations that identify the locations of genes and regulatory elements on each chromosome. Regions of DNA sequence that have the characteristic patterns associated with protein- or RNA-coding genes can be identified by gene finding algorithms, which allow researchers to predict the presence of particular gene products and their possible functions in an organism even before they have been isolated experimentally. Entire genomes may also be compared, which can shed light on the evolutionary history of particular organism and permit the examination of complex evolutionary events.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7955
| 9,438 |
2,087,501 |
Recently, Wang "et al." reported a BM3 variant capable of performing styrenyl olefin cyclopropanation. As native BM3 displays poor cyclopropanation activity, an enzyme engineering effort was undertaken. At their core, P450s are heme-thiolate enzymes which utilize molecular oxygen (O) and NAD(P)H to perform oxygenation reactions. As such, BM3 prefers to perform epoxidation opposed to cyclopropanation reactions in the presence of olefins. The reaction between ethyl diazoacetate (EDA) and 1 was chosen as a model reaction due to the known difficulty of epoxidizing electron-deficient olefins utilizing transitional metal catalysis (Figure 2). This reaction generates compound 2, which can easily be converted to levomilnacipran (Fetzima), a pharmaceutical used to treat clinical depression. To begin, mutants were generated where the axial coordinating cysteine residue in the catalytic center was replaced with amino acids serine, alanine, methionine, histidine and tyrosine. The mutant T268A-axH, which has an axial histidine ligand catalyzed the reaction between EDA and 1 in 81% yield with 6:94 diastereoselectivity and 42% enantioselectivity. Subsequent rounds of site-saturation mutagenesis were then performed, resulted in the variant named BM3-Hstar (containing T268A-axH, L437W, V78M and L181V mutations), which could catalyze the model reaction with greater than 92% yield, 92% enantioselectivity and 2:98 diastereoselectivity. As an added advantage, BM3-Hstar was also capable of performing the desired cyclopropanation reaction in the presence of atmospheric oxygen (O2) (the only known BM3 variant capable of this).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53843175
| 2,086,299 |
1,459,729 |
When the perturbations have grown sufficiently, a small region might become substantially denser than the mean density of the universe. At this point, the physics involved becomes substantially more complicated. When the deviations from homogeneity are small, the dark matter may be treated as a pressureless fluid and evolves by very simple equations. In regions which are significantly denser than the background, the full Newtonian theory of gravity must be included. (The Newtonian theory is appropriate because the masses involved are much less than those required to form a black hole, and the speed of gravity may be ignored as the light-crossing time for the structure is still smaller than the characteristic dynamical time.) One sign that the linear and fluid approximations become invalid is that dark matter starts to form caustics in which the trajectories of adjacent particles cross, or particles start to form orbits. These dynamics are best understood using "N"-body simulations (although a variety of semi-analytic schemes, such as the Press–Schechter formalism, can be used in some cases). While in principle these simulations are quite simple, in practice they are tough to implement, as they require simulating millions or even billions of particles. Moreover, despite the large number of particles, each particle typically weighs 10 solar masses and discretization effects may become significant. The largest such simulation as of 2005 is the Millennium simulation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1810098
| 1,458,908 |
149,507 |
The assignment of the group was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments mysteriously failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states, meeting almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent and ideas were freely exchanged. By the winter of 1946, they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to "Physical Review". Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with electrolytes. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily and suggested that they use "glycol borate" (gu), a viscous chemical that did not evaporate. Finally, they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of gu placed across a p–n junction.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15737
| 149,439 |
1,646,166 |
Menkin was born on August 8, 1901, in Riga, Russian Empire and died at the age of 90 on June 8, 1992 in Boston, Massachusetts . Two years later, her family relocated to the United States. Her father was a successful doctor in New York City, allowing her family to live securely. In 1922, Menkin graduated from Cornell University with an undergraduate degree in histology and comparative anatomy. She attended Columbia University for her graduate program and earned a master's degree in genetics only one year after graduating from Cornell. She taught biology and physiology for a short period while setting her sights on medical school. However, women were rarely admitted to medical school at the time and she was not accepted. Menkin married Valy Menkin, a Harvard medical student, in 1924. She still intended to earn a Ph.D. in biology, but she needed to provide financial support while her husband finished medical school. Thus, she obtained a second undergraduate degree in secretarial studies from Simmons College. Menkin ended up finishing the Harvard Ph.D. requirements two separate times but did not receive a degree because she could not afford the course fees.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52453978
| 1,645,237 |
2,128,319 |
Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) is an ideal material to fabricate microfluidic devices for cell culture applications due to several advantageous properties such as low processing costs, ease of manufacture, rapid prototyping, ease of surface modification, and cellular non-toxicity. While there are several benefits that arise from using native Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), there are also some drawbacks that researchers must account for in their experiments. First, PDMS is both hydrophobic and porous, meaning that small molecules or other hydrophobic molecules can be adsorbed onto it. Such molecules include anything from methyl- or alkyl-containing molecules, and even certain dyes like Nile Red. Researchers identified in 2008 that plasma could be used to reduce the hydrophobicity of PDMS, though it returned about two weeks after treatment. Some researchers postulate that integrating removable polycaprolactone (PCL) fiber-based electrospun scaffolds under NaOH treatment enhances hydrophilicity as well as mitigating hydrophobicity, while promoting more efficient cell communication. Another problem that arises with PDMS is that it can interfere with the media that circulates in the channels. Incomplete curing of PDMS channels can lead to PDMS leaching into the media and, even when complete curing takes place, components of the media can still unintentionally attach to free hydrophobic sites on the PDMS walls. Yet another problem arises with the gas permeability of PDMS. Most researchers take advantage of this to oxygenate both the PDMS and the circulating media, but this trait also makes the microfluidic system especially vulnerable to water vapor loss. Lastly, not all cell types can grow, or will grow at the same levels, on native PDMS. For instance, high levels of rapid cell death in two fibroblast types grown on native PDMS were observed as early as 1994, which posed problems for the widespread use of PDMS in microfluidic cell culture.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57569740
| 2,127,096 |
955,368 |
Landscape architecture is a multi-disciplinary field, incorporating aspects of urban design, architecture, geography, ecology, civil engineering, structural engineering, horticulture, environmental psychology, industrial design, soil sciences, botany, and fine arts. The activities of a landscape architect can range from the creation of public parks and parkways to site planning for campuses and corporate office parks; from the design of residential estates to the design of civil infrastructure; and from the management of large wilderness areas to reclamation of degraded landscapes such as mines or landfills. Landscape architects work on structures and external spaces in the landscape aspect of the design – large or small, urban, suburban and rural, and with "hard" (built) and "soft" (planted) materials, while integrating ecological sustainability. The most valuable contribution can be made at the first stage of a project to generate ideas with technical understanding and creative flair for the design, organization, and use of spaces. The landscape architect can conceive the overall concept and prepare the master plan, from which detailed design drawings and technical specifications are prepared. They can also review proposals to authorize and supervise contracts for the construction work. Other skills include preparing design impact assessments, conducting environmental assessments and audits, and serving as an expert witness at inquiries on land use issues. The majority of their time will most likely be spent inside an office building designing and preparing models for clients.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=75286
| 954,863 |
991,429 |
Seversky also built a two-seater, the 2PA. Evolved in parallel with the P-35, the 2PA was a two-seat fighter and fighter-bomber with a fundamentally similar airframe and offered with either a similar undercarriage to that of the single-seater as the 2PA-L (Land) or with an amphibious float undercarriage as the 2PA-A (Amphibian). Dubbed "Convoy Fighter" by the manufacturer, the 2PA was powered by a Wright R-1820-G2 or G3 Cyclone nine-cylinder radial engine, the former rated at 1,000 hp for take-off and the latter at 875 hp. Armament comprised two wing-mounted 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm Browning guns, one 7.62 mm Browning on a flexible mount in the rear cockpit, plus two forward-firing fuselage-mounted 7.62 mm or 12.7 mm Browning guns. Provision was made for a bomb load of up to 227 kg (500 lb) on internal wing racks. One 2PA-A and one 2PA-L were procured by the Soviet Union in March 1938, one with conventional landing gear and one with floats, along with the manufacturing license, but it appears that the Soviets never put it into production. In what proved to be an unpopular move for Seversky, 20 2PA-B3s were sold to the Japanese Navy, which briefly employed them in the Second Sino-Japanese War as Navy Type S Two-Seat Fighter or A8V-1 (Allied codename "Dick"). The Japanese were unimpressed with the aircraft and eventually relegated two of them to the Asahi Shimbun newspaper as "hacks." Sweden ordered 52 2PAs (Swedish designation B 6), able to carry 1,350 lb (612 kg) of bombs, but received only two prior to the U.S. embargo directed to combatants. The remaining 50 were appropriated by the USAAC, re-armed with 0.30 in and 0.50 in machine guns, and used as advanced trainers named AT-12 Guardsman.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=675157
| 990,912 |
607,903 |
While teaching at the Lausanne Academy, Walras began constructing a mathematical model that assumes a "regime of perfectly free competition", in which productive factors, products, and prices automatically adjust in equilibrium. Walras began with the theory of exchange in 1873 and then he proceeded to map out his theories of production, capitalization and money in his first edition. His theory of exchange began with an expansion of Cournot's demand curve to include more than two commodities, also realizing the value of the quantity sold must equal the quantity purchased thus the ratio of prices must be equal to the inverse ratio of quantities. Walras then drew a supply curve from the demand curve and set equilibrium prices at the intersection. His model could now determine prices of commodities but only the relative price. In order to deduce the absolute price, Walras could choose one price to serve as a unit of account, coined by Walras as the numeraire and state all other prices in units of this commodity. The term numeraire, meaning unit of account, has become part of the international vocabulary of economics and for many economists, the only French word they know. Using this numeraire he determined that marginal utility, or rarete, divided by the price must be equal for all commodities. Walras felt that because the value of what an individual consumer consumes is equal to the value of that individual's stock of goods, that the aggregate, the value of total sales must equal the value of total purchase, must hold true. This became known as Walras' Law which held that equilibrium equations can be derived from the others until only m-1 equations in the m-1 relative prices remain. Walras then expanded the theory to include production with the assumption of an existence of fixed coefficients in said production making possible a generalization that the marginal productivity of the factors of production varied with the amount of input, making factor substitution possible.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46769
| 607,592 |
1,197,986 |
Solar oscillations were first observed in the early 1960s as a quasi-periodic intensity and line-of-sight velocity variation with a period of about 5 minutes. Scientists gradually realized that the oscillations might be global modes of the Sun and predicted that the modes would form clear ridges in two-dimensional power spectra. The ridges were subsequently confirmed in observations of high-degree modes in the mid 1970s, and mode multiplets of different radial orders were distinguished in whole-disc observations. At a similar time, Jørgen Christensen-Dalsgaard and Douglas Gough suggested the potential of using individual mode frequencies to infer the interior structure of the Sun. They calibrated solar models against the low-degree data finding two similarly good fits, one with low formula_30 and a corresponding low neutrino production rate formula_34, the other with higher formula_30 and formula_34; earlier envelope calibrations against high-degree frequencies preferred the latter, but the results were not wholly convincing. It was not until Tom Duvall and Jack Harvey connected the two extreme data sets by measuring modes of intermediate degree to establish the quantum numbers associated with the earlier observations that the higher-formula_30 model was established, thereby suggesting at that early stage that the resolution of the neutrino problem must lie in nuclear or particle physics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=408801
| 1,197,345 |
2,055,172 |
Rose earned degrees in architecture at Princeton University and Harvard's Graduate School of Design, studying under Michael Graves and Rafael Moneo. After Harvard, Rose worked with landscape architect Michael Van Valkenburgh, an experience that influenced his design philosophy of architecture that "sees the site." He established his practice in Boston in 1989 and in two decades completed more than 50 buildings. His architecture, influenced by his work with Valkenburgh, is formally conscious of site and the buildings relationship to it. Two early projects that established Rose's reputation for buildings that "see the site" are the Leeper Studio Complex at the Atlantic Center for the Arts in New Smyrna Beach, Fla. (1997), and Camp Paint Rock (2000) in Hyattville, Wyo. The Atlantic Center for the Arts is in the rainforest-like environment of Florida's East Coast and uses boardwalks to connect the buildings with meandering paths. Camp Paint Rock on the other hand, uses elevated paths to connect the buildings along the canyon of northern Wyoming. Rose's buildings in both settings have been described as being knit into the landscape (rather than objects on the land). The forms he creates "resonate with features of the site and mediate the site's demands",<ref name="Carter/LeCuyer"></ref> such as climate and orientation toward the sun. After completing Camp Paint Rock, for underprivileged Los Angeles teens, Rose received several commissions: including a commercial project in 1997 for Gemini Consulting to design an "office of the future" which was noted by an award from Architectural Record; Gulf Coast Museum of Art (Largo, Fl., 2001); the United States Port of Entry in Del Rio, Texas, and the Currier Center for the Performing Arts at The Putney School (Putney, Vt., 2004).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33250458
| 2,053,989 |
192,875 |
Before the concept of ice ages was proposed, Joseph Fourier in 1824 reasoned based on physics that Earth's atmosphere kept the planet warmer than would be the case in a vacuum. Fourier recognized that the atmosphere transmitted visible light waves efficiently to the earth's surface. The earth then absorbed visible light and emitted infrared radiation in response, but the atmosphere did not transmit infrared efficiently, which therefore increased surface temperatures. He also suspected that human activities could influence the radiation balance and Earth's climate, although he focused primarily on land-use changes. In an 1827 paper, Fourier stated,The establishment and progress of human societies, the action of natural forces, can notably change, and in vast regions, the state of the surface, the distribution of water and the great movements of the air. Such effects are able to make to vary, in the course of many centuries, the average degree of heat; because the analytic expressions contain coefficients relating to the state of the surface and which greatly influence the temperature.Fourier's work built on previous discoveries: in 1681 Edme Mariotte noted that glass, though transparent to sunlight, obstructs radiant heat. Around 1774 Horace Bénédict de Saussure showed that non-luminous warm objects emit infrared heat, and used a glass-topped insulated box to trap and measure heat from sunlight.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23423379
| 192,775 |
1,900,095 |
As history would show, this turn of events proved to be fortunate for Maher. Bauer was considered to be one among "the city's prominent social and cultural arbiters." He had come to the United States in 1853 having been a part of the wave of German immigration that had brought Robert Seyfarth's grandfather to the United States, and he and his various partners, who were also of German extraction, played an important role in providing architectural services for the large German community in Chicago during the second half of the 19th century. In 1869 Bauer designed the first German school in Chicago at 1352 S. Union Street for Zion Lutheran Church, and in 1872-73 Bauer and Löebnitz designed Concert Hall, Chicago Turngemeinde (demolished) at Clark Street and Chicago Avenue. The output of the Bauer partnerships included many distinguished projects, including Old St. Patrick's Church at 700 W. Adams Street (1856, renovated and restored 1992-1999, which "Chicago" magazine ranked among the 40 most important buildings in Chicago ), the Rosenberg Fountain in Grant Park (dedicated October 16, 1893, restored 2004), and Tree Studios at 601-623 N. State Street (1894–1913, with Parfitt Brothers, renovated 2004). Bauer is credited with the invention of the isolated footing foundation system, which allows for a longer span between vertical supports. This innovation among other things permits the broad expanses of glass that have become a standard feature of modern architecture. Maher was not Bauer's only notable protégé - at the beginning of the Civil War and again at the end of it, Bauer employed Dankmar Adler
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24940492
| 1,899,008 |
965,061 |
The proliferation of thermonuclear weapons coincided with a rise in public concern about nuclear fallout debris contaminating food sources, particularly the threat of high levels of strontium-90 in milk (see the Baby Tooth Survey). This survey was a scientist and citizen led campaign which used "modern media advocacy techniques to communicate complex issues" to inform public discourse. Its research findings confirmed a significant build-up of strontium-90 in bones of babies and helped galvanise public support for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing in the US. Lewis Strauss and Edward Teller, dubbed the "father of the hydrogen bomb," both sought to tamp down on these fears, arguing that fallout [at the dose levels of US exposure] were fairly harmless and that a test ban would enable the Soviet Union to surpass the US in nuclear capabilities. Teller also suggested that testing was necessary to develop nuclear weapons that produced less fallout. Support in the US public for a test ban to continue to grow from 20% in 1954 to 63% by 1957. Moreover, widespread antinuclear protests were organized and led by theologian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate Albert Schweitzer, whose appeals were endorsed by Pope Pius XII, and Linus Pauling, the latter of whom organized an anti-test petition signed by more than 9,000 scientists across 43 countries (including the infirm and elderly Albert Einstein).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30592
| 964,552 |
2,129,926 |
Application deadlines are typically in early January, and application results are revealed in early April, as of 2017. More forms are sent to accepted students for scheduling purposes. Available electives for the year of 2008 included technology math, solar power, seismic engineering, and biomedical engineering. Students choose the elective courses from a list, which changes every year. Core classes are fairly involved and consume most of a student's academic time at GSET. The robotics course is centered on the construction of robots to accomplish certain tasks. Special emphasis is placed on creativity in design. For the year of 2008, there were two robotics competitions in line-following and robotic soccer. Other classes included physics, which stressed newer ideas, such as Relativity and String Theory, over the traditional mainstays of Kinematics and Newtonian Physics. "New Tech," taught by Blase Ur, stresses the importance of security and understanding in today's increasingly technology-oriented world. During the program, students are under the authority of Residential Teaching Assistants (RTAs), who are college students pursuing engineering fields.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12110532
| 2,128,702 |
2,001,456 |
After teaching at the University of Chicago Divinity School for four years, Kitagawa's mentor, Joachim Wach, died due to illness when he was visiting his family in Europe. Following Wach's death, Kitagawa became the leader of the History of Religions discipline in the University of Chicago Divinity School. Ever since Kitagawa became the head of the History of Religions department, he devoted himself to helping his students learn when to form study groups, learn when they are prepared to take Ph.D. candidacy exams, and learn how to further the History of Religions discipline in various job roles and fields. Kitagawa also began translating and publishing Wach's earlier essays which were all completely in German. Between 1951 and 1970, Kitagawa authored and edited no less than 23 books and over 170 academic articles. Among them, his works on Asian and Japanese Religions, such as "Religion in Japanese History" and "On Understanding Japanese Religion", are most well known. One of his first major accomplishments was the securing of Mircea Eliade and Charles H. Long as instructors within the History of Religions discipline. Within the field of the History of Religions, Eliade made significant contributions to the understanding of Alchemy, Shamanism, Yoga, and an idea Eliade referred to as the "eternal return". Long was a distinguished scholar who specialized in Black religions and wrote a landmark piece titled "Significations: Signs, Symbols, and Images in the Interpretation of Religion" (1986) which explored issues relating to religion in the context of cultural misunderstandings, creation, and encounter. Kitagawa, Eliade, and Long founded the journal titled History of Religions in 1960, which was the first journal completely devoted to the study of comparative religious history. In 1970, Kitagawa had successfully developed the History of Religions discipline, and the University of Chicago asked him to take on a leadership role in the Divinity School itself. Kitagawa became dean of the University of Chicago Divinity School in 1970 and during this time Kitagawa developed strong relations with the Lutheran School of Theology, Catholic Theological Union, and McCormick Theological Seminary. In 1980, Kitagawa retired his position as dean and in 1984 he developed pneumonia which damaged his speech so Kitagawa withdrew himself from the public sphere.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27953973
| 2,000,310 |
1,010,118 |
By this time the design was restricted by the limitations imposed by the requirement to the ability to pass through the Panama Canal, a fundamental part of the Navy's strategy as it saved weeks of time when ships had to transfer from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic or vice versa. In the meantime the General Board had decided that upon a plethora of changes of which the most significant were substituting a more powerful, but slower firing, gun for the five-inch guns, thicker deck armor outside the citadel and increased elevation for the sixteen-inch guns. Rear Admiral David W. Taylor, Chief Constructor of the Navy and head of C&R calculated the weight required to implement all of these changes would exceed the board's allowed draft of to easily pass through the canal. In an effort to mitigate the impact on the ship's draft by all of these changes and unable to exceed the canal's width of , Taylor revised the design by adding length and took the opportunity to improve its torpedo defenses, which increased its length to and displacement to . The board rejected this more expensive design and held to most of its requirements; Daniels approved these changes on 29 January 1918. Taylor investigated sloping the armor, which promised to save a lot of weight, but ultimately decided not to do so. On 6 July, the board changed its draft specification to at normal load, which meant that the ships would have to off-load weight to pass through the canal and dropped its requirement for a gyrostabilizer for which had been reserved. This allowed Taylor to add an aft armored transverse bulkhead and armor for the boiler uptakes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6313348
| 1,009,597 |
125,560 |
Although they were generally well-liked, the high cost of £40 each gun was an issue for the British Army leadership. This became a greater issue when it was discovered that only 2,300 of the 30,000 Bren guns issued to the British Expeditionary Force came back to Britain after the defeat of France. As the result, cost savings and increased rate of production became two main goals for subsequent variant designs. The Bren Mk II design simplified production by replacing the drum rear sight with a ladder design, making the bipod legs non-adjustable, simplifying the gun butt, reducing the use of stainless steel, among other steps that reduced the cost by 20% to 25%; Mk II was approved in September 1940 and entered production in 1941. While the Bren Mk III design also aimed at reducing cost, it also had the concurrent goal of being lightened for jungle warfare; the final product weighed , 3 pounds lighter than the original Bren Mk I design; it was standardised in July 1944 and saw a production of 57,600. Also standardised in July 1944 was the Bren Mk IV, which was further lightened to ; however, it did not enter production until July 1945, and only 250 were built before the end of the war. While Enfield was able to produce only 400 Bren Mk I guns each month, with the various simplification efforts production numbers rose to 1,000 guns per week by 1943. Among the variant designs were two speciality prototypes that never entered production: The belt-fed Taden gun for stationary defence use, and the ultra-simplified Besal gun to be produced in case a German invasion of Britain actually took place (which would hinder British production efforts). Later designs of production Bren guns featured chrome-lined barrels that offered less resistance, preventing overheating and reducing the need for quick changes of barrels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=240860
| 125,508 |
844,074 |
The problem of limit of detection, or limit of quantification, is encountered in all scientific disciplines. This explains the variety of definitions and the diversity of solutions developed to address the question. In the simplest cases as in nuclear and chemical measurements, definitions and approaches have probably received the clearer and the simplest solutions. In biochemical tests and in biological experiments depending on many more intricate factors, the situation involving false positive and false negative responses is more delicate to handle. In many other disciplines such as geochemistry, seismology, astronomy, dendrochronology, climatology, life sciences in general, and in many other fields impossible to enumerate extensively, the problem is wider and deals with signal extraction out of a background of noise. It involves complex statistical analysis procedures and therefore it also depends on the models used, the hypotheses and the simplifications or approximations to be made to handle and manage uncertainties. When the data resolution is poor and different signals overlap, different deconvolution procedures are applied to extract parameters. The use of different phenomenological, mathematical and statistical models may also complicate the exact mathematical definition of limit of detection and how it is calculated. This explains why it is difficult to find a general consensus about the precise mathematical definition of the notion of limit of detection. However, one thing is clear: it always requires a sufficient number of data (or accumulated data) and a rigorous statistical analysis to be statistically significant.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2597750
| 843,624 |
175,519 |
In 2008, professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal "Interface" wrote that fuel cells "are not as efficient as batteries, due primarily to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction. ... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses." Also in 2008, "Wired News" reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions." In 2008, Robert Zubrin, the author of "Energy Victory", said: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel. If hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles." The "Los Angeles Times" wrote in 2009, "Any way you look at it, hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars." "The Washington Post" asked in November 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries...?"
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1252085
| 175,427 |
1,381,784 |
Classically, LN, including LCIS, is characterized by enlargement and distension of acini making up the TDLU by proliferation of monomorphic, dyshesive, small, round, or polygonal cells with loss of polarity and inconspicuous cytoplasm. Essentially, groups of round, almost identical looking cells that fill and expand the lobule spaces, occasionally extending into the adjacent terminal ducts – termed Pagetoid extension. Like the cells of atypical lobular hyperplasia and invasive lobular carcinoma, the abnormal cells of LCIS consist of small cells with oval or round nuclei and small nucleoli detached from each other. Mucin-containing signet-ring cells are commonly seen. LCIS generally leaves the underlying architecture intact and recognisable as lobules. Estrogen and progesterone receptors are present and HER2/neu overexpression is absent in most cases of LCIS. Cell borders are indistinct and neither mitotic activity or necrosis are seen. In addition, in situ and invasive lesions exhibit loss of cellular adhesion, considered a characteristic histologic feature, due to the fact that e-cadherin expression is lost (transmembrane protein involved in epithelial cell adhesion). ALH and LCIS are cytologically indistinguishable, so a quantitative threshold is used to classify lesions into either category. A diagnosis of LCIS requires more than half of the acini in an involved lobular unit to be filled with LN cells and the central lumen of the acini should not be visible. Proliferation of LN cells that do not meet these histological characteristics are either Atypical Lobular Hyperplasia or simply lobular distension. Small degrees of cytologic variation can be observed and subsequent subtypes have been described. However, these subtypes have not been shown to be of clinical usefulness and does not have bearing on whether or not LCIS will progress to full invasive carcinoma.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18403722
| 1,381,021 |
1,955,135 |
The renovation of Lincoln Hall is also eco-friendly. The roofs within the courtyards are covered with plants reducing rain runoff and increasing the lifespan of the roof. The slate roofing tiles were recycled as mulch for the grounds. Storm drains and sanitary sewers are relined instead of replaced eliminating the need for excavations and new pipe. New building materials—at least 20 percent of which is harvested and manufactured regionally—are recyclable in case the University ever desires another upgrade. Adhesives, sealants, paints, carpeting, and coatings meet low VOC (volatile organic compound) and other chemical component limits set by South Coast Air Quality Management District, Green Seal, and other environmental standards. No composite wood or agrifiber products contain urea-formaldehyde resins. Heating and cooling systems operate on non-hydrochlorofluorocarbon refrigerants to comply with the Montreal Protocol on preserving atmospheric ozone. Finally, low-flow water fixtures are installed to reduce water usage by more than 40%.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3826618
| 1,954,013 |
590,592 |
Barad's original training was in theoretical particle physics and quantum field theory. Their book, "Meeting the Universe Halfway", (2007), includes a chapter that contains an original discovery in theoretical physics, which is largely unheard of in books that are usually categorized as "gender studies" or "cultural theory" books. In this book, Barad also argues that "agential realism," is useful to the analysis of literature, social inequalities, and many other things. This claim is based on the fact that Barad's agential realism is a way of understanding the politics, ethics, and agencies of any act of observation, and indeed any kind of knowledge practice. According to Barad, the deeply connected way that each "thing" is entangled with everything else in materially specific ways means that all intra-actions reconfigure the entanglements. Barad's innovative and far-reaching formulation of intra-action, which challenges the usual notion of interaction which assumes a metaphysics of individualism, offers a new formulation of causality. There are not things that interact but rather through and within intra-actions there is a differentiating-entangling so that an agential cut is enacted that cuts things together-apart (one move) such that differences exist not as absolute separations but in their inseparability (i.e., "agential separability" as Barad calls it). Nothing is inherently separate from anything else, but separations are enacted within phenomena. This view of knowledge provides a framework for thinking about how culture and habits of thought can make some things visible and other things easier to ignore or to never see. For this reason, according to Barad, agential realism is useful for feminist analysis and other forms of political and social thought, even if the connection to science is not apparent.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14091688
| 590,290 |
210,080 |
The outer surface of the fluke is called the tegument. This is composed of scleroprotein, and its primary function is to protect the fluke from the destructive digestive system of the host. Its also used for renewal of the surface plasma membrane and the active uptake of nutrients, and the uptake of some compounds (e.g. taurine) make flukes even more resistant to be killed by the digestive system of host. On the surface of the tegument are also small spines. Initially, these spines are single-pointed, then, just prior to the fluke entering the bile ducts, they become multipointed. At the anterior end of the fluke, the spines have between 10 and 15 points, whereas at the posterior end, they have up to 30 points. The tegument is a syncytial epithelium. This means it is made from the fusion of many cells, each containing one nucleus, to produce a multinucleated cell membrane. In the case of "F. hepatica", no nuclei are in the outer cytoplasm between the basal and apical membranes. Thus, this region is referred to as anucleate. Instead, the nuclei are found in the cell bodies, also known as tegumental cells, these connect to the outer cytoplasm via thin cytoplasmic strands. The tegumental cells contain the usual cytoplasmic organelles (mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and endoplasmic reticulum). The tegument plays a key role in the fluke's infection of the host. Studies have shown that certain parts of the tegument (in this case, the antigen named Teg) can actually suppress the immune response of the mammalian host. This means that the fluke is able to weaken the immune response, and increase its chances of a successful infection. A successful infection is needed for the fluke to have enough time to develop into an adult and continue its lifecycle.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1349358
| 209,973 |
318,077 |
During the season, the Tyrrell team had its results stripped after a technical infringement. Soon after the podium ceremony for the Detroit Grand Prix in which Martin Brundle had finished in second place (only 2 seconds behind the Brabham of Nelson Piquet), word arrived that the officials had found impurities in the water injection system on his Tyrrell 012 and lead balls in the rubber bag containing the water. Samples of the water were shipped to France and Texas for analysis and found to contain significant levels of hydrocarbons. Team boss Ken Tyrrell was called to a meeting of the FISA Executive Committee on July 18 and, based on the impurities in the water, which had been topped up during a pit stop, was accused of refueling the car during the race. Refueling had been banned prior to the 1984 season and remained illegal until 1994. FISA found the team guilty and Tyrrell was disqualified from the remainder of the World Championship and lost the 13 points they had already gained as of Detroit. They were allowed to and did continue to race, though they did not appear for the final three races of the season. However, they were unable to score any championship points. Many in the paddock felt for Tyrrell as they believed the penalty far outweighed the crime and that FISA boss Jean-Marie Balestre had used the system to make an example of the British-based team to vindicate what happened the previous season, when Brabham escaped punishment after admitting to run a lighter car by using a different blend of fuel.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1140073
| 317,907 |
215,941 |
Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel are two leading figures in Impressionism, though Debussy rejected this label (in a 1908 letter he wrote "imbeciles call [what I am trying to write in "Images"] 'impressionism', a term employed with the utmost inaccuracy, especially by art critics who use it as a label to stick on Turner, the finest creator of mystery in the whole of art!") and Ravel displayed discomfort with it, at one point claiming that it could not be adequately applied to music at all. Debussy's Impressionist works typically "evoke a mood, feeling, atmosphere, or scene" by creating musical images through characteristic motifs, harmony, exotic scales (e.g., whole-tone and pentatonic scales), instrumental timbre, large unresolved chords (e.g., 9ths, 11ths, 13ths), parallel motion, ambiguous tonality, extreme chromaticism, heavy use of the piano pedals, and other elements. “The perception of Debussy’s compositional language as decidedly post-romantic/Impressionistic—nuanced, understated, and subtle—is firmly solidified among today’s musicians and well-informed audiences." Some Impressionist composers, Debussy and Ravel in particular, are also labeled as symbolist composers. One trait shared with both aesthetic trends is "a sense of detached observation: rather than expressing deeply felt emotion or telling a story"; as in symbolist poetry, the normal syntax is usually disrupted and individual images that carry the work's meaning are evoked.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14566
| 215,833 |
399,353 |
In 1952, the U.S. military assigned Jay W. Lathrop and James R. Nall at the National Bureau of Standards (later the U.S. Army Diamond Ordnance Fuze Laboratory, which eventually merged to form the now-present Army Research Laboratory) with the task of finding a way to reduce the size of electronic circuits in order to better fit the necessary circuitry in the limited space available inside a proximity fuze. Inspired by the application of photoresist, a photosensitive liquid used to mark the boundaries of rivet holes in metal aircraft wings, Nall determined that a similar process can be used to protect the germanium in the transistors and even pattern the surface with light. During development, Lathrop and Nall were successful in creating a 2D miniaturized hybrid integrated circuit with transistors using this technique. In 1958, during the IRE Professional Group on Electron Devices (PGED) conference in Washington, D.C., they presented the first paper to describe the fabrication of transistors using photographic techniques and adopted the term "photolithography" to describe the process, marking the first published use of the term to describe semiconductor device patterning.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23748
| 399,155 |
1,971,325 |
In their study of proteins, Osborne and Mendel also aided in the discovery of vitamins. During their feeding trials, they noticed that young rats fed diets with sufficient carbohydrate (in the form of wheat flour) and purified protein, but with vegetable fats or lard instead of butter grew and developed normally for around eighty days, then suddenly began to decline in health and weight then soon died. Many of the animals also developed sore eyes or even ulcers on their eyeballs. Something other than carbohydrates, fats and complete proteins was missing from this artificial diet. When a small amount of butter was added to the feed mixture, the afflicted rats soon recovered completely and continued growing. Whole-milk powder also had the same effect on rat growth. In 1913, the Station's Annual Report stated that “experiments have shown that some still unknown substance is essential to growth and that this unknown substance is present in milk. Much work is being done in an effort to discover an isolate this substance.” As it turns out, this substance was Vitamin A. Concurrently with Osborne and Mendel, Elmer V. McCollum (a former student of Osborne) and Marguerite Davis at the University of Wisconsin were obtaining similar results, and although the scientists submitted their report for publication several weeks prior to the Station scientists, it is clear that both parties discovered vitamins independently.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13561040
| 1,970,191 |
557,020 |
He was born in Grodno (then Second Polish Republic, since 1945 part of Belarus) on April 29, 1926. He was the youngest of three children in his Lithuanian Jewish family, with the Yiddish given name "Pesach". His family moved to the United States on May 11, 1928, settling in Boston and later in Philadelphia, where his father, Morris "Moshe" Baran (1884–1979), opened a grocery store. He graduated from Drexel University (then called Drexel Institute of Technology) in 1949, with a degree in electrical engineering. He then joined the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Company, where he did technical work on UNIVAC models, the first brand of commercial computers in the United States. In 1955 he married Evelyn Murphy, moved to Los Angeles, and worked for Hughes Aircraft on radar data processing systems. He obtained his master's degree in engineering from UCLA in 1959, with advisor Gerald Estrin while he took night classes. His thesis was on character recognition. While Baran initially stayed on at UCLA to pursue his doctorate, a heavy travel and work schedule forced him to abandon his doctoral work.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1016348
| 556,731 |
134,777 |
Circumstantial evidence indicates that the baroque bassoon was a newly invented instrument, rather than a simple modification of the old dulcian. The dulcian was not immediately supplanted, but continued to be used well into the 18th century by Bach and others; and, presumably for reasons of interchangeability, repertoire from this time is very unlikely to go beyond the smaller compass of the dulcian. The man most likely responsible for developing the true bassoon was Martin Hotteterre (d.1712), who may also have invented the three-piece "flûte traversière" (transverse flute) and the "hautbois" (baroque oboe). Some historians believe that sometime in the 1650s, Hotteterre conceived the bassoon in four sections (bell, bass joint, boot and wing joint), an arrangement that allowed greater accuracy in machining the bore compared to the one-piece dulcian. He also extended the compass down to B by adding two keys. An alternate view maintains Hotteterre was one of several craftsmen responsible for the development of the early bassoon. These may have included additional members of the Hotteterre family, as well as other French makers active around the same time. No original French bassoon from this period survives, but if it did, it would most likely resemble the earliest extant bassoons of Johann Christoph Denner and Richard Haka from the 1680s. Sometime around 1700, a fourth key (G♯) was added, and it was for this type of instrument that composers such as Antonio Vivaldi, Bach, and Georg Philipp Telemann wrote their demanding music. A fifth key, for the low E, was added during the first half of the 18th century. Notable makers of the 4-key and 5-key baroque bassoon include J.H. Eichentopf (c. 1678–1769), J. Poerschmann (1680–1757), Thomas Stanesby, Jr. (1668–1734), G.H. Scherer (1703–1778), and Prudent Thieriot (1732–1786).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4207
| 134,722 |
1,086,410 |
The HIPEC technique was also further improved upon by suggesting multiple modalities of delivery. The "Coliseum" technique as well as a similar approach described by Dr. Paul Sugarbaker in 1999 were open abdominal techniques where heated chemotherapy was poured in. Benefits of this open approach included direct access by the surgeon to the cavity during administration of the hyperthermic agents to manipulate the fluid and bowel in order to achieve a quick and homogeneous temperature and distribution of drug within the abdomen. Additionally, care can be taken to ensure that all peritoneal surfaces are exposed equally throughout the duration of the therapy as well as avoid dangerous temperatures or over-exposure to normal tissues. In comparison, the closed technique involves the closure of the abdominal wall prior to infusion of the chemotherapy reducing the issue of heat loss from peritoneal surfaces. In attempts to combine potential advantages of these two techniques, Sugarbaker employed a semi-open method by developing a new containment instrument (Thompson retractor) described in 2005 to support watertight elevation of the abdominal skin edges. More recently, a laparoscopic approach for CRS with HIPEC in highly selected patients with minimal disease burden has been described.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30860773
| 1,085,852 |
10,027 |
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts. Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in 1941 to strengthen cooperation with its own project, codenamed Tube Alloys, because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo-American project was poorly treated, and Churchill did not reply to the letter. The United States as a result decided as early as April 1942 that if its offer was rejected, they should proceed alone. The British, who had made significant contributions early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program while fighting for their survival. As a result, Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. and on 30 July 1942, Sir John Anderson, the minister responsible for Tube Alloys, advised Churchill that: "We must face the fact that ... [our] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger.' Soon we shall have little or none." That month Churchill and Roosevelt made an informal, unwritten agreement for atomic collaboration.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603
| 10,023 |
1,851,909 |
In the late 1950s, as the Civil Rights Movement gathered momentum in the US, Fordham students and school officials expressed ambivalence about racial justice. In the late 1960s, Fordham became a center of political activism and countercultural activity. At the Rose Hill Campus, the Fordham branch of Students for a Democratic Society organized opposition to the existence of the ROTC and military recruiters. During this period, students routinely organized protests and class boycotts and used psychoactive drugs on campus open spaces. In response to internal demands for a more "liberalized" curriculum, the university created Bensalem College in 1967. An experimental college with no set requirements and no grades, it was studied by a wide array of educators and reported on by such large-circulation publications of the day as "Look", "Esquire" and the "Saturday Review". The school closed in 1974. In 1969, students organized a sit-in on the main road leading to Rose Hill in response to an announcement that President Richard Nixon would be speaking on campus. As a result of the sit-in, Nixon was forced to cancel his plans to speak. A year later, students stormed the main administration building, occupying it for several weeks, and set fire to the Rose Hill faculty lounge. It was during this period of activism that the university's African and African American Studies Department, one of the first black studies departments in the nation, as well as "the paper", the leftist student newspaper on campus, were founded.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53885358
| 1,850,848 |
1,145,589 |
Cell, developmental, and reproductive biology have been a central part of the MBL's programs since the 1890s. Important discoveries in these fields at the MBL reach back to 1899, when Jacques Loeb demonstrated artificial parthenogenesis in sea urchin eggs; to 1905, when Edwin Grant Conklin first identified egg cytoplasmic regions that are programmed to form certain tissues or organs; to 1916, when Frank Rattray Lillie identified circulating hormones that influence sexual differentiation (Lillie, 1944). In the MBL's first two decades, cytologists Edmund Beecher Wilson, Nettie Stevens and others made connections between the chromosomes and Mendelian heredity, while Wilson's colleague at both the MBL and Columbia University, Thomas Hunt Morgan, launched the field of experimental genetics (Pauly, 2000:158). Keith R. Porter, considered by many to be a founder of modern cell biology due to his pioneering work on the fine structure of cells, including the discovery of microtubules, carried out research at the MBL starting in 1937 and directed the laboratory from 1975-77 (Barlow et al., 1993: 95-115).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391313
| 1,144,988 |
2,106,450 |
Eric Higgs was born in Brantford, Ontario, to David P.J. Higgs and Barbara Isabel Stowe. His pre-school years were in North Delta, British Columbia (near Vancouver). He attended public school in Thornhill, Ontario (near Toronto), and secondary school (Brantford Collegiate and Pauline Johnston Secondary School) in Brantford. In 1976 he turned away from what had been a strong early passion for physics and engineering, and attend the Integrated Studies Program at the University of Waterloo. The Integrated Studies Program was student-driven and required self-motivation to complete an open curriculum in a subjects of the student's choosing. He completed an undergraduate thesis, "A theory for the interaction of ecology and the social order," that blended history of ecology with social philosophy and environmental ethics. Immediately upon graduation with a Bachelor of Independent Studies (B.I.S.) in 1979, he took up an internship at the Hastings Centre (Institute for the Study of Ethics, Society and the Life Sciences) in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York, where he undertook a project on environmental and ecological ethics. He completed a master's degree in philosophy of science at the University of Western Ontario (1980–81), and at the same time undertook ecological consulting work in Southern Ontario. He returned to the University of Waterloo to a new interdisciplinary doctoral program, in which he combined studies in the Department of Philosophy and the School of Urban and Regional Planning. Working with co-supervisors, Lawrence Haworth, a social and moral philosopher, and Robert Dorney, an ecologist and environmental planner, Higgs completed his dissertation, "Planning, Technology and Community Autonomy," in 1988.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8084673
| 2,105,237 |
835,707 |
Many of the problems encountered will benefit from special attention, as problems are often related more to "input and output" issues than to intellectual impairment. Problems with eye movement control make it difficult for people with A–T to read, yet most fully understand the meaning and nuances of text that is read to them. Delays in speech initiation and lack of facial expression make it seem that they do not know the answers to questions. Reduction of the skilled effort needed to answer questions, and an increase of the time available to respond, is often rewarded by real accomplishment. It is important to recognize that intellectual disability is not regularly a part of the clinical picture of A–T although school performance may be suboptimal because of the many difficulties in reading, writing, and speech. Children with A–T are often very conscious of their appearance, and strive to appear normal to their peers and teachers. Life within the ataxic body can be tiring. The enhanced effort needed to maintain appearances and increased energy expended in abnormal tone and extra movements all contribute to physical and mental fatigue. As a consequence, for some a shortened school day yields real benefits.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1058672
| 835,258 |
1,595,205 |
In addition, the first electron deflection experiments with sufficient precision was conducted by Rogers "et al." (1940), who developed an improved setup. The radium decay series yields a spectrum of beta particles with a wide range of energies. The earlier measurements by Kaufmann, Bucherer, and others had used flat parallel plate condensers which provided no focusing of the beta particles. Rogers "et al." (Fig. 10) instead constructed an electrostatic spectrograph capable of resolving the energy maxima of individual beta particle lines from the radium decay series. The electrostatic spectrograph was constructed of segments of two cylinders and was enclosed in an evacuated iron box. The beta rays were emitted from a fine platinum wire coated with radium active-deposit. The dispersed rays were incident on a slit in front of a Geiger counter. The data from this experiment was combined with previous magnetic spectrometer measurements of "H" to yield the charge-to-mass ratio, which was subsequently compared with the predictions of Lorentz and Abraham for the ratio of transverse mass and rest mass. The points were all on the curve representing the Lorentz–Einstein formula to within 1% (see Fig. 11). This experiment is seen as being sufficiently precise to distinguish between the theories.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8808602
| 1,594,307 |
660,250 |
The first truly quantitative reconstruction of Northern Hemisphere temperatures had been published in 1993 by Bradley and Phil Jones, but it and subsequent reconstructions compiled averages for decades, covering the whole hemisphere. Mann wanted temperatures of individual years showing differences between regions, to find spatial patterns showing natural oscillations and the effect of events such as volcanic eruptions. Sophisticated statistical methods had already been applied to dendroclimatology, but to get wider geographical coverage these tree ring records had to be related to sparser proxies such as ice cores, corals and lake sediments. To avoid giving too much weight to the more numerous tree data, Mann, Bradley and Hughes used the statistical procedure of principal component analysis to represent these larger datasets in terms of a small number of representative series and compare them to the sparser proxy records. The same procedure was also used to represent key information in the instrumental temperature record for comparison with the proxy series, enabling validation of the reconstruction. They chose the period 1902–1980 for calibration, leaving the previous 50 years of instrumental data for validation. This showed that the statistical reconstructions were only skillful (statistically meaningful) back to 1400.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=345811
| 659,905 |
902,135 |
William James addressed the benefits of attention by saying, "Only those items which I notice shape my mind – without selective interest, experience is utter chaos". Humans have a limited mental capacity that is incapable of attending to all the sights, sounds and other inputs that rush the senses every moment. Inattentional blindness is beneficial in the sense that it is a mechanism that has evolved with attention to help filter out irrelevant input, allowing only important information to reach consciousness. Several researchers, notably James J. Gibson, have argued that, even before the retina, perception begins in the ecology, which has turned perceptual processes into informational relationships in the environment through evolution. This allows humans to focus our limited mental resources more efficiently in our environment. For example, New et al. maintain that survival required monitoring animals, both human and non-human, to become part of the evolutionary adaptiveness of the human species. They found that when participants were shown an image with a rapidly altering scene where the scene change included an animate or inanimate object that the participants were significantly better at identifying humans and animals. New et al. argue that better performance in detecting animals and humans is not a factor of acquired expertise, rather it is an evolved survival mechanism in human perception.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1677048
| 901,659 |
2,015,549 |
Richens stated that "a unilateral habit is the prime diagnostic feature of "U. plotii"." This habit of branching tends to make Plot appear narrow from some angles. Before the advent of Dutch elm disease, this slender, "loose-habited", monopodial tree grew to a height of and was chiefly characterized by its cocked crown comprising a few short ascending branches. Richens likened its appearance to an ostrich feather, and noted "a general tendency for shoots to continue growth as long shoots". Melville noted that Plot "is unusually variable in the type of shoot produced on normal branches of the crown. In some seasons trees produce occasional branches bearing only semi-long shoots – i.e. shoots intermediate in character between typical short-shoots and the long extension shoots." These semi-long shoots (also known as "proliferating short-shoots") have smaller, more rounded, more coarsely toothed leaves. The bark remains smooth for several years. A few longer lower branches were often a feature of its profile; the form of old trees will have depended on whether or not these survived cropping and pruning. The obovate to elliptic acuminate leaves are small, nearly equal at the base, rarely > 4 cm in length, with comparatively few marginal teeth, usually < 70; the upper surfaces dull, with a scattering of minute tubercles and hairs. The samarae rarely ripen, but when mature are narrowly obovate, < 13 mm in length, with a triangular open notch.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5961044
| 2,014,389 |
200,012 |
At the end of the 19th century, physics had evolved to the point at which classical mechanics could cope with highly complex problems involving macroscopic situations; thermodynamics and kinetic theory were well established; geometrical and physical optics could be understood in terms of electromagnetic waves; and the conservation laws for energy and momentum (and mass) were widely accepted. So profound were these and other developments that it was generally accepted that all the important laws of physics had been discovered and that, henceforth, research would be concerned with clearing up minor problems and particularly with improvements of method and measurement. However, around 1900 serious doubts arose about the completeness of the classical theories—the triumph of Maxwell's theories, for example, was undermined by inadequacies that had already begun to appear—and their inability to explain certain physical phenomena, such as the energy distribution in blackbody radiation and the photoelectric effect, while some of the theoretical formulations led to paradoxes when pushed to the limit. Prominent physicists such as Hendrik Lorentz, Emil Cohn, Ernst Wiechert and Wilhelm Wien believed that some modification of Maxwell's equations might provide the basis for all physical laws. These shortcomings of classical physics were never to be resolved and new ideas were required. At the beginning of the 20th century a major revolution shook the world of physics, which led to a new era, generally referred to as modern physics.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13758
| 199,909 |
959,892 |
Though Ray had primarily focused on history and literature until this stage, chemistry was then a compulsory subject in the FA degree. As the Metropolitan Institution offered no facilities for science courses at the time, Ray attended physics and chemistry lectures as an external student at the Presidency College. He was especially drawn to the chemistry courses taught by Alexander Pedler, an inspiring lecturer and experimentalist who was among the earliest research chemists in India. Soon captivated by experimental science, Ray decided to make chemistry his career, as he recognised that his country's future would greatly depend on his progress in science. His passion for experimentation led him to set up a miniature chemistry laboratory at a classmate's lodgings and reproducing some of Pedler's demonstrations; on one occasion, he narrowly escaped injury when a faulty apparatus exploded violently. He passed the FA exam in 1881 with a second division, and was admitted to the BA (B-course) degree of the University of Calcutta as a chemistry student, with a view towards pursuing higher studies in the field. Having learnt Latin and French in addition to achieving a "fair mastery" of Sanskrit, a compulsory subject at the FA level, Ray applied for a Gilchrist Prize Scholarship while studying for his BA examination; the scholarship required a knowledge of at least four languages. After an all-India competitive examination, Ray won one of the two scholarships, and enrolled as a BSc. student at the University of Edinburgh without completing his original degree. He sailed for the United Kingdom in August 1882, aged 21.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2325728
| 959,384 |
376,849 |
Francis Bacon (no direct relation to Roger, who lived 300 years earlier) was a seminal figure in philosophy of science at the time of the Scientific Revolution. In his work "Novum Organum" (1620)an allusion to Aristotle's "Organon"Bacon outlined a new system of logic to improve upon the old philosophical process of syllogism. Bacon's method relied on experimental "histories" to eliminate alternative theories. In 1637, René Descartes established a new framework for grounding scientific knowledge in his treatise, "Discourse on Method", advocating the central role of reason as opposed to sensory experience. By contrast, in 1713, the 2nd edition of Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" argued that "... hypotheses ... have no place in experimental philosophy. In this philosophy[,] propositions are deduced from the phenomena and rendered general by induction." This passage influenced a "later generation of philosophically-inclined readers to pronounce a ban on causal hypotheses in natural philosophy". In particular, later in the 18th century, David Hume would famously articulate skepticism about the ability of science to determine causality and gave a definitive formulation of the problem of induction. The 19th century writings of John Stuart Mill are also considered important in the formation of current conceptions of the scientific method, as well as anticipating later accounts of scientific explanation.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37010
| 376,654 |
2,010,467 |
A group of orthologous or homologous genes can be analysed in terms of the presence or absence of group members in the reference genomes; such patterns are called phylogenetic profiles. To find HGT events, phylogenetic profiles are scanned for an unusual distribution of genes. Absence of a homolog in some members of a group of closely related species is an indication that the examined gene might have arrived via an HGT event. For example, the three facultatively symbiotic "Frankia sp." strains are of strikingly different sizes: 5.43 Mbp, 7.50 Mbp and 9.04 Mbp, depending on their range of hosts. Marked portions of strain-specific genes were found to have no significant hit in the reference database, and were possibly acquired by HGT transfers from other bacteria. Similarly, the three phenotypically diverse "Escherichia coli" strains (uropathogenic, enterohemorrhagic and benign) share about 40% of the total combined gene pool, with the other 60% being strain-specific genes and consequently HGT candidates. Further evidence for these genes resulting from HGT was their strikingly different codon usage patterns from the core genes and a lack of gene order conservation (order conservation is typical of vertically evolved genes). The presence/absence of homologs (or their effective count) can thus be used by programs to reconstruct the most likely evolutionary scenario along the species tree. Just as with reconciliation methods, this can be achieved through parsimonious or probabilistic estimation of the number of gain and loss events. Models can be complexified by adding processes, like the truncation of genes, but also by modelling the heterogeneity of rates of gain and loss across lineages and/or gene families.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46968364
| 2,009,315 |
766,663 |
Review findings suggest that hyperglycemia that occurs in mice due to a habitual high-fat diet leads to a reduction in signalling by orexin receptor-2, and that orexin receptors may be a future therapeutic target. Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells and acts as a long-term internal measure of energy state. Ghrelin is a short-term factor secreted by the stomach just before an expected meal, and strongly promotes food intake. Orexin-producing cells have been shown to be inhibited by leptin (through the leptin receptor pathway), but are activated by ghrelin and hypoglycemia (glucose inhibits orexin production). Orexin, as of 2007, is claimed to be a very important link between metabolism and sleep regulation. Such a relationship has been long suspected, based on the observation that long-term sleep deprivation in rodents dramatically increases food intake and energy metabolism, i.e., catabolism, with lethal consequences on a long-term basis. Sleep deprivation then leads to a lack of energy. In order to make up for this lack of energy, many people use high-carbohydrate and high-fat foods that ultimately can lead to poor health and weight gain. Other dietary nutrients, amino acids, also can activate orexin neurons, and they can suppress the glucose response of orexin neurons at physiological concentration, causing the energy balance that orexin maintains to be thrown off its normal cycle.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276251
| 766,252 |
2,001,199 |
The attacking forces engaged in the April War (6 to 17 April 1941) were 2,373 aircraft strong, including 1,212 aircraft from Germany, 647 from Italy and 287 from Hungary, while the Royal Yugoslav Air Force had 494 airplanes, only 269 of a modern type. Thus the ratio in the beginning of operations was 5:1 in favor of the Axis powers, and if counting only modern Yugoslav aircraft the ratio climbs to 7:1 in favor of the Axis powers. In spite of huge logistic difficulties and acts of treason (proclamation of the puppet-state Independent State of Croatia on 10 April 1941) the Royal Yugoslav Air Force fulfilled its duties with honor. Yugoslav airmen (5th and 6th Fighter Regiment pilots especially) fought courageously against an enemy superior both technically and numerically. During the war operations a total of 1,416 take-offs was made, 993 of which were performed by fighters and 423 by bombers. During this short war 135 flight crew members and 576 ground personnel lost their lives. About 300 Royal Yugoslav Air Force personnel evacuated, first to Greece then to Crete. After the Battle of Crete they went on to the deserts of the Near and Middle East, where for a short time they found a safe place. In June 1941 the 20th Hydroaviation Squadron under command of Lieutenant Vladeta Petrović with their no surrender war flag was renamed in the 2nd Yugoslav Squadron, attached to No. 230 Squadron RAF. Up until 23 April 1942 the squadron flew 912 combat mission (1,760 flying hours) and lost four aircraft. The main mission of the squadron was anti-submarine patrol and protected allied shipping.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48791069
| 2,000,053 |
1,464,294 |
Garwin served on the U.S. President's Science Advisory Committee from 1962–65 and 1969–72, under Presidents Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon. He has been a member of the JASON Defense Advisory Group since 1966. As a member of the Institute for Defense Analyses' Jason Division of U.S. university scientists. on Sat. February 3, 1968, Garwin “traveled to Vietnam” with Henry Way Kendall and several other scientists “to check on the operation of the electronic barrier” he and other Jason scientists developed for the Pentagon to utilize in Indochina, according to The Jasons by Ann Finkbeiner. And, in the 1960s, "Jason scientist Richard Garwin, a nuclear physicist who, years before, helped design the Castle Bravo hydrogen bomb, held a seminar on the SADEYE cluster bomb and other munitions that would be most effective when accompanying the sensors" of the electronic barrier in Vietnam, according to page 205 of Annie Jacobsen's book, "The Pentagon's Brain: An Uncensored History of DARPA, America's Top Secret Military Research Agency," that Little Brown & Company, NY published in 2015. From 1993 to August 2001, he chaired the Arms Control and Nonproliferation Advisory Board of the U.S. Department of State. From 1966 to 1969 he served on the Defense Science Board. He also served on the Commission to Assess the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States in 1998. He is currently a member of the National Academies' Committee on International Security and Arms Control and has served on 27 other National Academies committees.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5189415
| 1,463,471 |
600,322 |
The field includes nanorobots and biological machines, which constitute a very useful tool to develop this area of knowledge. In the past years, researchers have made many improvements in the different devices and systems required to develop functional nanorobots – such as motion and magnetic guidance. This supposes a new way of treating and dealing with diseases such as cancer; thanks to nanorobots, side effects of chemotherapy could get controlled, reduced and even eliminated, so some years from now, cancer patients could be offered an alternative to treat such diseases instead of chemotherapy, which causes secondary effects such as hair loss, fatigue or nausea killing not only cancerous cells but also the healthy ones. Nanobots could be used for various therapies, surgery, diagnosis, and medical imaging – such as via targeted drug-delivery to the brain (similar to nanoparticles) and other sites. Programmability for combinations of features such as "tissue penetration, site-targeting, stimuli responsiveness, and cargo-loading" makes such nanobots promising candidates for "precision medicine".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2154572
| 600,016 |
752,299 |
Direct TPMS (dTPMS) directly measures tire pressure using hardware sensors. In each wheel, most often on the inside of the valve, there is a battery-driven pressure sensor which transfers pressure information to a central control unit which reports it to the vehicle's onboard computer. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as well. These systems can identify under-inflation for each individual tire. Although the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can display realtime, individual tire pressures whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are powered by batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of limited battery life. This also increases the frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport applications. If the sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3684992
| 751,897 |
395,112 |
Indirect evidence for endothermy is provided by the body shape of derived ichthyosaurs, which with its short tail and vertical tail fin seems optimised for a high cruising speed that can only be sustained by a high metabolism: all extant animals swimming this way are either fully warm-blooded or, like sharks and tuna, maintain a high temperature in their body core. This argument does not cover basal forms with a more eel-like body and undulating swimming movement. In 1996, Richard Cowen, while accepting endothermy for the group, presumed that ichthyosaurs would have been subject to "Carrier's constraint", a limitation to reptilian respiration pointed out in 1987 by David Carrier: their undulated locomotion forces the air out of the lungs and thus prevents them from taking breath while moving. Cowen hypothesised that ichthyosaurs would have overcome this problem by porpoising: constantly jumping out of the water would have allowed them to take a gulp of fresh air during each jump. Other researchers have tended to assume that for at least derived ichthyosaurs Carrier's constraint did not apply, because of their stiff bodies, which seems to be confirmed by their good diving capacity, implying an effective respiration and oxygen storage system. For these species porpoising was not a necessity. Nevertheless, ichthyosaurs would have often surfaced to breathe, probably tilting their heads slightly to take in air, because of the lower position of the nostrils compared to that of dolphins.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314101
| 394,917 |
1,129,355 |
In 1970 the then minister of defence Helmut Schmidt decided that the education of military officers in Germany had to be reviewed and had to include full academic studies. After one year the "Ellwein commission" presented its proposal for the creation of two civilian colleges within the armed forces. Students should get fully recognised civilian degrees independent of their military profession, to have a higher qualified officer corps and more incentives to join the military. The idea was that students would have better conditions than at normal universities so that they could cope with a higher workload and study faster. After almost two years of discussions and the necessary legislative procedures, both universities could open. University education normally being a responsibility of the German states, Universität der Bundeswehr München and Helmut Schmidt University are the only federal universities in Germany. With their innovative concepts Helmut Schmidt University and Universität der Bundeswehr München quickly became widely known as reform universities within the very traditional German university landscape. In the following years the universities had to establish their image and reputation and finally were accepted as full universities with the rights to award doctorate degrees as well as Habilitations to qualify university professors in the 80s. In the 90s and 2000s the university has started to open its teaching towards civilian students and to extend its international relations. While the researchers and doctorate students always used to be mainly civilians, the student body still had been purely military in the 90s. Today, Universität der Bundeswehr München has concluded partnership contracts with different major financial and industrial companies, which send students to Universität der Bundeswehr München. In the past few years different federal agencies have started to qualify their employees at the university. Since 2007 Universität der Bundeswehr München has changed its degree to the harmonized Bologna system. It has completely restructed its curriculums and awards bachelor's and master's degrees instead of the former German Diplom.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13695991
| 1,128,777 |
654,731 |
The Hotchkiss was based on a design by Captain Baron Adolf Odkolek von Ujezda of Vienna, first patented in July 1889 with further patents following in the following years, tested in 1893 in Saint-Denis, near Paris. The patents had been purchased in 1894–1895 by the firm of Benjamin Hotchkiss. Benjamin Hotchkiss was no longer alive at the time of the purchase, but the Odkolek design was further developed and greatly improved under the direction of American-born Laurence Vincent Benét. In 1898 an export model was offered for international sales by Hotchkiss and sold to Brazil, Chile, Japan, Mexico, Norway and Venezuela that year. With some useful changes, such as the addition of five cooling radiator rings on the barrel, the same basic design led to the Mle 1900. The gun was tested in 1901 by two Chasseur battalions and in 1903–1904 with cavalry units. The French Army bought another 50 Hotchkiss machine guns in 1906 for comparative trials but adopted the more complex Puteaux Mle 1905 (upgraded as the St. Étienne Mle 1907) to equip the infantry in 1907–1909. Nevertheless, 600 Mle 1900 machine guns were also purchased by the French military for use in overseas colonies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1876110
| 654,387 |
802,607 |
The K series was introduced in 1988 by Rover Group as a powerplant for the Rover 200 car. It was the second volume-production implementation of the low-pressure sand-casting (or LPS) technique in a new plant sited between East Works and Cofton Hackett. (The first volume application of the LPS process had been for the M-16 cylinder head, produced in South Works, adjacent to the former forge). The LPS process pumped liquid aluminium into a chemically-bonded sand mould from below. This reduced oxide inclusions and gave a casting yield of around 90%, compared with 60% for more conventional gravity casting processes. The process avoided many of the inherent problems of casting aluminium components and consequently permitted lower casting wall thickness and higher strength-to-weight ratios. However, the process required the use of heat-treated LM25 material which gave the engines a reputation for being fragile. An engine overheat would often result in the material becoming annealed and rendering the components scrap. The layout of the engine bay on some Rover cars fitted with K-series engines – particularly the MGF with its mid-engined layout – means that a commonly-occurring coolant leak under the inlet manifold can go undetected until severe damage has been done to the head. The aluminium engine blocks were fitted with spun-cast iron cylinder liners that were initially manufactured by GKN's Sheepbridge Stokes of Chesterfield, but these were replaced by liners made by Goetze. Unfortunately a large number of aftermarket engines, the so-called "VHPDs", were built with the old substandard GKN liners by Minister, Lotus and PTP well after the introduction of the Goetze liners to production in 2000.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=533547
| 802,178 |
603,386 |
From 1969, the National Plan for Industrial Development was aimed at substituting imports in all areas of manufacture. A series of laws were enacted in the following years to create this situation, affecting passenger cars as well as commercial vehicles. Gradual limitations on CBU vehicle imports were introduced, reaching a complete ban on CBUs by 1974. A localization program commenced with Decree no. 307 of 1976, which led to other decrees designed to minimize its harmful impacts. Beginning in 1980, new rules were also enacted to inhibit the sprawl of brands, with the government limiting local assembly to 71 models of 42 different makes. All assemblers and agents were to be forced into eight separate groups manufacturing everything except engines. Engines were to be supplied by separate corporations. GAAKINDO, made up in large part of small pribumi operations, was opposed to these programs and also had an outspokenly anti-Chinese leader from 1981 to 1984. The companies most in favor of localization were the large Chinese firms like the Liem Group and PT Astra Motor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49352436
| 603,076 |
148,647 |
In September 1961, a Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-1 minicomputer was installed in the "kludge room" on the 2nd floor of Building 26, the location of the MIT Electrical Engineering Department. The PDP-1 was to complement the older TX-0, and like it had a punched tape reader and writer, and additionally accepted input from a panel of switches and could output to a cathode-ray tube display. Over the summer before its arrival a group of students and university employees had been pondering ideas for programs that would demonstrate the new computer's capabilities in a compelling way. Three of them—Steve Russell, then an employee at Harvard University and a former research assistant at MIT; Martin Graetz, a research assistant and former student at MIT; and Wayne Wiitanen, a research assistant at Harvard and former employee and student at MIT—came up with the idea for "Spacewar!". They referred to their collaboration as the "Hingham Institute" as Graetz and Wiitanen were living in a tenement building on Hingham Street in Cambridge, Massachusetts. "We had this brand new PDP-1", Steve Russell told "Rolling Stone" in a 1972 interview. "Somebody [Marvin Minsky] had built some little pattern-generating programs which made interesting patterns like a kaleidoscope. Not a very good demonstration. Here was this display that could do all sorts of good things! So we started talking about it, figuring what would be interesting displays. We decided that probably you could make a two-dimensional maneuvering sort of thing, and decided that naturally the obvious thing to do was spaceships."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=5482854
| 148,586 |
1,900,092 |
. Seyfarth began his career as an architect at the age of 17 working for Fiedler during the time the latter was architect to the board of education, and records show his position at the time he was hired to be "messenger" (although, as noted above, his graduation notice suggested something more than that), for which he was compensated with a salary of $6.00 per week (about $168.07 in 2015). Fiedler operated out of offices in Adler and Sullivan's Schiller (later Garrick Theater) Building (1891, demolished 1961), and Seyfarth was almost certainly introduced to him through his uncle Henry Biroth, who was one of the earliest pharmacists in Chicago and served at various times as the secretary and president of the Illinois Pharmaceutical Association, which occupied offices down the hall from Fiedler. The Seyfarth family had been acquainted with Fiedler for several years before Seyfarth began to attend Chicago Manual Training School. Henry Biroth was an active member of Chicago's large ethnic German community, and in 1887, Fiedler (with his partner John Addison) had designed a house for him in Blue Island. How long the young Seyfarth worked for Fiedler and the board of education is not known (Fiedler separated from the board of education late in 1896, and was replaced by Normand Patton), but by 1900 he was working for George Washington Maher on the renovation of the interior of the Nickerson mansion for Lucius Fisher. Here, according to the Historic American Buildings Survey, he designed and carved the woodwork for the rare book room.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24940492
| 1,899,005 |
662,882 |
Asperger's 1940 work, "Autistic psychopathy in childhood", found that four of the 200 children studied had difficulty with integrating themselves socially. Although their intelligence levels appeared normal, the children lacked nonverbal communication skills, failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers, and were physically clumsy. Their verbal communication was either disjointed or overly formal, and their all-absorbing interest in a single topic dominated their conversations. Asperger named the condition "autistic psychopathy", and described it as primarily marked by social isolation. Asperger described those patients as like "little professors" who talked about their interests at great length, and believed the individuals he described would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life. Asperger's paper defended the value of high-functioning autistic individuals, writing "We are convinced, then, that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community. They fulfill their role well, perhaps better than anyone else could, and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care-givers." However, he also wrote concerning his other cases, "Unfortunately, in the majority of cases the positive aspects of autism do not outweigh the negative ones...In many cases the social problems are so profound that they overshadow everything else ... the problems are compensated by a high level of original thought and experience."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13302907
| 662,537 |
824,254 |
When cultured and exposed to ionizing radiations in liquid media, "Deinococcus radiodurans" could survive up to 25 kGy. Horne et al. (2022) have studied the effects of desiccation and freezing on the microbial survivability to ionizing radiations considering the feasibility studies to return Martian subsurface soil samples for microbial characterization and for determining the most favorable landing sites of a future robotic exploration mission. They found that the desiccated and frozen cells could resist to a 5.6 higher radiation dose: up to 140 kGy. They calculated that this could correspond to a theoretical survival time of 280 million years at a depth of 33 feet (10 m) below the present Mars surface. However, this time scale is too short to allow microbial survival at a depth accessible to a rover equipped with a drilling system below the Martian surface when compared to the moment when liquid water disappeared from the Martian surface (2 – 2.5 Ga ago). Nevertheless, Horne et al. (2022) consider the hypothesis that meteorite impacts could have dispersed Martian soil and heated locally the subsurface during the geological history of Mars, heating sporadically from time to time the local environment, melting the frozen ice and giving perhaps a chance to a hypothetical distant Martian extremophile resembling its terrestrial cousin "Deinococcus radiodurans" to grow again for short moment before to rapidly become again frozen and dormant for millions of years. So, for returning subsurface soil samples from Mars for microbial characterization with a potentially ""successful"" mission like the European Rosalind Franklin rover, it would be necessary to target a relatively young impact crater to increase the chances of discovering dormant extremophile micro-organisms surviving in the dry and frozen Martian subsurface environment relatively protected from the lethal ionizing radiations.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23545973
| 823,811 |
833,245 |
At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials, the qualifying meet for the 2012 Summer Olympics, Eaton started day one of the decathlon competition with two world decathlon bests, the equivalent of a world record for athletes competing in a full decathlon. The first in the 100-meter (10.21), and then in the long jump (). To emphasize the quality of Eaton's first two marks, the 100-meter time equaled the minimum (season wide) time required for men to qualify for the trials 100-meter race and only .03 short of the Olympic "A" standard. The long jump was farther than the top qualifier in the long jump preliminary round held that same day at the trials, beyond the "A" standard, and would have tied for second in the final. He went on to finish fifth in the shot put (), first in the high jump (), and first in the 400 m (46.70) held in a pouring rainstorm. After day one, Eaton's points total of 4728 was more than 300 points ahead of second-place competitor Trey Hardee. On the second day of competition, Eaton finished first in the 110-meter hurdles with a time of 13.70. In the discus, however, he had an eighth-place finish. He bounced back in the pole vault, posting a height of , good enough for first place. In the javelin throw, Eaton had a distance of for fifth place. Going into the final event, the 1500 m run, Eaton held a 317-point lead over his closest competitor, Hardee. Eaton ran a new personal best in the 1500 m with a time of 4:14.48, finishing first. In the process, he brought his total score for the decathlon to 9039, breaking Roman Šebrle's previous world record of 9026 points. Eaton broke Dan O'Brien's American record of 8891 points set in 1992.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23192127
| 832,796 |
707,514 |
The recovery mission faced numerous challenges, with winter weather being chief among them. The village of Potskho Etseri was used as the base of operations. A special container lined with of lead and weighing was built for the purpose. An old military truck was converted for hauling the container. Special handling tools were created to manipulate the source and put it in a container. A group of 41 people were organized to take turns handling the source, with each person spending not more than 40 seconds near it. In the end, only 24 people were needed to actually be near the sources, and only those 24 people received significant doses. Worker radiation doses were monitored, and the highest dose was not more than 1.16 mSv, less than 10% of the dose of a full-body CT scan. The sources were successfully recovered, and carefully escorted by police back to a permanent storage location. Doses received between placing the sources in the truck and closing the lid over them was higher than expected due to the presence of a tarp over the truck. Inclement weather had prevented its removal, and it acted to reflect and scatter radiation back at the workers. The IAEA also noted that better tool design, as well as the use of more workers at a time to provide spotting capabilities, would have made the process faster and safer. Overall, the IAEA considered the recovery a success with no major safety issues.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=67844064
| 707,145 |
1,053,794 |
The games of round three were played on June 23 and June 24, with tie-breaks on the evening of June 24. The surprise of round three was Ivanchuk (5) being knocked out by Kasimdzhanov (28). The two standard time control games had been fairly quiet affairs and were both drawn (the second, with Kasimdzhanov white, after just 16 moves) and the first rapid game was also drawn. In the second, Ivanchuk, despite having white, did little to press for a win, and the fairly level position shown arose. 21. Bxb7 Qxb7 appears to be equal, but Ivanchuk instead played 21. Rc1?, which simply lost a pawn to 21. ... Qxa3. Ivanchuk resigned six moves later, in a position which was certainly worse but from which many players would have at least tried to play on. Ivanchuk has something of a reputation for being let down by his nerves, and this may have been another instance of that. Elsewhere, there were minor surprises when Krasenkow (59) followed up on his victory over Short to eliminate Zvjaginsev (27), 16-year-old Nakamura (83) – the youngest player remaining in the tournament – dispatched Lastin (51), and Grischuk (4) required the blitz tie-breakers to see off Filippov (36). Kozul's (49) win over Rublevsky (17) took his score for the event to 5½/6, with a Performance rating of over 3000. Top seeds Topalov (1) and Adams (3) advanced with little difficulty, winning their games with white and drawing with black.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=735508
| 1,053,248 |
95,444 |
The scope of ecology contains a wide array of interacting levels of organization spanning micro-level (e.g., cells) to a planetary scale (e.g., biosphere) phenomena. Ecosystems, for example, contain abiotic resources and interacting life forms (i.e., individual organisms that aggregate into populations which aggregate into distinct ecological communities). Ecosystems are dynamic, they do not always follow a linear successional path, but they are always changing, sometimes rapidly and sometimes so slowly that it can take thousands of years for ecological processes to bring about certain successional stages of a forest. An ecosystem's area can vary greatly, from tiny to vast. A single tree is of little consequence to the classification of a forest ecosystem, but is critically relevant to organisms living in and on it. Several generations of an aphid population can exist over the lifespan of a single leaf. Each of those aphids, in turn, supports diverse bacterial communities. The nature of connections in ecological communities cannot be explained by knowing the details of each species in isolation, because the emergent pattern is neither revealed nor predicted until the ecosystem is studied as an integrated whole. Some ecological principles, however, do exhibit collective properties where the sum of the components explain the properties of the whole, such as birth rates of a population being equal to the sum of individual births over a designated time frame.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9630
| 95,403 |
907,456 |
"Killzone" takes place in a fictional world set in the year 2357. After nuclear war rendered much of the Earth uninhabitable in 2055, world governments formed an international order known as the United Colonial Nations. Partnering with private firms, the UCN moved to establish human colonies in Alpha Centauri, a system occupied by two planets: Vekta, a rich Earth-like world (named after the CEO of the mining conglomerate Helghan, Philip Vekta), and Helghan, a barren wasteland named after the same company. The Helghan Corporation sought to buy ownership of Vekta as well, but when the UCN imposed sanctions against its unfair business practices, a war broke out (known as the First Extrasolar War), which led to the ISA, the military arm of the UCN, driving the company out of Vekta. In response, the exiled colonists established their own civilization on Helghan, built on the principles of militarism and authoritarianism. The harsh environment and atmosphere killed many Helghans, forcing the survivors to use respirators and air tanks just to breathe. Eventually, the population, now known as the Helghast, mutated into pale-skinned hairless humanoids with increased strength, stamina, and intelligence. Violently xenophobic and convinced of their superiority, the Helghan consider humans to be beneath them, and dream of one day reconquering Vekta and expanding their empire to Earth and the neighboring star systems.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1247019
| 906,978 |
433,024 |
In a review of dozens of articles involving mice in prolonged pain experiments, researchers found "there were no references to the "3Rs"" which in turn "raise serious questions about whether the 3Rs' principles of Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement are being appropriately implemented by researchers and institutions". The researchers continued, "That the 3Rs or any of the 3Rs' components—Replace, Reduce, or Refine—were not mentioned in any of the... studies suggests that prolonged mouse pain researchers may be unaware of or indifferent to the 3Rs framework and that this aspect is not considered relevant in the peer review process of manuscripts for scientific journals... [T]he growing proportion of the number of studies...in this paper suggests that adherence to guidelines and/or animal use committee requirements is not translating into significant progress from a reduction or replacement perspective". Following a review of the quality of experimental design in published journal articles, including the use of the 3Rs, it was found that the use and reporting of these principles was sporadic. As a result, the ARRIVE (Animal Research: Reporting of "In Vivo" Experiments) guidelines were developed and published in 2010. The ARRIVE guidelines present a 20-point list of items which must be reported in publications which have used animals in scientific research, including sample size calculations, explicit descriptions of the environmental enrichment employed and welfare-related assessments made during the study. Many journals now require authors to comply with the ARRIVE guidelines in the preparation of manuscripts. A follow-up review published in 2014 found that there were still low reporting levels of some elements, such as reporting of appropriate statistical methods and the avoidance of bias.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40251468
| 432,811 |
215,603 |
Biofeedback is a treatment for anismus (paradoxical contraction of puborectalis during defecation). This therapy directly evolved from the investigation anorectal manometry where a probe that can record pressure is placed in the anal canal. Biofeedback therapy is also a commonly used and researched therapy for fecal incontinence, but the benefits are uncertain. Biofeedback therapy varies in the way it is delivered. It is also unknown if one type has benefits over another. The aims have been described as to enhance either the rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR), rectal sensitivity (by discrimination of progressively smaller volumes of a rectal balloon and promptly contracting the external anal sphincter (EAS)), or the strength and endurance of the EAS contraction. Three general types of biofeedback have been described, though they are not mutually exclusive, with many protocols combining these elements. Similarly there is variance of the length of both the individual sessions and the overall length of the training, and if home exercises are performed in addition and how. In rectal sensitivity training, a balloon is placed in the rectum, and is gradually distended until there is a sensation of rectal filling. Successively smaller volume reinflations of the balloon aim to help the person detect rectal distension at a lower threshold, giving more time to contract the EAS and prevent incontinence, or to journey to the toilet. Alternatively, in those with urge incontinence/ rectal hypersensitivity, training is aimed at teaching the person to tolerate progressively larger volumes. Strength training may involve electromyography (EMG) skin electrodes, manometric pressures, intra-anal EMG, or endoanal ultrasound. One of these measures are used to relay the muscular activity or anal canal pressure during anal sphincter exercise. Performance and progress can be monitored in this manner. Co-ordination training involves the placing of 3 balloons, in the rectum and in the upper and lower anal canal. The rectal balloon is inflated to trigger the RAIR, an event often followed by incontinence. Co-ordination training aims to teach voluntary contraction of EAS when the RAIR occurs (i.e. when there is rectal distension).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292906
| 215,495 |
1,348,887 |
Electronic lab notebooks used for development or research in regulated industries, such as medical devices or pharmaceuticals, are expected to comply with FDA regulations related to software validation. The purpose of the regulations is to ensure the integrity of the entries in terms of time, authorship, and content. Unlike ELNs for patent protection, FDA is not concerned with patent interference proceedings, but is concerned with avoidance of falsification. Typical provisions related to software validation are included in the medical device regulations at 21 CFR 820 (et seq.) and Title 21 CFR Part 11. Essentially, the requirements are that the software has been designed and implemented to be suitable for its intended purposes. Evidence to show that this is the case is often provided by a Software Requirements Specification (SRS) setting forth the intended uses and the needs that the ELN will meet; one or more testing protocols that, when followed, demonstrate that the ELN meets the requirements of the specification and that the requirements are satisfied under worst-case conditions. Security, audit trails, prevention of unauthorized changes without substantial collusion of otherwise independent personnel (i.e., those having no interest in the content of the ELN such as independent quality unit personnel) and similar tests are fundamental. Finally, one or more reports demonstrating the results of the testing in accordance with the predefined protocols are required prior to release of the ELN software for use. If the reports show that the software failed to satisfy any of the SRS requirements, then corrective and preventive action ("CAPA") must be undertaken and documented. Such CAPA may extend to minor software revisions, or changes in architecture or major revisions. CAPA activities need to be documented as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1616185
| 1,348,145 |
10,031 |
When cooperation resumed after the Quebec agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British. The United States had already spent more than $1 billion ($ billion today), while in 1943, the United Kingdom had spent about £0.5 million. Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandoned any hopes of an independent British project during the war. With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls, and Ernest Titterton. More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the 35 working under Oliphant with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and most stayed until the end of the war. The 19 sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones. Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without the mutual consent of the US and UK. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19603
| 10,027 |
1,639,788 |
Particle physics is an important field of application for computer algebra and exploits the capabilities of Computer Algebra Systems (CAS). This leads to valuable feed-back for the development of CAS. Looking at the history of computer algebra systems, the first programs date back to the 1960s. The first systems were almost entirely based on LISP ("LISt Programming language"). LISP is an interpreted language and, as the name already indicates, designed for the manipulation of lists. Its importance for symbolic computer programs in the early days has been compared to the importance of FORTRAN for numerical programs in the same period. Already in this first period, the program REDUCE had some special features for the application to high energy physics. An exception to the LISP-based programs was SCHOONSHIP, written in assembler language by Martinus J. G. Veltman and specially designed for applications in particle physics. The use of assembler code lead to an incredible fast program (compared to the interpreted programs at that time) and allowed the calculation of more complex scattering processes in high energy physics. It has been claimed the program's importance was recognized in 1998 by awarding the half of the Nobel prize to Veltman. Also the program MACSYMA deserves to be mentioned explicitly, since it triggered important development with regard to algorithms. In the 1980s new computer algebra systems started to be written in C. This enabled the better exploitation of the resources of the computer (compared to the interpreted language LISP) and at the same time allowed to maintain portability (which would not have been possible in assembler language). This period marked also the appearance of the first commercial computer algebra system, among which Mathematica and Maple are the best known examples. In addition, also a few dedicated programs appeared, an example relevant to particle physics is the program FORM by J. Vermaseren as a (portable) successor to SCHOONSHIP. More recently issues of the maintainability of large projects became more and more important and the overall programming paradigma changed from procedural programming to object-oriented design. In terms of programming languages this was reflected by a move from C to C++. Following this change of paradigma, the library GiNaC was developed. The GiNac library allows symbolic calculations in C++.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17156914
| 1,638,861 |
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