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Cancer: The most dreadful impact of NUMT insertion happens when the mtDNA is inserted into the regulatory region or nuclear structural genes and disrupts or alters the vital cell processes. For instance, in primary low-grade brain neoplasms, fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis helped with the recognition of mtDNA localized in the nucleus in correlation with an overall increase in mtDNA content in the cell. This ontogenically early event is important in the etiology of these tumors. Similarly, in hepatoma cells mtDNA sequences are present in the nuclear genome at a higher copy number in contrast with the normal tissues. Another example would be HeLa nDNA that contains sequences which hybridize with mtDNA fragments of approximately 5 kb. An analysis showed that nDNA of malignant cells contains sequences of the mitochondrial "cytochrome oxidase I", "ND4 ", "ND4L ", and 12S rRNA genes. Based on these findings, mtDNA fragments were assumed to act as a mobile genetic element in the initiation of carcinogenesis. Southern blotting is the method used to determine the frequency of mitochondrial insertion in nDNA of the normal and the tumor cells of mice and rats, which proved that the mtDNA sequences are far more numerous and abundant in nDNA of rodent tumor cells in comparison with normal cells. Using FISH probes, PCR and data sequencing, mapping and comparison, Ju and his teammate found that the mitochondrial-nuclear genome fusions occur at a similar rate per base pair of DNA as interchromosomal nuclear rearrangements, indicating the presence of a high frequency of contact between mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in some somatic cells. Also, Ju and his teammates investigated the timing of somatic mtDNA integration into the nuclear genome by assessing cases in which a metastatic sample had been sequenced in addition to the primary tumor. In some cases, mtDNA transfers into the nucleus in somatic cells are very frequent and can occur after neoplastic formation and during the course of subclonal evolution of cancer which suggest that this event occurs in the common ancestral cancer clones or in normal somatic cells prior to the neoplastic change. These findings demonstrated that the presence of direct correlation between NUMT and cancer in different body organs. Understanding the relation, the timing of the NUMT insertion, location of the insertion, and disrupted genes would help with producing more powerful and effective medicine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8564084
| 2,173,910 |
272,265 |
Migrations from Mexico to North America or Europe have occurred several times throughout history, probably linked to the movement of tubers. Until the 1970s, the A2 mating type was restricted to Mexico, but now in many regions of the world both A1 and A2 isolates can be found in the same region. The co-occurrence of the two mating types is significant due to the possibility of sexual recombination and formation of oospores, which can survive the winter. Only in Mexico and Scandinavia, however, is oospore formation thought to play a role in overwintering. In other parts of Europe, increasing genetic diversity has been observed as a consequence of sexual reproduction. This is notable since different forms of "P. infestans" vary in their aggressiveness on potato or tomato, in sporulation rate, and sensitivity to fungicides. Variation in such traits also occurs in North America, however importation of new genotypes from Mexico appears to be the predominant cause of genetic diversity, as opposed to sexual recombination within potato or tomato fields. In 1976 - due to a summer drought in Europe - there was a potato production shortfall and so eating potatoes were imported to fill the shortfall. It is thought that this was the vehicle for mating type A2 to reach the rest of the world. In any case, there had been little diversity, consisting of the US-1 strain, and of that only one type of: mating type, mtDNA, restriction fragment length polymorphism, and di-locus isozyme. Then in 1980 suddenly greater diversity and A2 appeared in Europe. In 1981 it was found in the Netherlands, United Kingdom, 1985 in Sweden, the early 1990s in Norway and Finland, 1996 in Denmark, and 1999 in Iceland. In the UK new A1 lineages only replaced the old lineage by end of the '80s, and A2 spread even more slowly, with Britain having low levels and Ireland (north and Republic) having none-to-trace detections through the '90s. Many of the strains that appeared outside of Mexico since the 1980s have been more aggressive, leading to increased crop losses. In Europe since 2013 the populations have been tracked by the EuroBlight network (see links below). Some of the differences between strains may be related to variation in the RXLR effectors that are present.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=165450
| 272,117 |
463,704 |
Radioactive beams of specific isotopes are widely used in the fields of experimental physics, biology and materials science. The production and formation of these radioactive atoms into an ionic beam for study is an entire field of research carried out at many laboratories throughout the world. The first isotope separator was developed at the Copenhagen Cyclotron by Bohr and coworkers using the principle of electromagnetic separation. Today, there are many laboratories around the world that supply beams of radioactive ions for use. Arguably the principal Isotope Separator On Line (ISOL) is ISOLDE at CERN, which is a joint European facility spread across the Franco-Swiss border near the city of Geneva. This laboratory uses mainly proton spallation of uranium carbide targets to produce a wide range of radioactive fission fragments that are not found naturally on earth. During spallation (bombardment with high energy protons), a uranium carbide target is heated to several thousand degrees so that radioactive atoms produced in the nuclear reaction are released. Once out of the target, the vapour of radioactive atoms travels to an ionizer cavity. This ionizer cavity is a thin tube made of a refractory metal with a high work function allowing for collisions with the walls to liberate a single electron from a free atom (surface ionization effect). Once ionized, the radioactive species are accelerated by an electrostatic field and injected into an electromagnetic separator. As ions entering the separator are of approximately equal energy, those ions with a smaller mass will be deflected by the magnetic field by a greater amount than those with a heavier mass. This differing radius of curvature allows for isobaric purification to take place. Once purified isobarically, the ion beam is then sent to the individual experiments. In order to increase the purity of the isobaric beam, laser ionization can take place inside the ionizer cavity to selectively ionize a single element chain of interest. At CERN, this device is called the Resonance Ionization Laser Ion Source (RILIS). Currently over 60% of all experiments opt to use the RILIS to increase the purity of radioactive beams.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37197
| 463,474 |
530,004 |
The AAF created the Twentieth Air Force to employ long-range B-29 Superfortress bombers in strategic attacks on Japanese cities. The use of forward bases in Free China (needed to be able to reach Japan by the heavily laden B-29's) was ineffective because of the difficulty in logistically supporting the bases entirely by air from its main bases in British India, and because of a persistent threat against the Chinese airfields by the Imperial Japanese Army. After the Mariana Islands were captured in the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign of mid-1944, providing locations for air bases that could be supplied by sea, Arnold moved all B-29 operations there by April 1945 and made General Curtis LeMay his bomber commander (reporting directly to Arnold, who personally commanded Twentieth Air Force until July). LeMay reasoned that the Imperial Japanese economy, much of which was cottage industry in dense urban areas where manufacturing and assembly plants were also located, was particularly vulnerable to area attack and abandoned inefficient high-altitude precision bombing in favor of low-level incendiary bombings aimed at destroying large urban areas. On the night of March 9–10, 1945, the bombing of Tokyo and the resulting conflagration resulted in the death of over 100,000 persons. 350,000 people died in 66 other Japanese cities as a result of this shift to incendiary bombing. At the same time, the B-29 was also employed in widespread mining of Japanese harbors and sea lanes. In early August 1945, the Twentieth Air Force conducted atomic bomb attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki in response to Japan's rejection of the Potsdam Declaration which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. Both cities were destroyed with enormous loss of life and psychological shock. On August 15, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender of Japan, stating:
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9895061
| 529,730 |
1,595,293 |
During World War II, Trafford Park became an important centre for the manufacture and development in engineering in the aim of giving Britain a technological advantage over its enemies. Having an abandoned factory in Trafford Park, Ford of Britain was approached about the possibility of converting it into an aircraft engine production unit by Herbert Austin, who was in charge of the shadow factory plan. Building work on a new factory was started in May 1940 on a site, while Ford engineers went on a fact finding mission to Derby. Their chief engineer commented to Sir Stanley Hooker that the tolerances used were far too wide for them, and so the 20,000 drawings would need to be redrawn to Ford tolerance levels, which took over a year. Ford's factory was built with two distinct sections to minimise potential bomb damage, it was completed in May 1941 and bombed in the same month. At first, the factory had difficulty in attracting suitable labour, and large numbers of women, youths and untrained men had to be taken on. Despite this, the first Merlin engine came off the production line one month later and it was building the engine at a rate of 200 per week by 1943, at which point the joint factories were producing 18,000 Merlins per year. Ford’s investment in machinery and the redesign resulted in the 10,000 man-hours needed to produce a Merlin dropping to 2,727 in three years, while unit cost fell from £6,540 in June 1941 to £1,180 by the war’s end. In his autobiography "Not much of an Engineer", Sir Stanley Hooker states: "... once the great Ford factory at Manchester started production, Merlins came out like shelling peas. The percentage of engines rejected by the Air Ministry was zero. Not one engine of the 30,400 produced was rejected ...". Some 17,316 people worked at the Trafford Park plant, including 7,260 women and two resident doctors and nurses. Merlin production started to run down in August 1945, and finally ceased on 23 March 1946.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33684900
| 1,594,395 |
155,663 |
Two years before airing, Gainax published a project presentation document to find backers entitled , which included the initial unit designs. In the "Proposal," the Evangelion were described as humanoids made of artificial metal muscles and replicas of Adam, indicated in the document as an artificial giant left by the First Ancestral Race, which would have left for the globe the enemies of the series, the "Apostolos". The document also describes robotic anime on one page as a "compensation for the complexes and various suppressions that children hold, a means of resistance, compensatory behavior". For the main character of the series, Shinji, Anno himself was used as a model, linking the act of piloting the mecha with his work; according to Kazuya Tsurumaki, assistant director of "Neon Genesis Evangelion", while "Shinji was summoned by his father to ride a robot, Anno was summoned by Gainax to direct an animation". Moreover, during the development of the series, the director included scenes in which the mecha are mutilated and lose their limbs. The mutilations of the Evas became a product of his personal experience. Anno's father Takuyo injured his left leg in an accident with a power saw and was forced to wear a prosthesis for life; following the accident, Hideaki developed a certain attraction to deformity, believing that he could not love "anything perfect". He also compared this to "Tetsujin 28-go", in which a robot loses an arm. In the twentieth episode of the series, he also introduced the concept of cannibalism. He added a scene in which Eva-01 devours an Angel in an attempt to disgust and scare a young viewer; he stated, "What would be ideal is that kids who watch it start to vomit". Cannibalism, according to Yūichirō Oguro, curator of extra contents of "Evangelion"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s home video editions, would negatively depict the act of eating meat, and could also be influenced by Anno's personal experience, who has been vegetarian since childhood and had already transposed this detail of his life in his fictional works.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=577372
| 155,592 |
1,652,528 |
A second mode of occurrence of tachylite is in the form of lava flows. Basaltic rocks often contain a small amount of glassy ground-mass, and in the limburgites this becomes more important and conspicuous, but vitreous types are far less common in these than in the acid lavas. In the Hawaiian Islands, however, the volcanoes have poured out vast floods of black basalt, containing feldspar, augite, olivine, and iron ores in a black glassy base. They are highly liquid when discharged, and the rapid cooling that ensues on their emergence to the air prevents crystallization taking place completely. Many of them are spongy or vesicular, and their upper surfaces are often exceedingly rough and jagged, while at other times they assume rounded wave-like forms on solidification. Great caves are found where the crust has solidified and the liquid interior has subsequently flowed away, and stalactites and stalagmites of black tachylite adorn the roofs and floors. On section these growths show usually a central cavity enclosed by walls of dark brown glass in which skeletons and microliths of augite, olivine and feldspar lie imbedded. From the crater of Mt. Kilauea, thin clouds of steam rise constantly, and as the bubbles of vapor are liberated from the molten rock they carry into the air with them thin fibers of basalt that solidify at once and assume the form of tachylite threads. Under the microscope they prove to be nearly completely glassy with small circular air vesicles sometimes drawn out to long tubes. Only in the Hawaiian Islands are glassy basaltic lavas of this kind at all common. A small outcrop at Spring Hill in Victoria, Australia has tachylite which has been exploited as a material for making Aboriginal flaked stone implements.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1198783
| 1,651,596 |
1,665,337 |
As with other types of renal cell cancer, most cases of PRCC are discovered incidentally without showing specific signs or symptoms of cancer. In advanced stages, hematuria, flank pain, and abdominal mass are the three classic manifestation. While a complete list of the causes of PRCC remains unclear, several risk factors were identified to affect PRCC development, such as genetic mutations, kidney-related disease, environmental and lifestyle risk factors. For pathogenesis, type 1 PRCC is mainly caused by MET gene mutation while type 2 PRCC is associated with several different genetic pathways. For diagnosis, PRCC is detectable through computed tomography (CT) scans or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), which commonly present a small homogeneous hyposvascular tumor. Nephrectomy or partial nephrectomy is usually recommended for PRCC treatment, often accompanied with several targeted molecular therapies to inhibit metastatic spread. PRCC patients are predominantly male with a mean age of 52–66 years. When compared to conventional clear cell renal cell carcinoma (RCC), the prognosis of non-metastatic PRCC is more favorable, whereas a relatively worse outcome was reported in patients with metastatic disease. Globally, the incidence of PRCC ranges between 3,500 to 5,000 cases, while it greatly varies depending on gender, age, and race/ethnicity.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63591324
| 1,664,400 |
1,345,912 |
Radiation therapy destroys cancer primarily by causing DNA damage that promotes cell death. Tumor cells within a cancer are especially susceptible to damage by radiation as they frequently develop mutations in the DNA repair mechanisms that allow normal, healthy cells to recover from radiation damage. However, excessive radiation doses can cause even normal cells to be overwhelmed by DNA damage and lead to local tissue changes and necrosis. Scientists have been conducting investigations into the exact mechanisms of these changes to help create treatments since osteoradionecrosis (ORN) was first described by Regaud in 1922. Several competing theories have emerged over the years with resultant changes to accepted treatments. Initially, it was believed that ORN arose from a combination of radiation, trauma and infection. According to this belief, radiation damage to the bone caused the bone to weaken, making it susceptible to microfractures caused by trauma and allowing bacteria to invade. This theory placed ORN on a spectrum of disease with osteomyelitis, so it was primarily treated with antibiotics. In 1983, Robert E. Marx, a prominent oral and maxillofacial surgeon, refuted the notion that trauma and infection were requirements in the development of ORN. Marx proposed that ORN was the result of cumulative tissue damage caused by radiation, creating disturbances in cell metabolism and homeostasis that resulted in cell death and hypocellular tissues. In addition, radiation causes injury to the endothelial cells of local vasculature, creating a hypovascular environment which leads to decreased oxygen delivery resulting in hypoxic tissues. The decrease of vasculature helps explain why the mandible is more commonly affected than maxilla, as the mandible is served primarily by the inferior alveolar artery, whereas the maxilla is served by various arteries and has a more robust blood supply. In sum, Marx believed that ORN was essentially hypocellular-hypovascular-hypoxic tissues behaved much like chronic non-healing wounds. Initial reports by Marx and others showing that treatment with hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) prevented ORN helped support this theory. However, later studies began to raise doubts about the effectiveness of HBO therapy and question whether Marx's theory was comprehensive enough to guide treatment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38331416
| 1,345,171 |
199,983 |
Other branches of physics also received attention during the period of the Scientific revolution. William Gilbert, court physician to Queen Elizabeth I, published an important work on magnetism in 1600, describing how the earth itself behaves like a giant magnet. Robert Boyle (1627–91) studied the behavior of gases enclosed in a chamber and formulated the gas law named for him; he also contributed to physiology and to the founding of modern chemistry. Another important factor in the scientific revolution was the rise of learned societies and academies in various countries. The earliest of these were in Italy and Germany and were short-lived. More influential were the Royal Society of England (1660) and the Academy of Sciences in France (1666). The former was a private institution in London and included such scientists as John Wallis, William Brouncker, Thomas Sydenham, John Mayow, and Christopher Wren (who contributed not only to architecture but also to astronomy and anatomy); the latter, in Paris, was a government institution and included as a foreign member the Dutchman Huygens. In the 18th century, important royal academies were established at Berlin (1700) and at St. Petersburg (1724). The societies and academies provided the principal opportunities for the publication and discussion of scientific results during and after the scientific revolution. In 1690, James Bernoulli showed that the cycloid is the solution to the tautochrone problem; and the following year, in 1691, Johann Bernoulli showed that a chain freely suspended from two points will form a catenary, the curve with the lowest possible center of gravity available to any chain hung between two fixed points. He then showed, in 1696, that the cycloid is the solution to the brachistochrone problem.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13758
| 199,880 |
1,414,902 |
Autogenous healing of cementitious materials influences crack self-closure and, subsequently, durability and physical-mechanical performance of composites. It is considered to be one of the main reasons for substantial life extension of ancient structures and buildings. Autogenous self-healing in cement-based composites was first noticed by the French Academy of Science in 1836, when cracks in pipes, water-retaining structures, etc., self-healed. Significant theoretical and experimental research in the 1900s demonstrated that autogenous self-healing processes are mostly linked to physical, mechanical, and chemical processes inside the cementitious matrix are shown in the scheme. During the so-called "surface-controlled crystal development" that occurs when cracking is induced, calcium ions are immediately accessible from the fracture faces, and crystal growth is accelerated. After an initial layer of calcite is formed on the crack walls and the surrounding concrete matrix becomes less rich in calcium ions, the transition to the so-called "diffusion-controlled crystal growth" occurs, which means that the Ca ions must diffuse through the concrete, and the CaCO layer in order to reach the crack surface and ensure the precipitation of the healing products. Clearly, the second phase is much slower than the first. In the case of composite cement, including pozzolanic additions, a portion of the calcium hydroxide, which has been identified as a primary source of Ca ions, is used in the particular pozzolanic reaction for CSH formation. This will result in a delayed and weaker precipitation of calcium carbonate. Other minor mechanisms depicted in the scheme include the swelling of hydrated cement paste along the crack walls due to water absorption by calcium silicate hydrates and mechanical crack blocking by means of debris and fine concrete particles, direct results of the cracking process or as a result of impurities in the water entering the crack. Autogenous healing mechanisms are only effective for small cracks, although there is a wide range of maximum widths for healable cracks: 10–100 µm, sometimes up to 200 µm but less than 300 µm, only in the presence of water. They are challenging to control and forecast because to their usually scattered outcomes and dependence on a number of factors and variables. 1) the age and composition of the concrete itself, 2) the presence of water, and 3) the thickness and form of the concrete fracture are the most influential elements.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69140980
| 1,414,105 |
1,542,205 |
APPI has also been effectively applied for ambient ionization applications lending itself to several practical configurations. One configuration termed Desorption APPI (DAPPI) was developed by Haapala et al. and is pictured in the figure here. This device has been applied to the analysis of drugs of abuse in various solid phases, drug metabolites and steroids in urine, pesticides in plant material, etc. APPI has also been interfaced to a DART (direct analysis in real time) source and shown for non-polar compounds such as steroids and pesticides to enhance signal by up to an order of magnitude for N2 flow, which is preferred for DART because it is significantly cheaper and easier to generate then the higher performing use of He. Commercial APPI sources have also been adapted to accept an insertable sampling probe that can deliver or liquid or solid sample to the nebulizer for vaporization and ionization. This configuration is similar to atmospheric solid analysis probe (ASAP) that is based on the use of APCI and therefore is referred to as APPI-ASAP. The benefits of APPI-ASAP vs. APCI-ASAP are similar to those observed in LC/MS, namely higher sensitivity to lower polarity compounds and less background signal for samples in complex matrices. As much as ambient ionization has experienced a renaissance in the last decade or so, in fact this application has been practiced in the security industry for many decades. Just recall the swab detections we have all experienced at airports. The swabs collect condensed phase material from surfaces and are then inserted into a thermal desorber and ionizer assembly that then flows into the ion detector, which in most cases are an ion mobility spectrometer (IMS), but in later cases have been MS analyzers. A picture of a swab-APPI-IMS system used in airports and other security venues is given in the left figure
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44339074
| 1,541,332 |
138,228 |
Even before the "Sputnik 1" launch, Korolev was interested in getting to the Moon. He came up with the notion to modify the R-7 missile in order to carry a package to the Moon. However, it was not until 1958 that this idea was approved, after Korolev wrote a letter explaining that his current technology would make it possible to get to the Moon. A modified version of the R-7 launch vehicle was used with a new upper stage. The engine for this final stage was the first designed to be fired in outer space. "Mechta" is the Russian word meaning "dream", and this is the name Korolev called his moon ships. Officially, the Soviet Union called them Lunas. The first three lunar probes launched in 1958 all failed in part because of political pressure forcing the launches to be rushed with an inadequate budget to test and develop the hardware properly before they were ready to fly. Korolev thought political infighting in Moscow was responsible for the lack of sufficient funding for the program, although the US space program at this early phase also had a scarcely enviable launch record. Once, when pressured to beat the US to a working lunar probe, Korolev allegedly exclaimed: "Do you think that only American rockets explode!?" The Luna 1 mission on 2 January 1959 was intended to impact the surface, but missed by about . Nevertheless, this probe became the first to reach escape velocity and the first to go near the Moon, as well as becoming the first man-made object to enter the Sun's orbit. A subsequent attempt (Luna E-1A No.1) failed at launch, and then Luna 2 successfully impacted the surface on 14 September 1959, giving the Soviets another first. This was followed just one month later by an even greater success with Luna 3. It was launched only two years after Sputnik 1, and on 7 October 1959 was the first spacecraft to photograph the far side of the Moon, which was something the people of earth had never seen beforehand.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=86655
| 138,172 |
1,053,361 |
Sustainable community development requires recognition of the relationship between environment, economics and social instruments within the community. An adaptive management approach to creating sustainable community policy and practice also emphasizes the connection and confluence of those elements. Looking into the cultural mechanisms which contribute to a community value system often highlights the parallel to adaptive management practices, "with [an] emphasis on feedback learning, and its treatment of uncertainty and unpredictability" (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000). Often this is the result of indigenous knowledge and historical decisions of societies deeply rooted in ecological practices (Berkes, Colding, & Folke, 2000). By applying an adaptive management approach to community development the resulting systems can develop built in sustainable practice as explained by the Environmental Advisory Council (2002), "active adaptive management views policy as a set of experiments designed to reveal processes that build or sustain resilience. It requires, and facilitates, a social context with flexible and open institutions and multi-level governance systems that allow for learning and increase adaptive capacity without foreclosing future development options" (p. 1121). A practical example of adaptive management as a tool for sustainability was the application of a modified variation of adaptive management using artvoice, photovoice, and agent-based modeling in a participatory social framework of action. This application was used in field research on tribal lands to first identify the environmental issue and impact of illegal trash dumping and then to discover a solution through iterative agent-based modeling using NetLogo on a theoretical "regional cooperative clean-energy economy". This cooperative economy incorporated a mixed application of: traditional trash recycling and a waste-to-fuels process of carbon recycling of non-recyclable trash into ethanol fuel. This industrial waste-to-fuels application was inspired by pioneering work of the Canadian-based company, Enerkem. See Bruss, 2012 - PhD dissertation: Human Environment Interactions and Collaborative Adaptive Capacity Building in a Resilience Framework, GDPE Colorado State University.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1206605
| 1,052,815 |
1,312,813 |
Nutrition contributes directly to human health, and health directly contributes to the effectiveness of military personnel. Lack of proper nutrition can decrease the effectiveness of vaccines and increase the possibility of disease, especially in high stress situations. Many nutrients have direct effects on the immune system. When the body is subjected to illnesses such as injuries or burns increased amounts of the amino acid Glutamine are required. Vitamins C and E are antioxidants and have been associated with increased immune response. Nutrition plays an important role in the body's ability to repair itself. Throughout history there have been instances where disease caused by nutritional depletion caused more deaths than combat. During Lord Anson’s 1774 voyage around the world 636 of his 961 soldiers died while on his ships. The surgeon James Lind of the Royal Navy discovered that consuming citrus fruits prevented scurvy. Historical accounts and nutrient analysis provide evidence that poor nutrition and inadequate amounts of vitamins A, C, and E may have caused the failure of the New Zealand army during the Battle of Gallipoli. These deficiencies account for numerous cases of scurvy and illnesses and could have been easily avoided by incorporating canned fruits and vegetables into soldier’s diets. “ Inadequate nutrition can result in poor physical and cognitive performance (e.g. inability to carry out physical tasks, poor concentration and decreased vigilance) [21,22]. The long-term effects of both macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances include increased risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (potentially predisposing some individuals to an increased risk of stress fractures and rickets), obesity, hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis and kidney failure”.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27709502
| 1,312,093 |
2,090,323 |
With the start of the Cold War, the Treaty of Brussels was signed in 1948 establishing the Western Union (WU). It expanded upon the Dunkirk Treaty which was a military pact between France and the United Kingdom who were concerned about the threat from the USSR following the communist take over in Czechoslovakia. The new treaty included the Benelux countries and was to promote cooperation not only in the military matters but in economic, social and cultural spheres. These roles however were rapidly taken over by other organisations. Furthermore, in April 1948, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation, the predecessor of the OECD, was also founded to manage the Marshall Plan, triggering as a response the formation of the Comecon for the Soviet-controlled part of Europe. However the signatories of the Brussels treaty quickly realised their common defence was not enough against the USSR. However wider solidarity, such as that seen over the Berlin Blockade in 1949, was seen to provide sufficient deterrent. Hence in 1949 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was created. It expanded the Brussels treaty members to include Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Norway, Portugal as well as Canada and most notably the United States. Military integration in NATO sped up following the first Soviet atomic bomb test and the start of the Korean War which prompted a desire for the inclusion in NATO of West Germany. The ensuing Hague Congress of May 1948 was a pivotal moment in European integration, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International, the College of Europe. In 1948, the Congress of Europe was convened in the Hague, under Winston Churchill's chairmanship. It was the first time all the European unification movements had come together under one roof and attracted a myriad of statesmen including many who would later become known as founding fathers of the European Union. The congress discussed the formation of a new Council of Europe and led to the establishment of the European Movement and the College of Europe. However it exposed a division between unionist (opposed to a loss of sovereignty) and federalist (desiring a federal Europe) supporters. This unionist-federalist divide was reflected in the establishment of the Council of Europe on 5 May 1949 (today its Europe day) It has since been a broad forum to further cooperation and shared issues, achieving for example the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950. The Council was designed with two main political bodies, one composed of governments, the other of national members of parliament. Based in Strasbourg, it is an organisation dealing with democracy and human rights issues (today covering nearly every European state).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11662516
| 2,089,120 |
1,710,279 |
Unethical human experimentation in the United States has been practiced in the United States for a long time prior to creation of the OHRP. A major characteristic of experimentation done during this time was the disregard for suffering inflicted on patients. In the 1840s, J. Marion Sims performed hundreds of surgical operations on enslaved African women without using anesthesia. Robert Bartholow applied electric currents into the exposed brain matter of patients. One egregious example was in 1874 when a lady came in for treatment of a cancerous ulcer on her skull that made a 2-inch hole. Bartholow inserted electrodes into her brain and caused her great distress. The lady went into a coma and died 4 days later. Another theme of human experimentation in the 19th and early 20th century was the unjust treatment of ethnic minority patients. At the turn of the 20th century, US Army doctors infected 34 Filipino prisoners with bubonic plague and beriberi. Between 1932 and 1972, the Tuskegee syphilis experiment observed the natural progression of syphilis in 600 African American males (399 of which had syphilis and 201 control subjects who did not have syphilis). In exchange for their participation, the men were promised free medical exams, hot meals and a burial fund. The men were never told that they had syphilis nor were they provided treatment when penicillin became available as an effective cure in 1947. By the end of the study in 1972, only 74 of the test subjects were alive. Of the original 399 men with syphilis, 28 had died of the disease, 100 had died of syphilis-related complications. Additionally, 40 wives had been infected and 19 children had been born with congenital syphilis. A common misconception of the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment is that subjects were injected with syphilis.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17319116
| 1,709,319 |
1,516,775 |
Vicente Marcano (Caracas, October 27, 1848 -Valencia July 17, 1891) was an outstanding engineer, chemist, geologist, university professor and scientific disseminator. Graduated in philosophical sciences at the Central University of Venezuela, he continued his education at the French school of St. Louis, at the institution Davigneau de Lanneau and at the School of Arts and Manufactures of Paris. In 1887 he was appointed as chief of the Anthropology Commission, who conducted archaeological expeditions of Lake Valencia (May–June), the Orinoco (August–December), the Karstic Formations in the Monagas state and Falcón at the end of 1889. In these explorations Carlos Villanueva, Alfredo Jahn and Bonifacio Marcano also participated. Archaeological objects collected, were sent to Paris and today are in the Museum of Man. His exploration work served as a basis for the ethnological work of his brother Gaspar Marcano. Author of Elements of Chemical Philosophy where he defended the atomic theory (1881), wrote about his investigations in the Annales of the Science Agronomique Française et Etrangère, Bulletin of the Société Chimique de France and the Compte-Rendus, with wide popularization in Germany, England, United States and Venezuela. His main interest was the study of the fermentation of tropical fruits, the nitrated lands and the industrialization of sugar cane. In 1891, he founded the Municipal Laboratory in Caracas, later converted into the National Laboratory. His most important discovery was bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme extracted from pineapple juice. His remains were buried in the National Pantheon on July 10, 1991.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481
| 1,515,923 |
305,184 |
Within a few years, a bureaucracy developed in the Soviet Union as a result of the Russian Civil War, foreign invasion, and Russia's historic poverty and backwardness. The bureaucracy undermined the democratic and socialist ideals of the Bolsheviks and elevated Joseph Stalin to their leadership after Lenin's death. In order to consolidate power, the bureaucracy conducted a brutal campaign of lies and violence against the Left Opposition led by Trotsky. By the mid-1920s, the impetus had gone out of the revolutionary forces in Europe and the national reformist socialist parties had regained their dominance over the working-class movement in most countries. The German Social Democrats held office for much of the 1920s, the British Labour Party formed its first government in 1924, and the French Socialists were also influential. In the Soviet Union, from 1924 Stalin pursued a policy of "socialism in one country". Trotsky argued that this approach was a shift away from the theory of Marx and Lenin, while others argued that it was a practical compromise fit for the times. The postwar revolutionary upsurge provoked a powerful reaction from the forces of conservatism. Winston Churchill declared that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". The invasion of Russia by the Allies, their trade embargo and backing for the White forces fighting against the Red Army in the civil war in the Soviet Union was cited by Aneurin Bevan, the leader of the left-wing in the Labour Party, as one of the causes of the Russian revolution's degeneration into dictatorship. A "Red Scare" in the United States was raised against the American Socialist Party of Eugene V. Debs and the Communist Party of America which arose after the Russian revolution from members who had broken from Debs' party. In Europe, fascist movements received significant funding, particularly from industrialists in heavy industry, and came to power in Italy in 1922 under Benito Mussolini, and later in Germany in 1933, in Spain (1937) and Portugal, while strong fascist movements also developed in Hungary and Romania.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47246185
| 305,022 |
1,516,827 |
Aldemaro Romero Jr. (born in Caracas, September 11, 1951) is a Venezuelan/American scientist, communicator, and advocate of liberal arts education. While an undergraduate student in biology at the Universitat de Barcelona in Spain, Romero volunteered at the Museum of Zoology (later renamed as Museum of Natural Sciences) where he created the Hydrobiology Section and led a group of other undergraduates to work on aquatic organisms reorganizing some of the collections and re-identifying some of the mislabeled specimens. He also volunteered working at the Museum of Geology of the Seminario Conciliar of Barcelona where he described several new species of Middle Triassic (240-235 million years old) horseshoe crabs and a set of fossils that he described as an entirely new group (subphylum) of animals never reported to science before. He is known for his approaches of combining field, laboratory and archival studies from different disciplines. Romero has held a long career as environmentalist (founder of ONG BIOMA), educator and academic administrator. Emigrated to USA he served as dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville until 2014 and became dean of the George and Mildred Weissman School of Arts and Sciences at Baruch College/City University of New York, effective July 2016. He has published more than 1,000 works, more than 20 books and monographs, and produced, directed, written and/or hosted more than 1500 radio programs and 50 TV shows and documentaries in areas ranging from science to history and philosophy.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29302481
| 1,515,975 |
2,022,482 |
It was not until 1666 that Isaac Newton showed that white lights from the sun could be dissipated into a continuous series of colors. So Newton introduced the concept which he called "spectrum" to describe this phenomenon. He used a small aperture to define the beam of light, a lens to collimate it, a glass prism to disperse it, and a screen to display the resulting spectrum. Newton's analysis of light was the beginning of the science of spectroscopy. Later, It became clear that the Sun's radiation might have components outside the visible portion of the spectrum. In 1800 William Hershel showed that the sun's radiation extended into infrared, and in 1801 John Wilhelm Ritter also made a similar observation in the ultraviolet. Joseph Von Fraunhofer extended Newton's discovery by observing the sun's spectrum when sufficiently dispersed was blocked by a fine dark lines now known as Fraunhofer lines. Fraunhofer also developed diffracting grating, which disperses the lights in much the same way as does a glass prism but with some advantages. the grating applied interference of lights to produce diffraction provides a direct measuring of wavelengths of diffracted beams. So by extending Thomas Young's study which demonstrated that a light beam passes slit emerges in patterns of light and dark edges Fraunhofer was able to directly measure the wavelengths of spectral lines. However, despite his enormous achievements, Fraunhofer was unable to understand the origins of the special line in which he observed. It was not until 33 years after his passing that Gustav Kirchhoff established that each element and compound has its unique spectrum and that by studying the spectrum of an unknown source, one could determine its chemical compositions, and with these advancements, spectroscopy became a truly scientific method of analyzing the structures of chemical compounds. Therefore, by recognizing that each atom and molecule has its spectrum Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen established spectroscopy as a scientific tool for probing atomic and molecular structures and founded the field of spectrochemical analysis for analyzing the composition of materials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14657447
| 2,021,318 |
1,801,912 |
Continuing problems with the forward-looking radar and other sensor systems (which were ultimately never resolved) on the Tropic Moon III B-57Gs after deployment to Thailand in the September 1970 meant that ADTC testing of the design continued at Eglin into 1971. Concurrently, the Air Force delivered the Cat II test airframe, "53-3906", to Westinghouse Electronic Systems in Maryland for modification under Project Pave Gat to house a special bomb bay installation of one Emerson TAT-161 turret with a single M61 20mm cannon as a gunship. After initial flight tests in the Baltimore area, the gun B-57G was flown to Eglin in January 1971. Delays occurred in testing at Eglin AFB, due to competition for mission time from the Tropic Moon III B-57Gs as the airframe was also used in the radar remedial program, coupled with a spare parts shortage for mandatory maintenance keeping it grounded from 9 April to 16 May. Three of four Pave Gat missions flown on 16 May were aborted due to equipment failures, causing loss of three more weeks of testing. Operational deployment was slipped to October 1971 on 13 May 1971. Once underway, Pave Gat tests proved "that the B-57G could hit stationary or moving targets with its 20mm gun, day or night. Loaded with 4,000 rounds of ammunition, the Pave Gat B-57G could hit as many as 20 targets, three times as many as the bomb-carrying B-57G. The Pave Gat aircraft could avoid antiaircraft fire by firing from offset positions, while the bomb carrier had to pass directly over the target." Category II and III testing was completed 31 July 1971. Deployment to SEA was resisted, however, by the Seventh and Thirteenth Air Forces and others as the decision had been made in August 1971 to return the B-57G squadron to the U.S. in early 1972, leaving insufficient evaluation time. Project Pave Gat was terminated 21 December 1971.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33714574
| 1,800,901 |
1,580,981 |
I-SPY 2 is an adaptive clinical trial of multiple Phase 2 treatment regimens combined with standard chemotherapy. I-SPY 2 linked 19 academic cancer centers, two community centers, the FDA, the NCI, pharmaceutical and biotech companies, patient advocates and philanthropic partners. The trial is sponsored by the Biomarker Consortium of the Foundation for the NIH (FNIH), and is co-managed by the FNIH and QuantumLeap Healthcare Collaborative. I-SPY 2 was designed to explore the hypothesis that different combinations of cancer therapies have varying degrees of success for different patients. Conventional clinical trials that evaluate post-surgical tumor response require a separate trial with long intervals and large populations to test each combination. Instead, I-SPY 2 is organized as a continuous process. It efficiently evaluates multiple therapy regimes by relying on the predictors developed in I-SPY 1 that help quickly determine whether patients with a particular genetic signature will respond to a given treatment regime. The trial is adaptive in that the investigators learn as they go, and do not continue treatments that appear to be ineffective. All patients are categorized based on tissue and imaging markers collected early and iteratively (a patient's markers may change over time) throughout the trial, so that early insights can guide treatments for later patients. Treatments that show positive effects for a patient group can be ushered to confirmatory clinical trials, while those that do not can be rapidly sidelined. Importantly, confirmatory trials can serve as a pathway for FDA Accelerated Approval. I-SPY 2 can simultaneously evaluate candidates developed by multiple companies, escalating or eliminating drugs based on immediate results. Using a single standard arm for comparison for all candidates in the trial saves significant costs over individual Phase 3 trials. All data are shared across the industry. I-SPY 2 is comparing 11 new treatments against 'standard therapy', and is estimated to complete in Sept 2017. By mid 2016 several treatments had been selected for later stage trials.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65297106
| 1,580,091 |
1,071,879 |
This technology has been tested extensively with multiple deep wells drilled in several field areas around world including the US, Japan, Australia, France, and the UK and investment of billions of research funds. It continues to be the focus, along with a related technique called Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS), for sizable government-led research studies involving costly deep drilling and rock studies. Thermal energy has been recovered in reasonably sustainable tests over periods of years and in some cases electrical power generation was also achieved. However no commercial projects are ongoing or likely due to the high cost and limited capacity of the engineered reservoirs, associated wells, and pumping systems. Commonly tests have opened just one or more fractures such that the reservoir surface heat exchange areas are limited. For this technology to successfully compete with other energy sources, drilling costs would have to drop drastically or new approaches that result in much more extensive, complex, and higher rate flow paths through actual fracture networks would have to be established. The enthusiasm in the research community is justified by the vast extent of the energy supply and the low environmental impact of the method, however significant breakthroughs will be required to make this a commercial energy resource.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12951705
| 1,071,325 |
86,731 |
World-renowned scholars have been integral to the successes of the institutes associated with the university. ASU students and researchers have been selected as Marshall, Truman, Rhodes, and Fulbright Scholars with the university ranking 1st overall in the U.S. for Fulbright Scholar awards to faculty and 5th overall for recipients of Fulbright U.S. Student awards in the 2015–2016 academic year. ASU faculty includes Nobel Laureates, Royal Society members, National Academy members, and members of the National Institutes of Health, to name a few. ASU Professor Donald Johanson, who discovered the 3.18 million year old fossil hominid Lucy (Australopithecus) in Ethiopia, established the Institute of Human Origins (IHO) in 1981. The institute was first established in Berkeley, California, and later moved to ASU in 1997. As one of the leading research organization in the United States devoted to the science of human origins, IHO pursues a transdisciplinary strategy for field and analytical paleoanthropological research. The Herberger Institute Research Center supports the scholarly inquiry, applied research and creative activity of more than 400 faculty and nearly 5,000 students. The renowned ASU Art Museum, Herberger Institute Community Programs, urban design, and other outreach and initiatives in the arts community round out the research and creative activities of the Herberger Institute. Among well known professors within the Herberger Institute is Johnny Saldaña of the School of Theatre and Film. Saldaña received the 1996 Distinguished Book Award and the prestigious Judith Kase Cooper Honorary Research Award, both from the American Alliance for Theatre Education (AATE). The Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability is the center of ASU's initiatives focusing on practical solutions to environmental, economic, and social challenges. The institute has partnered with various cities, universities, and organizations from around the world to address issues affecting the global community.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1859
| 86,696 |
1,217,930 |
length from the measurement point would be given by D = wavelength/32 = cf/32 = 3.5 cm and a frequency f of 4.92 Hz. The calculated distance approximates that of the segment of MCA main stem just after the carotid bifurcation, where probably the ultrasound sample volume was placed, to the MCA bifurcation. Thus, these estimates approximate actual lengths. However, it has been suggested that the estimated distances may not correlate exactly with known morphometric dimensions of the arterial tree according to Campbell et al., 1989. The method was first described by Philip Njemanze in 2007, and was referred to as functional transcranial Doppler spectroscopy (fTCDS). fTCDS examines spectral density estimates of periodic processes induced during mental tasks, and hence offers a much more comprehensive picture of changes related to effects of a given mental stimulus. The spectral density estimates would be least affected by artefacts that lack periodicity, and filtering would reduce the effect of noise. The changes at the C-peak may show cortical long-term potential (CLTP) or cortical long-term depression (CLTD), which has been proposed to be suggest equivalents of cortical activity during learning and cognitive processes. The flow velocity tracings are monitored during paradigm 1 comprising a checkerboard square as object perception are compared to whole face (paradigm 2) and facial element sorting task (paradigm 3). Fast Fourier transform calculations are used to obtain the spectral density and cross amplitude plots in the left and right middle cerebral arteries. The C-peak also called memory (M-peak) cortical peak could be seen arising during paradigm 3, a facial element sorting task requiring iterative memory recall as a subject constantly spatially fits the puzzle by matching each facial element in paradigm 3 to that stored in memory (Paradigm 2) before proceeding to form the picture of the whole face.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3147406
| 1,217,276 |
1,190,210 |
Given the genetic makeup of an organism, the complete set of possible reactions constitutes its reactome. Reactome, located at http://www.reactome.org is a curated, peer-reviewed resource of human biological processes/pathway data. The basic unit of the Reactome database is a reaction; reactions are then grouped into causal chains to form pathways The Reactome data model allows us to represent many diverse processes in the human system, including the pathways of intermediary metabolism, regulatory pathways, and signal transduction, and high-level processes, such as the cell cycle. Reactome provides a qualitative framework, on which quantitative data can be superimposed. Tools have been developed to facilitate custom data entry and annotation by expert biologists, and to allow visualization and exploration of the finished dataset as an interactive process map. Although the primary curational domain is pathways from Homo sapiens, electronic projections of human pathways onto other organisms are regularly created via putative orthologs, thus making Reactome relevant to model organism research communities. The database is publicly available under open source terms, which allows both its content and its software infrastructure to be freely used and redistributed. Studying whole transcriptional profiles and cataloging protein–protein interactions has yielded much valuable biological information, from the genome or proteome to the physiology of an organism, an organ, a tissue or even a single cell. The Reactome database containing a framework of possible reactions which, when combined with expression and enzyme kinetic data, provides the infrastructure for quantitative models, therefore, an integrated view of biological processes, which links such gene products and can be systematically mined by using bioinformatics applications. Reactome data available in a variety of standard formats, including BioPAX, SBML and PSI-MI, and also enable data exchange with other pathway databases, such as the Cycs, KEGG and amaze, and molecular interaction databases, such as BIND and HPRD. The next data release will cover apoptosis, including the death receptor signaling pathways, and the Bcl2 pathways, as well as pathways involved in hemostasis. Other topics currently under development include several signaling pathways, mitosis, visual phototransduction and hematopoeisis. In summary, Reactome provides high-quality curated summaries of fundamental biological processes in humans in a form of biologist-friendly visualization of pathways data, and is an open-source project.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1872854
| 1,189,576 |
1,387,752 |
In 2007, the U.S. federal government invited experts to Chapel Hill, North Carolina to perform a scientific assessment of literature on BPA. Thirty-eight experts in fields involved with bisphenol A gathered in Chapel Hill, North Carolina to review several hundred studies on BPA, many conducted by members of the group. At the end of the meeting, the group issued the Chapel Hill Consensus Statement, which stated "BPA at concentrations found in the human body is associated with organizational changes in the prostate, breast, testis, mammary glands, body size, brain structure and chemistry, and behavior of laboratory animals." The Chapel Hill Consensus Statement stated that average BPA levels in people were above those that cause harm to many animals in laboratory experiments. It noted that while BPA is not persistent in the environment or in humans, biomonitoring surveys indicate that exposure is continuous. This is problematic because acute animal exposure studies are used to estimate daily human exposure to BPA, and no studies that had examined BPA pharmacokinetics in animal models had followed continuous low-level exposures. The authors added that measurement of BPA levels in serum and other body fluids suggests the possibilities that BPA intake is much higher than accounted for or that BPA can bioaccumulate in some conditions (such as pregnancy). Following the Chapel Hill Statement, the US National Toxicology Program – Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (NTP – CERHR), sponsored another literature assessment. The report, released in 2008, noted that "the possibility that bisphenol A may alter human development cannot be dismissed". Despite this report, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) BPA Task Force (formed in April 2008), concluded that products containing BPA were safe. In 2009, the FDA Science Board Subcommittee on Bisphenol A, an external committee assigned to review the FDA's report "concluded that the FDA failed to conduct a rigorous or extensive exposure assessment", leading the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to conduct their own assessment.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57552333
| 1,386,985 |
1,974,416 |
There were no new fortifications along this coast at the start of World War II. After the fall of France in 1940, the threat of invasion led to the creation of new defences. In addition to the installation of anti-tank and other passive obstacles, fourteen coastal batteries, each of two guns, were constructed. Some of these emplacements and other military bases fell within the SSSI area. Four spigot mortar base plates found at Holme dunes may not have originated at that site, since there is no record of such armament there. The marsh at Titchwell was reflooded, and pillboxes built into the beach bank. Between 1942 and 1945, the marsh was used by the Royal Tank Regiment; an armoured fighting vehicle gunnery range was established and banks were constructed for firing practice, with targets set at intervals. Some of the still extant islands were built to hold "pop-up" targets, operated by cables from winches in a building whose foundations now lie below a bird hide. Remains of the triangular concrete track used by the tanks also survive. Military activities continued in the area after the war, and the Royal Air Force returned to Thornham Marsh between 1950 and 1959. Bombing practice was supervised from a control tower, which was demolished in 1962, leaving only a concrete structure opposite the end of Titchwell's west bank. The remains of two World War II Covenanter tanks, probably used as targets, are sometimes exposed at low tide. The SS "Vina", an 1894 cargo steamer, was anchored offshore in 1944 for use as an RAF target, but a gale dragged her to the sands off Titchwell, where the wreck can still be seen at low tide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=34525509
| 1,973,281 |
850,191 |
The above arguments are still cogent in the modern, computer-heavy military simulation environment. There remains a recognised place for umpires as arbiters of a simulation, hence the persistence of manual simulations in war colleges throughout the world. Both computer-assisted and entirely computerised simulations are common as well, with each being used as required by circumstances. The Rand Corporation is one of the best known designers of Military Simulations for the US Government and Air Force, and one of the pioneers of the Political-Military simulation. Their "SAFE" (Strategic And Force Evaluation) simulation is an example of a manual simulation, with one or more teams of up to ten participants being sequestered in separate rooms and their moves being overseen by an independent director and his staff. Such simulations may be conducted over a few days (thus requiring commitment from the participants): an initial scenario (for example, a conflict breaking out in the Persian Gulf) is presented to the players with appropriate historical, political and military background information. They then have a set amount of time to discuss and formulate a strategy, with input from the directors/umpires (often called "Control") as required. Where more than one team is participating, teams may be divided on partisan lines—traditionally "Blue" and "Red" are used as designations, with "Blue" representing the 'home' nation and "Red" the opposition. In this case, the teams will work against each other, their moves and counter-moves being relayed to their opponents by Control, who will also adjudicate on the results of such moves. At set intervals, Control will declare a change in the scenario, usually of a period of days or weeks, and present the evolving situation to the teams based on their reading of how it might develop as a result of the moves made. For example, Blue Team might decide to respond to the Gulf conflict by moving a carrier battle group into the area whilst simultaneously using diplomatic channels to avert hostilities. Red Team, on the other hand, might decide to offer military aid to one side or another, perhaps seeing an opportunity to gain influence in the region and counter Blue's initiatives. At this point Control could declare a week has now passed, and present an updated scenario to the players: possibly the situation has deteriorated further and Blue must now decide if they wish to pursue the military option, or alternatively tensions might have eased and the onus now lies on Red as to whether to escalate by providing more direct aid to their clients.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=10280894
| 849,739 |
750,742 |
Pyrimidine ribonucleosides and their respective nucleotides have been prebiotically synthesised by a sequence of reactions that by-pass free sugars and assemble in a stepwise fashion by including nitrogenous and oxygenous chemistries. In a series of publications, John Sutherland and his team at the School of Chemistry, University of Manchester, have demonstrated high yielding routes to cytidine and uridine ribonucleotides built from small 2- and 3-carbon fragments such as glycolaldehyde, glyceraldehyde or glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, cyanamide, and cyanoacetylene. One of the steps in this sequence allows the isolation of enantiopure ribose aminooxazoline if the enantiomeric excess of glyceraldehyde is 60% or greater, of possible interest toward biological homochirality. This can be viewed as a prebiotic purification step, where the said compound spontaneously crystallised out from a mixture of the other pentose aminooxazolines. Aminooxazolines can react with cyanoacetylene in a mild and highly efficient manner, controlled by inorganic phosphate, to give the cytidine ribonucleotides. Photoanomerization with UV light allows for inversion about the 1' anomeric centre to give the correct beta stereochemistry; one problem with this chemistry is the selective phosphorylation of alpha-cytidine at the 2' position. However, in 2009, they showed that the same simple building blocks allow access, via phosphate controlled nucleobase elaboration, to 2',3'-cyclic pyrimidine nucleotides directly, which are known to be able to polymerise into RNA. Organic chemist Donna Blackmond described this finding as "strong evidence" in favour of the RNA world. However, John Sutherland said that while his team's work suggests that nucleic acids played an early and central role in the origin of life, it did not necessarily support the RNA world hypothesis in the strict sense, which he described as a "restrictive, hypothetical arrangement".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25765
| 750,344 |
1,807,126 |
The magnitude of the MMG signals is lower than that of the heart and the brain. The minimum spectral density could reach limit of detection (LOD) of hundreds of fT/√Hz at low frequencies especially between 10 Hz and 100 Hz. In a seminal work of Cohen and Gilver in 1972, they discovered and recorded MMG signals using Superconducting QUantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs). They led the development of MMG until now since it is the most sensitive device at moment with the femto-Tesla limit of detection (LOD), and possibly achieve atto-Tesla LOD with averaging. The state-of-the-art MMG measurement is dominated by SQUIDs. Nonetheless, their ultra-high cost and cumbersome weight limit the spread of this magnetic sensing technique. In the last several years, optically pumped magnetometers (OPMs) have been rapidly developed to study the innervation of the hand nerves and muscles as proof-of-concept investigations. The OPMs with small physical size have been improved their LODs significantly during recent years, especially from competing manufacturers e.g. QuSpin Inc., FieldLine Inc. and Twinleaf. Below 100 fT/√Hz sensitivity has been achieved with OPMs. The MMG has not been a common method yet mainly due to its small magnitude, which can be easily affected by the magnetic noise in surrounding. For instance, the amplitude of the Earth magnetic field is about five million times larger and environmental noise from power lines can reach a level of nano-Tesla. Additionally, current experiments based on SQUIDs and OPMs for MMG sensing are conducted in heavily-shielded rooms, which are expensive and bulky for personal daily use. Consequently, the development of miniaturised, low-cost and room temperature biomagnetic sensing methods would constitute an important step towards the wider appreciation of biomagnetism.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30883500
| 1,806,107 |
414,648 |
Nucleic acids are generally basophilic because they have a very high density of negative charge due to the sugar phosphate backbone. However, in contrast to other basic i.e. cationic dyes, Alcian blue usually (given the right pH and salt concentrations, and normal temperature and duration in minutes, not hours) preferably stains acidic glycosaminoglycans but not the chromatin and nissel substance, the mechanism of which had been a mystery for a long time and various theories were proposed. Though the presumed basis of the staining is its positive charge attracted to negative structures (e.g. acidic sugars), bulkiness (width 2.5–3 nm, compared to toluidine blue ~0.7 x1.1 nm) makes its diffusion very slow in less permeable parts of the tissue and thus prevent it from staining highly negative yet compact structures such as chromatin and nissl substance. However prolonged staining (few days at 25 °C) or DNA denaturing conditions may allow Alcian blue to also stain the nucleus. The isolation of the positive charge from the aromatic electron cloud by the intervening methylene bridges makes the localized positive charged regions "hard" ions in contrast to soft ions where the charge is delocalized over the whole aromatic pi cloud. When these hard cations encounter the hard anions e.g. in form of sulfate they form salts without regard for the precise chemical nature of the anion. The resulting salts are highly stable but can be slowly exchanged with high concentration of salts. Washing with water or alkali treatment after staining causes base catalyzed hydrolysis and removal of the pendant positively charged side chains and the resulting compound is Phthalocyanine Blue, which forms a blue water-insoluble dye precipitate. The precipitates are so robust that they withstand harsh conditions like PAS or other counterstaining and also dehydration and embedding treatments (in contrast toluidine blue is partially extracted away during dehydration). This unleachability is the chemical basis of the ingrain dyeing for which AB (Ingrain blue 1) was originally designed by the dye industry.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21548765
| 414,445 |
1,271,614 |
The southern flying lizard is brown with patches of grey that match the pattern of tree bark. It can change its colour to a limited extent. As an adult, it is has a total length of about , with a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of about and a tail length of . The head is round with a short snout, and the nostrils point upwards. It is active during the day after it has warmed up in the early morning sun. Males have a long yellow dewlap which is shorter in the females. This lizard climbs trees in search of insect prey on the trunks and leaps off when it reaches the top to land on adjoining trees. It is able to glide by extending its patagia, flaps of skin on both sides of the body that are supported by six elongated ribs with special musculature to extend them outwards. The muscles on the breast are also modified to breathe more efficiently and support its active lifestyle. In addition the sides of the neck are also stretched out to form a pair of smaller "wings" around the head. It is able to control the direction of the glide using its tail. The patagium is patterned on the underside with black blotches on yellow and purple. Patterns vary individually and these marking have been used to identify and estimate population sizes. A horn-like, conical tubercle behind and above the posterior part of the eye is prominent. Males have a small crest arising on the nape. The yellow gular sac on the throat is long and narrow, longer in the male. The back is rough and the throat has irregular brown spots. In addition to the patagium, the hyoid apparatus (part of the tongue) expands throat lappets horizontally so that the head is also supported on its sides by small wing-like structures.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=3489409
| 1,270,923 |
68,477 |
In a widely debated 2021 "Foreign Affairs" article, Mearsheimer observed that the United States was destined to compete aggressively with China as long as the latter continued to grow into a militarily and economically powerful state in East Asia. However, contrary to realist logic, the United States in the post-Cold War period had "promoted investment in China and welcomed the country into the global trading system, thinking it would become a peace-loving democracy and a responsible stakeholder in a U.S.-led international order" (p. 48). In effect, by pursuing a policy of engagement, the U.S. had facilitated China's dangerous rise to great-power status and hastened the onset of a new Cold War:Nobody can say that engagement wasn't given ample opportunity to work, nor can anyone argue that China emerged as a threat because the United States was not accommodating enough...China's economy experienced unprecedented growth, but the country did not turn into a liberal democracy or a responsible stakeholder. To the contrary, Chinese leaders view liberal values as a threat to their country's stability, and as rulers of rising powers normally do, they are pursuing an increasingly aggressive foreign policy. There is no way around it: engagement was a colossal strategic mistake (pp. 54-55).In a 2015 review of Mearsheimer's arguments on China, the sociologist Amitai Etzioni charged that China and the United States "have very little 'real' reason to confront each other" and that the "main value of Mearsheimer's provocative thesis is that it alerts those of us on both sides of the power divide to redouble our efforts to prevent his dire predictions from coming true." By contrast, Executive Director Tom Switzer of the Sydney-based Centre for Independent Studies opined in May 2020, "Rarely in history has an academic been as intellectually vindicated as John Mearsheimer, [He] accurately foresaw the intense Sino-American security competition that the coronavirus crisis has exposed."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=980934
| 68,450 |
1,050,837 |
Small interfering (siRNA) are short, 19-23 base-pair (with a 3' overhang of two nucleotides), double-stranded pieces of RNA that participate in the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) for gene silencing. Specifically, siRNA is bound by the RISC complex where it is unwound using ATP hydrolysis. It is then used as a guide by the enzyme "Slicer" to target mRNAs for degradation based on complementary base-pairing to the target mRNA. As a therapeutic, siRNA is able to be delivered locally, through the eye or nose, to treat various diseases. Local delivery benefits from simple formulation and drug delivery and high bioavailability of the drug. Systemic delivery is necessary to target cancers and other diseases. Targeting the siRNA when delivered locally is one of the main challenges in siRNA therapeutics. While it is possible to use intravenous injection to deliver siRNA therapies, concerns have been raised about the large volumes used in the injection, as these must often be ~20-30% of the total blood volume. Other methods of delivery include liposome packaging, conjugation to membrane-permeable peptides, and direct tissue/organ electroporation. Additionally, it has been found that exogeneous siRNAs only last a few days (a few weeks at most in non-dividing cells) "in vivo". If siRNA is able to successfully reach its target, it has the potential to therapeutically regulate gene expression through its ability to base-pair to mRNA targets and promote their degradation through the RISC system Currently, siRNA-based therapy is in a phase I clinical trial for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration, although it is also being explored for use in cancer therapy. For instance, siRNA can be used to target mRNAs that code for proteins that promote tumor growth such as the VEGF receptor and telomerase enzyme.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=65187964
| 1,050,291 |
925,553 |
It was not until after the observations of certain molecular phenomena that stereochemical principles were developed. In 1815, Jean-Baptiste Biot’s observation of optical activity marked the beginning of organic stereochemistry history. He observed that organic molecules were able to rotate the plane of polarized light in a solution or in the gaseous phase. Despite Biot's discoveries, Louis Pasteur is commonly described as the first stereochemist, having observed in 1842 that salts of tartaric acid collected from wine production vessels could rotate the plane of polarized light, but that salts from other sources did not. This property, the only physical property in which the two types of tartrate salts differed, is due to optical isomerism. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and Joseph Le Bel explained optical activity in terms of the tetrahedral arrangement of the atoms bound to carbon. Kekulé used tetrahedral models earlier in 1862 but never published these; Emanuele Paternò probably knew of these but was the first to draw and discuss three dimensional structures, such as of 1,2-dibromoethane in the "Giornale di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche" in 1869. The term "chiral" was introduced by Lord Kelvin in 1904. Arthur Robertson Cushny, Scottish Pharmacologist, in 1908, first offered a definite example of a bioactivity difference between enantiomers of a chiral molecule viz. (-)-Adrenaline is two times more potent than the (±)- form as a vasoconstrictor and in 1926 laid the foundation for chiral pharmacology/stereo-pharmacology (biological relations of optically isomeric substances). Later in 1966, the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog nomenclature or Sequence rule was devised to assign absolute configuration to stereogenic/chiral center (R- and S- notation) and extended to be applied across olefinic bonds (E- and Z- notation).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28756
| 925,067 |
246,599 |
As syntax began to be studied more closely in the early 20th century in relation to language learning, it became apparent to linguists, psychologists, and philosophers that knowing a language was not merely a matter of associating words with concepts, but that a critical aspect of language involves knowledge of how to put words together; sentences are usually needed in order to communicate successfully, not just isolated words. A child will use short expressions such as "Bye-bye Mummy" or "All-gone milk", which actually are combinations of individual nouns and an operator, before they begin to produce gradually more complex sentences. In the 1990s, within the principles and parameters framework, this hypothesis was extended into a maturation-based structure building model of child language regarding the acquisition of functional categories. In this model, children are seen as gradually building up more and more complex structures, with lexical categories (like noun and verb) being acquired before functional-syntactic categories (like determiner and complementizer). It is also often found that in acquiring a language, the most frequently used verbs are irregular verbs. In learning English, for example, young children first begin to learn the past tense of verbs individually. However, when they acquire a "rule", such as adding "-ed" to form the past tense, they begin to exhibit occasional overgeneralization errors (e.g. "runned", "hitted") alongside correct past tense forms. One influential proposal regarding the origin of this type of error suggests that the adult state of grammar stores each irregular verb form in memory and also includes a "block" on the use of the regular rule for forming that type of verb. In the developing child's mind, retrieval of that "block" may fail, causing the child to erroneously apply the regular rule instead of retrieving the irregular.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18614
| 246,472 |
5,706 |
Two solid rocket boosters (SRBs), built by Morton Thiokol at the time of the disaster, provided the majority of thrust at liftoff. They were connected to the external tank, and burned for the first two minutes of flight. The SRBs separated from the orbiter once they had expended their fuel and fell into the Atlantic Ocean under a parachute. NASA retrieval teams recovered the SRBs and returned them to the Kennedy Space Center, where they were disassembled and their components were reused on future flights. Each SRB was constructed in four main sections at the factory in Utah and transported to Kennedy Space Center (KSC), then assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building at KSC with three tang-and-clevis field joints, each joint consisting of a tang from the upper segment fitting into the clevis of the lower segment. Each field joint was sealed with two rubber O-rings around the circumference of the SRB and had a cross-section diameter of . The O-rings were required to contain the hot, high-pressure gases produced by the burning solid propellant and allowed for the SRBs to be rated for crewed missions. The two O-rings were configured to create a double bore seal, and the gap between segments was filled with putty. When the motor was running, this configuration was designed to compress air in the gap against the upper O-ring, pressing it against the sealing surfaces of its seat. On the SRB Critical Items List, the O-rings were listed as Criticality 1R, which indicated that an O-ring failure could result in the destruction of the vehicle and loss of life, but it was considered a redundant system due to the secondary O-ring.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403717
| 5,703 |
2,150,027 |
In 1946 at the age of 17 he quit school and went to work for the Gulf Oil Co. in Chelsea, Massachusetts for one year. At age 20 he went to work for Oxford Paper Co., retiring in 1989. After working at Oxford for a few months he enlisted into the Army Airborne for 3 years. This was during the Korean War. He got into the 82nd Airborne Division and made 33 jumps in all. Jumping out of airplanes excited him; he says it was an enjoyable experience to say the least. From 4-6-51 to 4-6-54 and army life wasn’t for him. Food was lousy! He finished his schooling when he first got in and got his GED Equivalency Diploma. After an honorable discharge he returned home and went back to work in one month. In 1955 he married Annette Salatino, who died 12-14-05. They have 5 children and 12 grandchildren. It 1958 he broke all the existing two and one arm weight lifting records in Maine. Regular training took place until Mike Roy talked him into power-lifting competition. By 1980 he won his first world title and has continued on ever since, never once being defeated. He says, I wonder what it’s like to come in second? In his mind, that’s the first loser. He has a half dozen world and half dozen national titles and many of his records still exist. In fact, Sunday, April 5 he broke 2 world records but there wasn’t any listed. At 78 he finds it quite lonely in finding competition at his age. In 1998 a huge party at the Legion hosted by his sister- in-law, Lucy Day was given for him. It turned out to be a huge roast from all his close friends. From there he traveled to Austria with son Dicky and won a world title in which 16 countries competed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23119176
| 2,148,796 |
440,165 |
The aim of quantum key distribution is the distribution of identical, true random numbers to two distant parties A and B in such a way that A and B can quantify the amount of information about the numbers that has been lost to the environment (and thus is potentially in hand of an eavesdropper). To do so, sender (A) sends one of the entangled light beams to receiver (B). A and B measure repeatedly and simultaneously (taking the different propagation times into account) one of two orthogonal quadrature amplitudes. For every single measurement they need to choose whether to measure formula_14 or formula_15 in a truly random way, independently from each other. By chance, they measure the same quadrature in 50% of the single measurements. After having performed a large number of measurements, A and B communicate (publicly) what their choice was for every measurement. The non-matched pairs are discarded. From the remaining data they make public a small but statistically significant amount to test whether B is able to precisely infer the measurement results at A. Knowing the characteristics of the entangled light source and the quality of the measurement at the sender site, the sender gets information about the decoherence that happened during channel transmission and during the measurement at B. The decoherence quantifies the amount of information that was lost to the environment. If the amount of lost information is not too high and the data string not too short, data post processing in terms of error correction and privacy amplification produces a key with an arbitrarily reduced epsilon-level of insecurity. In addition to conventional QKD, the test for EPR correlations not only characterizes the channel over which the light was sent (for instance a glas fibre) but also the measurement at the receiver site. The sender does not need to trust the receivers measurement any more. This higher quality of QKD is called "one-sided device independent". This type of QKD works if the natural decoherence is not too high. For this reason, an implementation that uses conventional telecommunication glas fibers would be limited to a distance of a few kilometers.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56495427
| 439,951 |
1,900,118 |
Although considered a revivalist architect, Seyfarth's designs were not pedantic copies of existing work or even typical examples of the revival architecture that was popular at the time. Despite the fact that his design aesthetic was more traditional than that of his previous employer, Seyfarth had absorbed many of Maher's (and the Prairie School's) ideas and incorporated them into his own architectural philosophy. His buildings provided their owners with architecture that offered the most up-to-date conveniences and floorplans that were considered modern - but that was carefully imbued with the warmth and character of earlier times. From his introduction to "The Home You Longed For" - "These few old world standards, rightly employed, have become completely molded to fit our present conditions so that ... our modern examples are not imitations, but rather developments of early principals ... With such a rich inheritance handed down to us, why should not all our homes be of this sort, examples of these splendid former types which were fashioned on sound principles beyond reason for change of design and possessing an artistic grace from which future generations may gather lasting inspiration - made to live in and adorned to please - such should be the enduring qualities of the typical American home of today." Here he reiterated the thoughts that the architect and writer John Wellborn Root had expressed in a paper he read to an audience at the Chicago Architectural Sketch Club in 1887 that later appeared in "The Inland Architect" (February, 1888, pp. 3–5): "Now, in America, we are free of artistic traditions ... A new spirit of beauty is being developed and perfected, and even now its first achievements are beginning to delight us. This is not the old thing made over; it is new. It springs out of the past, but it is not tied to it; it studies the traditions, but it is not enslaved by them. It is doing original work, and it will do more."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24940492
| 1,899,030 |
681,261 |
With the Canadair Sabre no longer a viable option, the "Fábrica Militar de Aviones" seriously considered having the Pulqui II enter series production. A new prototype was ordered in 1957, despite the United States having offered 100 combat-proven F-86 Sabre fighters with Orenda engines that were available immediately. The fifth IAe 33 Pulqui II (No. 05) prototype, designated Pulqui IIe, was constructed in 1959 (visually identical to the fourth prototype although retaining the original frameless, clear canopy) and entered flight testing after its first flight on 18 September of that year, with Lt. Roberto Starc at the controls. The continual evolution of the Pulqui II had resulted in the design team solving its inherent instability at high angles of attack, as well as increasing fuel capacity through the use of a wet wing, to provide sufficient range. However the fighter was now not only considered obsolete, but also politically tainted due to its association with Perón. Consequently, the Argentine government decided to cancel the IAe 33 project at the zenith of its development, instead acquiring second-hand F-86F-40 Sabres from the United States at a "bargain-basement price" under the Mutual Defense Assistance Act. Finally, in September 1960, Argentina received only 28 aircraft, in poor condition and without the promised Orenda engine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2616710
| 680,906 |
1,405,568 |
Owing to its ability to realise high purity results, orbital welding found its place in the production of clean-room components for the semiconductor industry. Its application has now expanded to the construction of pipework and equipment for diverse industries like food processing, pharmaceuticals, chemical engineering, automotive engineering, biotechnology, shipbuilding and aerospace. Automated orbital TIG welding is also used in the construction of power stations, (thermal power plants). The construction materials used must be able to withstand the enormous mechanical loads produced by the high pressures and temperatures created by the media carried in the tubes. Notches, pores and inclusions in the weld seams must be avoided at all costs, as these create weak points that can lead to subsequent formation of cracks. These in turn can have serious consequences in terms of component failure. This means that tubes are often made from nickel-based materials with walls up to 200mm thick. One manufacturer has developed an orbital narrow gap welding system with hot-wire feed specifically for this purpose, which uses running gear that moves on a guide ring fixed around the tube. This new variant has created a lot of interest in the sector, with the worldwide boom in power station construction fueling the never-ending search for increasingly productive manufacturing methods using new types of high-temperature steels.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17805006
| 1,404,778 |
187,410 |
The primary role foreseen for the RNZN was fisheries protection, particularly following the introduction of a Exclusive Economic Zone by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea; this was thought to require a minimum of six vessels to effectively police. Peace campaigners claimed that the purchase of the "Anzac"s was a politically motivated decision made under pressure from Australia, which was trying to support its shipbuilding industry, and stated that the Fourth Labour Government was undermining its commitment to reduce the nation's deficit by spending so much on high-tech warships (although figures of $NZ20 billion for purchase and 20 years of operation was misquoted as an upfront lump sum). There were also concerns that by possessing modern warships, New Zealand would be "dragged" back into ANZUS. One proposal suggested to avoid this was that the New Zealand "Anzac"s be fitted with inferior engines that would reduce the vessels' top speed and make it impossible to operate with United States Navy fleets. However, these changes would have incurred major additional expenses. A recurring alternate proposal was the purchase of the British Castle-class patrol vessel design. Two months after tenders for the project closed, the managing director of Svendborg Skibsværft began to campaign for the construction of the Danish IS-86 patrol vessel (later designated the "Thetis"-class frigate) for the RNZN. In response to these proposals, the government indicated that it was committing to purchasing Australian ships, and that interoperability with the RAN (which the alternate ship designs were incapable of) was a major element in the decision.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=897679
| 187,313 |
32,066 |
In his early years von Neumann published several papers relating to set-theoretical real analysis and number theory. In a paper from 1925, he proved that for any dense sequence of points in formula_9, there existed a rearrangement of those points that is uniformly distributed. In 1926 his sole publication was on Prüfer's theory of ideal algebraic numbers where von Neumann found a new way of constructing them, extending Prüfer's theory to the field of all algebraic numbers, and their relation to p-adic numbers. In 1928 he wrote a couple papers on set-theoretic analysis. The first dealt with partitioning an interval into countably many congruent subsets. It solved a problem of Hugo Steinhaus asking whether an interval is formula_22-divisible. Von Neumann proved that indeed that all intervals, half-open, open, or closed are formula_22-divisible by translations (i.e. that these intervals can be decomposed into formula_22 subsets that are congruent by translation). His next paper dealt with giving a constructive proof without the axiom of choice that formula_25 algebraically independent reals exist. He proved that formula_26 are algebraically independent for formula_27. Consequently, there exists a perfect algebraically independent set of reals the size of the continuum. Other minor results from his early career include a proof of a maximum principle for the gradient of a minimizing function in the field of calculus of variations, specifically proving the following theorem: Let formula_28 be a Lipschitz function with constant formula_29, and formula_30 an open and bounded set in formula_31. If formula_32 is a minimum for formula_17 in formula_34, then formula_35 and a small simplification of Hermann Minkowski's theorem for linear forms in geometric number theory.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=15942
| 32,055 |
1,939,057 |
Telomerase is an enzyme that works to create telomeric ends for DNA, and it is thought to play important roles in the development of cancer. Specifically, telomeric stability is known to be a common occurrence in cancer cells. Along with the telomerase, the shelterin complex, and TERF2 and TERF1 specifically, also have been noted to control the lengths of telomeres formed by these telomerases. Shelterin works to protect telomeres against unsuitable activation of the DNA damage response pathway, as noted in the function section above. TERF2 as part of the shelterin complex, has been known to block the ATM signaling pathways and prevent chromosome end fusion. In cancer cells, TERF2 phosphorylation by extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) is a controlling factor in the major pro-oncogenic signaling pathways (RAS/RAF/MEK/ERK) that affect telomeric stability. Additionally, when TERF2 was non-phosphorylated in melanoma cells, there was a cell induced DNA damage response, arresting growth and causing tumor reversion. Studies have found that in tumor cells, TERF2 levels are observed to be high, and this raised level of TERF2 contributes to oncogenesis in a variety of ways. This high level of TERF2 decreases the ability to recruit and activate natural killer cells in human tumor cells. One study used a dominant negative form of TERF2, to inhibit TERF2, and found that it could induce a reversion malignant phenotype in human melanoma cells. Therefore, over-expression of TERF2, causing blocking of TERF2, induced apoptosis and reduced tumourigenicity in certain cell lines. Additionally, upregulation of TERF2 may be the cause of the establishment and maintenance of short telomeres. These short telomeres increase chromosomal instability, and increase the chances of certain cancers progressing in the body, such as with leukemia. In gastric mucosa tissues, the expression of TERF2 proteins was significantly higher than normal, and this over-expression of TERF2, along with over-expression of TERF1, TIN2, TERT, and BRCA1 protein transposition, may cause a reduction in telomere length, further contributing to multistage carcinogenesis of gastric cancer.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14135628
| 1,937,947 |
813,776 |
Of industry sponsored research, pharmaceutical firm spending was the greatest contributor from all industry sponsored biomedical research spending, but only increased 15% (adjusted for inflation) from 2003 to 2007, while device and biotechnology firms accounted for the majority of the spending. The stock performance, a measure that can be an indication of future firm growth or technological direction, has substantially increased for both predominantly medical device and biotechnology producers. Contributing factors to this growth are thought to be less rigorous FDA approval requirements for devices as opposed to drugs, lower cost of trials, lower pricing and profitability of products and predictable influence of new technology due to a limited number of competitors. Another visible shift during the era was a shift in focus to late stage research trials; formerly dispersed, since 1994 an increasingly large portion of industry-sponsored research was late phase trials rather than early-experimental phases now accounting for the majority of industry sponsored research. This shift is attributable to a lower risk investment and a shorter development to market schedule. The low risk preference is also reflected in the trend of large pharmaceutical firms acquiring smaller companies that hold patents to newly developed drug or device discoveries which have not yet passed federal regulation (large companies are mitigating their risk by purchasing technology created by smaller companies in early-phase high-risk studies). Medical research support from universities increased from $22 billion in 2003 to $27.7 billion in 2007, a 7.8% increase (adjusted for inflation). In 2007 the most heavily funded institutions received 20% of HIN medical research funding, and the top 50 institutions received 58% of NIH medical research funding, the percent of funding allocated to the largest institutions is a trend which has increased only slightly over data from 1994. Relative to federal and private funding, health policy and service research accounted for a nominal amount of sponsored research; health policy and service research was funded $1.8 billion in 2003, which increased to $2.2 billion in 2008.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2245783
| 813,343 |
173,206 |
All optical disc-drives use the SCSI-protocol on a command bus level, and initial systems used either a fully featured SCSI bus or as these were some what cost-prohibitive to sell to consumer applications, a proprietary cost-reduced version of the bus. This is because conventional ATA-standards at the time did not support, or have any provisions for any sort of removable media or hot-plugging of disk drives. Most modern internal drives for personal computers, servers, and workstations are designed to fit in a standard -inch (also written as 5.25 inch) drive bay and connect to their host via an ATA or SATA bus interface, but communicate using the SCSI protocol commands on software level as per the ATA Package Interface standard developed for making Parallel ATA/IDE interfaces compatible with removable media. Some devices may support vendor-specific commands such as recording density ("GigaRec"), laser power setting ("VariRec"), ability to manually hard-limit rotation speed in a way that overrides the universal speed setting (separately for reading and writing), and adjusting the lens and tray movement speeds where a lower setting reduces noise, as implmenented on some Plextor drives, as well as the ability to force overspeed burning, meaning beyond speed recommended for the media type, for testing purposes, as implemented on some Lite-On drives. Additionally, there may be digital and analog outputs for audio. The outputs may be connected via a header cable to the sound card or the motherboard or to headphones or an external speaker with a 3.5mm AUX plug cable that many early optical drives are equipped with. At one time, computer software resembling CD players controlled playback of the CD. Today the information is extracted from the disc as digital data, to be played back or converted to other file formats.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=299592
| 173,115 |
1,690,724 |
They conducted experiments with stereotactic high-energy proton irradiation in goats resulting in a seminal publication in "Nature" in 1958. This technique was also applied in a few patients with Parkinson's disease (pallidotomy), psychiatric disorder (capsulotomy) and pain (mesencephalotomy). Although precisely placed and well-limited lesions could be produced by the focused proton beams, as demonstrated in a few autopsy cases, the synchrocyclotron proved to be too complicated for general clinical use. This compelled Leksell to consider other radiation sources and he started designing the cobalt-60 gamma unit, which was fully integrated with the stereotactic system. The development of the ‘‘beam-knife’’ took place after Leksell had been appointed successor to Olivecrona in 1960 and the first unit was inaugurated in 1967. Later the same year reports of the two first cases, patients with cancer related pain subjected to radiosurgical thalamotomy, were published. Originally, radiosurgery and the gamma unit were developed with the hope that it would offer a bloodless, and less risky, method to be applied principally in functional neurosurgery, for example in thalamotomy for Parkinson's disease. On the other hand, Leksell had always considered his stereotactic instrument a surgical tool that should also be utilized in general neurosurgery in order to enhance precision and minimize hazards. This idea had to some extent been realized by the extensive use of stereotactic technique in puncturing cysts and also in performing biopsies in critical regions. The gamma unit soon proved to be useful in the treatment of some diseases previously requiring neurosurgery, such as pituitary adenomas, acoustic neurinomas and arteriovenous malformations. This use of radiosurgery has revolutionized the management of these conditions but was met with skepticism from the neurosurgical community.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1168881
| 1,689,777 |
1,399,258 |
While ENIAC never saw use during World War II, its first job upon completion was to calculate the feasibility of a proposed design for the hydrogen bomb. But while ENIAC could perform ballistic calculations at impressive speeds, it was held back by its lack of internally stored program capability. It took scientists a month to complete the calculation due to the thousands of steps involved as well as ENIAC's inability to store programs or remember more than twenty ten-digit numbers. Nevertheless, the electronic computer revealed several flaws in the proposed design of the bomb that would have been nearly impossible to identify otherwise. The formal dedication of the ENIAC took place on February 15, 1946, at the Moore School, and the machine was moved to its permanent home at Aberdeen Proving Ground in January 1947. During a formal demonstration of the ENIAC in 1946, the Army showed the machine could solve 5,000 addition problems in one second as well as 50 multiplication problems in one second. While the Bush differential analyzer could compute a 60-second trajectory in about 15 minutes, the ENIAC could do the same in about 30 seconds. In 1948, BRL converted ENIAC into an internally stored-fixed program computer and used it to perform calculations on not just ballistics but also for weather prediction, cosmic ray studies, thermal ignition, and other scientific tasks. In addition, it was also made available to universities free of charge.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30865936
| 1,398,483 |
899,702 |
On June 28, 2015 CRS-7 launched a Falcon 9 carrying an unmanned Dragon capsule intended to take supplies to the International Space Station. 2 minutes and 19 seconds into the flight a cloud of vapor was seen by the tracking camera forming outside the craft. A few seconds afterward there was a loss of pressure in the helium tank, after which they exploded, causing a complete failure of the mission. The software was not programmed to deploy the parachute for the Dragon capsule after a launch mishap, therefore the Dragon broke upon impact. The problem was discovered to be a failed 2 ft (61 cm) steel strut, purchased from a supplier, on a helium pressure vessel, which broke due to the force of acceleration. This caused a breach and allowed helium to escape causing the loss of the spacecraft, which exploded. The software issue was also fixed; in addition, an analysis of the entire program was carried out in order to ensure proper abort mechanisms are in place for future rockets and their payload. SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell stated that in terms of the differences between the six previous successful Falcon 9 Commercial Resupply Launches, "there’s nothing that stands out as being different for any particular flight." Though the craft was set to bring a resupply of food and water to the ISS, the crew members had enough supplies to last another 4 months before another resupply, which would end up being the Russian Progress 60P vehicle. Student science experiments, as well as a docking adapter and other miscellaneous cargo, were lost due to CRS-7 failure as well.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53357431
| 899,227 |
590,722 |
The Large Area Telescope (LAT) detects individual gamma rays using technology similar to that used in terrestrial particle accelerators. Photons hit thin metal sheets, converting to electron-positron pairs, via a process termed pair production. These charged particles pass through interleaved layers of silicon microstrip detectors, causing ionization which produce detectable tiny pulses of electric charge. Researchers can combine information from several layers of this tracker to determine the path of the particles. After passing through the tracker, the particles enter the calorimeter, which consists of a stack of caesium iodide scintillator crystals to measure the total energy of the particles. The LAT's field of view is large, about 20% of the sky. The resolution of its images is modest by astronomical standards, a few arc minutes for the highest-energy photons and about 3 degrees at 100 MeV. It is sensitive from to (from medium up to some very-high-energy gamma rays). The LAT is a bigger and better successor to the EGRET instrument on NASA's Compton Gamma Ray Observatory satellite in the 1990s. Several countries produced the components of the LAT, who then sent the components for assembly at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory. SLAC also hosts the LAT Instrument Science Operations Center, which supports the operation of the LAT during the Fermi mission for the LAT scientific collaboration and for NASA.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=399678
| 590,420 |
601,852 |
The Navy planned to arm the proposed UCLASS with weapons currently in the carrier air wing's inventory. With the priority of the aircraft on ISR, the airframe would accommodate a fifth-generation AESA radar and multiple intelligence (multi-int) sensors to include electro-optical/infrared sensors and full-motion video cameras to detect and track land and sea targets while armed with Joint Direct Attack Munitions. The Navy hinted at the possibility of using the UCLASS in air-to-air engagements as a "flying missile magazine" to supplement the F/A-18 Super Hornet and F-35C Lightning II as a type of "robotic wingman." Its weapons bay could be filled with AIM-120 AMRAAMs and be remotely operated by an E-2D Hawkeye or F-35C flight leader, using their own sensors and human judgment to detect, track, and direct the UAV to engage an enemy aircraft. The Navy's Naval Integrated Fire Control-Counter Air (NIFC-CA) concept gives a common picture of the battle space to multiple air platforms through data-links, where any aircraft could fire on a target in their range that is being tracked by any sensor, so the forward deployed UCLASS would have its missiles targeted by another controller. With manned-unmanned teaming for air combat, a dedicated unmanned supersonic fighter may not be developed, as the greater cost of high-thrust propulsion and an airframe of similar size to a manned fighter would deliver a platform with comparable operating costs and still without an ability to engage on its own.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39092723
| 601,543 |
2,070,995 |
Professor Shepherd began his research with studies of the aurora borealis, conceiving new instruments for its observation. The implementation was done by his students, postdocs and research associates of which not all can be mentioned here. These began with the Fabry-Perot Interferometer (John Nilson, Leroy Cogger, Steven Peteherych). The most notable was introducing “field-widening” to the Michelson interferometer (Ronald Hilliard, Harold Zwick) and operating it by scanning over a single fringe to obtain atmospheric temperatures from both aurora and airglow. His ground-based observations (Robert Peterson, Kenneth Paulson) were later extended to measurements from rockets (John Miller, Ashley Deans), flown from the Churchill Research Range at Churchill, Manitoba and Cape Parry on the Arctic coastline. He then moved to satellite measurements with the Red Line Photometer (RLP) on the Canadian ISIS-II satellite (Frank Bunn, Frank Thirkettle), launched in 1971. This instrument mapped the auroral O(1D) red line emission, produced by low energy electrons, specifically in the dayside cusp. A wide-angle Michelson interferometer was then conceived for the measurement of winds from space, called the Wind Imaging Interferometer (WINDII), launched on NASA’s Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) (William Gault, Brian Solheim, Charles Hersom, Yves Rochon) in 1991. It operated until 2003, providing new information on the dramatic influence of winds on processes in the upper atmosphere through migrating and non-migrating tides and planetary waves (Charles McLandress, Shengpan Zhang), (Guiping Liu, Young-Min Cho). Other versions of the field-widened instrument were developed, the Polarizing Atmospheric Michelson Interferometer and the Spatial Heterodyne Spectrometer (John Bird (scientist), Stephen Brown). More recently, the superposition of these zonal waves was proposed for the existence of “bright nights”, a phenomenon known since Roman times of rare nights which were not dark, but exceptionally bright. WINDII data were most recently used to describe the existence of a high-latitude “wind wall”, with reversals of zonal wind from eastward to westward with velocities of up to 600 meters/second (Marianna Shepherd).
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53100427
| 2,069,804 |
595,321 |
Transcriptional initiation, termination and regulation are mediated by “DNA looping” which brings together promoters, enhancers, transcription factors and RNA processing factors to accurately regulate gene expression. Chromosome conformation capture (3C) and more recently Hi-C techniques provided evidence that active chromatin regions are “compacted” in nuclear domains or bodies where transcriptional regulation is enhanced. The configuration of the genome is essential for enhancer-promoter proximity. Cell-fate decisions are mediated upon highly dynamic genomic reorganizations at interphase to modularly switch on or off entire gene regulatory networks through short to long range chromatin rearrangements. Related studies demonstrate that metazoan genomes are partitioned in structural and functional units around a megabase long called Topological association domains (TADs) containing dozens of genes regulated by hundreds of enhancers distributed within large genomic regions containing only non-coding sequences. The function of TADs is to regroup enhancers and promoters interacting together within a single large functional domain instead of having them spread in different TADs. However, studies of mouse development point out that two adjacent TADs may regulate the same gene cluster. The most relevant study on limb evolution shows that the TAD at the 5’ of the HoxD gene cluster in tetrapod genomes drives its expression in the distal limb bud embryos, giving rise to the hand, while the one located at 3’ side does it in the proximal limb bud, giving rise to the arm. Still, it is not known whether TADs are an adaptive strategy to enhance regulatory interactions or an effect of the constrains on these same interactions.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=398124
| 595,016 |
1,944,321 |
TNMD belongs to the new family of type II transmembrane glycoproteins. The gene is localized on the X chromosome and accounts for an approximately 1.4 kb transcript and a predicted protein consisting of 317 amino acids. The gene is composed of seven exons. The second exon encodes the transmembrane domain (amino acid position 31-49) and no signal peptide. TNMD contains a putative protease recognition sequence (Arg-Xxx-Xxx-Arg) identified at the position 233-236. Unlike chondromodulin-1, TNMD does not have a processing signal for furin protease. The extracellular part, prior the putative cleavage site, contains a BRICHOS extracellular domain found also in several other unrelated proteins. This domain consists of a homologous sequence of approximately 100 amino acids containing a pair of conserved cysteine residues. It has been suggested that BRICHOS participates in the protein post-translational processing, however the exact function remains unclear. TNMD contains two N-glycosylation sites at position 94 and 180. Protein analyses in eye and periodontal ligament revealed full length TNMD protein as a double band of 40 and 45 kDa. It has been experimentally proven that the 45 kDa band corresponds to glycosylated TNMD, while 40 kDa band is non-glycosylated TNMD. The last exon of TNMD gene encodes the conserved C-terminal cysteine-rich domain, which makes up the part of the protein sharing highest resemblance to chondromodulin-I (77% similarity/66% identity). This domain contains C-terminal hydrophobic tail with eight Cys residues forming four disulphide-bridges, which are well conserved across vertebrate species. A smaller cyclic structure forming by single Cys280-Cys292 disulphide bridge in TNMD has been shown to exert an anti-angiogenic function, while the other three disulphide-bridges are speculated to hold this cyclic structure and C-terminal hydrophobic tail separated from each other to avoid the formation of intramolecular aggregates. In certain tendon tissues such as Achilles tendon and chordae tendineae cordis, 16 kDa cleaved C-terminal part of TNMD was detected in the collagenous extracellular matrix.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16855134
| 1,943,209 |
293,262 |
On April 29, 2021, the developers of Sputnik V said that Anvisa admitted not testing Sputnik V and that they would sue Anvisa in Brazil for defamation. At a press conference, Anvisa officials said that Gamaleya's own documents indicated multiple times the presence of replication-competent adenoviruses (RCAs) in ready vaccine batches and that the specifications accepted a level of RCAs 300 times greater than any other regulatory threshold. Anvisa presented the video of a meeting with representatives from Russia and Brazil where, when asked about the presence of RCAs, a representative from Russia reported problems with the cells and said that the vaccine could have been redeveloped, but it would take too long, so the developers instead chose to continue the research imposing an acceptable level of RCAs. Virologist Angela Rasmussen described this problem as a quality control issue that is not important for healthy people because adenoviruses are not important pathogens, but added that it could produce serious adverse effects in immunocompromised individuals. Medicinal chemist Derek Lowe commented that the presence of replicating adenoviruses is unlikely to cause any major problems, but it is a "completely unnecessary risk", that it certainly will harm some people, and that providing a product different from the one described in studies undermines the credibility of all manufacturing and quality control processes, adding that some posts on the official Sputnik V Twitter account constitute "aggressive political marketing" and some make invalid claims regarding the performance of competing vaccines, such as the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine. Anvisa said that the import ban can be reversed if Gamaleya clarifies the issues. Adenovirus infections cause only mild colds in healthy individuals, but they can cause life-threatening illnesses in immunodeficient individuals. The director of the Public Health Institute of Chile (ISP), Heriberto Garcia, said that the ISP would not necessarily reject the vaccine, even if it had replicating adenoviruses, because the risk of getting a common cold from the vaccine must be seen in light of the risk of contracting COVID-19 when not vaccinated. He also said that real-world data from Argentina and Mexico showed no adverse effects greater than those seen in people vaccinated with the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine or CoronaVac.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=64800626
| 293,104 |
896,010 |
A third way is to consider the cohomology of probabilistic space or statistical systems directly, called information structures and basically consisting in the triple (formula_165), sample space, random variables and probability laws. Random variables are considered as partitions of the n atomic probabilities (seen as a probability (n-1)-simplex, formula_166) on the lattice of partitions (formula_167). The random variables or modules of measurable functions provide the cochain complexes while the coboundary is considered as the general homological algebra first discovered by Hochschild with a left action implementing the action of conditioning. The first cocycle condition corresponds to the chain rule of entropy, allowing to derive uniquely up to the multiplicative constant, Shannon entropy as the first cohomology class. The consideration of a deformed left-action generalises the framework to Tsallis entropies. The information cohomology is an example of ringed topos. Multivariate k-Mutual information appear in coboundaries expressions, and their vanishing, related to cocycle condition, gives equivalent conditions for statistical independence. Minima of mutual-informations, also called synergy, give rise to interesting independence configurations analog to homotopical links. Because of its combinatorial complexity, only the simplicial subcase of the cohomology and of information structure has been investigated on data. Applied to data, those cohomological tools quantifies statistical dependences and independences, including Markov chains and conditional independence, in the multivariate case. Notably, mutual-informations generalize correlation coefficient and covariance to non-linear statistical dependences. These approaches were developed independently and only indirectly related to persistence methods, but may be roughly understood in the simplicial case using Hu Kuo Tin Theorem that establishes one-to-one correspondence between mutual-informations functions and finite measurable function of a set with intersection operator, to construct the Čech complex skeleton. Information cohomology offers some direct interpretation and application in terms of neuroscience (neural assembly theory and qualitative cognition ), statistical physic, and deep neural network for which the structure and learning algorithm are imposed by the complex of random variables and the information chain rule.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17740009
| 895,539 |
192,388 |
The Australian-led INTERFET intervention into East Timor in September 1999 marked the closest Australia's F-111s ever came to combat. F-111s from both No. 1 and No. 6 Squadrons were deployed to RAAF Base Tindal, Northern Territory, on 28 August to support the international forces, and remained there until 17 December 1999. This was a maximum effort for No. 82 Wing, and up to 10 F-111Cs were available at Tindal; No. 1 Squadron's commitment peaked at six aircraft and about 100 personnel. No. 75 Squadron also maintained 12 F/A-18s at its home base of Tindal to support INTERFET if needed. From 20 September, when INTERFET began to arrive in East Timor, the F-111s were maintained at a high level of readiness to conduct reconnaissance flights or air strikes if the situation deteriorated. For the latter role two F-111s armed with concrete-filled bombs fitted with precision guidance kits were kept available at all times. INTERFET did not encounter significant resistance, however, and F-111 operations were limited to reconnaissance missions conducted by RF-111Cs from 5 November. Each of these sorties were made after gaining approval from the Indonesian government and normally focused on bridges and communications installations. The last RF-111C flight over East Timor took place on 9 December. War games had the F-111s achieving complete success if a strike was necessary against Indonesian military headquarters near the capital.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25595226
| 192,289 |
1,330,707 |
The use of evidence-based practice depends a great deal on the nursing student's proficiency at understanding and critiquing the research articles and the associated literature that will be presented to them in the clinical setting. According to, Blythe Royal, author of "Promoting Research Utilization in nursing: The Role of the Individual, Organization, and Environment", a large amount of the preparation requirements of nursing students consists of creating care plans for patients, covering in depth processes of pathophysiology, and retaining the complex information of pharmacology. These are indeed very important for the future of patient care, but their knowledge must consist of more when they begin to practice. Evidence-based nursing in an attempt to facilitate the management of the growing literature and technology accessible to healthcare providers that can potentially improve patient care and their outcomes. Nancy Dickenson-Hazard states, "Nurses have the capacity to serve as caregivers and change agents in creating and implementing community and population-focused health systems." There is also a need to overcome the barriers to encourage the use of research by new graduates in an attempt to ensure familiarity with the process. This will help nurses to feel more confident and be more willing to engage in evidence-based nursing. A survey that was established by the Honor Society of Nursing and completed by registered nurses proved that 69% have only a low to moderate knowledge of EBP and half of those that responded did not feel sure of the steps in the process. Many responded, "lack of time during their shift is the primary challenge to researching and applying EBP." There is always and will always be a desire to improve the care of our patients. The ever-increasing cost of healthcare and the need for more accuracy in the field proves a cycle in need of evidence-based healthcare. The necessity to overcome the current issues is to gain knowledge from a variety of literature not just the basics. There is a definite need for nurses, and all practitioners, to have an open mind when dealing with the modern inventions of the future because these could potentially improve the health of patients.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=16818407
| 1,329,978 |
1,606,634 |
In the absence of hypoxic conditions (i.e. physiological levels of oxygen), cancer cells preferentially convert glucose to lactate, according to Otto H. Warburg, who believed that aerobic glycolysis was the key metabolic change in cancer cell malignancy. The "Warburg effect" was later coined to describe this metabolic shift. Warburg thought this change in metabolism was due to mitochondrial "respiration injury", but this interpretation was questioned by other researchers in 1956 showing that intact and functional cytochromes detected in most tumor cells clearly speak against a general mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, Potter et al. and several other authors provided significant evidence that oxidative phosphorylation and a normal Krebs cycle persist in the vast majority malignant tumors, adding to the growing body of evidence that most cancers exhibit the Warburg effect while maintaining a proper mitochondrial respiration. Dang et al. in 2008 provided evidence that the tumor tissue sections used in Warburg's experiments should have been thinner for the oxygen diffusion constants employed, implying that the tissue slices studied were partially hypoxic and the calculated critical diffusion distance was of 470 micrometers. As a result, endless debates and discussions about Warburg's discovery took place and have piqued the interest of scientists all over the world, which has helped bring attention to cell metabolism in cancer and immune cells and the use of modern technology to discover what these pathways are and how they are modified as well as potential therapeutic targets.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68831440
| 1,605,730 |
581,403 |
In 1969 scientists D. Wilshaw, O. P. Buneman and H. Longuet-Higgins proposed an alternative, non-holographic model that fulfilled many of the same requirements as Gabor's original holographic model. The Gabor model did not explain how the brain could use Fourier analysis on incoming signals or how it would deal with the low signal-noise ratio in reconstructed memories. Longuet-Higgin's correlograph model built on the idea that any system could perform the same functions as a Fourier holograph if it could correlate pairs of patterns. It uses minute pinholes that do not produce diffraction patterns to create a similar reconstruction as that in Fourier holography. Like a hologram, a discrete correlograph can recognize displaced patterns and store information in a parallel and non-local way so it usually will not be destroyed by localized damage. They then expanded the model beyond the correlograph to an associative net where the points become parallel lines arranged in a grid. Horizontal lines represent axons of input neurons while vertical lines represent output neurons. Each intersection represents a modifiable synapse. Though this cannot recognize displaced patterns, it has a greater potential storage capacity. This was not necessarily meant to show how the brain is organized, but instead to show the possibility of improving on Gabor's original model. One property of the associative net that makes it attractive as a neural model is that good retrieval can be obtained even when some of the storage elements are damaged or when some of the components of the address are incorrect. P. Van Heerden countered this model by demonstrating mathematically that the signal-noise ratio of a hologram could reach 50% of ideal. He also used a model with a 2D neural hologram network for fast searching imposed upon a 3D network for large storage capacity. A key quality of this model was its flexibility to change the orientation and fix distortions of stored information, which is important for our ability to recognize an object as the same entity from different angles and positions, something the correlograph and association network models lack.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1896271
| 581,105 |
2,137,758 |
Basic science leads to a better understanding of natural phenomena. It looks for "knowledge and discovery of facts" to enable one to understand an already existing phenomenon. Basic science is the foundation of all scientific research. If you want the greatest long-term yield for human health, there’s no better investment. It may not be as glamorous as other types of research, but basic science discoveries can be applied across all medical disciplines to provide solutions to all diseases. The Department of Basic Sciences offers course modules to all first-year undergraduate students entering the Faculty of Allied Health Sciences. The Department aims to provide superior understanding of concepts in the fields of Human Physiology, Human Anatomy, Basic Biochemistry, General Pathology, Basic Statistics and Analytical Chemistry. These course modules are designed to deliver extensive foundational theoretical and practical knowledge to support all six specific Degree programmes offered by the faculty. Practical implementation of theoretical knowledge is achieved through well-designed laboratories, where students learn the practical aspects of Biochemistry, Human Physiology and Analytical Chemistry. The Department provides solid foundational knowledge in all six Degree programmes. The Basic Sciences Department was inaugurated under the headship of Prof H.M.T.U. Herath in 2017 and is currently led by Dr T.P. Gamagedara. The Department has a strong teaching and research focus. The Department has highly qualified and experienced staff, including four permanent academic, six temporary academic and six non-academic staff members. In addition, eminent visiting academics conduct lectures on special selected topics. The Department is involved in research catering to both undergraduate and postgraduate levels. The Department has far reaching goals and will continue to develop infrastructure with state-of-the-art facilities to support student learning and develop new courses that cater to the dynamic academic and research needs of our country and the world more broadly.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30371013
| 2,136,528 |
990,091 |
McDonnell engineers evaluated a number of engine combinations, varying from eight 9.5 in (24 cm) diameter engines down to two engines of 19 inch (48 cm) diameter. The final design used the two 19 in (48 cm) engines after it was found to be the lightest and simplest configuration. The engines were buried in the wing root to keep intake and exhaust ducts short, offering greater aerodynamic efficiency than underwing nacelles, and the engines were angled slightly outwards to protect the fuselage from the hot exhaust blast. Placement of the engines in the middle of the airframe allowed the cockpit with its bubble-style canopy to be placed ahead of the wing, granting the pilot excellent visibility in all directions. This engine location also freed up space under the nose, allowing designers to use tricycle gear, thereby elevating the engine exhaust path and reducing the risk that the hot blast would damage the aircraft carrier deck. The construction methods and aerodynamic design of the Phantom were fairly conventional for the time; the aircraft had unswept wings, a conventional empennage, and an aluminum monocoque structure with flush riveted aluminum skin. Folding wings were used to reduce the width of the aircraft in storage configuration. Provisions for four .50-caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns were made in the nose, while racks for eight 5 in (127 mm) High Velocity Aircraft Rockets could be fitted under the wings, although these were seldom used in service. Adapting a jet to carrier use was a much greater challenge than producing a land-based fighter because of slower landing and takeoff speeds required on a small carrier deck. The Phantom used split flaps on both the folding and fixed wing sections to enhance low-speed landing performance, but no other high-lift devices were used. Provisions were also made for Rocket Assisted Take Off (RATO) bottles to improve takeoff performance.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11761
| 989,574 |
833,952 |
After this formal education, Garrett spent the next nine years tending to domestic duties, but she continued to study Latin and arithmetic in the mornings and also read widely. Her sister Millicent recalled Garrett's weekly lectures, "Talks on Things in General", when her younger siblings would gather while she discussed politics and current affairs from Garibaldi to Macaulay's "History of England". In 1854, when she was eighteen, Garrett and her sister went on a long visit to their school friends, Jane and Anne Crow, in Gateshead where she met Emily Davies, the early feminist and future co-founder of Girton College, Cambridge. Davies was to be a lifelong friend and confidante, always ready to give sound advice during the important decisions of Garrett's career. It may have been in the "English Woman's Journal", first issued in 1858, that Garrett first read of Elizabeth Blackwell, who had become the first female doctor in the United States in 1849. When Blackwell visited London in 1859, Garrett travelled to the capital. By then, her sister Louie was married and living in London. Garrett joined the Society for Promoting the Employment of Women, which organised Blackwell's lectures on "Medicine as a Profession for Ladies" and set up a private meeting between Garrett and the doctor. It is said that during a visit to Alde House around 1860, one evening while sitting by the fireside, Garrett and Davies selected careers for advancing the frontiers of women's rights; Garrett was to open the medical profession to women, Davies the doors to a university education for women, while 13-year-old Millicent was allocated politics and votes for women. At first Newson was opposed to the radical idea of his daughter becoming a physician but came round and agreed to do all in his power, both financially and otherwise, to support Garrett.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9695
| 833,503 |
1,588,966 |
●OpRegen®, a single-injection retinal pigment epithelium cell replacement therapy currently in a Phase 1/2a multicenter clinical trial for the treatment of advanced dry age-related macular degeneration (“AMD”) with geographic atrophy (GA). There currently are no therapies approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (“FDA”) for dry AMD, which accounts for approximately 85-90% of all AMD cases and is the leading cause of blindness in people over the age of 60. Interim data from 9 months of follow-up post-injection for Cohort 4 was reported in September 2021, highlights improved baseline visions and smaller areas of GA compared to prior cohorts. Overall, OpRegen has proven to be well tolerated to date with no serious adverse events not previously reported. Overall, 8/12 of Cohort 4 patients' treated eyes showed above baseline visual acuity at the last assessment, while 9/12 of the patients' untreated eyes were below baseline visual acuity at the same assessment interval. In May 2022, data was presented at the 2022 Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology Annual Meeting: OpRegen Phase 1/2a clinical results support the potential for OpRegen to slow, stop or reverse disease progression in geographic atrophy secondary to age-related macular degeneration. 12-month primary endpoint data suggested OpRegen was well tolerated with an acceptable safety profile. Preliminary evidence of visual function and outer retinal structure improvements observed in five Cohort 4 patients with GA and impaired vision. In December 2021, Lineage announced that the company entered a $670 million exclusive worldwide collaboration Genentech, a member of the Roche Group, for the development and commercialization of OpRegen.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40941727
| 1,588,072 |
1,184,729 |
Chemical sensors are useful for analyzing odors from food samples and detecting atmospheric gases. The "electronic nose" was developed in 1988 to determine the quality and freshness of food samples using traditional sensors, but more recently the sensing film has been improved with nanomaterials. A sample is placed in a chamber where volatile compounds become concentrated in the gas phase, whereby the gas is then pumped through the chamber to carry the aroma to the sensor that measures its unique fingerprint. The high surface area to volume ratio of the nanomaterials allows for greater interaction with analytes and the nanosensor's fast response time enables the separation of interfering responses. Chemical sensors, too, have been built using nanotubes to detect various properties of gaseous molecules. Many carbon nanotube based sensors are designed as field effect transistors, taking advantage of their sensitivity. The electrical conductivity of these nanotubes will change due to charge transfer and chemical doping by other molecules, enabling their detection. To enhance their selectivity, many of these involve a system by which nanosensors are built to have a specific pocket for another molecule. Carbon nanotubes have been used to sense ionization of gaseous molecules while nanotubes made out of titanium have been employed to detect atmospheric concentrations of hydrogen at the molecular level. Some of these have been designed as field effect transistors, while others take advantage of optical sensing capabilities. Selective analyte binding is detected through spectral shift or fluorescence modulation. In a similar fashion, Flood et al. have shown that supramolecular host–guest chemistry offers quantitative sensing using Raman scattered light as well as SERS.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=603278
| 1,184,101 |
691,263 |
The use of computer hardware and software in education and training dates to the early 1940s, when American researchers developed flight simulators which used analog computers to generate simulated onboard instrument data. One such system was the type19 synthetic radar trainer, built in 1943. From these early attempts in the WWII era through the mid-1970s, educational software was directly tied to the hardware, on which it ran. Pioneering educational computer systems in this era included the PLATO system (1960), developed at the University of Illinois, and TICCIT (1969). In 1963, IBM had established a partnership with Stanford University's Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS), directed by Patrick Suppes, to develop the first comprehensive CAI elementary school curriculum which was implemented on a large scale in schools in both California and Mississippi. In 1967 Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC, now Pearson Education Technologies) was formed to market to schools the materials developed through the IBM partnership. Early terminals that ran educational systems cost over $10,000, putting them out of reach of most institutions. Some programming languages from this period, p3), and LOGO (1967) can also be considered educational, as they were specifically targeted to students and novice computer users. The PLATO IV system, released in 1972, supported many features which later became standard in educational software running on home computers. Its features included bitmap graphics, primitive sound generation, and support for non-keyboard input devices, including the touchscreen.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=290786
| 690,900 |
54,415 |
The P-38 was used most extensively and successfully in the Pacific Theater, where it proved more suited, combining exceptional range with the reliability of two engines for long missions over water. The P-38 was used in a variety of roles, especially escorting bombers at altitudes of . The P-38 was credited with destroying more Japanese aircraft than any other USAAF fighter. Freezing cockpit temperatures were not a problem at low altitude in the tropics. In fact, the cockpit was often too hot since opening a window while in flight caused buffeting by setting up turbulence through the tailplane. Pilots taking low-altitude assignments often flew stripped down to shorts, tennis shoes, and parachute. While the P-38 could not out-turn the A6M Zero and most other Japanese fighters when flying below , its superior speed coupled with a good rate of climb meant that it could use energy tactics, making multiple high-speed passes at its target. In addition, its tightly grouped guns were even more deadly to lightly armored Japanese warplanes than to German aircraft. The concentrated, parallel stream of bullets allowed aerial victory at much longer distances than fighters carrying wing guns. Dick Bong, the United States' highest-scoring World War II air ace (40 victories in P-38s), flew directly at his targets to ensure he hit them, in some cases flying through the debris of his target (and on one occasion colliding with an enemy aircraft, which was claimed as a "probable" victory). The twin Allison engines performed admirably in the Pacific.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25041
| 54,392 |
351,189 |
The study of human physiology as a medical field originates in classical Greece, at the time of Hippocrates (late 5th century BC). Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in China, India and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of humorism, which consisted of four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which Galen would later expand. The critical thinking of Aristotle and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in Ancient Greece. Like Hippocrates, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry. Galen (–200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were also tied to the humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology. And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in medicine.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=23597
| 351,006 |
789,266 |
We must single out the children who are endowed with high potentialities, and develop them as completely as possible. And in this manner give to the nation a non-hereditary aristocracy. Such children may be found in all classes of society, although distinguished men appear more frequently in distinguished families than in others. The descendants of the founders of American civilization may still possess the ancestral qualities. These qualities are generally hidden under the cloak of degeneration. But this degeneration is often superficial. It comes chiefly from education, idleness, lack of responsibility and moral discipline. The sons of very rich men, like those of criminals, should be removed while still infants from their natural surroundings. Thus separated from their family, they could manifest their hereditary strength. In the aristocratic families of Europe there are also individuals of great vitality. The issue of the Crusaders is by no means extinct. The laws of genetics indicate the probability that the legendary audacity and love of adventure can appear again in the lineage of the feudal lords. It is possible also that the offspring of the great criminals who had imagination, courage, and judgment, of the heroes of the French or Russian Revolutions, of the high-handed business men who live among us, might be excellent building stones for an enterprising minority. As we know, criminality is not hereditary if not united with feeble-mindedness or other mental or cerebral defects. High potentialities are rarely encountered in the sons of honest, intelligent, hard-working men who have had ill luck in their careers, who have failed in business or have muddled along all their lives in inferior positions. Or among peasants living on the same spot for centuries. However, from such people sometimes spring artists, poets, adventurers, saints. A brilliantly gifted and well-known New York family came from peasants who cultivated their farm in the south of France from the time of Charlemagne to that of Napoleon.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1051
| 788,842 |
702,174 |
In 1989, "Phantasy Star II" for the Genesis established many conventions of the genre, including an epic, dramatic, character-driven storyline dealing with serious themes and subject matter, and a strategy-based battle system. Its purely science fiction setting was also a major departure for RPGs, which had previously been largely restricted to fantasy or science fantasy settings. The game's science fiction story was also unique, reversing the common alien invasion scenario by instead presenting Earthlings as the invading antagonists rather than the defending protagonists. The game's strong characterization, and use of self-discovery as a motivating factor for the characters and the player, was a major departure from previous RPGs and had a major influence on subsequent RPGs such as the "Final Fantasy" series. It also made a bold attempt at social commentary years before the "Final Fantasy" series started doing the same. Capcom's "Sweet Home" for the NES introduced a modern Japanese horror theme and laid the foundations for the survival horror genre, later serving as the main inspiration for "Resident Evil" (1996). Like "Resident Evil", "Sweet Home" featured the use of scattered notes as a storytelling mechanic and a number of multiple endings depending on which characters survived to the end. "Tengai Makyo: Ziria" released for the PC Engine CD that same year was the first RPG released on CD-ROM and the first in the genre to feature animated cut scenes and voice acting. The game's plot was also unusual for its feudal Japan setting and its emphasis on humour; the plot and characters were inspired by the Japanese folk tale "Jiraiya Goketsu Monogatari". The music for the game was also composed by noted musician Ryuichi Sakamoto. Also in 1989, the early enhanced remake "Ys I & II" was one of the first games to use CD-ROM, utilized to provide enhanced graphics, animated cut scenes, a Red Book CD soundtrack, and voice acting. The game offered a "much larger, more colorful world, populated with lifelike characters who communicated with voice instead of text," heralding "the evolution of the standard role-playing game" according to RPGFan. Its English localization was also one of the first to use voice dubbing. "Ys I & II" went on to receive the Game of the Year award from "OMNI Magazine" in 1990, as well as many other prizes.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32408675
| 701,809 |
2,134,038 |
During the past, many microorganisms such as anammox bacteria may have escaped discovery due to their relatively low growth rates requiring very efficient biomass retention absent from classical methods of cultivation. With the use of biofilms to improve the culturability of organisms that naturally occur in biofilms, combined with the use of biomass retention to study slowly growing microorganisms under substrate limitation, a technique using sequencing batch reactors (SBR) was developed for the long-term enrichment, cultivation, and quantitative analysis of a very slowly growing microbial community. Phylogenetic analysis of the first anamox bacteria discovered concluded that the organisms branched deeply in the phylum, Planctomycetota, which was previously considered to be of limited environmental importance. Nitrogen loses that could only be explained by the process of anammox continued to be discovered in freshwater waste-treatment facilities around the world including North America, Asia, and multiple regions throughout Europe. The role of bacteria belonging to "Ca." Scalindua in the marine nitrogen cycle has been found to be of important in the reduction of nitrate to atmospheric nitrogen in anoxic regions of the ocean. Since primary productivity in the ocean is often limited by nitrogen availability, the removal of usable nitrogen in sediments through anammox by "Ca." Scalindua may significantly affect biogeochemical cycles in anoxic waters. In certain regions, such as the Golfo Dulce in Costa Rica, up to %35 of atmospheric nitrogen production in the water column can be attributed to "Ca." Scalindua spp. In other regions such as the Black Sea, the world's largest anoxic basin, characterized by a large gradient in ammonium concentrations (high levels in deep water tapering off to only trace amounts in the suboxic zone), the apparent ammonium sink in the suboxic zone was identified to be the result of anaerobic oxidation by bacteria belonging to "Ca." Scalindua spp.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37522056
| 2,132,813 |
931,689 |
The countdown began at 8:30 p.m. the previous night, with Shepard waking up and eating a breakfast of steak and eggs with toast, coffee, and orange juice (the steak and eggs breakfast would soon become a tradition for astronauts the morning of a launch). He entered the spacecraft at 5:15 am. ET, just over two hours before the planned 7:20 launch time. At 7:05 am, the launch was held for an hour to let cloud cover clear – good visibility would be essential for photographs of the Earth – and fix a power supply unit; shortly after the count restarted, another hold was called in order to reboot a computer at Goddard Space Flight Center. The count was eventually resumed, after slightly over two and a half hours of unplanned holds, and continued with no further faults. All of the delays resulted in Shepard lying on his back in the capsule for almost three hours, by which point he complained to the blockhouse crew that he had a severe need to urinate (because the mission would last under 20 minutes, nobody had thought to equip the Mercury with a urine collection device). The crew told him that this was impossible as they would have to set the White Room back up and waste considerable amounts of time removing the Mercury's heavily bolted hatch. An irate Shepard then announced that if he could not get out for a bathroom trip, he would simply urinate in his suit. When the blockhouse protested that that would short out the medical electrodes on his body, he told them to simply turn the power off. They complied, and Shepard emptied his bladder. Because of the position he was sitting in, the urine pooled somewhat underneath his back and with oxygen flowing through the spacesuit, he was soon dried out, and the countdown resumed.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=213233
| 931,197 |
1,908,562 |
The first international sculpture symposia in the United States (and the first on a college campus) was in the summer of 1965 on the California State University, Long Beach campus in Long Beach, California. The symposium was under the direction of Sculpture Professor Kenneth Glenn, University President Carl W. McIntosh, and architect Edward Killingsworth. Several sculptures were created by world-renowned artists. Glenn actively sought “sculptors with international reputations from a large number of countries”. The list of artists included Andre Bloc (France), Kosso Eloul (Israel), J.J. Beljon (Netherlands), Gabriel Kohn (United States), Robert Murray (Canada), Piotr Kowalski (France and Poland), Kengiro Azuma (Japan), Claire Falkenstein (United States). In addition to the artists, “thirty-two upcoming young sculptors and graduate students were selected from all over the country to participate in the symposium as apprentices while earning college credits”. The symposium was the first to partner with industrial companies to explore recent technology and new materials. The collection incorporates a global theme and artists from all over the world who came to work together. After the symposium, the artworks became a "Museum Without Walls," a permanent exhibit on campus. .” (Far-Sited 2018, ix) Its goal was to combine technology and new materials and artists with local industrial sponsors. In an effort to offset the cost of materials, Glenn sought the contribution of resources from local shipping, manufacturing, and aerospace industries. Partnerships with the Ports of Long Beach and Los Angeles, Paramount Steel, North American Aviation (Boeing), and NASA, marked the first coordinated collaboration between artists, industry, and technology on such a large scale. Materials used were paints, glass, plastics, lights, metals, and bonding agents used during WWII. Participants also included students and volunteers. The symposium took place during a historical time with social movements that included the grape boycott with labor activist Cesar Chavez, the Watt Riots in Los Angeles which to date is the largest and most damaging race riot in the nation, and the Vietnam War.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=439256
| 1,907,465 |
1,519,496 |
In 1993, Antonio Giordano identified and cloned a new tumor suppressor gene, RB2 / p130, which has a primary function in the cell cycle by controlling correct DNA replication and essentially preventing the onset of cancer. The alterations, at the level of these tumor suppressor genes, that is their non-expression or a malfunction, allow the neoplastic cells to multiply in an uncontrolled way. In the year 2000, a study of great international scientific impact on lung cancer was completed. The absolute novelty consists in the first example of setting up a gene therapy model that is tested in vivo on the guinea pig animal (mouse) in which a lung tumor was induced. Using the functionally active RB2 / p130 gene, as a vector, a retrovirus, and tumor growth has been shown to be drastically reduced after a single injection of RB2 / p130. In 2001, another study examined a topic of great relevance and scientific relevance. The results of this study have opened the doors to a very suggestive key to interpreting tumor pathogenesis. The experiments are always carried out on the animal (mouse) show, in fact, how RB2 / p130 can also work as an inhibitor of angiogenesis (the neoformation of vessels which, feeding the tumor, is the basis of neoplastic growth). In addition to RB2 / p130, Prof. Giordano has discovered two important "guardians" of the human genome CDK9 and CDK10 The results obtained by prof. Giordano with these studies have had a wide echo in the international press, as they open up important perspectives in the field of cancer treatment, allow us to glimpse completely new application possibilities compared to traditional surgical and chemotherapeutic treatments. In 2004 Giordano discovered NSPs (Novel Structure Proteins), a new protein structure with a potential role in the dynamics of the nucleus during cell division. One protein in particular (Isoform NSP5a3a) is highly expressed in the cell lines of some tumors and could be a very useful tumor marker.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=44199904
| 1,518,638 |
1,495,922 |
The history of New York University begins in the early 19th century. A group of prominent New York City residents from the city's landed class of merchants, bankers, and traders established NYU on April 18, 1831. These New Yorkers believed the city needed a university designed for young men who would be admitted based on merit, not birthright or social class. Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury under Thomas Jefferson, described his motivation in a letter to a friend: "It appeared to me impossible to preserve our democratic institutions and the right of universal suffrage unless we could raise the standard of general education and the mind of the laboring classes nearer to a level with those born under more favorable circumstances." To the school's founders, the classical curriculum offered at American colonial colleges needed to be combined with a more modern and practical education. Educators in Paris, Vienna, and London were beginning to consider a new form of higher learning, where students began to focus not only on the classics and religion, but also modern languages, philosophy, history, political economy, mathematics, and physical science; so students might become merchants, bankers, lawyers, physicians, architects, and engineers. Although the new school would be non-denominational – unlike many American colonial colleges, which at the time offered classical educations centered on theology – the founding of NYU was also a reaction by evangelical Presbyterians to what they perceived as the Episcopalianism of Columbia College.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=11141122
| 1,495,080 |
1,096,441 |
Scrub typhus is historically endemic to the Asia-Pacific region, covering the Russian Far East and Korea in the north, to northern Australia in the south, and Afghanistan in the west, including islands of the western Pacific Oceans such as Japan, Taiwan, Philippines, Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Indian Subcontinent. This geographic region is popularly called the Tsutsugamushi Triangle as shown in Figure 6. However, it has spread to Africa, Europe and South America. One billion people are estimated to be at risk of infection at any moment and an average of one million cases occur every year in the Tsutsugamushi Triangle. The burden of scrub typhus in rural areas of Asia is huge, accounting for up to 20% of febrile sickness in hospital, and seroprevalence (positive infection on blood test) over 50% of the population. More than one-fifth of the population carry the bacterial antibodies, i.e. they had been infected, in endemic areas. South Korea has the highest level incidence (with its highest of 59.7 infections out of 100,000 people in 2013), followed by Japan, Thailand, and China at top of the list. The age group of 60–69 years is at highest risk of infection. Higher infection (57.3%) is seen in females compared to males (42.7%). Farmers are most vulnerable, accounting for 70% of the cases in China. The disease is more prevalent in rural areas, but there is a rapid increase in urban areas. For example, in Korea, the annual incidence increased 21-fold between 2003 and 2013 in metropolitan areas.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12300557
| 1,095,881 |
1,244,949 |
One dictionary definition of “convergence” provides a starting point for the analysis: “the act of converging and esp. moving toward union or uniformity.” The new regulatory framework that was shaped by the 1996 act eliminated the entry barrier for companies to expand their business into new markets. Local exchange carriers are allowed to start a business in the long-distance market and even video and broadband market. On the other hand, because cable TV and video services are regulated as “information services,” cable companies are allowed entering the telecommunication market without applying for a license and exempted from heavy regulation. Two-way communication has been limited to voice and text by the limited availability of bandwidth; broadcast media have been restricted by their one-way character and by the availability of spectrum. Nowadays technology development, fierce competition, and deregulation have transformed several distinct communications service markets into a converged market. In the telecommunications world, convergence has come to mean a moving towards the use of one medium as opposed to manipulation of all forms of information including voice, data, and video across all types of network instead of carrying information separately within distinct networks. In the convergent network, different forms of information can be re-engineered to provide better, more flexible service to the user. For example, telephone networks can transmit data and video and cable networks are able to provide voice services. The reason media convergence occurs is due to both corporation and consumer developments. AT&T and Verizon are among the many service providers that are required to separate their IP and Transport networks into two different ones. They are made up and managed by different parts of each company, which causes an increase in its overall management and overuse of resources.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=31591629
| 1,244,276 |
1,651,123 |
Far from being universally decried, the recent accelerated expansion of western capitalism, geographically, politically, and ideologically, has been lauded in many quarters. International and bilateral agencies such as the World Bank, IMF, and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) have utilized free market capitalist theories extensively in development programs in many corners of the globe whose state aims are to promote economic growth for communities and nation-states and to alleviate poverty. Likewise prominent individuals such as former U.S. Federal Reserve Board Chair Alan Greenspan and U.S. based journalist Thomas Friedman have held forth extensively about the possibilities of economic and social improvement in developed and developing nations alike, mainly through increased access to appropriate education, sophisticated communications and transportation technology, and a paradigm of social and economic “flexibility”, where individuals and communities who can best adapt to rapid changes in the role of governments and the particular economic base of a given location would be in the best position to take advantage of the opportunities offered by economic, political, and cultural globalization. This free market ideology is also predominant in the policies and procedures of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and many transnational corporations (TNC's), most of which are headquartered in developed nations. The rise of Capitalism and the free market society have indeed increased and exacerbated food insecurity in the world's poor due to the structure and function of a Capitalist society where only those who can afford to buy food to feed themselves are the only ones with access to a secure and adequate food supply. Food is no longer a human right to life and health due to the Capitalist approach to commodifying food in the free market society that as a result of globalization has spread all over the world. Transnational corporations and trade organizations such as NAFTA facilitate this approach of commodifying our world's food supply by enforcing laws and regulations which further deepen the inequality of wealth and unequal distribution of common goods such as food between the rich and the poor.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17200325
| 1,650,191 |
1,050,629 |
The DSF-GTP technique was developed by a team led by Patrick Schaeffer at James Cook University and published in Moreau et al. 2012. The development of differential scanning fluorimetry and the high-throughput capability of thermofluor have vastly facilitated the screening of crystallization conditions of proteins and large mutant libraries in structural genomics programs, as well as ligands in drug discovery and functional genomics programs. These techniques are limited by their requirement for both highly purified proteins and solvatochromic dyes, prompting the need for more robust high-throughput technologies that can be used with crude protein samples. This need was met with the development of a new high-throughput technology for the quantitative determination of protein stability and ligand binding by differential scanning fluorimetry of proteins tagged with green fluorescent protein (GFP). This technology is based on the principle that a change in the proximal environment of GFP, such as unfolding and aggregation of the protein of interest, is measurable through its effect on the fluorescence of the fluorophore. The technology is simple, fast and insensitive to variations in sample volumes, and the useful temperature and pH range is 30–80 °C and 5–11 respectively. The system does not require solvatochromic dyes, reducing the risk of interferences. The protein samples are simply mixed with the test conditions in a 96-well plate and subjected to a melt-curve protocol using a real-time thermal cycler. The data are obtained within 1–2 h and include unique quality control measures through the GFP signal. DSF-GTP has been applied for the characterization of proteins and the screening of small compounds.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=38876059
| 1,050,083 |
348,685 |
In East Germany in the 1960s, many people were arrested and interrogated for holding politically incorrect views or for performing actions deemed hostile by the ruling socialist state. Such arrests, which could also involve direct physical torture, were condemned internationally. In an effort to avoid such condemnation the state security service, the Stasi, attempted alternative methods of repression which could paralyze people without keeping them in a physical prison. They could therefore avoid there being any evidence of repression or at least limit it. One such alternative method was called decomposition (transl. Zersetzung). In the 1970s and '80s it became the primary method of repressing domestic 'hostile-negative' forces. It was a psychological warfare method which could involve the group based and systematic gaslighting of targets, among other things. Some of the victims of this method suffered from suspicious cases of cancer and have claimed that they had also been targeted with directed X-rays. In addition, when the East German state collapsed powerful X-ray equipment was found in prisons without there being any apparent reason to justify its presence. In 1999, the modern German state was investigating the possibility that this X-ray equipment was being used as weaponry and that it was a deliberate policy of the Stasi to attempt to give prisoners radiation poisoning, and thereby cancer, through the use of directed X-rays. The negative effects of the radiation poisoning and cancer would extend past the period of incarceration. In this manner someone could be debilitated even though they were no longer imprisoned. The historian Mary Fulbrook states, "The subsequent serious illnesses and premature deaths of dissidents such as the novelist Jürgen Fuchs, and the author of the critical analysis of 'The Alternative in Eastern Europe', Rudolf Bahro, have been linked by some to the suspicion of exposure to extraordinarily high and sustained levels of X-rays while waiting for interrogations, and being strapped to unpleasant chairs in small prison cells in front of mysterious closed boxes- boxes that, along with their mysterious apparatus, curiously disappeared after the collapse of the SED (Socialist Unity Party of Germany) system."
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=453420
| 348,503 |
6,808 |
Although Galileo seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, at his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a medical degree. He was influenced by the lectures of Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence. In 1581, when he was studying medicine, he noticed a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted about to swing in larger and smaller arcs. To him, it seemed, by comparison with his heartbeat, that the chandelier took the same amount of time to swing back and forth, no matter how far it was swinging. When he returned home, he set up two pendulums of equal length and swung one with a large sweep and the other with a small sweep and found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, almost one hundred years later, that the tautochrone nature of a swinging pendulum was used to create an accurate timepiece. Up to this point, Galileo had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, since a physician earned a higher income than a mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture on geometry, he talked his reluctant father into letting him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead of medicine. He created a thermoscope, a forerunner of the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a small book on the design of a hydrostatic balance he had invented (which first brought him to the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo also studied "disegno", a term encompassing fine art, and, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor in the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Florence, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same year, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he presented two lectures, "On the Shape, Location, and Size of Dante's Inferno", in an attempt to propose a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell. Being inspired by the artistic tradition of the city and the works of the Renaissance artists, Galileo acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young teacher at the Accademia, he began a lifelong friendship with the Florentine painter Cigoli.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29688374
| 6,805 |
693,140 |
Following the realisation that a new material was needed, Brain looked at a number of options; polyvinyl chloride was too rigid and synthetic foam did not lend itself to re-use. Silicone prototypes looked promising as what was produced was an ellipse with a flat central web which, if cut correctly, could be used to create an aperture bar to prevent the epiglottis falling into the distal aperture. The silicone prototype was also smooth and deflated into a wafer thin ellipse, however, the silicone mask was unable to retain the desired bowl shape and it was no longer possible to make rapid adjustments to the design. The silicone Dunlop prototype was superior to the Goldman prototype, one of Brain's first prototypes created from the cuff of a latex Goldman dental mask, however Brain needed a material that would give him design flexibility before the next set of silicone moulds were cast. In 1986, Brain continued to make prototypes from latex with a range of modifications; the inclusion of an inflation line, a thin-walled elliptical ring in the cuff which resulted in equal expansion of the cuff, the creation of a larger size to increase the reliability of cuff seal pressure and a moulded back plate for the cuff. By December 1986, Brain was ready to conduct the first wholly independent trial and chose John Nunn to be the recipient of the silicone prototypes to conduct the trial. "There were three outstanding advantages of the LMA in patients who breathed spontaneously. Firstly, excellent airway patency was obtained in 98% of patients and did not deteriorate during the course of the anaesthetic. Secondly, as no manual support of the jaw was necessary the hands of the anaesthetist were freed for monitoring, record keeping and other tasks. Thirdly, it was possible to maintain a clear airway throughout transfer of the patient to the recovery room." The publication of this trial in 1989 was critical in kickstarting the uptake of the laryngeal mask in the UK".
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=660192
| 692,777 |
1,610,810 |
Ting-Chao Chou (born 1938 in Taiwan, Chinese name: 周廷潮) is a Chinese American theoretical biologist, pharmacologist, cancer researcher and inventor. His 353 scientific papers have been cited in 40,108 times in over 1,469 biomedical journals as of October 15, 2022. He derived the median-effect equation (MEE) from the physico-chemical principle of the mass-action law, and introduced the median-effect plot in 1976. With Paul Talalay of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, he derived the combination index equation (CIE) for multiple drug effect interactions, and introduced the concept of combination index (CI) for quantitative definition of synergism (CI<1), additive effect (CI=1), and antagonism (CI>1) using computerized simulations. This article has received 7,731 citations internationally in a broad spectrum of journals. Since all terms of MEE and CIE are dimensionless relativity ratio thus generally applicable regardless in vitro, in animals and in clinical trials, or physical states, resulting in econo-green bioresearch and new drug evaluation and bio-development. This integrated theory and algorithms allow conducting small number of dose-data points, conservation of laboratory animals and reducing the number of patients in clinical trials. Consequently, this allows saving time and cost and resources as well as increasing efficiency and cost-effectiveness in medical, pharmaceutical research and new drug development with automated computer simulation. With colleagues, T.C. Chou is inventor/co-inventor of 40 U.S. Patents, mainly for anticancer agents. He was induced to Johns Hopkins Society of Scholars in 2019.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=40586690
| 1,609,905 |
1,059,005 |
Montana sapphires were heavily mined during for industrial abrasive and cutting purposes. As the Yogo mines were still owned by the English, the United States government could not control those operations, so the mines were little affected by the war, even though industrial sapphires were critical to the war effort. The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation of Billings, Montana, was the next company to try to run the English Mine. They made an initial offer in 1946, and reached a deal by 1949, but the purchase was not complete until 1956 because of legal issues. The sale was finally completed for $65,000 cash and some stock considerations because the company's capital was exhausted, similar to previous Yogo ventures. The Yogo Sapphire Mining Corporation then changed its name to be the same as the former English firm's name: New Mine Sapphire Syndicate. It became informally known as the "American Syndicate" to distinguish it from the previous "English Syndicate". Production was poor and mining ceased in September 1959. From 1959 to 1963, the mine itself was left unattended and unsecured, resulting in hobbyists, picnickers, and rockhounds' coming from all over the US and Canada to gather loose rough sapphires. The American Syndicate took action to stop this in 1963, with fences and threats of prosecution. The American Syndicate then tried leasing the mine to several operators. One of these was Siskon, Inc. of Nevada, which lost a significant amount of money. They sued, and in May 1965 the Montana Supreme Court ruled in Siskon's favor. Siskon bought the mine at a sheriff's sale and in turn leased it to a group headed by Arnold Baron, who had a background in gemcutting and jewelry. Baron organized German and Thai gemcutters and had success in marketing Yogo sapphires in America—the first such success in 50 years. However, owing to the difficulty in mining the hard rock site, he did not exercise his option to buy the mine, and Siskon sold it in August 1968 to Herman Yaras of Oxnard, California, for $585,000.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33521256
| 1,058,455 |
1,048,153 |
The "limes" consisted of fortresses for legions or vexillations (e.g. Segedunum) as well as a system of roads for the rapid transit of troops and, in some places, extensive walls. Perhaps the most famous example of these is Hadrian's Wall in Great Britain, which was built across the entire width of the island to protect from attack from tribes located in modern-day Scotland. The so-called "Limes Britannicus" is perhaps the best example of the ultimate "limes" - like the Great Wall of China, it was an attempt to construct a continuous man-made fortification along the length of an entire border, a massive undertaking. However, it is not correct to interpret other "limes" in the same way or to view the "limes" as an impenetrable barrier. Other limes would not have had a continuous man-made fortification for the entirety of their length. In places, a river, desert or natural outcropping of rock could provide the same effect for zero outlay. Also, fortifications as impressive as Hadrian's Wall were not unbreachable: with milecastles some distance apart and patrols infrequent, small enemy forces would have been able to penetrate the defenses easily for small-scale raiding. However, a raiding party would be forced to fight its way through one of the well-defended gates, abandon its loot, such as cattle, thus negating the whole purpose of the raid or be trapped against the wall by the responding legions. Additionally, a large army would have been able to force a crossing of the "limes" using siege equipment. The value of the limes lay not in its absolute impenetrability but, as S. Thomas Parker argues, in its hindrance to the enemy: granting a delay or warning that could be used to summon concentrated Roman forces to the site. The "limes" are therefore perhaps better seen as an instrument allowing a greater economy of force in defense of a border than otherwise would be necessary to provide the same level of defense.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8247092
| 1,047,608 |
1,767,897 |
The SGD provides Internet access to the complete "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" genomic DNA sequence, its genes and their products, the phenotypes of its mutants, and the literature supporting these data. In the peer-reviewed literature report, experiment result on function and interaction of yeast genes are extracted by high-quality manual curation and integrated within a well-developed database. The data are combined with quality high-throughput results and post on Locus Summary pages which is a powerful query engine and rich genome browser. Based on the complexity of information collection, multiple bioinformatic tools are used to integrate information and allow productive discovery of new biological details. The gold standard for functional description of budding yeast is provided by SGD resource. The SGD resource also provide a platform from which to investigate related genes and pathways in higher organisms. The amount of information and the number of features provided by SGD have increased greatly following the release of the "S. cerevisiae" genomic sequence. SGD aids researchers by providing not only basic information, but also tools such as sequence similarity searching that lead to detailed information about features of the genome and relationships between genes. SGD presents information using a variety of user-friendly, dynamically created graphical displays illustrating physical, genetic and sequence feature maps. All of the data in SGD are freely accessible to researchers and educators worldwide via web pages designed for optimal ease of use.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=7281961
| 1,766,903 |
1,344,067 |
The body's electrical capabilities were studied at least as early as 1830, when the Italian Carlo Matteucci is credited as being one of the first to measure the electrical current in injured tissue. Bioelectricity received less attention after the discovery of penicillin, when the focus of medical research and treatments turned toward the body's chemical processes. Attention began to return to these properties and the possibilities of using very low current for healing in the mid-1900s. In a study published in 1969, for example, a team of researchers led by L.E. Wolcott applied microcurrent to a wide variety of wounds, using negative polarity over the lesions in the initial phase, and then alternating positive and negative electrodes every three days. The stimulation ranged from 200-800uA and the treated group showed 200%-350% faster healing rates, with stronger tensile strength of scar tissue and antibacterial effects. In 1991, the German scientists Drs. Erwin Neher and Bert Sakmann shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their development of the patch-clamp technique that allows the detection of minute electrical currents in cell membranes. This method allowed the detection of 20 to 40 types of ion channels that allow positive or negatively charged ions into and out of the cells and confirmed that electrical activity is not limited to nerve and muscle tissue.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=683590
| 1,343,330 |
1,782,145 |
James H. Simons was the chair of the mathematics department at Stony Brook from 1968 to 1976. After deciding to leave academia, he then went on to make billions with his investment firm Renaissance Technologies. On February 27, 2008 he announced a donation totaling $60 million (including a $25 million gift two years prior) to the mathematics and physics departments. This was the largest single gift ever given to any of the SUNY schools. The gift came during Stony Brook's 50th anniversary and shortly after Gov. Spitzer announced his commitment to make Stony Brook a “flagship” of the SUNY system that would rival the nation’s most prestigious state research universities. During his announcement speech, Jim Simons said "From Archimedes to Newton to Einstein, much of the most profound work in physics has been deeply intertwined with the geometric side of mathematics. Since then, in particular with the advent of such areas as quantum field theory and string theory, developments in geometry and physics have become if anything more interrelated. The new Center will give many of the world's best mathematicians and physicists the opportunity to work and interact in an environment and an architecture carefully designed to enhance progress. We believe there is a chance that work accomplished at the Center will significantly change and deepen our understanding of the physical universe and of its basic mathematical structure." The Center results from extensive thought and planning between faculty, department chairs, and others, including Cumrun Vafa of Harvard, who directs the Simons Foundation-supported summer institutes on string theory at Stony Brook, and Isadore Singer of MIT.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=25568388
| 1,781,141 |
1,942,865 |
In the case of the scarlet tiger moth "Callimorpha" ("Panaxia") "dominula" (family Arctiidae), which is a diurnal moth that occurs in continental Europe, western Asia and southern England, three forms occur in England: the typical homozygote; the rare homozygote ("bimacula") and the heterozygote ("medionigra"). It was studied there by E. B. Ford, and later by P. M. Sheppard and their co-workers over many years. Data is available from 1939 to the present day, got by the usual field method of capture-mark-release-recapture and by genetic analysis from breeding in captivity. The records cover gene frequency and population size for much of the twentieth century. In this instance the genetics appears to be simple: two alleles at a single locus, producing the three phenotypes. Total captures over 26 years 1939–1964 came to 15,784 homozygous "dominula" (i.e. "typica"), 1,221 heterozygous "medionigra" and 28 homozygous "bimacula". Now, assuming equal viability of the genotypes 1,209 heterozygotes would be expected, so the field results do not suggest any heterozygous advantage. It was Sheppard who found that the polymorphism is maintained by selective mating: each genotype preferentially mates with other morphs. This is sufficient to maintain the system despite the fact that in this case the heterozygote has slightly lower viability. Another example is the genetic polyrmorphism of larval developmental rates seen in the "Phengaris rebeli", in which there exist slow-developing larvae (SDL) (75% of the total "P. rebeli" larval population) and fast-developing larvae (FDL) (25% of the total "P. rebeli" larvae population). The slow-developing larvae do not grow much during the first year, but grow rapidly during the early part of the second summer and remain a second winter within the ant colonies. On the other hand, the FDL complete their growth the following spring after they are taken into the ant nest.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=29671995
| 1,941,754 |
1,779,307 |
The physical aspect comprises the tropical littoral waters in the IOR that result in sub-optimal sonar performance to achieve any meaningful way ahead for effective UDA. The deep vs. shallow waters need to be defined acoustically before the physical challenges in the IOR can be properly appreciated. The hypsometric definition of deep waters is the edge of the continental shelf that marks the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), where the 200 nautical miles end with an approximate water depth of 200 meters. Thus, hypsometrically less than 200 meters is defined as shallow. However, acoustically, whenever there are more interactions with the surface and bottom boundaries that translate to higher distortions due to multi path fading, is defined as shallow waters. Multipath propagation is governed by the depth of the sound axis that provides the SOFAR channel to minimize the surface and bottom interaction due to refraction towards the sound axis. The depth of the sound axis varies from as shallow as 50 meters near the poles to as deep as 2000 meters near the equator, so in the IOR there is little acoustically deep water, resulting in poor sonar behavior. To compound matters, the tropical region further adds to the surface fluctuations and also variations in the site-specific bottom variations thereby increasing the multi path distortions. It is also known that the rich biodiversity in the tropical waters contributes to the volume distortions of the sonar signal propagation making it a cocktail of complex signal modifications due to the local medium conditions. The order of performance deterioration is 70% in the IOR compared to the GIUK of Cold War fame. The import of technology as demonstrated by multiple nations in the region has not given any dividends in the absence of local efforts to overcome the medium challenges. Field experimental efforts require massive resource deployment and efficient utilization of know-how and long term sustained initiatives. Political instability, economic limitations, and technological challenges are a major impediment for progress in the region.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=60878831
| 1,778,304 |
243,951 |
The value or utility a user derives from a good or service depends on the number of users of compatible products – the "network effect" in economics. Network effects are typically positive, resulting in a given user deriving more value from a product as other users join the same network. At national levels, the network effect has resulted in commerce extending beyond regional and national boundaries. Increasingly, many governments and companies have made their railways' engineering and operational standards compatible in order to achieve interchangeability – hence faster, longer-distance train operation. A major barrier to achieving interchangeability, however, is path dependence – in this context the persistence of an already adopted standard to which equipment, infrastructure and training has become aligned. Since adopting a new standard is difficult and expensive, continuing with an existing standard can remain attractive unless longer-term benefits are given appropriate weight. An example of the consequences of path dependence is the persistence in the United Kingdom – the earliest nation to develop and adopt railway technologies – of structure gauges that are too small to allow the larger rolling stock of continental Europe to operate in that country. The reduced cost, greater efficiency, and greater economic opportunity offered by the use of a common standard has resulted in the historical multitude of track gauges dwindling to a small number that predominate worldwide.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=267139
| 243,824 |
2,092,821 |
What most rivets attention on John Crawford is his remarkable research into the cause of disease. As early as 1790 he conceived—entirely independently—the idea of a living contagium—minute animalcula gaining access to the human body and there depositing germs to develop and produce disease. He ransacked the whole realm of nature and brought together a great mass of evidence to prove this theory which he maintained, notwithstanding its unpopularity and prejudice to his professional success, with all the ardor of absolute conviction. He pointed out that man, not withstanding his superior nature and possession of a soul, was subjected to the same laws as the lower animals. He enunciated the doctrine of universal parasitism. He argued convincingly from the known to the unknown, and declared prophetically that while the minute animalcula could not then be demonstrated (in fact, the necessary microscopes already existed, but were expensive, and systematic research was lacking), they are not beyond the reach of human ken and in due time would be recognized. He compares the action of the seeds of disease to the vegetable seeds—each of which gives rise to its respective plant, and to that only. He not only held these views, but displayed his consistency by carrying them out to their legitimate conclusion—he applied them to the prevention and treatment of disease. The bigotry and prejudices of his contemporaries compelled him to publish his opinion in a non medical periodical, "The Baltimore Observer", in which they appeared in 1806 and 1807 under the heading “Quarantine.” We may conclude that John Crawford made an independent discovery of this theory, and so far as was known to Eugene Cordell in 1920 he was named the first in all history who investigated it in a thorough and scientific manner.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58030865
| 2,091,616 |
577,019 |
In 1910 British physicist J. J. Thomson observed a release of positive ions and neutral atoms from a solid surface induced by ion bombardment. Improved vacuum pump technology in the 1940s enabled the first prototype experiments on SIMS by Herzog and Viehböck in 1949, at the University of Vienna, Austria. In the mid-1950s Honig constructed a SIMS instrument at RCA Laboratories in Princeton, New Jersey. Then in the early 1960s two SIMS instruments were developed independently. One was an American project, led by Liebel and Herzog, which was sponsored by NASA at GCA Corp, Massachusetts, for analyzing moon rocks, the other at the University of Paris-Sud in Orsay by R. Castaing for the PhD thesis of G. Slodzian. These first instruments were based on a magnetic double focusing sector field mass spectrometer and used argon for the primary beam ions. In the 1970s, K. Wittmaack and C. Magee developed SIMS instruments equipped with quadrupole mass analyzers. Around the same time, A. Benninghoven introduced the method of static SIMS, where the primary ion current density is so small that only a negligible fraction (typically 1%) of the first surface layer is necessary for surface analysis. Instruments of this type use pulsed primary ion sources and time-of-flight mass spectrometers and were developed by Benninghoven, Niehuis and Steffens at the University of Münster, Germany and also by Charles Evans & Associates. The Castaing and Slodzian design was developed in the 1960s by the French company CAMECA S.A.S. and used in materials science and surface science. Recent developments are focusing on novel primary ion species like C, ionized clusters of gold and bismuth, or large gas cluster ion beams (e.g., Ar). The sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) is a large-diameter, double-focusing SIMS sector instrument based on the Liebl and Herzog design, and produced by Australian Scientific Instruments in Canberra, Australia.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=651485
| 576,723 |
1,117,963 |
The atmosphere is a fluid. The idea of numerical weather prediction is to sample the state of the fluid at a given time and use the equations of fluid dynamics and thermodynamics to estimate the state of the fluid at some time in the future. The process of entering observation data into the model to generate initial conditions is called "initialization". On land, terrain maps available at resolutions down to globally are used to help model atmospheric circulations within regions of rugged topography, in order to better depict features such as downslope winds, mountain waves and related cloudiness that affects incoming solar radiation. The main inputs from country-based weather services are observations from devices (called radiosondes) in weather balloons that measure various atmospheric parameters and transmits them to a fixed receiver, as well as from weather satellites. The World Meteorological Organization acts to standardize the instrumentation, observing practices and timing of these observations worldwide. Stations either report hourly in METAR reports, or every six hours in SYNOP reports. These observations are irregularly spaced, so they are processed by data assimilation and objective analysis methods, which perform quality control and obtain values at locations usable by the model's mathematical algorithms. Some global models use finite differences, in which the world is represented as discrete points on a regularly spaced grid of latitude and longitude; other models use spectral methods that solve for a range of wavelengths. The data are then used in the model as the starting point for a forecast.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2458875
| 1,117,390 |
1,227,005 |
Expert on infectious diseases at the Johns Hopkins Center for Health Security, Amesh Adalja states that the most immediate way to predict a pandemic is with deeper surveillance of symptoms that fit the virus' profile. The scientific and technological ways of quickly detecting a spillover could be improved so that an outbreak can be isolated before it becomes an epidemic or pandemic. David Quammen states that he heard about the idea to develop technology to screen people at airport security points for whether or not they carry an infectious disease ten years ago and thought it was going to be done by now. Thermometers whose measurement data is directly shared via the Internet and medical guidance apps have been used to plot and map unusual fever levels to detect anomalous outbreaks. Various forms of data-sharing could be added to health care institutions such as hospitals so that e.g. anonymized data about symptoms and incidences found to be unusual or characteristic of a pandemic threat could enable high-resolution "syndromic surveillance" as an early warning system. In 1947, the World Health Organization established such a global network of some hospitals. Such sharing and off-site evaluation of symptoms and possibly related medical data may have complementary benefits such as improving livelihoods of workers who work with livestock and improving the accuracy, timeliness and costs of disease prognoses. The WHO Hub for Pandemic and Epidemic Intelligence is an early-warning center that attempts to aggreggate data and quickly analyze it to predict, prevent, detect, prepare for, and respond to outbreaks and was set up Berlin in September 2021. It uses machine learning and may analyze data about animal health, unusual symptoms in humans, migration and other related developments that may contain detectable patterns.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63478457
| 1,226,344 |
2,136,296 |
Born in Vienna in 1926, Ross left Austria with his parents only days before the outbreak of World War II. They settled in New York, where he studied chemistry at Queens College (B.S. 1948), with a two-year interruption to serve in the Army from 1944 to 1946. After completing his degree, he went on to perform doctoral research in physical chemistry, studying gas transport properties under the guidance of Isador Amdur at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Ph.D. 1951). This led to postdoctoral work in gas thermometry and the statistical mechanical theory of irreversible processes with physical chemist John Kirkwood at Yale. Ross began his faculty career as assistant professor in chemistry at Brown University in 1953. There, he launched a program to test the viscosity of liquids as a function of temperature and pressure with unprecedented precision. Two years later, he and physical chemist Edward Forbes Greene began nearly two decades of groundbreaking work developing the use of molecular beams to examine the molecular dynamics – revealing details of molecular collisions, dispersion, and more during chemical reactions. In 1966 Ross joined the Chemistry Department faculty at MIT, where he served as chair from 1966 to 1971. He came to Stanford in 1979 as professor of chemistry and was department chair from 1983 to 1989. Among many honors recognizing his broad contributions in physical chemistry, Professor Ross was named to the National Academy of Sciences and American Academy of Arts and Sciences and received the U.S. National Medal of Science in 2000 from President Clinton.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=4467960
| 2,135,068 |
1,701,571 |
Irving Ezra Segal was born in the Bronx on September 13, 1918, to Jewish parents. He attended school in Trenton. In 1934 he was admitted to Princeton University, at the age of 16. He was elected to Phi Beta Kappa, completed his undergraduate studies in just three years time, graduated with highest honors with a bachelor's degree in 1937, and was awarded the George B. Covington Prize in Mathematics. He was then admitted to Yale, and in another three years time had completed his doctorate, receiving his Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1940. Segal taught at Harvard University, then he joined the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton on a Guggenheim Memorial Fellowship, working from 1941 to 1943 with Albert Einstein and John von Neumann. During World War II Segal served in the US Army conducting research in ballistics at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland. He joined the mathematics department at the University of Chicago in 1948 where he served until 1960. In 1960 he joined the mathematics department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he remained as a professor until his death in 1998. He won three Guggenheim Fellowships, in 1947, 1951 and 1967, and received the Humboldt Award in 1981. He was an Invited Speaker of the International Congress of Mathematicians in 1966 in Moscow and in 1970 in Nice. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1973.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2255484
| 1,700,616 |
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