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MAY 131607: Jamestown, Virginia, is settled as a colony of England.
1648: Margaret Jones of Plymouth was found guilty of witchcraft and is sentenced to be hanged by the neck.
1821: The first practical printing press is patented in the U.S. by Samuel Rust.
1846: The U.S. declares that war already existed with Mexico.
1848: Louis C. Blonger, Soapy’s successor in Denver, is born.
1885: First mention of the alias “Soapy” Smith in a newspaper.
1854: The first big American billiards match is held at Malcolm Hall in Syracuse, NY.
1864: The Battle of Resaca commences as Union General Sherman fights towards Atlanta during the American Civil War.
1865: Sergeant Crocker of an all-black Union unit dies at White's Ranch, Texas and is the last recorded death of the Civil War.
1867: Confederate President Jefferson Davis becomes a free man after spending two years in prison for his role in the American Civil War.
1870: An Indian attack on a Kansas Pacific Railroad crew near the town of Kit Carson, Colorado Territory kills eleven and wounds nineteen. 500 head of livestock are driven away.
1873: Ludwig M. Wolf patented the sewing machine lamp holder.
1877: Gunman Wild Bill Longley is arrested in Louisiana and taken to Giddings, Texas where he is tried and sentenced to hang for the murder of Roland Lay.
1880: Thomas Edison tests his experimental electric railway in Menlo Park.
1898: Wild Bunch member, Joe Walker, is killed with another man by a posse seeking cattle rustlers near Thompson, Utah. When the two bodies are brought in, the town of Thompson turns out to cheer, thinking that the other man was Butch Cassidy, but the corpse was that of Johnny Herring, an outlaw who bore resemblance to Butch.
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| 0.950967 | 409 | 2.78125 | 3 |
David Bourget (Western Ontario)
David Chalmers (ANU, NYU)
Rafael De Clercq
Ezio Di Nucci
Jack Alan Reynolds
Learn more about PhilPapers
Journal of the History of Philosophy 35 (4):495-507 (1997)
Aristotle's Conception of Freedom MOIRA M. WALSH That human being is free, we say, who exists for his own sake and not for another's. ' 1. INTRODUCTION THERE IS NO PLACE in the Nicomachean Ethics, or the Politics, where Aristotle provides us with an explicit definition of freedom. Nevertheless, it is possible to glean Aristotle's notion of freedom from a series of passages in the Politics, in which Aristotle discusses such matters as the existence of the natural slave, and the understanding of freedom underlying certain forms of democracy. This effort is useful insofar as it not only helps us to understand Aristotle, but also presents us with a conception of freedom interestingly different from many contemporary versions and perhaps worth our consideration. ~ The reader will notice that I deliberately retain, for the most part, the generic use of 'man' and of masculine pronouns in translating and commenting on Aristotle, a practice which cannot go without explanation in this day and age. Such terms in English convey just the same ambiguity as Aristode's Greek does when, for instance, he uses the masculine adjectives eleutheros or agathos as generic terms -- that is, they leave the reader uncertain as to whether women are considered capable of freedom or goodness in the same way that men are, with the suspicion that they are not. I do not share the opinion, apparently held by Aristotle, that members of my gender are..
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| 0.755476 | 749 | 2.75 | 3 |
Sumatran Tiger Conservation
Asia/Pacific > Southeast Asia > Indonesia
Asia/Pacific > Southeast Asia > Indonesia > Sumatra > Riau province
Poaching of Sumatran tigers has not shown any sign of decreasing. During 1998/99 WWF and TRAFFIC collected tiger poaching data and concluded that at least 66 tigers had been killed in the last two years in central and southern Sumatra. This is equivalent to 20% of tiger population of three-quarters of the island. More than half of the tigers killed are from protected areas. Bukit Tigapuluh National Park in Riau has lost at least 6 tigers in the last 2 years. The tiger population status in this park is unknown and patrols by the park rangers are ineffective.
This project intends to gather information on the tiger population and launch anti-poaching units. It will collaborate with the Sumatran Tiger Project, which has been running in Way Kambas over the last three years. It will also seek to build on earlier projects in this area which focused on community based conservation and trade monitoring (ID0117 and ID0164).
The wild Sumatran tiger populations are extremely threatened because of habitat loss and poaching. Most wild Sumatran tigers are found in protected areas of the Leuser ecosystem, Kerinci Seblat, Bukit Tigapuluh, Berbak, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas.
The World Bank (referring to FAO research) reported the increased deforestation in Indonesia from 600,000 hectares per year in 1981 to 1,000,000 hectares in 1991. More recent estimation from the The Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePProt) and the Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops found 1,600,000 hectares of annual deforestation between 1985 and 1998. It is strongly suspected that significantly higher deforestation rates occurred after the economy crisis in 1997.
In addition to this, poaching of Sumatran tiger remains high. Tiger parts were easily found for sale in common markets in big cities of Java and Sumatra in 1999. Trade investigations carried out by WWF in 1998 and1999 concluded that at least 66 tigers have been killed in those two years in central and southern Sumatra. The same investigation by Ron Tilson and Traylor-Holzer in 1994 concluded that 36 tigers were poached annually. There have been at least 207 tigers poached between 1994 and 1999. This is equivalent to about one-third to half of wild Sumatran tiger populations.
Moreover, more than half of the tigers killed are from protected areas, indicating that the patrol system is not effective. Law enforcement for tiger poachers has been weak because judicial officers are not sufficiently familiar with the Conservation Act (which assigns much heavier sentences than common criminal law), and law enforcement officers do not have sufficient knowledge to identify tiger parts.
Market demand for tiger parts in Indonesia is for both export (supplying traditional Chinese Medicine) and domestic market (skin, teeth). Indonesia is unique in that it is an exporter as well as a consumer of tiger parts.
In the WWF Global Tiger Action Strategy Workshop recently held in Indonesia, BBS-KS-B30 (Bukit Barisan Selatan - Kerinci Seblat - Bukit Tigapuluh) landscape was recognized as one of the priority tiger conservation units (TCUs). More than half of wild Sumatran tigers inhabit this TCU.
WWF is proposing an integrated conservation programme across a 3 year period to address the dwindling tiger populations:
1. Decrease wild Sumatran tiger poaching incidences in Bukit Tigapuluh
2. Identify key parameters of tiger and its prey populations in Bukit Tigapuluh
3. Decrease market demand for tiger parts in big cities in Java
4. Improve capability of law enforcement officers to identify tiger parts
It is proposed that WWF-US participate in activities pursuing objectives 1 and 2. The other components are supported by WWF-UK, WWF-NL, WWF International and EAPEI (East Asia and Pacifice Environmental Initiative) funds from the US State Department. The Tiger Foundation will be also funding activities to pursue objectives 1 and 2. Funds from WWF-US will be also used for the operation of anti-poaching units and camera trapping activities.
Immediate action is needed to curb poaching of wild Sumatran tigers. In particular, a patrol system needs to be introduced in Bukit Tigapuluh National Park. Other pockets of tiger habitat (Leuser, Kerinci Seblat, Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas) have had anti-poaching patrols operating (though some are not specifically for tigers).
However, to prevent poaching of wild Sumatran tigers, it is not enough to simply deploy anti-poaching patrols in tiger habitats. Rather, market demand for tiger parts also needs to be stopped.
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| 0.925854 | 1,004 | 3.265625 | 3 |
Even on a sunny day, nearly 13 million gallons of water are pumped from New York City subways. As global warming brings rising sea levels and stormier weather, more of New York’s transit system is expected to flood.
To adapt, the Metropolitan Transportation Authority needs to develop a master plan that lays out the costs of upgrading subway tunnels, bus depots and other infrastructure most vulnerable to flooding and extreme heat, says a new report, Greening Mass Transit and Metro Regions , commissioned by the MTA and released this month.
"Can New York City survive as a world financial center if its transportation system breaks down half a dozen times a year?" asks Klaus Jacob , a scientist at Columbia University’s Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory, who contributed to the report. "It really behooves the MTA to look at what investments are worthwhile, and what investments are not."
Trained as a seismologist, Jacob more recently has branched into risk management and helping policy makers plan for global warming. About a year ago, he realized that the MTA had failed to address adaptation to climate change in its study to make the system more energy and water efficient. At Jacob’s urging, a climate adaptation task force was added, and he was named its chairman.
In the newly released report, Jacob’s task force recommends that the MTA complete a climate adaptation master plan by 2015. The plan will outline how climate forecasts--and thus, sea level rise—are considered in capital budget decisions. That might include money for flood protection in subways and highway tunnels, or increased energy supply for subways to provide fresh air during heat waves.
Sea level in New York City could rise by two to four feet by the end of the century, according to a comprehensive climate study prepared by Jacob and Cynthia Rosenzweig , a scientist at the Earth Institute’s Center for Climate Systems Research . Near-shore areas that currently flood once a year might be flooded 10 times a year by the end of the century.
Some subways may be better able to cope than others. Subway entrances at low elevations may be especially vulnerable to street-level flooding. Some entrances to the A and C trains are only seven-feet above today’s average sea level, which is not very high if sea levels rise and storm surges further extend the reach of floodwaters, says Jacob. Long Island Rail Road and Metro North commuter lines serving southern Connecticut and the Hudson Valley may also be vulnerable.
But flooded tracks are not the only hazard. The MTA will need to plan for added energy demand as the number of days above 90˚F grows, says Jacob. Currently, less than 20 days a year get that hot in New York City, but by 2100, that number could more than triple.
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The Body Mass Index (BMI) is generally used to assess overall fitness, however, a new study has found that weight concentrated around the middle can be more harmful than obesity itself.
The waist to hip ratio is proving to be a better predictor of heart disease and other illness than BMI alone.
Participants were divided into six groups based on which of the three BMI groups they fell into, and whether they had a normal or high waist-to-hip ratio. Men whose waist measurement was 90 percent or more of their hip measurement were considered to have a high hip-to-waist ratio. The same was true of women; those with waists that were 85 percent of their hip size were classified as having a high hip-to-waist ratio.
Participants with normal BMI but a high waist-to-hip ratio had the risk of dying of cardiovascular disease, and the highest risk of dying from any causes among the six groups.
The risk of cardiovascular death was 2.75 times higher, and the risk of death from any cause was 2.08 times higher among normal-weight people with “central obesity,” compared with normal-weight people who had a normal waist-to-hip ratio.
“The high risk of death may be related to a higher visceral fat accumulation in this group, which is associated with insulin resistance and other risk factors,” said study researcher Dr. Karine Sahakyan, also of Mayo Clinic.
Men can be highly susceptible to accumulating belly fat and inactivity, poor diet and stress contribute to visceral fat.
Keeping your abs toned and your middle “whittled” is the best way to avoid disease and keep your heart strong.
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| 0.977954 | 352 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Story: Death rates and life expectancy
Page 4 – Effects of colonisation on Māori
Māori started the epidemiological transition (in which diseases of old age and lifestyle replace infections as the main cause of death) much later than Pākehā, because of the effects of colonisation on their disease and death rates.
Pre- and post-contact life expectancy
Evidence suggests that Māori life expectancy at the time of Captain James Cook’s visits to New Zealand (between 1769 and 1777) was higher than that in Britain, and similar to some of the most privileged 18th-century societies. Māori may have had a life expectancy at birth of more than 30, compared with less than 30 for people in Britain. After European contact, however, there was a major decline in Māori life expectancy. By 1891 the estimated life expectancy of Māori men was 25 and that of women was just 23.
The Māori population also declined steeply. It is estimated to have been barely 100,000 in 1769. By 1840 it was probably between 70,000 and 90,000. At its lowest point in 1896 it was around 42,000.
There is a common belief that musket warfare between 1810 and 1840 caused heavy mortality among Māori. However, war deaths were not great in number compared with the deaths from other causes. From 1810 to 1840 there were around 120,000 deaths from illness and other ‘normal’ causes, an average of 4,000 a year. In the same period warfare caused perhaps 700 deaths per year, killing less than 1% of the population.
Big and small islands
Although the impact of introduced diseases was severe, Māori were dispersed over a wide area and so were less at risk than Pacific Islanders living on small islands. The first New Zealand-wide epidemic of measles in 1854 may have killed 7% of the Māori population. This is an alarming figure, but far below that for Fiji’s first outbreak, which killed an estimated 20% of their population.
Impact of introduced diseases
Introduced diseases were the major reason for the Māori population decrease. In the 1890s the Māori population had fallen to about 40% of its pre-contact size. Decline accelerated after the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840 and settlers began to arrive in greater numbers. This influx of people exposed Māori to new diseases, leading to severe epidemics.
Newly introduced illnesses that were common in Europe, such as measles, mumps and whooping cough, took a terrible toll among Māori, who had no immunity to them. In European populations, such diseases tended to affect mainly children. Among Māori, however, they affected both adults and children, often with devastating results. Introduced respiratory diseases, particularly bronchitis and tuberculosis, also killed large numbers of Māori in the 19th century.
Loss of land
The influx of settlers led to a demand for land, and from the 1840s Māori were under great pressure to sell their ancestral territories. Loss of Māori land – through confiscation following the 1860s wars, Crown purchase and the Native Land Court – led to the displacement of large numbers of Māori. Deprived of their land, tribes were in many instances reduced to poverty, with no option but to live in overcrowded and unhygienic conditions. Losing land, they also lost access to traditional food sources. Lack of resources, overcrowding and poor diet helped disease to take hold and spread.
Mortality of children and girls
In 1886 over 50% of Māori who died were children. When Whina Te Wake (later Whina Cooper) was born in the 1890s, 25% of Māori girls died before reaching nine months of age, and 50% before they turned seven. In comparison, fewer than 10% of Pākehā girls died before nine months, and only about 15% before the age of seven. Significantly fewer Māori girls survived to childbearing age, limiting future population growth.
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In the Garden:
Devil's claw develops a green pod that looks much like okra and can be cooked in the same manner.
The summer monsoon season is the perfect time to try your hand at traditional crops. Monsoons bring hot, humid weather with occasional downpours, usually in the afternoon or evening. Native peoples knew to sow fast-maturing, warm-season crops to take advantage of these precious summer rains. Typical crops included amaranth, tepary bean, corn, squash, melon, sorghum, and the intriguing devil's claw.
Devil's claw (Proboscidea sp.) garners alot of second glances in the garden from those unfamiliar with this annual. Eye-catching, trumpet shaped flowers are in shades of white, pink, or orchid. Depending on species, the plant will grow 2 to 3 feet tall and wide. Some species are spreading and vining like a squash plant; some are a bit more upright and shrubby.
It is truly a multi-purpose plant, with several uses for fiber and food. It develops a green pod that looks much like okra and can be cooked in the same manner. However, it needs to be eaten when young and tender; it gets woody and unpalatable with age. Left hanging, the pods will eventually dry on the plant and split open, forming the curved "claws" of its common name. Black fibers are stripped from the claws to be used in basketmaking. Inside the claws are tiny seeds that add protein and oil to the diet. Watch out! The claws are sharp!
Even if you don't choose to eat the pods or seeds or use the fiber, devil's claw makes an interesting landscape plant. It is an annual and will die back when cold weather arrives. However, if you let pods dry on the plant and self-sow, you'll likely have devil's claw appearing in your landscape every monsoon season.
Devil's claw prefers unimproved soil and takes full sun. Presoak the seeds to hasten germination and sow them 1/2 inch deep.
Care to share your gardening thoughts, insights, triumphs, or disappointments with your fellow gardening enthusiasts? Join the lively discussions on our FaceBook page and receive free daily tips!
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| 0.939052 | 473 | 2.609375 | 3 |
What’s the fastest growing concern of the green-building movement? Not necessarily energy, but water conservation, including the water-technology opportunities profiled in Jerry Yudelson’s latest green-building report, sponsored by the Mechanical Contractors Education and Research Foundation, the research arm of the Mechanical Contractors Association of America (MCAA).
In “Water Efficiency Technologies for Mechanical Contractors: New Business Opportunities,” Yudelson outlines opportunities for water metering, fixture replacements, cooling-tower water reduction, rainwater harvesting, and gray-water reuse in buildings. In the report, Yudelson profiles dozens of new technologies usable in new buildings and retrofit projects around the United States and Canada. Yudelson presents a business case for water conservation and outlines the close relationship of water use and energy use through what is being called the energy/water nexus.
By saving money on water use through creative water-conservation strategies and water-technology investments, the report shows how commercial-building owners can add value to their real-estate holdings by lowering annual operating costs, increasing net operating income (NOI), and benefiting from the multiple of NOI reflected in building prices.
The free 64-page report is available from Yudelson's Website, www.greenbuildconsult.com, and at the MCAA Website, www.mcaa.org/store.
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| 0.893236 | 286 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Vol.1, August 2014
Hideyuki Okano, M.D., Ph.D.
Professor, Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, Tokyo.
Our research activities are focused on the central nervous system, that is, research on the brain and spinal cord. Notably, we have been conducting collaborative research for more than 10 years with the Central Institute for Experimental Animals (CIEA) on producing various types of pathological animal models using small primates known as marmosets.
In 2005 we succeeded in producing the world’s first spinal cord injury model, which is patented in Japan, USA and several other countries. Importantly, pharmaceutical companies are pursuing clinical trials based on our research and intellectual property. Again in 2005 we discovered that transplanting neural stem cells into animals with spinal cord injury led to the recovery of motor function.
More recently, we succeeded in restoring motor function by transplanting neural stem cells made for human iPS cells. In 2009 we succeeded in producing the world’s first genetically modified marmoset. This research enabled the successful production of model animal models for Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. This system is being used to elucidate the pathogenesis of these diseases and the development of drugs for their treatment.
We are using marmosets to produce animal models because these small primates are closely related to humans. There is a high probability that treatments that are successful with marmoset models could be developed for the medical treatment of humans.
Discoveries and highlights of research
Animal experiments show that administration of drugs leads to the acute development of Parkinson’s disease. But in realty the development of Parkinson’s is a much slower process over time. In our research, we reproduce accurate animal models by introducing genes responsible for Parkinson’s disease into fertilized eggs and forcing expression of the disease. This approach enables us to image and understand abnormalities before the onset of motor symptoms and we use the observations to predict the first symptoms signaling the onset of Parkinson’s disease.
I expect that our research to lead to the development of drugs to delay the onset of Parkinson’s disease. So we will continue our research to produce primate models for the development of medical treatments.
Research at the Kawasaki KING SKYFRONT
The model animals for Alzheimer’s disease were produced and nurtured at the Kawasaki KING SKYFRONT. I would like the KING SKYFRONT to act as a hub where the world’s leading researchers can come to conduct experiments using our animal models. The KING SKYFRONT is located very close to Tokyo International Airport, also known as Haneda airport. I would to see KING SKYFRONT become a thriving hub for international research in the life sciences, medical diagnostics, and patient treatment.
Mapping the functions and structure of the brain is an important area of research in the future. In the USS the Obama administration has allocated funding for the Brain Initiative. In Japan we are thinking about using monkeys, which are very closely related to humans, to deepen our understanding of the brain. The ‘Brain Initiative Japan’ project will be launched soon, in which KING SKYFRONT will play a central role.
Research at KING SKYFRONT is at the cutting edge of innovative medical care based on an interdisciplinary approach. The Central Institute for Experimental Animals (CIEA), University of Tokyo, Life Science & Environment research center (LiSE), and safety administration agencies are establishing themselves here. These institutes will soon be joined by the Japan Radioisotope Association (JRA), which will enable imaging. The addition of a medical institute for cutting edge medical care will produce a unique hub at the KING SKYFRONT enabling activities from basic research to clinical applications.
The proximity of Haneda airport makes KING SKYFRONT a truly international hub with a global reach for research in the life sciences as well as training staff and treatment of patients.
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| 0.934671 | 816 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The 2015 annual average U.S. temperature was 54.4°F, 2.4°F above the 20th century average, the second warmest year on record. Only 2012 was warmer for the U.S. with an average temperature of 55.3°F. This is the 19th consecutive year the annual average temperature exceeded the 20th century average. The first part of the year was marked by extreme warmth in the West and cold in the East, but by the end of 2015, record warmth spanned the East with near-average temperatures across the West. This temperature pattern resulted in every state having an above-average annual temperature.
The average contiguous U.S. precipitation was 34.47 inches, 4.53 inches above average, and ranked as the third wettest year in the 121-year period of record. Only 1973 and 1983 were wetter. The central and southeastern U.S. was much wetter than average, while parts of the West and Northeast were drier than average. The national drought footprint shrank about 10 percent during the course of the year.
In 2015, there were 10 weather and climate disaster events in the U.S. each with losses exceeding $1 billion. These events included a drought, two floods, five severe storms, a wildfire event, and a winter storm. Overall, these resulted in the deaths of 155 people and had significant economic effects. Further cost figures on individual events in 2015 will be updated when data are finalized later this year.
This annual summary from NOAA’s National Centers for Environmental Information is part of the suite of climate services NOAA provides to government, business, academia, and the public to support informed decision making.
For extended analysis of regional temperature and precipitation patterns, as well as extreme events, please see our full report that will be released on January 13, 2016.
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| 0.967146 | 379 | 3.34375 | 3 |
by Rita Forbes and Valerie German
Although 18 years have passed since Germany’s reunification, difficulties remain today. With reunification, East Germany was essentially absorbed into West Germany. The West German constitution, currency and social market economy were all adopted in the east.
“It’s a very difficult task to change a whole society,” said Dr. Eckart Klein, a law professor at Potsdam University and founder/director of the university’s Human Rights Center. “Mistakes have been made. Some people from the west came and felt like victors, and behaved badly here in the east... and so there were some hostilities between east and west at the beginning. And this takes time [to be resolved].”
Klein studied law in West Germany and Switzerland. In 1993, he moved to the city of Potsdam in the east. Besides teaching in universities across Europe and in the United States, he was also a member of the United Nations’ Human Rights Committee for seven years and is currently in his third term as an ad hoc judge in the European Court of Human Rights.
When Klein first arrived in Potsdam, three years after reunification, he could see obvious differences between East and West German students.
“[East German students] were much more disciplined than students coming from the west,” he said. “Because they were drilled, you know. In school and in the military, they had to obey, and that continued in university in the former communist part of Germany. Of course western students had their own way of life – all liberty and freedom!”
Over time, those distinctions have slowly disappeared.
“Today you don’t see any difference from young students coming from here or coming from the western part,” Klein said.
Resentment sometimes lingers beneath the surface, however.
The introduction of a new economy brought with it new problems. Unemployment had been virtually nonexistent in East Germany before reunification. In May of this year, the region had an unemployment rate of 13.4%, over double the rate of 6.4% in the west, according to the Federal Employment Agency.
“After the reunification, there were a lot of utterings of ‘national solidarity’ and so on, but it was nothing but big bubbles,” said Dr. Bernd Hübinger, vice president of the Federal Agency for Civic Education. “And so what did they do? The French, Germans, Swiss, etc. sold very much to the eastern Germans, but no new factories were built there to create Arbeitsplätze, jobs. Billions of marks, even trillions, went to the eastern parts, to build up the infrastructure, the streets and so on. And what you see now, is the streets are better than here in the west. There are a lot of new houses. But no real new jobs.”
Many people with close ties to the communist government lost their jobs when East and West Germany were reunified. Klein said their children often still resent this today.
“It’s interesting,” he said. “I’ve heard it when I spoke with students coming from this region. In contrast to the parents – if the parents lost their job, they usually knew why. And well, they were not pleased, but in a way they accepted it, because they could see it intellectually, why they lost their job. ... The children said, ‘It’s injustice that has been done to my parents or grandparents, that they have lost everything that they had before.’ They could not understand that their parents and grandparents were probably deeply involved in the former system. And so the younger generation felt injustice more than the older people.”
Even after reunification, young people did not always receive objective information about their nation and its past. With the shift from communism to democracy, new forms of education were needed. But teachers accustomed to teaching Marxism-Leninism often remained in office.
“The societal elites were replaced for the most part,” said Dr. Rainer Eckert. “But that was not the case in the schools. School teachers almost always retained their jobs. Many of the history teachers after 1990 were also history teachers earlier, and of course they had a different viewpoint. Some of them were not interested in portraying East Germany in a critical light or teaching their students about the Peaceful Revolution.”
Eckert grew up in East Germany. His opposition to the government resulted in political persecution; in 1972, he was barred from continuing his studies at the Humboldt University of Berlin. Today he is an author, university professor, and director of the Forum of Contemporary History, a museum in Leipzig featuring comprehensive exhibits about “dictatorship and resistance” in East Germany.
“I never considered East Germany my home,” he said. “I rejected the political system. But today, Germany is my home. ... I see the country positively, both as my home and as a political system – a democracy.”
But not everyone shares this positive view of the democratic system.
A survey commissioned by the newspaper Leipziger Volkszeitung in April found that only 44% of people in the east believe in the workings of democracy. This was borne out in Germany’s last federal elections, held in 2005. The extreme left-wing party “Die Linke,” which has ties to East Germany’s SED party, garnered 25.3% of the vote in eastern Germany, compared with just 4.9% in western Germany.
Eckert thinks this dissatisfaction is related to real or perceived inequity. Prior to reunification, people had become accustomed to receiving more or less the same salary as everyone else. A manager might make three times as much money as an average worker. Today, the ratio is closer to one to three hundred.
“These big distinctions, they disturb the people very much,” Eckert said. “They feel they don’t have a voice. They can vote, but they feel that they have damned little to do with the power.”
“[East Germans] are disillusioned, partly,” Klein said. “You know, they have been used to free elections and the freedom of expression since 1949 in the western part of Germany. Of course here it is already 18 years since reunification, but many people said from the beginning that it takes one generation [to achieve unity]. So that means more or less 30 years.”
The hope is that with time, as new generations of Germans grow up in a reunified nation, the inequalities between east and west will finally and forever be dissolved.
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It is believed that the origins of Halloween may probably be found in an ancient, pre-Christian Celtic festival which honored the dead. The Celts divided their year into four major holidays and, according to this calendar, the year began on a day which now corresponds to November 1 on the modern calendar. The date marked the advent of Winter and, since the Celts were pastoral people, it was a time when cattle and sheep were moved to closer pastures and all livestock secured for the coming months of harsh Winter. It was also a time when crops were harvested and stored...a date which marked both an ending and a beginning in a perpetual cycle of life.
This Celtic festival was observed at a time the people called Samhain...the largest and most significant holiday of the year...also commonly referred to as "All Hollows" Eve. The Celts lived approximately 2,000 years ago in the areas now known as Ireland, the United Kingdom and Northern France. It was believed that at the time of Samhain, more so than any other period during the year, the ghosts of the dead were able to mingle with the living. This belief stemmed from the idea that during Samhain, the souls of those who had died during the year would begin their travels into the Underworld. It was also a time when Lord Samhain, Lord of Darkness, would arrive in search of those spirits in order that he might aid them in their journey. Gatherings were held to sacrifice animals, fruits and vegetables. Bonfires were lit to honor the dead and to aid the souls as they journeyed...the fire was also beneficial in keeping such souls away from the living since, on that day, all manner of beings might be abroad...ghosts, fairies, demons...all considered to be part and parcel of the "dark and dread."
By 43 A.D., Roman armies had conquered the majority of Celtic territory. During the course of the following 400 years that Rome ruled the Celtic lands, two festivals of Roman origin were combined with the traditional Celtic celebration of Samhain. The first of these was known as Feralia, a day in late October when Romans traditionally commemorated the passing of the dead. The second Roman festival to be incorporated into the Celtic Samhain festivities was one which honored Pomona, Roman Goddess of Fruit and Trees.
When Christian missionaries undertook the task of changing the religious practices of the Celtic people, Samhain was gradually transformed into the modern celebration of Halloween. During the early centuries of the First Millennium, before the time of such missionaries as Saint Patrick and Saint Columcille converted the Celts to Christianity, they practiced an elaborate religion through their priestly caste known as the Druids. The Druids were composed of priests, poets, scientists and scholars. As religious leaders, ritual specialists and bearers of knowledge, the Druids were not entirely different from the very missionaries and monks who would later Christianize the Celtic people and forever brand them as evil devil worshippers.
As a result of Christian efforts to eliminate "pagan" holidays (such as Samhain), the Church succeeded in bringing about major transformations to Celtic festivals. In 601 A.D., Pope Gregory the First issued a now famous edict to his missionaries regarding the native beliefs and customs of those peoples he hoped to convert. Rather than attempting to obliterate the customs and beliefs of native races, Pope Gregory instructed his missionaries to employ such traditions. For example, if a certain group worshipped a tree, then rather than cut that tree down, the Pope advised that it be consecrated to Christ and its worship be allowed to continue.
In terms of spreading Christianity, this was a brilliant concept and became a basic approach used in the work of Catholic missionaries. Church holy days were set to purposely coincide with native festivals. Christmas, for instance, was assigned the arbitrary date of December 25 because it corresponded with the Mid-Winter celebration of many cults. In the same manner, Saint John's Day was set to take place on the Summer Solstice.
With its emphasis squarely upon the supernatural however, Samhain was decidedly pagan. While missionaries identified their holy days with those observed by the Celts, the earlier religion's unearthly deities were branded as evil and said to be associated with the devil. Representative of the Church's rival religion, Druids were declared evil worshippers of devilish or demonic gods and spirits and the Underworld of the Celts inevitably became identified with Christianity's concept of Hell. Although this policy diminished beliefs in the traditional Celtic Gods, it could not completely eradicate such ideas. Celtic belief in creatures of the supernatural continued to persist and the Church instituted deliberate attempts to define those who followed the old ways as being not merely dangerous, but also malicious until such people were forced to go into hiding and eventually branded as witches.
The Christian feast of All Saints was assigned to November 1. The day honored every known Christian Saint and particularly those who did not otherwise have a special day devoted to them. This feast day was intended to act as a substitute for Samhain...to draw the devotion of the Celtic nation and, finally, forever replace the old Pagan festival. However, that was not what occurred, even though the traditional Celtic deities diminished in status over time and became the fairies and leprechauns of more recent tradition.
The ancient beliefs associated with Samhain never died out entirely. The powerful symbolism of the traveling dead was far too strong in the minds of believers, who failed to be satisfied with the new and more abstract Catholic feast which honored Saints. Realizing that something would be needed in order to subsume the original energy of Samhain, the Church tried once more in the 9th Century to supplant it with another Christian feast day. This time, it established November 2 as All Souls Day...a time when the living prayed for the souls of all the dead. But, once again, the practice of retaining traditional customs while attempting to redefine them had a sustaining effect...the traditional beliefs and customs lived on, often in new guises.
All Saints Day, otherwise known as Hallowmas ("hallowed" being defined as "sanctified" or "holy"), continued the ancient Celtic traditions. The evening prior to that day was the time of the most intense activity, both human and supernatural. People continued to celebrate All Hallows Eve as a time of the wandering dead, but the supernatural beings were now thought of as evil. Folk continued to propitiate those spirits (and their masked impersonators) by setting out gifts of food and drink. Subsequently, All Hallows Eve became Hallow Evening, which later became known as Halloween...an ancient Celtic, pre-Christian New Year's Day dressed in a contemporary fashion. The traditional black and orange associated with Halloween also have their roots in the ancient festival of Samhain...black to represent the time of darkness after the death of the God and orange to await the dawn of his rebirth at Yule.
NOTE: There is much controversy regarding the identification of Samhain as a Druid Death God in terms of his association with the ancient Celtic tradition of Halloween. To read more on this subject please visit:
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What is the American Dream? Is it the same for all Americans? Is it a myth? Is it simply a quest for a better life? How has the American Dream changed over time? Some see their dreams wither and die while others see their dreams fulfilled. Why? Everyone has dreams about a personally fulfilled life ...what is your dream?
Your job is to research the dreams of others. You will then create and publish your interpretation of the "American Dream."
- Divide into teams by research roles (photographer, lawyer, poet, politician, producer, comedian, musician).
- Define the American Dream with your group.
- Search in the American Memory collections and document the dreams of those who lived in the past.
- Identify and publish your interpretation of the "American Dream" according to your research role and the evidence you found.
- Reflect upon your personal dream — for the nation and for yourself.
- Review the Wall of Dreams for ideas. Write your own personal dream to share with your teacher and class.
Choose a Research Role
As a group, choose one of the research roles to create your project:
|Photographer||With your artful eye, you capture the images of the American Dream.||Design a photo essay that shows the American Dream. Show how the Dream has been affected by time, cultural influences, and significant historical events.|
|Lawyer||Your passion for controversy and debate guide your vision of the American Dream.||Prepare a legal brief about the status of the American Dream. (Legal brief includes: title, who vs. whom, statement of facts, argument, conclusion, references.)|
|Poet||Using your poetic grasp of language, you seek out the heart and soul of the American Dream.||Create a poet's notebook that shows the American Dream. Your notebook includes samples of your poetry that shows how the "Dream" has been affected by time, cultural influences, and significant historical events.|
|Politician||With a finger on the pulse of the American people, you trace significant political events that shape the American Dream.||Write and deliver a speech that traces the political events that shape the American Dream. Your speech shows how the "Dream" has been affected by political response to cultural influences and significant historical events.|
|Producer||Lights, camera, action! You show the story of the American Dream through stories, films, and a script for a movie.||Make a storyboard for your movie. Sequence the scenes to produce a movie of the American Dream.|
|Comedian||You find the irony in the American Dream.||Write a standup comic script or create a political cartoon or comic strip that expresses irony or the humorous side of the American Dream.|
|Musician||With your ear for melody, you play the music of the American Dream.||Write the sheet music or record music that characterizes the American Dream based upon your research.|
|Reporter||On the newsbeat you report and chronicle the events which shape the American Dream.||Write a news article that reports the results of your research on the American Dream. (Article includes: title, who, what, when, where, and how.) Your news article describes the events that have shaped the American Dream through the decades.|
Record the results of your discussion.
What do you already know about the American Dream?
Your group needs to define the American Dream. Read "What Is The American Dream?". Find out what the dream means to each member of your group. Brainstorm and share your ideas. What do you know about the "American Dream"? With a partner create a mind map of what you know, or believe you know, about the American Dream. All ideas are valid. Use paper or visual thinking software to record your ideas. Share the results with your learning team members in your group. This is the beginning of your project, so file your results with your archive manager.
Define your Project
Determine your research theme or topic: Are you interested in immigration/emigration, families, social life? Will you investigate one decade or compare how the American Dream evolved over the decades? Discuss topic ideas with your group.
Use the Primary Source Analysis tool and questions provided by your teacher to practice reading and interpreting sources with sample materials. Your team will look at resources through the lens of your research role.
- Photographer - Mr. & Mrs. David Vincent and daughter, Martha, by their sod house: near White River, South Dakota
- Poet - "Dedication," Robert Frost's presidential inaugural poem, 20 January 1961
- Politician - "Americanism", Harding, Warren G. (Warren Gamaliel), 1865-1923
- Producer - Arrival of immigrants, Ellis Island
- Comedian - Katzenjammer Kids: "Policy and pie"
- Lawyer - Petition for change of venue: Evidence from the Haymarket Affair, 1886-1887
- Musician - The old cabin home. H. De Marsan, Publisher, 54 Chatham Street, New York
- Reporter - The Independent gazetteer, or, The chronicle of freedom, 1788
Research — Gather Evidence — Create the Team Product
As a group, be sure you all understand the task for your team's research role. Divide the tasks. Create an action plan. Record the results of your discussion.
Discuss possible questions and anticipate how you will answer them. Search the American Memory collections and gather your evidence.
Create your learning product. Develop a strategy to share your learning project which allows all team members to contribute and share their ideas.
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| 0.903217 | 1,165 | 2.90625 | 3 |
|| JOBS | DRUGS | ANATOMY | DIAMONDS | HEALTH TOPICS | DISEASES | ENERGY | GEOLOGY | AIRPORTS | COUNTRIES | FLAGS ||
PERIPATUS, a genus of animals belonging to the air-breathing division of the phylum Arthropoda. It differs, however, from all other Arthropoda in such important respects that a special class, equivalent in rank to the old-established Arthropod classes, had been created for its sole occupancy. This class has been named the Prototracheata or Onychophora (see Arthropoda), and may be most appropriately placed in the system in the neighbourhood of the Myriapoda, though it must not be forgotten that it differs from the Myriapoda more than the Myriapoda differ from other Arthropoda, and that in some respects it presents features which recall the segmented worms (Annelida). The genus has a wide distribution (see below), but it has not been found in Europe or in North America. There is but little variety of structure in the genus, and the species are limited in number. They live beneath the bark of trees, in the crevices of rock and of rotten stumps of trees, and beneath stones. They require a moist atmosphere, and are exceedingly susceptible to drought. They avoid light, and are therefore rarely seen. They move slowly, picking their course by means of their antennae. When irritated they eject with considerable force the contents of their slime reservoirs by means of the sudden contraction of the muscular body-wall. The slime, which appears to be harmless, is extremely sticky, but it easily comes away from the skin of the animal itself. Locomotion is effected by means of the legs, with the body fully extended. Hutton describes his specimens as sucking the juices of flies, which they had stuck down with their slime, and they have been observed in captivity to devour the entrails which have been removed from their fellows, and to eat raw sheep's liver. They move their mouths in a suctorial manner, tearing the food with their jaws. They have the power of extruding their jaws from the mouth, and of working them alternately backwards and forwards. They are viviparous; the young are fully formed at birth, and differ from the adult only in size and colour. The mother does not appear to pay any special attention to her offspring, which wander away and get their own living. It has lately been stated that some of the Australian species are normally oviparous, but this has not been fully proved. Sexual differences are not strongly marked, and are sometimes absent. There does not appear to be any true copulation. In some species the male deposits small oval spermatophores indiscriminately on any part of the body of the female. It seems probable that in such cases the spermatozoa make their way from the adherent spermatophore through the body-wall into the body, and so by traversing the tissues reach the ovary. In other species which possess receptacula seminis it is probable that fertilization is effected once only in early life before any ova pass into the uterus.
The anterior part of the body may be called the head, though it is not sharply marked off from the rest of the body (fig. I). The head carries three pairs of appendages, a pair of simple eyes, and a ventrally placed mouth. The body is elongated and vermiform; it bears a number of paired appendages, each terminating in a pair of claws, and all very much alike. The number varies in the different species. The anus is always at the posterior end of the body, and the generative opening is on the ventral surface, just in front of the anus; it may be between the legs of the penultimate pair, or between the legs of the last pair, or it may be subterminal. The colour varies considerably in the different species, and even in different individuals of the same species. The skin has a velvety appearance, and is thrown into a number of transverse ridges, along which wart-like papillae are placed. These papillae, which are found everywhere, are the primary papillae; they are covered with small, scale-like projections called secondary papillae, and are specially developed on the dorsal surface, less so on the ventral. Each papilla carries at its extremity a well-marked spine. Among the primary papillae smaller accessory papillae are sometimes present.
The appendages of the head are the antennae, the jaws and the oral papillae. The mouth is at the hinder end of a depression called the buccal cavity, and is surrounded by an annular tumid lip, raised into papilliform ridges and bearing a few spines (fig. 2). Within the buccal cavity are the two jaws. They are short, stumplike, muscular structures, armed at their free extremities by a pair of cutting blades or claws, and are placed one on each side of the mouth. In the median line of the buccal cavity in front is placed a thick muscular protuberance, which may be called the tongue, though attached to the dorsal instead of to the ventral wall of the mouth (fig. 2). The tongue bears a row of small, chitinous teeth. The jaw-claws (figs. 3 and 4), which resemble in all essential points the claws borne by the feet, and, like these, are thickenings of the cuticle, are sickle-shaped. They have their convex edge directed forwards, and their concave, or cutting edge, turned backwards. The inner cutting plate (fig. 3) usually bears a number of cutting teeth. The oral papillae are placed at the sides of the head (fig. 2). The ducts of the slime-glands open at their free end. They possess two main rings of projecting tissue, and their extremities bear papillae irregularly arranged. The ambulatory appendages vary in number. There are seventeen pairs in P. capensis and eighteen in P. balfouri, while in P. jamaicensis the number varies from twenty-nine to forty-three. They consist of two main divisions, which we may call the leg and the foot (fig. 5). The leg (1) has the form of a truncated cone, the broad end of which is attached to (After Balfour.) (After Balfour.) FIG. 3. - Inner jaw-claw of FIG. 4. - Outer jaw-claw of P. capensis. P. capensis. the ventro-lateral wall of the body, of which it is a prolongation. It is marked by a number of rings of papillae placed transversely to its long axis, the dorsal of which are pigmented like the dorsal surface of the body, and the ventral like the ventral surface. At the narrow distal end of the leg there are on the ventral surface three or four (rarely five) spiniferous pads, each of which is continued dorsally into a row of papillae. The foot is attached to the distal end of the leg. It is slightly narrower at its attached extremity than at its free end. It bears two sickle-shaped claws, and at its distal end three (rarely four) papillae. The part of the foot which carries the claws is especially retractile, and is generally found more or less telescoped into the proximal part. The legs of the fourth and fifth pairs differ from the others in the fact that the third pad (counting from the distal end of the leg) carries the opening of the enlarged nephridia of these segments. In some species certain of the legs bear on their ventral sides furrows with tumid lips and lined by smooth non-tuberculate epithelium; they are called coxal organs, and it appears that they can be everted. The males are generally rather smaller and less numerous than the females. In those species in which the number of legs varies the male has a smaller number of legs than the female.
(After Sedgwick.) FIG. i. Peripatus capensis, drawn from life. Life size.
(After Sedgwick.) FIG. 2. - Ventral view of the head of P. capensis. ant, Antennae; or.p, Oral papillae;. F.1, First leg; T, Tongue.
(After Sedgwick.) FIG. 5. - Ventral view of last leg of a male P. capensis. f, Foot; 1, leg; p, spiniferous pads. The white papilla of the proximal part of this leg is characteristic of the male of this species..
As already stated, Peripatus is viviparous. The Australasian species come nearest to laying eggs, inasmuch as the eggs are large, full of yolk, and enclosed in a shell; but development normally takes place in the uterus, though abnormally, incompletely developed eggs are extruded. The uterus always contains several young, which are usually at different stages of development and are born at different times of the year. In most of the African species, however, the embryos of the uterus are almost of the same age and are born at a definite season. The young of P. capensis are born in April and May. They are almost colourless at birth, excepting the antennae, which are green, and their length is To to 15 mm. A large female will produce thirty to forty young in one year. The period of gestation is thirteen months, that is to say, the ova pass into the oviducts about one month before the young of the preceding year are born.
The alimentary canal (fig. 6). The buccal cavity, as explained above, is a secondary formation around the true mouth, which is at its dursal posterior end. It contains the a t tongue and the jaws, which have orp already been described, and into the hind end of it there open --1. ventrally by a median opening ?. the salivary glands. The mouth i } leads into a muscular pharynx, F 2 which is connected by a short o e -- V /J ?' I?? oesophagus with the stomach The stomach forms by far the largest part of the alimentary canal. It is a dilated soft-walled tube, and leads behind into the short narrow rectum, which opens at the anus. There are no glands opening into the alimentary canal. The central nervous system, the anterior part of which is shown in fig. 7, is of the "rope-ladder" type, and the ventral cords meet over the rectum.
The cuticle is a thin layer, of which the spines, jaws and claws are special developments. Its surface is not, however, smooth, but is everywhere, with the exception of the perioral region, raised into minute secondary pp' / _ can ,? coi (After Balfour.) FIG. 6. - Peripatus capensis dissected so as to show the alimentary canal, slime glands and salivary glands. The dissection is viewed from the ventral side, and the lips (L) have been cut through in the middle line behind and pulled outwards so as to expose the jaws (j), which have been turned outwards, and the tongue (T) bearing a median row of chitinous teeth, which branches behind into two. The muscular pharynx, extending back into the space between the first and second pairs of legs, is followed by a short tubular oesophagus. The latter opens into the large stomach with plicated walls, extending almost to the hind end of the animal. The stomach at its point of junction with the rectum presents an S-shaped ventro-dorsal curve.
A, Anus; at, antenna; F.I, F.2, first and second feet; j, jaws; L, lips; oe, oesophagus; or.p, oral papilla; ph, pharynx; R, rectum; s.d, salivary duct; s.g, salivary gland; sl.d, slime reservoir; sl.g, portion of tubules of slime gland; st, stomach; T, tongue in roof of mouth.
papillae, which in most instances bear at their free extremity a somewhat prominent spine. The epidermis, placed immediately within the cuticle, is composed of a single row of cells. The pigment which gives the characteristic colour to the skin is deposited in the protoplasm of the outer ends of the cells in the form of small granules. Beneath the epidermis is a thin cutis, which is followed by the muscular layers (external circular and internal longitudinal). The muscular fibres of the jaws are transversely striated, the other muscles are unstriated.
The apertures of the tracheal system are placed in the depressions between the papillae or ridges of the skin. Each of them leads into a tube, which may be called the tracheal pit (fig. 8); the walls (After Balfour.) FIG. 8. - Section through a tracheal pit and diverging bundles of tracheal tubes taken transversely to the long axis of the body. tr, Tracheae, showing rudimentary spiral fibre; tr.c, Cells resembling those lining the tracheal pits, which occur at intervals along the course of the tracheae; tr.o, Tracheal stigma; tr.p, Tracheal pit. of this are formed of epithelial cells, bounded towards the lumen of the pit by a very delicate cuticular membrane continuous with the cuticle covering the surface of the body. Internally it expands in the transverse plane, and from the expanded portion the tracheal tubes arise in diverging bundles. The tracheae are minute tubes exhibiting a faint transverse striation which is probably the indication of a spiral fibre. They appear to branch, but only exceptionally. The tracheal apertures are diffused over the surface of the body, but are especially developed in certain regions.
The vascular system consists of a dorsal tubular heart with paired ostia leading into it from the pericardium, of the pericardium, and the various other divisions of the perivisceral cavity (fig. 12, D). As in all Arthropoda, the perivisceral cavity is a haemocoele, i.e. contains blood, and forms part of the vascular system. It is divided by septa into chambers (fig. 12, D), of which the most important are the central chamber containing the alimentary canal and the dorsal chamber or pericardium. Nephridia are present in all the legs. In all of them (except the first three) the following parts may be recognized (fig. 9): (I) a vesicular portion (s) opening to the exterior on the ventral surface of the legs by a narrow passage (s.d); (2) a coiled portion, which is again subdivided into several sections (s.c); (3) a section with closely-packed nuclei ending by a somewhat enlarged opening (p.f); (4) the terminal portion, which consists of a thin-walled vesicle. The nephridia of the first three pairs of legs are smaller than the rest, consisting only of a vesicle and duct. The fourth and fifth pairs are larger than those behind, and are in other respects peculiar; for instance, they open on the third pad (counting from the distal end of the FIG. 9. - Nephridium from the o.s, External opening of segmental organ.
p.f, Internal opening of nephrid ium into the body cavity (lateral compartment). s, Vesicle of segmental organ.
ninth pair of legs of P. capensis. s.c.z, s.c.2, s.c.3, s.c.4, Successive regions of coiled portion of nephridium.
s.o.t, Third portion of nephridium broken off at p.f from the internal vesicle, which is not shown.
? (After Balfour.) FIG. 7. - Brain and anterior part of the ventral nerve-cords of Peripatus capensis enlarged and viewed from the ventral surface.
atn, Antennary nerves; co, commissures between ventral cords; d, ventral appendages of brain; E, eye en, nerves passing outwards from ventral cord; F.g.i, ganglionic enlargements from which nerves to feet pass off; jn, nerves to jaws; org, ganglionic enlargement from which nerves to oral papillae pass off; orn, nerves to oral papillae; pc, posterior lobe of brain; pn, nerves to feet; sy, sympathetic nerves.
s.I` - ! ?
,y leg), and the external vesicular portion is not dilated. The external opening of the other nephridia is placed at the outer end of a transverse groove at the base of the legs. The salivary glands are the modified nephridia of the segment of the oral papillae.
The male generative organs (fig. io) consist of a pair of testes (te), a pair of seminal vesicles (v), vasa deferentia (v.d.), and accessory glandular tubules (f). All the above parts lie in the central (After Balfour.) PIG. to. - Male Generative Organs of Peripatus capensis. Dorsal view.
a.g, Enlarged crural glands of last p, Common duct into which vasa pair of legs. deferentia open.
F. 16, 17, Last pair of legs. te, Testes. v, Seminal vesicles. f, Small accessory glandular v.c, Nerve-cord.
tubes. v.d, Vas deferens.
compartment of the body cavity. The ovaries consist of a pair of tubes closely applied together, and continued posteriorly into the oviducts. Each oviduct, after a short course, becomes dilated into the uterus. The two uteri join behind and open to the exterior by a median opening. The ovaries always contain spermatozoa, some of which project through the ovarian wall into the body cavity. Spermatozoa are not found in the uterus and oviducts, and it appears probable, as we have said, that they reach the ovary directly by boring through the skin and traversing the body cavity. In all the species except the African species there is a globular receptaculum seminis opening by two short ducts close together into the oviduct, and in the neotropical species there is in addition a small receptaculum ovorum, with extremely thin walls, opening into the oviduct by a short duct just in front of the receptaculum seminis. The epithelium of the latter structure is clothed with actively moving cilia. There appear to be present in most, if not all, of the legs some accessory glandular structures opening just externally to the nephridia. They are called the crural glands.
Peripatus is found in Africa, in Australasia, in South America and the West Indies, in New Britain, and in the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The species found in these various localities are closely similar in their anatomical characters, the principal differences relating to the structure of the female generative organs and to the number of the legs. They, however, differ in the most striking manner in the structure of the ovum and the early development. In all the Australasian species the egg is large and heavily charged with foodyolk, and is surrounded by a tough membrane. In the Cape species the eggs are smaller, though still of considerable size; the yolk is much less developed, and the egg membrane is thinner though dense. In the New Britain species the egg is still smaller ( I mm.), and there is a large trophic vesicle. In the neotropical species the egg is minute, and almost entirely devoid of yolk. The unsegmented uterine ovum of P. novae zealandiae measures I. 5 mm. in length by 8 mm. in breadth; that of P. capensis is 56 mm. in length: and that of P. trinidadensis 04 mm. in diameter. In correspondence with these differences in the ovum there are differences in the early development, though the later stages are closely similar.
The development has been worked out in P. capensis, to which species the following description refers. The segmentation is peculiar, and leads to the formation of a solid gastrula, consisting of a cortex of ectoderm nuclei surrounding a central endodermal mass, which is exposed at one point - the blastopore. The enteron arises as a space in the endoderm, and an opacity - the primitive streak - appears at the hind end of the blastopore (fig. i i, B). The elongation of the embryo is accompanied by an elongation of the blastopore, which soon becomes dumb-bell shaped (fig. i t, C). At the same time the mesoblastic somites (embryonic segments of mesoderm) make their appearance in pairs at the hind end, and gradually travel forwards on each side of the blastopore to the front end, where the somites of the anterior pair soon meet in front of the blastopore (fig. II, D). Meanwhile the narrow middle part of the blastopore has closed by a fusion of its lips, so that the blastopore is represented by two openings, the future mouth and anus. A primitive groove makes its appearance behind the blastopore (fig. It, D). At this stage the hind end of the body becomes curved ventrally into a spiral (fig. t t, E), and at the same time the appendages appear as hollow processes of the body-wall, a mesoblastic somite being prolonged into each of them. The first to appear are the antennae, into which the praeoral somites are prolonged. The remainder appear from before backwards in regular order, viz. jaw, oral papillae, legs 1-17. The full number of somites and their appendages is not, however, completed until a later stage. The nervous system is formed as an annular thickening of ectoderm passing in front of the mouth and behind the anus, and lying on each side of the blastopore along the lines of the somites. The praeoral part of this thickening, which gives rise to the cerebral ganglia, becomes pitted inwards on each side (fig. II, F, c.g.). These pits are eventually closed, and form the hollow ventral appendages of the suprapharyngeal ganglia of the adult (fig. 7, d). The lips are formed as folds of the side wall of the body, extending from the praeoral lobes to just behind the jaw (fig. t t, F, L). They enclose the jaws (j), mouth (M), and opening of the salivary glands (o.·), and so give rise to the buccal cavity. The embryo has now lost its spiral curvature, and becomes completely doubled upon itself, the hind end being in contact with the mouth (fig. I t, G). It remains in this position until birth. The just-born young are from to to 15 mm. in length, and have green antennae, but the rest of the body is either quite white or of a reddish colour. This red colour differs from the colour of the adult in being soluble in spirit. The mesoblastic somites are paired sacs formed from the anterior lateral portions of the primitive streak (fig. It, C). As they are formed they become placed in pairs on each side of the of somites have moved to the front end of the body.
E, side view of later embryo. At, Antenna; d, dorsal projection; p.s., praeoral somite.
F, Ventral view of head of embryo, intermediate between E and G. At, Antennae; c.g, cerebral groove; j, jaws; j.s. swelling at base of jaws; L, lips ;M, mouth; or.p, oral papillae; o.s, opening of salivary gland.
G, side view of older embryo.
blastopore. The somites of the first pair eventually obtain a position entirely in front of the blastopore (Fig. II, D). They form the somites of the praeoral lobes. The full complement of somites is acquired at about the stage of fig. II, E. The relations of the mesoblastic somites are shown in fig. 12, A, which represents a transverse section taken between the mouth and anus of an embryo of the stage of fig. II, D. The history of these somites is an exceedingly interesting one, and may be described shortly as follows: They divide into two parts - a ventral part which extends into the appendage, and a dorsal part (fig. 12, B). Each of the ventral parts acquires an opening to the exterior, just outside the nerve-cord, G (After Sedgwick.) FIG. I I. - A Series of Embryos of P. capensis. The hind end of embryos B, C, D is uppermost in the figures, the primitive streak is the white patch behind the blastopore.
0 A A, Gastrula stage, ventral view, showing blastopore.
B, Older gastrula stage, ventral view, showing elongated blastopore and primitive streak.
C, Ventral view of embryo with three pairs of mesoblastic somites, dumb-bell shaped blastopore and primitive s t r e a k.
D, Ventral view of embryo, in which the blastopore has completely closed in its middle portion. The anterior pair and becomes entirely transformed into a nephridium (fig. 12, D, 2'). The dorsal part shifts dorsalwards and diminishes relatively in size (fig. 12, C). Its fate differs in the different parts of the body. In the anterior somites it dwindles and disappears, but in the posterior part it unites with the dorsal divisions of contiguous somites of the same side, and forms a tube - the generative tube (fig. 12, D, 2). The last section of this tube retains its connexion with the ventral portion of the somite, and so acquires an external opening, which is at first lateral, but soon shifts to the middle line, and fuses with its fellow, to form the single generative opening. The praeoral somite develops the rudiment of a nephridium, but eventually entirely disappears. The jaw somite also disappears; the oral papilla somite forms ventrally the salivary glands, which are thus serially homologous with nephridia. The various divisions of the perivisceral cavity develop as a series of spaces between the ectoderm and endoderm, and later in the mesoderm. The mesoderm seems to be formed entirely from the proliferation of the cells of the mesoblastic somites. It thus appears that in Peripatus the coelom does not develop a perivisceral portion, but gives rise only to the renal and reproductive organs.
The genus Peripatus was established in 1826 by L. Guilding, who first obtained specimens of it from St Vincent in the Antilles. He regarded it as a mollusc, being no doubt deceived by the slug-like appearance given by the antennae. Specimens were subsequently obtained from other parts of the neotropical region, and from South Africa and Australia, and the animal was variously assigned by the zoologists of the day to the Annelida and Myriapoda. Its true place in the system, as a primitive member of the group Arthropoda, was first established in 1874 by H. N. Moseley, who discovered the tracheae. Peripatus is an Arthropod, as shown by (1) the presence of appendages modified as jaws; (2) the presence of paired lateral ostia perforating the wall of heart and putting its cavity in communication with the pericardium; (3) the presence of a vascular body cavity and pericardium (haemocoelic body cavity); (4) absence of a Derivisceral section of the coelom. Finally, the tracheae, though not characteristic of all the classes of the Arthropoda, are found nowhere outside that group, and constitute a very important additional reason for uniting Peripatus with it. Peripatus, though indubitably an Arthropod, differs in such important respects from all the old-established Arthropod classes, that a special class, equivalent in rank to the others, and called Prototracheata or Onychophora, has had, as we have seen, to be created for its sole occupancy. This unlikeness to other Arthropoda is mainly due to the Annelidan affinities which it presents, but in part to the presence of the following peculiar features: (I) the number and diffusion of the tracheal apertures; (2) the restriction of the jaws to a single pair; (3) the disposition of the generative organs; (4) the texture of the skin; and (,) the simplicity and similarity of all the segments of the body behind the head. The Annelidan affinities are superficially indicated in so marked a manner by the thinness of the cuticle, the dermomuscular body-wall, the hollow appendages, that, as already stated, many of the earlier zoologists who examined Peripatus placed it among the segmented worms; and the discovery that there is some solid morphological basis for this determination constitutes one of the most interesting points of the recent work on the genus. The Annelidan features are: (I) the paired nephridia in every segment of the body behind the first two (Saenger, Balfour); (2) the presence of cilia in the generative tracts (Gaffron). It is true that neither of these features is absolutely distinctive of the Annelida, but when taken in conjunction with the Annelidan disposition of the chief systems of organs, viz. the central nervous system, and the main vascular trunk or heart, they may be considered as indicating affinities in that direction.
Synopsis Of Species.
Peripatus (Guilding). - Soft-bodied vermiform animals, with one pair of ringed antennae, one pair of jaws, one pair of oral papillae, and a varying number of clawbearing ambulatory legs. Dorsal surface arched and more darkly pigmented than the flat ventral surface. Skin transversely ridged and beset by wart-like spiniferous papillae. Mouth anterior, ventral; anus posterior, terminal. Generative opening single, median, ventral and posterior. One pair of simple eyes. Brain large, with two ventral hollow appendages; ventral cords widely divaricated, without distinct ganglia. Alimentary canal simple, uncoiled. Segmentally arranged paired nephridia are present. Body cavity is continuous with the vascular system, and does not communicate with the paired nephridia. Heart tubular, with paired ostia. Respiration by means of tracheae. Dioecious; males smaller and generally less numerous than females. Generative glands tubular, continuous with the ducts. Viviparous. Young born fully developed. Distribution: Africa (Cape Colony, Natal, and the Gaboon), New Zealand, Australia and Tasmania, New Britain, South and Central America and the West Indies, the Malay Peninsula [and in Sumatra ?].
The genus Peripatus, so far as adult conformation is concerned, is a very homogeneous one. It is true, as was pointed out by Sedgwick, that the species from the same part of the world resemble one another more closely than they do species from other regions, but recent researches have shown that the line between them cannot be so sharply drawn as was at first supposed, and it is certainly not desirable in the present state of our knowledge to divide them into generic or subgeneric groups, as has been done by some zoologists. (The following genera have been proposed: Peripatus for the neotropical species, Peripatoides for the Australasian, Peripatopsis and Opisthopatus for the African, Paraperipatus for the New Britain, Eoperipatus for the Malayan species, and Ooperipatus for the supposed oviparous species of Australia and New Zealand.) The colour is highly variable in species from all regions; it is perhaps more constant in the species from the neotropical region than in those from elsewhere. The number of legs tends to be variable whenever it exceeds 19 praegenital pairs; when the number is less than that it is usually, though not always, constant. More constant points of difference are the form of the jaws, the position of the generative orifice, the presence of a receptaculum seminis and a receptaculum ovorum, the arrangement of the primary papillae on the distal end of the feet, and above all the early development.
South African Species
With three spinous pads on the legs, B (After Sedgwick.) FIG. 12. - A series of diagrams of transverse sections through Peripatus embryos to show the relations of the coelom at successive stages.
A, Eafly stage; no trace of the vascular space; endoderm and ectoderm in contact.
B, Endoderm has separated from the dorsal and ventral ectoderm. The somite is represented as having divided on the left side into a dorsal and ventral portion.
C, The haemocoele (3) has become divided up into a number of spaces, the arrangement of which is unimportant. The dorsal part of the somite has travelled dorsalwards, and now constitutes a small space (triangular in section) just dorsal to the gut. The ventral portion (2) has assumed a tubular character, and has acquired an external opening. The internal vesicle is already indicated, and is shown in the diagram by the thinner black line: I, gut; 2, somite; 2', nephridial part of coelom; 3, haemocoele; 3', part of haemocoele which will form the heart - the part of the haemocoele on each side of this will form the pericardium; 4, nerve-cord; 4, slime glands.
D represents the conditions at the time of birth. The coelom is represented as surrounded by a thick black line, except in the part which forms the internal vesicle of the nephridium.
A and feet with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one on the posterior side; outer jaw with one minor tooth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with no interval between the large tooth and the series of small ones; last fully developed leg of the male with enlarged crural gland opening on a large papilla placed on its ventral surface; coxal organs absent; the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th pairs of legs are placed in the proximal spinous pad. Genital opening subterminal, behind the last pair of fully developed legs; oviduct without receptacula seminis or receptacula ovorum; the terminal unpaired portion of vas deferens short. Ova of considerable size, but with only a small quantity of yolk. The embryos in the uterus are all nearly of the same age, except for a month or two before birth, when two broods overlap.
The following species are aberrant in respect of these characters: Peripatus (Opisthopatus) cinctipes, Purcell (Cape Colony and Natal), presents a few Australasian features; there is a small receptaculum seminis on each oviduct, some of the legs are provided with welldeveloped coxal organs, the feet have one anterior, one posterior and one dorsal papilla, and the successive difference in the ages of the embryos in the uterus, though nothing like that found in the neotropical species, is slightly greater than that found in other investigated African species. Several pairs of legs in the middle region of the body are provided with enlarged crural glands which open on a large papilla. Male with four accessory glands, opening on each side of and behind the genital aperture. P. tholloni, Bouvier, (Equatorial West Africa [Gaboon]), shows some neotropical features; there are 24 to 25 pairs of legs, the genital opening is between the penultimate legs, and though there are only three spinous pads the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are proximal to the 3rd pad, coxal organs are present, and the jaws are of the neotropical type; the oviducts have receptacula seminis. The following South African species may be mentioned: P. capensis (Grube), with 17 (rarely 18) pairs of claw-bearing legs; P. balfouri (Sedgw.) with 18 (rarely 19) pairs; P. moseleyi (Wood-M.), with 20 to 24 pairs.
With 14, 15 or 16 pairs of claw-bearing ambulatory legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial opening of the 4th and 5th legs on the proximal pad; feet with one anterior, one posterior and one dorsal primary papilla; inner jaw without diastema, outer with or without a minor tooth. Last leg of the male with or without a large white papilla on its ventral surface for the opening of a gland, and marked papillae for the ,crural glands are sometimes present on other legs of the male; well-developed coxal glands absent. Genital opening between the legs of the last pair; oviducts with receptacula seminis, without receptacula ovorum; the terminal portion of the vas deferens long and complicated; the accessory male glands open between the genital aperture and the anus, near the latter. Ova large and heavily charged with yolk, and provided with a stoutish shell. The uterus appears to contain embryos of different ages. Specimens are recorded from West Australia, Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and New Zealand. The Australasian species are in some confusion. The number of claw-bearing legs varies from 14 to 16 pairs, but the number most often found is 15. Whether the number varies in the same species is not clear. There appears to be evidence that some species are occasionally or normally oviparous, and in the supposed oviparous species the oviduct opens at the end of a papilla called from its supposed function an ovipositor, but the oviparity has not yet been certainly proved as a normal occurrence. Among the species described may be mentioned P. leuckarti (Saenger), P. insignis (Dendy), P. oviparus (Dendy), P. viridimaculatus (Dendy), P. novae zealandiae (Hutton), but it is by no means certain that future research will maintain these. Mr J. J. Fletcher, indeed, is of opinion that the Australian forms are all varieties of ,one species, P. leuckarti. Neotropical Species. - With three to five spinous pads on the legs, nephridial opening of the 4th and 5th legs usually proximal to the 3rd pad, and feet either with two primary papillae on the anterior side and one on the posterior, or with two on the anterior and two on the posterior; outer jaw with small minor tooth or teeth at the base of the main tooth, inner jaw with diastema. A variable number of posterior legs of the males anterior to the genital opening with one or two large papillae carrying the openings of the crural glands; well-developed coxal organs present on most of the legs. The primary papillae usually divided into two portions. Genital opening between the legs of the penultimate pair; oviduct provided with receptacula seminis and ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens long and complicated; accessory organs of male opening at the sides of the anus. Ova minute, with little food-yolk; embryos in the uterus at very different stages of development. The number of legs usually if not always variable in the same species; the usual number is 28 to 32 pairs, but in some species 40 to 43 pairs are found. The neotropical species appear to fall into two groups: (I) the so-called Andean species, viz. those which inhabit the high plateaus or Pacific slope of the Andes; in these there are 4 (sometimes 5) pedal papillae, and the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are on the third pad; and (2) the Caribbean species, viz. the remaining neotropical species, in which there are 3 papillae on the foot and the nephridial openings of the 4th and 5th legs are between the 3rd and 4th pads. The Andean species are P. eisenii (Wh.), P. tuberculatus (Bouv.), P. lankesteri (Bouv.), P. quitensis (Schm.), P. corradi (Cam.), P. cameranoi (Bouv.) and P. balzani (Cam.). Of the remaining species, which are the majority, may be mentioned P. edwardsii (Blanch), P. jamaicensis (Gr. and Cock.), P. trinidadensis (Sedgw.), P. torquatus (Ken.), P. im thurmi (Scl.). New Britain Peripatus. - With 22 to 24 pairs of claw-bearing legs, with three spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of legs 4 and 5 (sometimes of 6 also) on the proximal pad; feet with one primary papilla on the anterior, one on the posterior side, and one on the dorsal side (median or submedian); outer jaw with a minor tooth, inner jaw without diastema; crural glands absent; well-developed coxal organs absent. Genital opening subterminal behind the last pair of legs; oviduct with receptaculum seminis, without receptaculum ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens very short; accessory glands two, opening medianly and dorsally. Ova small, .1 mm. in diameter, with little yolk, and the embryos provided with large trophic vesicles (Willey). Embryos in the uterus of very different ages, and probably born all the year round. One species only known, P. novae britanniae (Willey).
Sumatran Peripatus. - Peripatus with 24 pairs of ambulatory legs, and four spinous pads on the legs. The primary papillae of the neotropical character with conical bases. Generative opening between the legs of the penultimate pair. Feet with only two papillae. Single species. P. sumatranus (Sedgw.). The existence of this species is doubtful.
Peripatus from the Malay Peninsula
With 23 to 25 pairs of claw-bearing legs, four spinous pads on the legs, and nephridial openings of legs 4 and 5 in the middle of the proximal pad or on its proximal side; feet with two primary papillae, one anterior and one posterior; outer jaw with two, inner jaw with two or three minor teeth at the base of the main tooth, separated by a diastema from the row of small teeth; crural glands present in the male only, in the two pairs of legs preceding the generative opening; coxal glands present. Genital opening between the penultimate legs; oviduct with receptacula seminis and ovorum; unpaired part of vas deferens long; male accessory glands two, opening medianly between the legs of the last pair. Ova large, with much yolk and thick membrane, like those of Australasian species; embryos with slit-like blastopore and of very different ages in the same uterus, probably born all the year round. The species are P. weldoni (Evans), P. horsti (Evans) and P. butleri (Evans). It will thus be seen that the Malay species, while resembling the neotropical species in the generative organs, differ from these in many features of the legs and feet, in the important characters furnished by the site and structure of the ovum, and by their early development.
Authorities. -F. M. Balfour, "The Anatomy and Development of P. capensis," posthumous memoir, edited by H. N. Moseley and A. Sedgwick, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. vol. xxiii. (1883); E. L. Bouvier, "Sur l'organisation du Peripatus tholloni, Bouv.," Comptes rendus, cxxvi.1358-1361(1898); "Contributions a l'histoire des Peripates Americains," Ann. de la societe entomologique de France, lxviii. 385-450 (1899); "Quelques observations sur les onychophores du musee britannique," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliii. 367 (1900); A. Dendy, "On the Oviparous Species of Onychophorea," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xlv. 362 (1902); R. Evans, "On Onychophora from the Siamese Malay States," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xliv. 473 (1901), and "On the Development of Ooperipatus," ibid. xlv. i (1901); J. J. Fletcher, "On the Specific Identity of the Australian Peripatus, usually supposed to be P. leuckarti, Saenger," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, x. 172 (1895); E. Gaffron, "Beitrage z. Anat. u. Physiol. v. Peripatus," Th. I and 2, Zool. Beitrage (Schneider), i. 33, 145; L. Guilding, "Mollusca caribbaeana: an account of a new genus of Mollusca," Zool. Journ. ii. 443, pl. 14 (1826); reprinted in Isis, xxi. 158, pl. ii. (1828); H. N. Moseley, "On the Structure and Development of Peripatus capensis," Phil. Trans. (1874); R. I. Pocock, "Contributions to our Knowledge of the Arthropod Fauna of the West Indies," pt. 2, Malacopoda, &c., Journ. Linn. Soc. xxiv. 518; W. F. Purcell, "On the South African Species of Peripatus," &c., Annals of the South African Museum, i. 331 (1898-1899) and "Anatomy of Opisthopatus cinctipes," ibid. vol. ii. (1900); W. L. Sclater, "On the Early Stages of the Development of a South American Species of Peripatus," Quart. Journ. of Mic. Sci. xxviii. 343-361 (1888); A. Sedgwick, "A Monograph of the Development of Peripatus capensis" (originally published in various papers in the Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci., 1885-1888); Studies from the Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, iv. 1 -146 (1889); "A Monograph of the Species and Distribution of the Genus Peripatus, Guilding," Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. 431-494 (1888); L. Sheldon, "On the Development of Peripatus novae zealandiae," pts. i and 2, Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci. xxviii. and xxix. (1888 and 1889). The memoirs quoted by Sclater, Sedgwick and Sheldon are all reprinted in vol. iv. of the Studies from the Morphological Lab. of the University of Cambridge, vol. iv. (Cambridge University Press, 1889). T. Steel, "Observations on Peripatus," Proc. Linn. Soc. New South Wales, P. 94 (1896); A. Willey, ". The Anatomy and Development of P. novae britanniae," Zoological Results, pt. I, pp. 1-52 (Cambridge, 1898). (A. SE.*)
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SpaceX CEO Elon Musk has been vocal about his desire to get humans to Mars.
And for the first time, Musk talked about how transportation could work on Mars. Specifically, he discussed how a Hyperloop could run on the planet at the award ceremony for his Hyperloop design competition.
His thoughts? It really wouldn't be that hard to set up.
"On Mars you basically just need a track," he said at the ceremony. "You might be able to just have a road, honestly. [It would] go pretty fast."
This is because the air density isn't as high on Mars as it is on Earth. As Musk explained, the density of Mars' atmosphere is only 1% of Earth. That roughly translates to there being less air resistance to slow down a moving object.
Musk added that any kind of transportation on Mars would also have to be electric.
"It would obviously have to be electric because there's no oxygen," Musk said of the hypothetical Martian Hyperloop. "You have to have really fast electric cars or trains or things."
Check out Musk's full comments below.
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How can you tell if a new type of element has been created, especially if only a few atoms of it were created and if they only existed for a millisecond?
Well it's about time someone asked this question! Seeing three atoms of something does seem kind of unlikely. The question "How did they do that?" should have been asked right away. Believe it or not there are whole armies of people (and I am one of those people) working on expanding human senses. This has been going on since shortly after humans stretched out and stood up on our hind legs. The first hairy guy... oh, excuse me... person who crawled up a tree to see farther in the distance is my direct professional ancestor. The benefits of this work is all around us. Eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, binoculars, telescopes, microscopes, cameras, x-ray machines, CAT, PET, SPECT, and MRI scanners, radar, sonar, radio telescopes, sonograms and clocks are all examples of devices invented to expand the capabilities of our senses. The list could go on and on. For particle physics we build special instruments, cleverly called particle detectors. There are several branches of experimental physics. The experiments can be quite different, but the detectors themselves typically have a lot in common.
It is somewhat ironic that the devices designed to see the smallest, simplest pieces of our universe tend to be huge and extraordinarily complex. They do use only a few different physical phenomena to help us "see" the particles.
In a typical experiment there are two general classes of detectors. The first is called a tracking detector. These tell you the path that a particle has taken.
The second type of detector is a calorimeter. These measure the energy that the particle has. It's the nature of these devices that make it very difficult to measure a particle's track and its energy at the same time. Therefore, the two detectors are often used in tandem.
Tracking detectors have to have very little material in them to prevent them from interfering with the natural path of particles. Calorimeters have to have as much material in them as possible to interfere with and stop the particle. Usually trackers are in front of calorimeters.
There are two naturally occurring phenomena that we take advantage of to amplify our senses to the point where we can detect sub-atomic particles. These two phenomena make up the way most of the detectors work. The first is called scintillation. There is a property of some materials that when particles go through them, they give off a tiny flash of light. We can catch that flash with a very sensitive light sensors which tells us a particle just went through that material. The other technique is called ionization. This happens when a charged particle passes through a material and rips off electrons. We can collect the electrons or the ions left behind after the electrons are ripped off. The electrons/ions can illustrate something about the particle that went through our detector.
At Jefferson Lab, combinations of these two types of detectors are assembled in clever ways to allow us to learn the most from our machine. So you see, even though these devices are huge and seem enormously complex, they are actually based on fairly simple processes. It should be clear though, that no one actually "sees" the particle. We only see the tracks it left, but we can still learn a lot from the tracks.
By putting a magnetic field around the instrument, we cause the path the particle takes to curve. By measuring the radius of the curve we can calculate the momentum of that particle. If we know how fast it is moving, which we can also get from the detector, we can use that with the momentum to find its mass.
The lifetime of the particle is easily determined by knowing how fast it is moving along with how far it has traveled. A millisecond lifetime is not a problem because many particle detectors can measure timing to nanoseconds. Milliseconds are like hours to some of our detectors.
To know if you've succeeded at making a particular element, you need to know what properties to look for. That's where the periodic table helps out. That wonderful chart tells us a lot about the properties of particular elements - like if it doesn't exist! Discovering that pattern was one of mankind's greatest leaps in understanding the nature of matter.
Brian Kross, Chief Detector Engineer (Other answers by Brian Kross)
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Insulin is a hormone produced by specialized cells in the pancreas. Secreted into the bloodstream at each meal, insulin helps the body use and store glucose (sugar) produced during the digestion of food. In people with diabetes, the pancreas either does not produce enough insulin or the body cannot use the insulin that is produced in an efficient manner.
Treatment for diabetes requires the delivery of insulin into the bloodstream by either an insulin pen, needle and syringe, or pump. An insulin pen is a device that looks like a pen but contains an insulin cartridge. Both the syringe and pen methods require injection of the insulin into the arm, thigh, or abdomen. Pump therapy, however, continuously administers insulin according to a programmed plan unique to the pump wearer. Several types of insulin exist, and they differ in when the insulin begins working after it is injected, when the insulin is working hardest, and how long the insulin lasts in the body.
Insulin release and glucose absorption depend on a number of factors, including the glycemic index of food and the co-ingestion of fat and protein. Consumption of high-glycemic foods causes hyperglycemia which results in the release of too much insulin. On the other hand, low-glycemic foods or the ingestion of fat and protein in a meal provide steady glucose absorption and release of insulin.
Exercise lowers blood glucose levels and increases the amount of insulin in the bloodstream, along with improving the body's use of insulin. A balance must exist between the sugar used for energy, the sugar available from food, and the insulin used in lowering blood sugar. Consequently, changes may have to be made to insulin, or food intake, or both, prior to and after exercise.
Bode, Bruce W.; Sabbah, Hassan T.; Gross, Todd M.; Fredrickson, Linda P.; and Davidson, Paul C. (2002). "Diabetes Management in the New Millennium Using Insulin Pump Therapy." Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 18 (Suppl. 1):S14–S20.
DeWitt, Dawn E. and Hirsch, Irl B. (2003). "Outpatient Insulin Therapy in Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: A Scientific Review." Journal of the American Medical Association 289(17):2254–2264.
Parmet, Sharon; Cassio, Lynm; and Glass, Richard M. (2003). "Insulin." Journal of the American Medical Association 289(17):2314.
American Diabetes Association. "About Insulin." Available from <http://www.diabetes.org/>
National Library of Medicine. "Diabetes." Updated July 2, 2003. Available from <http://medlineplus.gov/>
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A sign that reads “Nature • History • Space” greets visitors to Titusville, and that branding couldn’t be more accurate. The trio comingle in the expansive coastal area between Daytona Beach and Cocoa Beach, on Florida’s Atlantic coast, and they’re essentially inseparable. Case in point: Merritt Island, just across the Indian River Lagoon from sleepy 145-year-old Titusville, is the home of Kennedy Space Center, but rocket ship technology is only part of its 140,000 acres.
The rest is wildlife, virtually undisturbed. As you tour the Kennedy complex’s cutting-edge aeronautics facilities, you may spot alligators, manatees and a nest that’s been used by bald eagles for 40 years. Beyond the space center’s boundaries, the rest of Merritt Island is a national wildlife refuge, and farther afield is a national park. The refuge protects more than 550 species of creatures and more than 1,000 species of plants while serving as a buffer for the space center’s highly protected projects. This means that no one will pave this paradise out of existence.
LESSONS TO LEARN
Education is a huge part of the Space Coast’s offering: This region is packed with museums of all sizes. It more than a half-century ago that Kennedy Space Center first sent a man into outer space, through Project Mercury; ever since, tourists have come here to learn about travel to worlds beyond. The KSC’s Visitor Complex has showcased the government’s space-geared successes since 1967, and new experiences are added regularly. Guests can view retired spacecraft in the Rocket Garden, watch a mock shuttle launch, meet real astronauts and buy freeze-dried ice cream on a tour of the grounds. Now they can also get a closer look at the sprawling center’s hub via the KSC Up-Close Tour. This two-and-a-half-hour add-on is a bus trip to the highlights narrated by a guide.
On any one tour, there’s no telling which buildings will have the security-clearance green light for Up-Close. Recent participants have visited the 525-foot-high Vehicle Assembly Building, which was off-limits throughout the space shuttle era. One of the world’s largest buildings by volume, this is where rocket ships have been assembled and from which they’ve been wheeled out to launch pads since the Saturn V rocket for 1967’s Apollo 4 mission.
Soak up the jargon as your guide throws out terms like expendable launch vehicles (the parts of shuttles left in space) and mobile launcher platforms (sort of two-story steel dollies for rocket ships). Meanwhile, you may get to approach the launch pads themselves; the area where journalists sit to watch launches; and the road on which 6-million-pound “crawlers” carry spaceships to the launch pads.
Once you’re back at the Visitor Complex with the masses, seek out the Firing Room Theater to relive the tense takeoff of Apollo 8 (yes, that’s the original launch control-center equipment from 1968), a Saturn V rocket that never flew to the moon, a 3.7-billion-year-old moon rock and space suits from across the years.
You’ll learn about more-conventional aviation at the Valiant Air Command Warbird Museum, which is essentially two museums in one. The shabby but memorabilia-packed main room details the history of flight, starting with an original Link Trainer, used in the 1930s to teach pilots to fly at night and in foul weather. Amid the papers, prints, photographs, uniform-clad mannequins, goggles and gas masks are themed areas dedicated to early flight and the role of aviation in wars fought by the United States. You’ll also learn about women who flew service planes in World War II, the Flying Tigers (American airmen who volunteered with the Chinese Air Force in 1941 and 1942) and Tuskegee Airmen (the first African-American air brigade). You can walk around on your own or request a complimentary tour with one of the many blue-vested volunteers. This silver-haired set is eager to share the kind of knowledge that will add depth to your visit. You’ll learn how airplanes changed from one war to the next and how aviation technology sped up when World War I began. And you’ll definitely get a World War II history lesson.
To understand the entire Titusville area, stop by the folksy North Brevard Historical Museum. A simple storefront manned by local retirees, the space is packed with a riot of goods donated by town residents. One section is dedicated to Colonel Henry T. Titus, who founded the town in 1867, and his wife, Mary. You’ll see lots of wooden items: telephones, radios, cash registers, an ox harness and an Edison gramophone. Wander around to discover decades-old toasters, folding cameras and Girl Scout sashes—plus, of course, assorted space-related doodads.
WETLANDS TO WANDER
Seemingly endless swaths of untouched Florida wetland surround the space center, drawing naturalists, hikers and birders. The expansive Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge is rich in indigenous fauna and flora. Begin at the information center, where you can pick up a map, see a display of highlights and eavesdrop on excited bird-spotting conversations (“There’s a cinnamon teal duck on East Gator Creek Road!”). Take a mini tour along the boardwalk right outside, which winds through wetland and oak hammock and includes a butterfly garden. Blackbirds, doves, sparrows, painted buntings and warblers visit frequently.
Tailor your tour to your interests. This area is known as the redfish capital of the world, so fishermen often choose to launch their boats from the refuge. Crabbing and shrimping are also excellent here. Pick up a free permit at the visitor center, or download it beforehand from the park website. Bird-watchers opt for Black Point Wildlife Drive ($5 a car), a 7-mile branch of the Great Florida Birding Trail. Expect to see snowy egrets, roseate spoonbills, ibises, great blue herons, reddish egrets and many other feathered creatures frolicking in their natural habitat. Hikers have their choice of 6 trails, including a 2-mile exploration through palm hammock, a mile-long one into flatwoods and one that’s populated by a species of scrub jay that is unique to Florida.
Canaveral National Seashore, adjacent to the refuge, is a real find for those seeking quiet beach time. Drive down a well-paved road toward Playalinda Beach, stopping along the way to see the birds and even the space center (from a distance). You’ll end at a series of boardwalks that provide access to the sand and surf. The Atlantic Ocean will be to your right, Mosquito Lagoon to your left. In season, you may spot turtle nests on land and right whales, stingrays or dolphins in the water. Fishing and boating are popular here, as are beach and island camping on the northern side of the park.
OUT AND ABOUT
Those looking for action will find thrills both mild and wild in the Titusville/Merritt Island vicinity. Airboats are a classic Florida adventure, and Airboat Rides at Midway offers one of the best experiences around. Located in Christmas (be sure to send postcards from the post office), just down the road from Titusville, this outfit has a fleet of 6 custom-designed boats with excellent headsets: Along the way, the captain directs your attention to bald eagles, alligators and glossy ibises.
Excursions go into a river marsh through a conservation area alongside the St. John’s National Wildlife Refuge and into the Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area. In addition to birds and reptiles, you may see cattle grazing and wild boar roaming. A highlight is a stop in the Tosohatchee cypress swamp, where acres of bald cypress thrive, roots exposed as high as 6 feet from the ground. (The roots’ tricolor appearance is caused by changing water levels: The water rises and falls as much as a foot as the seasons change.)
For a calmer but equally intriguing take on water play, join a Black Night/Cold Light excursion with A Day Away Kayak Tours. After meeting at Haulover Canal, you’ll head to shallow waters where single-celled organisms called dinoflagellates glow, lighting up the water. The bioluminescent creatures let you see what’s swimming beneath the surface, including schools of mullet. Daytime kayak trips often result in manatee sightings, while those at sunset head toward a federal rookery island visited in droves by exotic birds.
If you prefer air adventures to those at sea, book an excursion with Florida Biplanes. Two guests at a time can take a spin—over Cocoa Beach and Port Canaveral, or over Kennedy Space Center—in the cockpit of an open-air 1940s Waco UPF-7. You’ll sit in the front seat while the pilot maneuvers behind you, narrating as you pass over land and water. For the Kennedy Space Center tour (15 minutes), you’ll soar directly over the runway used by space shuttles. Upgrade to a 30- or 45-minute trip, or maybe one with loops, wingovers or barrel rolls. The sunset run is popular for marriage proposals.
When it’s time to fuel up, head to Titusville to find an assortment of moderately priced restaurants in buildings with signs explaining what was originally housed there. Though Titusville and Merritt Island may be near busy beaches and only an hour from Orlando’s theme parks, they’re a world unto themselves. Spaceships, vintage airplanes and acres of wetland are a refreshing change from chaise longues and beach volleyball.
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Cholera Outbreak Spreading through Mexico.
The east-central state of Hidalgo has the highest count of confirmed cases with 145 people being infected, including the death of a 75-year-old woman, said Health Minister Mercedes Juan on Monday.
Other states affected with cholera include Mexico with nine, Veracruz with two, San Luis Potosi with one, and a couple others in Mexico City, the official added.
Juan said that another 3,075 “probable cases” have been detected throughout the country.
The ministry has launched a nationwide public health campaign aimed at preventing further infections.
Eight in every 10 cases have already been successfully treated, with those infected in the past several weeks ranging in age from three to 86.
The origin of the outbreak has been traced back to a source of fresh water in the Rio Tecoluco in Hidalgo, said David Korenfeld, the head of Mexico’s national water commission.
Cholera is an acute intestinal infection caused by contaminated food or water, known to occur in places with poor sanitation. The nauseous diarrheal disease is especially fatal for children.
The outbreak marks the first local transmission of the infection since the country’s last cholera epidemic in 2001, according to the Pan American Health Organization.
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It is known that chemicals cause many human diseases. Some of the chemicals that have been documented to be dangerous to human exposure include:
Exposure to certain chemicals may cause reactions similar to those experienced with allergies. Chemicals that may cause sensitivity may include synthetic and natural substances found in:
There are many other chemicals under investigation and the problem continues to grow because of the ever increasing production of organic chemicals.
Multiple chemical sensitivity, or MCS, as it is sometimes referred to, is under debate in the medical community at this time. Some physicians question whether it exists, while others acknowledge that this is a medical disorder triggered by exposures to chemicals in the environment. This often begins with a short-term, severe chemical exposure, such as a chemical spill, or a longer-term exposure, such as a poorly ventilated office.
After the initial exposure, low levels of chemicals found in everyday materials such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, and newspaper inks can trigger physical symptoms in persons with multiple chemical sensitivities.
The following are the most common symptoms of multiple chemical sensitivity. However, each person experiences symptoms differently. Symptoms may include:
Symptoms of multiple chemical sensitivity may resemble other medical conditions. Always consult your doctor for a diagnosis.
At this time, many in the medical community do not accept multiple chemical sensitivity as a genuine medical disorder. Credible sources, such as the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Medical Association, do not recognize this as a medical diagnosis, nor is there any official medical definition because symptoms and chemical exposures are often unique and vary widely between individuals.
Click here to view the
Online Resources of Environmental Medicine
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Solving Funky Equations
Sometimes you will solve an equation that has a funky answer, like 10 = 8 or y = y. This doesn't necessarily mean that you did anything wrong, it might very well mean that all or no numbers work. Here are some of these equations:
All Real Numbers Example
|distribute the 3|
|subtract 24 from each side|
|divide each side by 3|
|x = all real numbers|
This means that any number we choose for x will make the equation true. We should verify that this is the correct answer by doing just that, picking a few different numbers and seeing if they work. Let's pick easy numbers like 1 and 2.
See, it all works.
BTW, did you notice that if you had distributed the 3 in 3(x + 8) at the beginning of the problem, the expressions on each side of the equal sign would have been the same?
No Solution Example
|add 6y to each side|
This equation does not work. Since 5 ≠ 1, there is no number we can substitute for y to make this equation true.
Unfortunately this one is harder to verify since it would be impossible to check that every number does not work. The best way to make sure the answer is correct is to redo the problem.
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Definitions for repatriateriˈpeɪ triˌeɪt; -ɪt; esp. Brit. -ˈpæ-
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word repatriate
a person who has returned to the country of origin or whose citizenship has been restored
send someone back to his homeland against his will, as of refugees
admit back into the country
a person who has returned to the country of origin or whose citizenship has been restored.
To restore (a person) to his or her own country.
Origin: repatriare. Cognate to repair.
to restore to one's own country
Origin: [L. repatriare. See 1st Repair.]
Chambers 20th Century Dictionary
rē-pā′tri-āt, v.t. to restore to one's country.—n. Repatriā′tion.
Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms
A person who returns to his or her country or citizenship, having left said native country either against his or her will, or as one of a group who left for reason of politics, religion, or other pertinent reasons.
The numerical value of repatriate in Chaldean Numerology is: 6
The numerical value of repatriate in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
We strongly demand North Korea to quickly release our citizens Kim Kuk Gi and Choe Chun Gil and repatriate them without hesitation.
We have received a request from Syria early this year to convert the HEU fuel to LEU fuel and to repatriate the HEU to the country of origin. We are now studying this request.
After a careful review of the matter, we are planning on lifting the ‘seizure in place’ order and directing the museum to repatriate the artifacts that we believe were illegally obtained.
The most important thing is to identify who the victims are -- and where they come from. If they come from another country we will repatriate them. But we first have to rehabilitate them until they are strong.
Given the practice of the DPRK to send North Koreans to Russia, who often work in slave-like conditions, it is feared that such a treaty could also be used to capture and repatriate workers who attempt to seek asylum.
Images & Illustrations of repatriate
Translations for repatriate
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
Get even more translations for repatriate »
Find a translation for the repatriate definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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African-Americans have contributed much to Virginia heritage and culture.
The following are a few African-Americans with ties to Virginia.
James Armistead Lafayette - (1748*-1830) New Kent; Born into slavery. Joined the American Continental Army to fight for the American Revolution under Marquis de Lafayette. Became a spy. His intel enabled Washington's army to prevent 10,000 British soldiers from invading Yorktown, which led to the British surrender on October 19, 1781. He returned to slave life until granted emancipation by petition in 1787.* Some sources indicate James Armistead Lafayette was born in 1760.
Gabriel Prosser - (1776-1800) Richmond; Born into slavery on the Brookfield Plantation in Henrico County. Educated, literate blacksmith who planned the unfulfilled "Gabriel's Rebellion" in 1800 - a plan to kill every white with the exception of French, Methodist, Quaker and poor. Gabriel was captured and hanged at Richmond's 15th & Broad gallows on October 10, 1800 at the age of 24.
Dred Scott - (1795-1858) Southampton County; Born into slavery on the Peter Blow farm. Scott is best known for fighting legally for his freedom and the freedom of his family. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled against Scott in Dred Scott v. Sandford, 1857. Seeing the Scotts as too controversial to keep, then owner, Mrs. Emerson, returned the Scotts to the Blow family who granted their freedom in May 1857.
Nat Turner - (1800-1831) Southampton County; Born into slavery on the Turner Plantation where he was taught reading, writing, and religion. Preacher who claimed God called him to lead the slaves from bondage. Led a slave insurrection known as Nat Turner's Rebellion, which resulted in the deaths of more than 50 white people and harsher laws against slaves.
Joseph Jenkins Roberts - (1809-1876) Norfolk; Born free at a time when many were born into slavery. Boarded a ship to Liberia with his mother, six siblings, and wife in 1829. Became a sheriff in 1833; first black governor of the colony of Liberia (1840-1847); elected the first president of the new Republic of Liberia (1848). Served as president twice (1848-1856, 1872-1876). Helped found Liberia College (1851); served as a professor and president.
Mary Elizabeth Bowser - (1839-unknown) Richmond; Union spy working as a servant for Varina Davis, wife of the President of the Confederacy, Jefferson Davis. Inducted into the U.S. Army Military Intelligence Corps Hall of Fame (1995).
William Harvey Carney - (1840-1908) Norfolk; First black Medal of Honor recipient, decorated for his "extraordinary heroism on 18 July 1863 ... when the color sergeant was shot down, Sergeant Carney grasped the flag, led the way ... was twice severely wounded."
Booker T. Washington – (1856-1915 ) Hardy; Educator, Founder of Tuskegee Institute.
Maggie L. Walker – (1864*-1934) Richmond; First woman bank president in America, Advocate of black women's rights* A discovery in 2009 revealed bank records showing Walker's birth earlier than the widely believed 1867 date.
Adam Clayton Powell, Sr. - (1865-1953) Franklin County; Yale University graduate, prominent minister for Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, New York between 1908 and 1936. By the time his son took over the pastorate in 1937, church membership totaled 7,000, making it one of the largest Protestant churches in the world.
Robert Russa Moton – (1867-1940) Amelia County; Educator, Lawyer, successor to Booker T. Washington as President of Tuskegee Institute.
Bill "Bojangles" Robinson – (1878-1949) Richmond; Dancer, stage and screen actor in early 1900s.
Dr. Edwin B. Henderson - (1883-1977) Washington, DC, settled in Falls Church for more than 50 years; "Grandfather of Black Basketball;" Introduced basketball to African-Americans on a wide-scale, organized basis in 1904; Author of The Negro in Sports (1939); Principle organizer of the first rural branch of the NAACP.
Roger Arliner Young - (1889-1964) Clifton Forge; Zoologist; The first African-American woman to be awarded a Ph.D. in zoology.
Oliver White Hill - (1907-2007) Richmond; Lead attorney with Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, which was consolidated with Brown v. Board of Education at the Supreme Court; First African American Richmond City Council member (1949). Highly decorated with the top-prize being the Presidential Medal of Freedom bestowed by President William J. Clinton (1999).
Ella Fitzgerald – (1917-1996) Newport News; "The First Lady of Song;" Grammy Award-winning Jazz Singer.
Pearl Bailey– (1918-1988) Newport News; Actress, Singer and Author; Tony Award (1967); Medal of Freedom Award (1988).
Wendell Scott - (1921-1990) Danville; First (and only, as of this publication) African-American to win a NASCAR race (1963); "State Hero" Resolution by the Virginia General Assembly (1991); International Motorsports Hall of Fame Inductee (1999); Virginia Sports Hall of Fame Inductee (2000).
L. Douglas Wilder – (1931- ) Richmond; First elected African-American Governor in U.S. history.
Henry L. Marsh III- (1933- ) Isle of Wight County; Attorney involved with Brown v. Board of Education on the Virginia front; first African American mayor of Richmond (1977-82); Virginia State Senator (1992-present).
Barbara Johns - (1935-1991) New York City, but grew up in Farmville, Prince Edward County. Sixteen year old junior at Robert Russa Moton High School who organized a student strike for a new school building (1951). The NAACP advised the students to sue for integration. The Farmville case was one of the five eventually rolled into the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka case that declared segregation unconstitutional (1954).
Lonnie Liston Smith – (1940- ) Richmond; Jazz pianist and keyboardist recording with notable musicians Pharaoh Sanders and Miles Davis. Meshed jazz with rap in the 90s.
Don Pullen– (1941-1995) Roanoke; Jazz pianist, organist, and composer. Well-received in Europe for his avant-garde jazz.
Arthur Ashe – (1943-1993) Richmond; Tennis player, writer, commentator; Wimbledon champion (1975); Medal of Freedom Award (1993).
Tim Reid – (1944 - ) Norfolk; Actor, writer, director, producer."WKRP in Cincinnati", "Simon & Simon", "Sister, Sister". Co-founder of New Millennium Studios in Petersburg, VA.
Willie Lanier – (1945- ) Clover; Football player, Kansas City (1967-77); member, pro football Hall of Fame (1986).
Spencer Christian– (1947- ) Charles City; TV weatherman for ABC's "Good Morning America"
Joseph B. Jefferson - Richmond/Petersburg; songwriter. "One of a Kind (Love Affair)" performed by The Spinners and released in 1972, topping the R&B Singles Chart and reaching number eleven on the Billboard Pop Singles chart in 1973. Other songs include "Games People Play," and "Sadie," sampled in "Dear Mama" by Tupac Shakur.
Moses Malone – (1955-2015) Petersburg; basketball player; ABA Utah Stars, St. Louis Spirits (1974-76); NBA Buffalo Braves, Houston Rockets, Philadelphia 76ers (1976-95); NBA MVP (1979, '82, '83); named "One of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History" (1996); member, Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame (2001).
Lawrence Taylor– (1959- ) Williamsburg; football player; Second Overall Draft Pick (NFL Draft, 1981), New York Giants (1981-93); member, pro football Hall of Fame (1999).
Ralph Sampson - (1960- ) Harrisonburg; basketball player. First Overall Draft Pick (NBA Draft, 1983). Houston Rockets (1983-1987), Golden State Warriors (1987-1989), Sacramento Kings (1989-1990), Washington Bullets (1991), Unicaja Ronda of Spain (1992), Rockford Lightning of CBA (1994-1995). Four-time NBA All-Star (1984-1987), NBA Rookie of the Year (1984), NBA All-Star Game MVP (1985).
Bruce Smith – (1963- ) Norfolk; football player; Outland Trophy winner at Virginia Tech (1984) , First Overall Draft Pick (NFL Draft, 1985), Buffalo Bills, Washington Redskins; member, Virginia Sports Hall of Fame (2005); member, College Football Hall of Fame (2006).
Wanda Sykes – (1964- ) Portsmouth; Comedienne and actress. Film and television credits include "The Wanda Sykes Show," "The New Adventures of Old Christine," "Evan Almighty," "Monster-in-Law," "Nutty Professor 2," "Chris Rock Show;" Emmy Award Winner (1999, 2002, 2004, 2005).
Blair Underwood – (1964- ) Tacoma, WA moved to different states and graduated from Petersburg High School; Actor, film and television credits include "Dirty Sexy Money," "Full Frontal," "Rules of Engagement," "City of Angels," "LAX," "L.A. Law," "The Event;" NAACP Image Award Winner (1992, '95, '99, 2001).
Pernell Whitaker – (1964- ) Norfolk; Boxer; Olympic Gold Medalist (1984); member, International Boxing Hall of Fame (2006).
Jesse L. Martin - (1969- ) Rocky Mount; Actor. Broadway and television credits include "Rent," "New York Undercover," "413 Hope Street," "Alley McBeal," "Law & Order," "Smash"
Alonzo Mourning – (1970- ) Chesapeake; Basketball player; Second Overall Draft Pick (NBA Draft, 1992), NBA Charlotte Hornets (1992-95), Miami Heat (1995-2002, 2004-08), New Jersey Nets (2003-04); Olympic Gold Medalist (2000).
Missy Elliott - (1971- ) Portsmouth; Songwriter, Producer, Arranger, Talent Scout, Record Mogel. Considered the top female hip-hop artist of all time. Four-time Grammy Award Winner (2001, 2002, 2003, 2005).
Timothy Z. Mosley, aka Timbaland - (1972- ) Norfolk; Songwriter, Producer, Rapper. One of the highest paid musicians according to a 2007 Forbes article, "Hip Hop Cash Kings." Grammy Award Winner (2006)
Pharrell Williams - (1973- ) Virginia Beach; Composer, Singer, Producer, Rapper, Fashion Designer. Part of hip-hops most successful production team, The Neptunes, and the performing group N*E*R*D. Three-time Grammy Award Winner (two Grammy Awards in 2003, and one in 2006).
Jamie Sharper - (1974- ) Richmond; Baltimore Ravens (1997-2001); Houston Texans (2002-2004); Seattle Seahawks (2005)
Atiim Kiambu Hakeem-ah "Tiki" Barber - (1975- ) Roanoke; Football player, sports broadcaster, author; NFL New York Giants (1997-2006); NBC's "Today," "Football Night in America" and "Sunday Night Football" (2007-present); identical twin brother of "Ronde" Barber.
Jamael Orondé "Ronde" Barber - (1975- ) Roanoke; Football player, author; NFL Tampa Bay Buccaneers (1997-present); Super Bowl XXXVII winner vs. Oakland Raiders (2003); identical twin brother of "Tiki" Barber.
James Farrior - (1975- ) Ettrick; New York Jets (1997-2001); Pittsburgh Steelers (2002-2012); Super Bowl XL and XLIII winner
Allen Iverson - (1975- ) Hampton; Philadelphia 76ers (1996-2006; Rookie of the Year, 2001 league MVP); Denver Nuggets (2007-2008); Detroit Pistons (2009). Olympic Bronze Medalist (Athens 2004)
Darren Sharper - (1975- ) Richmond; Green Bay Packers (1997-2004); Minnesota Vikings (2005-2008); New Orleans Saints (2009-2010)
Plaxico Burress - (1977- ) Norfolk; Pittsburgh Steelers (2000-2004, 2012-present); New York Giants (2005-2008); New York Jets (2011); Super Bowl XLII winner.
Erron Kinney - (1977- ) Ashland; Tennessee Titans (2000-2005)
Michael Vick - (1980- ) Newport News; Football player; NFL Atlanta Falcons (2001-2006); NFL Philadelphia Eagles (2009-present); First African-American quarterback to be drafted first overall in an NFL Draft (2001). First Archie Griffin Award winner (1999). NFL Pro Bowl (2003, 2004, 2005)
DeAngelo Hall - (1983- ) Chesapeake; Atlanta Falcons (2004-2007); Oakland Raiders (2008); Washington Redskins (2008-present)
Michael Robinson - (1983- ) Richmond; San Francisco 49ers (2006-2009); Seattle Seahawks (2010-present); Super Bowl XLVIII winner.
Tremaine "Trey" Aldon Neverson, aka Trey Songz - (1984- ) Petersburg; Singer-Songwriter, Rapper, Producer, and Actor.
Melvin Upton - (1984- ) Norfolk; Tampa Bay Rays (2004-2012); Atlanta Braves (2013-present)
Kendall Langford - (1986- ) - Petersburg; Football player; NFL Miami Dolphins. (2008-2011); NFL St. Louis Rams. (2012-present)
LaShawn Merritt - (1986- ) Portsmouth; Olympic Gold Medalist (Beijing 2008)
Caressa Cameron - (1987- ) - Fredericksburg; 2010 Miss America.
Kam Chancellor - (1988- ) Norfolk; Seattle Seahawks (2010-present); Super Bowl XLVIII winner.
Percy Harvin - (1988- ) Virginia Beach; Minnesota Vikings (2009-2012); Seattle Seahawks (2013-present); Super Bowl XLVIII winner.
Russell Wilson - (1988- ) Richmond; Seattle Seahawks (2012-present); Super Bowl XLVIII winner.
Chris Brown - (1989- ) Tappahannock; Singer-Songwriter, Dancer, Actor.
Chandler Fenner - (1990- ) Virginia Beach; Seattle Seahawks (2012-present); Super Bowl XLVIII winner.
Gabrielle Douglas - (1995- ) Virginia Beach; Gymnast. Olympic Gold Medalist (London 2012). First African-American all-around gymnastics champion.
D’Angelo (Michael Archer)- (1974-) Richmond; American R&B singer, songwriter, and record producer. Four-time Grammy Award Winner (two in 2001, two in 2016).
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Why isn’t the answer always on the tip of the tongue?Published On: Sun, Jun 17th, 2012 | Mental Health | By BioNews
Do you often find that a word is on the tip of your tongue but are unable to vocalise it? If so, you’re not alone.
New University of Michigan research indicates that “tip-of-the-tongue” errors happen often to adults aged 65-92 years. In a study of 105 healthy, highly-educated older adults, 61 percent reported this memory mishap.
The participants completed a checklist of the memory errors made in the last 24 hours, as well as several other tests. About half of them reported making other errors that may be related to absent-mindedness, such as having to re-read a sentence because they forgot what it said, or forgetting where they placed an item.
The findings may help brain-training programmes target the memory problems people experience in daily life, the journal Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition reported.
“Right now, many training programmes focus on the age differences in memory and thinking that we see in laboratory studies,” said senior co-author and Michigan psychology professor Cindy Lustig.
“However, those may not translate to the performance failures that are most common in everyday life,” added Lustig, according to a university statement.
When people are tested in the lab and have nothing to rely on but their own memories, young adults typically do better than older adults, she said.
However, when these studies are conducted in real-world settings, older adults sometimes outperform young adults at things like remembering appointments because the former are likely to use memory supports such as calendars, lists and alarms.
“When we looked at how people performed on standard laboratory tests, we found the usual age differences,” she said. “People in their 80s and 90s performed worse than those in their 60s and early 70s,” said Lustig.
Lustig cautioned that an elderly person occasionally forgetting a name does not mean he’s in the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease or other dementias.
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|See the world (and its fossils) with UCMP's field notes.
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Diapsida : Archosauromorpha : Archosauriformes : Archosauria : Pseudosuchia : Crocodylomorpha : Crocodyliformes : Mesoeucrocodylia
Living crocodilians are divided into three groups based on their morphology (body form), habits, and diet. The clade Alligatoridae includes two species of alligators and five species of caimans, all from the Americas except for the Chinese Alligator. Crocodylidae is distributed worldwide in the tropics and includes 13 or 14 species of true crocodiles, depending on how they are classified. Gavialidae includes one or two species (see below) of slender-snouted gharials, both of which are found only in southern and southeast Asia.
The three groups alligators and caimans, true crocodiles, and gharials are most easily identified by the shapes of their heads. Alligators and caimans have short, broad, U-shaped snouts; gharials have very long, narrow jaws, almost like forceps; and true crocodiles are intermediate between the other two, with fairly long, V-shaped snouts. These jaw shapes are related to differences in diet. Although they willl also eat many other animals if given the chance, gharials are specialized fish-eaters, and use their long, narrow snouts and thin, sharply-pointed teeth to catch their fast and slippery prey. Gharials live mainly in large river systems and spend less time on land than other crocodilians. True crocodiles eat fish, shellfish, other reptiles, birds, and mammals, with much variation in diet among individuals, populations, and species. Alligators and caimans have a similarly varied diet. Oddly enough, both alligators and caimans have also been observed eating fruit on occasion hardly what one expects for giant predators. Maybe this dietary flexibility shouldn't be surprising, given the existence of short-snouted, herbivorous crocs and croc relatives in the fossil record. Baby crocs eat mostly insects and crustaceans until they are large enough to take bigger prey. Like mammals and birds, crocodilians have a complete secondary palate, a slab of bone that separates the nasal passages from the mouth. This allows crocs to breathe with their mouths full.
The nostrils, eyes, and ears of crocodilians are mounted high on the head. This allows a croc to float in the water with as little of its body exposed as possible. Such camouflage is important to keep small crocs safe from terrestrial or aerial predators, and to help bigger animals ambush prey. Crocodilians ambush land animals when they come to rivers or water holes to drink. A well-camouflaged croc will suddenly lunge forward and catch the unsuspecting prey by the head or neck. It will then drag the animal into the water and kill it by drowning or dismembering it. An attacking crocodile will often perform a "death roll," in which it holds the prey firmly in its jaws and rolls over and over in the water. This may disorient the prey and hasten its death by drowning, but it often leads to dismemberment as well; the part of the prey that is caught in the croc's jaws is frequently ripped away from the rest of the carcass.
Most crocodilians swallow rocks and carry them in their stomachs for long periods of time. The function of these gastroliths (literally, "stomach stones") is unclear. They are usually assumed to function as ballast, to help crocodiles control their buoyancy. However, recent research shows that the total mass of gastroliths carried by one animal is usually only one or two percent of the body mass, and that the impact of gastroliths on buoyancy is minimal (Henderson, 2003).
Extant crocodiles frequently enter salt water and are capable of surviving ocean journeys of hundreds of miles. Crocodiles are often found along chains of oceanic islands, sometimes very far from the mainland. Examples include the American Crocodile in the West Indies, the African Crocodile on Madagascar, and the Saltwater Crocodile in the Malay Archipelago. Crocodiles have special salt-excreting glands on their tongues that help them rid their bodies of excess salt from seawater. Extant gharials, alligators, and caimans lack these glands, and not surprisingly they differ from crocodiles in preferring fresh water to salt water. However, the fossil history of both alligatorids and gavialids includes examples of trans-oceanic dispersal. It is possible that extinct alligators and gharials had salt glands, which have been lost in the extant species.
Probably the most controversial living crocodilian is the False Gharial, Tomistoma, a slender-snouted form from Malaysia, Sumatra, and Borneo. In phylogenetic analyses based on morphological characters, it is usually recovered within Crocodylidae, which would mean that its similarities to gharials represent convergent evolution. However, molecular data suggests that Tomistoma and the "true" Indian Gharial, Gavialis gangeticus, are each others' closest relatives. If that is the case, then the similarities between the "true" and "false" gharials are homologies inherited from a common ancestor, and it is the similarities between Tomistoma and crocodiles that are convergent.
The fossil record
The fossil record of crocodilians includes many gigantic extinct forms, including:
All of these animals had skulls between 1.3 and 1.5 meters (4-5 feet) long and estimated body lengths of 10-12 meters (33-40 feet) or perhaps even larger. The largest known skull of Sarcosuchus is 1.78 meters long (5 feet, 10 inches), but it was very long-snouted and the largest individuals of Deinosuchus may have been longer overall. None of them are known from complete material, so determining which one was the biggest is difficult or impossible.
The concentration of giant crocs in the Miocene of South America is especially remarkable. The alligator Mourasuchus, caiman Purussaurus, and gharial Gryposuchus all lived alongside one another. They must have specialized in different environments or types of prey to have coexisted successfully at such large sizes.
Despite the variation in skull shape and diet among alligatorids, crocodylids, and gavialids, extant crocodilians represent only a small fraction of the diversity of their extinct relatives. At various times in their long history, crocs have evolved into tiny insect-eaters, long-legged terrestrial runners, and pug-nosed, armored herbivores. Living crocodilians are the last representatives of a great flowering of archosaurs that rivaled dinosaurs and birds in its diversity of sizes and forms, and fascinating and valuable animals in their own right.
Text by Matt Wedel, 5/2010; photos of False Gharial, American Crocodile, Indian Gharial, and American Alligator by Gerald and Buff Corsi © 2001 California Academy of Sciences; Borealosuchus photo by Dave Smith, UCMP
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SRI LANKA’S ROLE IN THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM IN THE WORLD
Public lecture under the Auspices of the Royal Asiatic Society of Sri Lanka
The first in a series of lectures to mark the 2600 Sambuddhatva Jayanti
Colombo, November 15, 2010
By Ananda W. P. Guruge
SRI LANKA’S CLAIM TO BE THE HOME OF BUDDHISM
Nepal is the birthplace of the Buddha and India is the birthplace of Buddhism. But what would have happened to Buddhism if it had not found a secure and permanent home in Sri Lanka since its introduction in the third century BCE? Would Buddhism have attained the degree of acceptance and recognition in the world today if not for Sri Lanka? These are the two main questions I wish to ask myself in the course of this presentation.
In no other country has Buddhism had an unbroken presence extending to over twenty-three centuries. While the mere presence for such a long time is a record by itself, Sri Lanka has established a claim to be called the “Home of Buddhism” on account of a distinct series of remarkable contributions to the promotion and spread of Buddhism in the world. In a well recorded history in a number of chronicles, corroborated by the histories of several other nations and evidence from archaeological monuments, these contributions extend right up to present times.
UNBROKEN EXISTENCE OF BUDDHISM OVER TWENTY-THREE CENTURIES
Of the nine places to which Arahant Moggaliputtatissa sent missions after the Third Buddhist Council under the patronage of Emperor Asoka, Sri Lanka had two distinct advantages. First, none of the two missions of bhikkhus and bhikkhunis under Arahants Mahinda and Sanghamitta, unlike the bhikkhus of the other eight missions, returned to India after the establishment of Buddhism in the target region. They continued to serve the Island right up to their passing away. Second, Arahant Mahinda and his sister Arahant Sanghamitta were children of the Emperor and their mission was continually supported from Pataliputra with the dispatch of bhikkhunis, the sapling of the Bodhi tree, relics, and skilled artisans. The involvement of as many as ten uncles of Arahants Mahinda and Sanghamitta in the administration of the Island, establishing thus the hereditary civil service of the Lambakannas, could have been a further source of support. These advantages would have contributed to the two major literary activities which promoted the study of Buddhism.
TWO MAJOR LITERARY INTIATIVES OF LASTING IMPACT
It is to Arahant Mahinda that credit is given for the first production of commentaries on the Tripitaka in Sinhala, the language of the Island. It was a massive literary project and had continued unabated until about the first century of the Current Era. There had been many recensions as Mahatthakatha or Mulatthakatha, Mahapaccariya, Kurindi and Andhattha, attributed to the Mahavihara. It is possible that the Abhayagiri Monastery had a similar tradition as suggested by the term Uttaraviharavamsatthakatha.
These comprehensive commentaries, known as Sihalatthakatha, were characterized by their exegetical authenticity as well as the reliable historical and social information that they recorded. At least one of them – most importantly the Commentary on the Vinaya – had reached China in the fifth century. The Chinese translation provides us about the closest look that we get into the contents and structure of a Sinhala Commentary and gives adequate proof of scholarly quality, coverage and educational value of these commentaries. More of it later.
The second major literary enterprise of the Sri Lankan Sangha was the reduction of the Pali Tripitaka and the Sinhala Commentaries to writing in the first century BCE in the reign of King Valagamabahu at Aluvihara, Matale. The significance of this activity is to be assessed in relation to the survival of the different Buddhist Canons in several languages up to the modern times. With the exception of the Sanskrit Tripitaka, which is available more or less intact in the Chinese translation as Agama Sutras, none of the other Canons have survived in full. We have only a few fragments to show that Canons similar to the Pali Tripitaka once existed in Sanskrit, Khotanese and some other Prakrit languages. Without the written Tripitaka in Pali, which was preserved in Sri Lanka and distributed to various parts of Asia by the Sri Lankan Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis, the world would have lost access to the most reliable record of the Buddha’s original teachings. Over the last two centuries no Buddhist studies of any depth and quality have been accomplished without reference to the Pali Tripitaka.
The addition of a second monastery in Anuradhapura by King Valagambahu in the form of Abhayagiri – also in the first century BCE - paved the way for the expansion and diversification of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. This monastery was more open to the new developments taking place in India and was receptive to Mahayana doctrines and practices, including scriptures in Sanskrit. As a result it became the focal point of international Buddhist relations. The third monastery, the Jetavanarama, established two centuries later by King Mahasen, followed a similar eclectic tendencies and all Buddhist traditions – Theravada, Mahayana and even Vajrayana (mentioned in the Nikayasangraha as Nilapatadarshana) co-exited and flourished as can be seen from the artifacts discovered in recent excavations of these two monasteries and elsewhere in Anuradhapura.
The wealth of coins, Intaglios, jewelry and glazed tiles hitherto discovered show the variety of international visitors to these monasteries. The existence of a most noteworthy Mahayana scripture, the Prajnaparamita, engraved on gold plates, as well references to some texts in Mihintale inscriptions is proof that the Sanskrit Mahayana literature was not only preserved but held in esteem. Bactrian coins discovered in Situlpavva in the south show a close relationship of this monastery with the land of King Menander (Milinda). It is possible that Sri Lankan Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis were involved in the development of Buddhism outside the Island in a fair portion of the then known world.
TRADE AND PILGRIM ROUTES CONNECTING SRI LANKA TO THE WORLD
This they could do because the strategic situation of Sri Lanka at a central point in the Maritime Silk Route between the West and the East, with connecting routes from both sides of the Indian subcontinent. As far back as the fourth century BCE, judging from Greek and Roman records even if our own records are not detailed enough, Sri Lankan ports of Mahatittha (present Mantai) and Godavaya near Ambalantota had been centres of international maritime trade with both Greek and Roman regions of the West and the Chinese and southeast Asian countries of the East. The variety of goods discovered in the course of the recent excavations of the port of Mantai from Greece, Rome, Persia, Venice, Southeast Asia and China are themselves adequate proof of the international trade to which ancient Sri Lanka was exposed. As far back as the fourth century BCE, Anuradhapura is said to have had a Greek enclave and Kautilya, the author of Arthashastra, knew that pearls came from a place called Mayura of the land of the Sinhalas. Cinnamon got the Sanskrit name Sinhalaka about the same time. As trade relations were further expanded with the discovery of the monsoons in the first century, Mahatittha was recognized by Cosmas Indicopluestes as the emporium mediatrix, serving as the entrepot for Western and Chinese ships. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Xian in the fifth century had been impressed by the luxurious mansions of traders form the Middle-east, thus establishing the fact that trade relations lasted right through history.
Onesicritus knew details of the Sri Lankan ships plying between the Island and the Indus Basin in what is now Pakistan. Emperor Asoka sent his daughter Sanghamitta by ship down the Ganges and from the Port of Tamralipti (Tamluk) on the Bay of Bengal to Jambukola in the Jaffna Peninsula in the third century BCE. King Bhatika Tissa sent envoys to Rome (correctly referred to as Romanukkha = Romanus in the Mahavamsa Tika) to get coral to decorate the same stupa. An Embassy of four sent to Rome during the regime of Caesar Claudius is described by the Latin writer Pliny the Elder, who also had learned that the father of the chief envoy was an envoy of Sri Lanka in China. Ptolemy a century and a half later included in his map topographical and regional information of Tabrobane with incredible accuracy. Li Chou in T’ang Kuo Shi Pu stated that the largest ships that came to China were from Sri Lanka. A fifth century Sigiri graffiti referred to a damsel wearing Chinese silk (Cinapata).
The network of Buddhist contacts facilitated by trade and pilgrimage had been very extensive from the earliest times. The very list of invitees to the ceremonial inauguration of the Ruvanveliseya, as recorded in the Mahavamsa, shows that Sri Lankan bhikkhus had been in touch with Buddhist establishments in Bactria, Afghanistan, Pakistan and both the Northern and Southern India.
The earliest known mention of the Buddha in the West by Saint Clement of Alexandria in the third century CE reflects what the Theravada view held in Sri Lanka rather than what was then prevalent in India even though he was referring to the people as Indians. He said, “Among the Indians are some who follow the precepts of Buddha, whom for his extraordinary sanctity they have honored as a god.”
BUDDHIST LINKS WITH INDIA
Trade routes have played a major role in the spread of religious knowledge and there is no doubt that Buddhism spread both westward and eastward from Sri Lanka along the maritime sea route. So were contacts maintained with ports in both the South and the North of India.
Trade routes were also pilgrim routes. The sea route between Tamralipti and Jambukola and Gokanna (Trincomalee) in the Bay of Bengal was taken by Sri Lankan pilgrims to the Bodhi Tree at Buddha Gaya. These pilgrims needed a pilgrim rest and it was provided by King Meghavanna who with the consent of Emperor Samudragupta built a monastery in which three centuries later the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zhang found as many as a thousand bhikkhus. Even much later this monastery was known to have many Sri Lankan Bhikkhus.
Inscriptional evidence datable in the first or second century CE speaks of a Sinhala Vihara in Nagarjunikonda. Apart from Mahanama mentioned in connection with Buddha Gaya, there was at least one Sri Lankan monk who distinguished himself in India and that was Aryadeva, the disciple and successor of Nagarjuna as the abbot of Nalanda. The author of Catuhsataka and several other Mahayana works, he is reputed to have been of the royal family of Sri Lanka and is credited with the building of many Viharas in South India. On noting that the prominent mural of the coming of the Sinhalas to Sri Lanka in Cave XVII of Ajantha, I had raised the question in 1960 whether that could be evidence for a monk from Sri Lanka in a position of authority in the monastic complex.
For Guhasiva, the King of Kalinga to send the Tooth Relic to Sri Lanka when he was defeated in war, he should have been fully apprised of the stability of Buddhism in the country in the fourth century.
VI. IMPACT OF SINHALA COMMENTARIES ON BUDDHISM
The most spectacular impact Sri Lanka had on Buddhism of India was through the Sinhala Commentaries which were known and utilized by Buddhist scholars there. Did they know the language or did they depend on Sinhala bhikkhus and bhikkhunis who were in Buddhist monasteries of India? Many Sri Lankan monks were, of course, there. For example, there were the monks whom King Gothabhaya branded and banished for holding Mahayana views. In India they carried on their scholarly and educational activities as we know from the story of Sanghamitta who came to Sri Lanka and, through King Mahasen, succeeded in taking revenge from the Mahavihara for what was done to his teacher.
Whatever it be, Buddhaghosa who came from Buddha Gaya knew so much about the Sinhala Commentaries to realize that the rapidly changing Sinhala language made these Commentaries less and less utilizable by the wider world of Buddhism. It was his idea to have them translated into the same language as the Pali Canon. He was not alone in appreciating the worth of the Sinhala Commentaries because his team, who completed the task, included Buddhadatta of Kaveri the Basin and Dhammapala of Padarattha, both of whom hailing from Tamilnadu were Tamils by ethnicity. Their proficiency in both Sinhala and Pali and their loyalty to the Mahavihara version of interpretation would indicate a very close relationship with Sri Lanka.
As regards Buddhaghosa, one more aspect is significant. His magnum opus, his masterpiece, was Visuddhimagga, which for all intents and purposes had a precursor and model in Vimuttimagga of Arahant Upatissa, a Sri Lankan scholar monk who lived a couple of centuries before him.
SRI LANKAN BUDDHISM IN CHINA
Evidence comes from Chinese records about relations with China from the first century of the Current Era to the fifteenth century. No less than twenty-four embassies had been sent by Sri Lankan kings to the imperial court of China. Although the Chinese historians refer to them as missions carrying tribute to the Chinese emperor, they could have been multi-purpose. Some of them were related to the promotion of Buddhism.
Since the Northern Wei dynasty declared Buddhism to be the state religion of its territory, there had been some significant contributions that Sri Lankan had made to Chinese Buddhism. It was the monastic reformer Tao-An who was keen to ensure that Buddhism developed with the four segments of the population, namely bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, upasakas and upasikas. He also recognized the absence of authentic Vinaya of the Buddha in China. Fa-xian came to India in search of Vinaya books and discovered that all he could find there was the orally transmitted Vinaya of the Mahasanghika school. There were no books. It was then that he decided to come to Sri Lanka. Residing at Abhayagiri monastery for two years, he found a copy of the Vinaya according to the Mahisasaka school. A Sri Lankan monk named Sanghavami is said to have followed him to China to translate it into Chinese. As a group that broke away from this school came to be known as Dharmaguptikas, the Vinaya thus taken from Sri Lanka is recognized as the Dharmaguptika Vinaya. It is this Vinaya that is valid up to date in all East Asian Buddhist Sangha.
It is within two decades of Fa-Xian’s visit that a mission of bhikkhunis led by Devasara, as described in the Chinese treatise Pichuni-chuang, sailed to China to establish the bhikkhunisasana (the order of Buddhist nuns). As the quorum was inadequate, the ship captained by Nandi had to come back to Sri Lanka and take more bhikkhunis. Thus it was ten years later in 439 CE that the Sri Lankan bhikkhunis ultimately founded the order of nuns in China. It is this Order of Bhikkhunis which had spread to Korea, Japan and Vietnam.
Towards the end of the same century, two major Sri Lankan works were taken to China and translated into Chinese. The first was the Vinaya commentary Shan-jian-li-p’-ip’-osha by Sanghbhadra in the fifth century. Though taken by the pioneering Japanese scholar who included it in the Taisho Chinese Tripitaka (T. 1648) as a translation of Pali Samantapasadika, a closer look at the missing contents as well as the transliteration of some technical terms and place names seems to suggest a possible translation of the corresponding Sinhala commentary. An interesting key word is dukula (the classical Sinhala form for the offence of dukkata). Equally important is Cie-to-tao-lun, the translation of the Vimuttimagga (a detailed exposition of Buddhist meditation, which, as stated above, was the precursor and model for Buddhaghosa’s Visuddhimagga. The original whether in Pali or Sanskrit is considered to have come from the Abhayagiri monastery. The translation by Sanghapala was under the patronage of emperor Wu at the beginning of the sixth century.
Gunavarman, when offered the kingship over Kashmir, was more intent on spiritual development and came to Sri Lanka. It is after a period of stay in Sri Lanka that he left for Java and ultimately to China and was recognized as a foremost interpreter of Vinaya. Yi-Ching refers in the Life Stories of Eminent Monks at least five Chinese pilgrims who had been to Sri Lanka and one of them had even tried to steal the Tooth Relic. Kublai Khan, too, had his eyes on the Tooth Relic and one of the objectives of Chen Ho’s expeditions was also to obtain the Tooth Relic. During the period of King Parakramabahu VI of Kotte, when these expeditions took place, as many as six embassies had been sent to China, marking a steady relationship between the two countries for close upon two millennia.
SRI VIJAYA AND SHAILENDRA EMPIRES OF SOUTHEAST ASIA
Writing his two works in Sribhoga (now Palembang in Sumatra, Indonesia), Yi-ching knew of Chinese pilgrims who had contact with Sri Lanka. Although the information is meager, there are two bits of data to prove significant links between Sri Lanka and the Sri Vijaya and Shailendra empires of Southeast Asia. A ninth century inscription of Dvaravati was found to have Pali verses which Professor Rohanadeera Mendis identified as the opening verses of Telakatahagatha, a Sri Lankan work on the story of Viharamahadevi’s father Kalyanatissa punishing an innocent Arahant. An inscription in Sanskrit in Ratuboka in Java, Indonesia, the capital of the Shailendra Empire, refers to a monastery there as a branch of the Sinhala Abhayagiri monastery. Royal matrimonial alliances, one of which caused Parakramabahu I’s invasion of Myanmar, also confirm a lively relationship with these empires.
Nakhon Si Thammarat in Ligor in the Malayan Peninsula was a center of Pali Buddhism with a close relationship with Sri Lankan monastics. It is from here that Theravada Canon and bhikkhus went to Thaton in southern Myanmar. Three gold plate inscriptions found there record well known passages from Buddhist texts, with slight differences from those known in Sri Lanka. Whether Buddhaghosa went from Sri Lanka to Thaton, as the Myanmar tradition suggests, is, however, a moot point, just as whether he went with the Samantapasadika to China and got it translated as some Japanese scholars hold..
It was from Thaton that Shin Arahan went to Pagan and converted King Anawrata to Theravada Buddhism. Myanmar tradition records that Shin Arahan spent some time in Sri Lanka. A close friendship between King Anawrata and Vijayabahu I of Sri Lanka is shown by the mutual assistance that was extended to their military interventions and also by the fact that Vijayabahu I, after his victory over the Cholas, obtained a quorum of bhikkhus from him to restore higher ordination. The Mynamar, on this occasion, returned to Thaton with Sri Lankan Pali texts. As regards Sri Lanka’s contribution to Myanmar Buddhism, it is important to note that the Pali Canon as was brought from Thaton was compared by his successor King Kyanzitta with that of Sri Lanka in a Sangayana and the Sri Lankan version was accepted.
SINHALA REFORM OF BUDDHISM BY PARAKRAMABHU I AND ITS IMPACT ON SOUTHEAT ASIA
An event in Sri Lanka, which ranks in equal importance as the Sinhala Commentaries and the writing of the Tripitaka, was the unification of Mahavihara, Abhayagiri and Jetavana monasteries by Parakramabahu I in the twelfth century. Professor G. Coedes describes the resulting amalgam of the Mahayana and Theravada traditions with Pali scriptures and many Mahayana rituals as the Sinhala Reform. Bhikkhus going on pilgrimage to Sri Lanka brought news of the developments there. Among them was the successor of Shin Arahan as the king’s teacher, Uttarajiva. He left for Sri Lanka with Chapata and a team of four including a Cambodian. Their return after a decade of study and practice in Sri Lanka resulted in the formation of the Sinhala Sangha in Myanmar and possibly also Cambodia. Thus was continued the influence of Sri Lanka on Buddhism in Southeast Asia.
The spiritual force behind the reform of Parakramabahu I was Kassapa Sangharaja of Dimbulagala and he played a major role in the diffusion of the forest tradition of meditation in Southeast Asia. As Thais emigrated to the south from Yunnan in China and occupied Siam previously held by the Mons and Khmers and Lavas, Ramkhamahaeng, the third ruler of Lanna Thai Kingdom and his successors came under the influence of Sri Lankan Buddhism. Ramkhamahaeng had invited the eminent Sinhala monk from Nakhon Si Thammarat, known simply by his designation as Sangharaja, to take residence in his capital Sukhothai. His grandson Dhamamraja I or Lethai had left an inscription which says that he “loved to wander in the forest, staying here and there, neglecting food, and behaving in every respect after the manner of Sinhala monks.” In his reign, he received a monastic and lay mission led by a Dri Lankan monk Sumana designated Mahasami, who “played a great part in the spread of Sinhala Buddhism in Thailand.” A royal decree advised Thais to visit Sri Lanka to help the cause of Buddhism and gain merit. If their capital, Sukhothai looks like a replica of Polonnaruwa, the Thai script introduced by this king looks a derivative of the Sinhala alphabet and Parakramabahu I was held as a role model for the rulers, this close contact coupled with esteem was the reason.
A Pali inscription of Cambodia records that King Jayavarman Paramesvara patronized Sinhala Buddhism around 1307 and his son-in-law introduced it to Laos. By the mid-fourteenth century, Sri Lankan Buddhism was firmly established in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka was looked upon as the religious metropolis.
Another event of lasting consequence for not only Myanmar but its neighbours was the mission to Sri Lanka of the Myanmar King Dhammazedi, formerly an ordained bhikkhu of the Sinhala Sangha. This mission consisting of a large number or bhikkhus was sent in 1476 for them to be re-ordained so that a purification of the Myanmar Sangha could be implemented. An inscription recording the re-ordination at what was called the Kalyanisima indicates that the mission brought with it an entire library of manuscripts to be transliterated and diffused in Myanmar and its neighbors. An inscription recording the titles is discussed in an article in the Malalsekera Commemoration Volume. Sri Lanka was the ultimate beneficiary of this gift. When after the dual catastrophes of the conversion of Rajasinha I to Hinduism and the onslaught of the Portuguese in the sixteenth century, Sri Lanka lost its literary treasures, it was from Myanmar and Thailand that our own books were brought back and recopied. Even today when scholars prepare critical editions of Pali texts, Myanmar and Thai manuscripts – despite some phonetic solecisms - are found to be extremely helpful. At least one major work on Sri Lankan history, the Extended Mahavamsa, twice as long as the Sri Lankan original, has been found only in Thai and Cambodian script. In addition there are works like Jinakalamali, a Pali work by a Thai monk, which deals with the Buddhist history of Sri Lanka.
This is all history. But has it continued?
A steady contact with Buddhists of Southeast Asia even during Sri Lanka’s dark age of Portuguese and Dutch occupation of the maritime regions is proved by the fact that Velivita Saranankara Sangharaja knew even in his early days that the quorum to restore higher ordination could be obtained from Thailand. With the Buddhist and literary renaissance that he ushered in by 1753, the Sri Lankan relations with the region continued to develop.
The renewal of the close association with Southern Myanmar – especially Amarapura and Ramanna – took place as a result of two factors: the British colonial administration in the maritime region was keen to stop the religious impact that Kandy exerted on their territory due to the need to go there for higher ordination of bhikkhus. At the same time, the restrictions imposed on the Siamese Sect by the decree of Kirti Sri Rajasinha on a communal base enabled the British to encourage and facilitate low country bhikkhus to seek higher ordination there. Thus arose the Amarapura and Siamese Sects of Sri Lanka.
An enormous volume of still unexplored literary records are to be found in Myanmar and Thailand of correspondence in Pali among the Sangha on many important issues – both doctrinal and Vinaya. Some of them, which Ambalangoda Polwatte Buddhadatta Mahanayaka Thera had worked on and published, testify to the cross-fertilization of Buddhism as understood and practised in our countries over the last two centuries. Pali became the lingua franca of the Southeast Asian Sangha and thus came to the attention of the British Administrators.
ORIENTING AND MOTIVATING GENERATIONS OF BRITISH AND WESTERN SCHOLARS
Although Eugene Burnouf and Christian Lassen get the credit for introducing the Pali language to the Western world through their Essai sur le Pali, Paris 1826, Benjamin Clough, serving as a missionary in Sri Lanka for the Methodist Church, is known to have published his A Compendious Pali Grammar in London in 1824. In 1836 George Turnour of the Ceylon Civil Service, who learnt about the Mahavamsa at the Mulgirigala Temple in the Hambantota District, solved the mystery of Devanapiya in Asokan inscriptions and drew the attention of the British and Western scholars to the rich literature in that language. His survey of the Pali Literature in an appendix to the Mahavamsa translation, published in London that year, was bafflingly comprehensive.
Buddhist scriptures in Pali came to be studied by Christian missionaries and their early translations like that of the Sigalovadasutta, Ratthapalasutta and Dhammacakkappavattanasutta by D. J. Gogerley from 1846 raised the prestige of Buddhism among the intellectuals. It was no longer a pagan religion confused with devil-dancing and superstition.
While this was happening, the Matale Rebellion of 1848 was ruthlessly mishandled by Lord Torrington to the utter shame and repentance expressed in London. One of the steps taken to redress the situation on the part of colonial policy-makers was to insist that officers sent to administer the colony acquired a thorough knowledge of the languages and cultures of the people they were expected to serve. This was implemented through a series of efficiency bar examinations demanding intense study on comprehensive syllabi.
The civil servants needed assistance and a steady stream of scholar-monks arose to take up the task. Thus did bhikkhus like Yatramulle Dhammarama, Dodanduwe Piyaratanatissa, Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala, Weligama Sri Sumangala, Waskaduwe Sri Subhuti and Alutgama Seelakkhandha and many others became the promoters of Pali and Buddhist scholarship not only in Sri Lankan but also in the world as a whole. These monks in turn also contributed to the national and Buddhist revival of the country especially by developing a system of Buddhist education. Some of them also established contacts with eminent personages of other Buddhist countries in Asia. Thus did institutions like Paramadhammacetiya, Vidyodaya and Vidyalankara Pirivenas come to the attention of these countries and they were inspired to establish similar centers of Buddhist learning like Mahachulalonkorn and Mahamakut Rajavidyalayas in Bangkok, Thailand.
Out of the host of British Civil Servants motivated and trained by these scholar-monks, Robert C. Childers and T. W. Rhys Davids turned out to be the pioneering Western scholars in Pali and Buddhist Studies. To them we owe the development of these studies as recognized disciplines in the universities of the world. A study of the vast volume of correspondence which I did and published in my FROM THE LIVING FOUNTAINS OF BUDDHISM shows how scholars like Viggo Fausboll of Denmark, Childers, Rhys Davids, Rheinhold Rost, Lord Chalmers of Britain, Herman Oldenberg and Wilhelm Geiger of Germany, Edmund Hardy of Switzerland and J. Minayeff of Russia were in constant contact with the Sri Lankan scholar-monks.
Fausboll in one of his letters called them the “Living fountains of Buddhism.” How these scholar-monks provided data, guidance, advice and documentation to international scholars in Buddhism reflects their indebtedness to Sri Lanka. The Abhinavarama of Waskaduwa, under Waskaduwe Sri Subhuti Nayaka Thera serviced a score of renowned scholars in the world and functioned verily as an international Buddhist research centre. Interestingly, its task was effectively continued by Ambalangoda Polwatte Sri Buddhadatta Mahanayaka Thera, whose correspondence with Wilhelm Geiger and Mrs. Rhys Davids, published in my book, displays the indispensability of Sri Lankan support and guidance to these scholars.
During the period of Orientalism ushered in by this cooperation, the very first Pali-English Dictionary was published in London in 1875 by Robert Childrers based on the lexicographical work of Waskaduwe Sri Subhuti Nayaka Thera and with continuing direct support from him. T. W. Rhys Davids’ initiative to publish sacred books of the East was transformed into the Pali Text Society of London on account of the substantive collaboration and financial support of the scholar-monks and the laity of Sri Lanka. Its publication of Romanized critical editions of the Tripitaka and much of the Pali literature, along with translations into English, had done a yeomen service to the spread of Buddhism in the world.
THE IMPACT OF THE SRI LANKAN NATIONAL AND BUDDHIST REVIVAL ON THE WORLD
The most significant landmark of the national and Buddhist revival of Sri Lankan in the mid-nineteenth century was the Buddhist-Christian Debate of 1873 at Panadura. Eight articles on it by a visiting American journalist, J. M. Peebles, were subsequently published in book form in the USA. Among its readers were Colonel Henry S. Olcott and Madame Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, the founders of the Theosophical Society. The interest in Buddhism that was generated in them by this book was further nourished by a stream of ready correspondence with Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala, Migettuwatte Gunananda and Dodanduwe Piyaratnatissa Theras to the point that Olcott and Blavatsky came to Sri Lanka in 1880 and embraced Buddhism as their personal religion.
These bhikkhus were also in communication with others in the world scene. Weligama Sri Sumangala Nayaka Thera had befriended Sir Edwin Arnold who was an influential journalist in India representing the Daily Telegraph of London. Sir Edwin’s interests at the beginning were in the Indian literary and spiritual heritage of Hinduism. Later, his contacts with Sri Lankan Buddhist scholars and activists won him over to Buddhism. His admiration of the Buddha resulted in the magnificent poem THE LIGHT OF ASIA, which in 1879 brought the Buddha and his teachings to the attention of the wider world. By 1881, Olcott had published his BUDDHIST CATECHISM with a certificate of authenticity granted by Hikkaduwe Sri Sumangala Nayaka Thera. These two books brought Buddhism to limelight by the end of the nineteenth century.
Both authors also became activists in the promotion of Buddhism. Sir Edwin Arnold was the prime mover of the campaign to restitute Buddhist shrines of India to Buddhists. Olcott set in motion a sorely needed ecumenical movement among the different traditions of Buddhism in Asia with his “Fourteen Point Platform on which All Buddhists Can Agree.” Both of them inspired and guided Anagarika Dharmapala: Sir Edwin in Dharmapala’s bid to save Buddha Gaya and Olcott in making Dharmapala the most vocal and dedicated promoter of Buddhism in the world.
The credit goes to Anagarika Dharmapala for establishing the first ever international Buddhist forum in the form of the Maha Bodhi Society and its Journal. He was able to involve in the Maha Bodhi Society all important Buddhist leaders of the world from the Mikado of Japan to the Dalai Lama of Tibet. Its office-bearers came from all Buddhist countries of Asia and several countries of other continents. Its Journal impressed the organizers of the Parliament of World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893. Invited to serve on the organizing committee and to participate as a delegate, Dharmapala delivered his historic address on the WORLD’S DEBT TO BUDDHA. What an impact it made on the Parliament and the American public! The contribution he made to the spread of Buddhism in the world is well known and needs no further elaboration.
Two aspects of the Anagarika Dharmapala’s contribution, however, need to be highlighted. The first is the spread of Buddhism in India. The renowned Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterjee as the Speaker of the Bengal State Assembly once stated that the Anagarika had fully repaid the debt that Sri Lanka owed India on account of the introduction of Buddhism by Asoka the Righteous through his son and daughter in the third century BCE. Not only did Anagarika Dharmapala succeed in restituting the Buddhist shrines of India to Buddhists but also enlisted the participation of a significant number of devoted Sri Lankan bhikkhus to service these shrines and also function as Buddhist missionaries in the subcontinent.
It suffices me to say that it was a Sri Lankan monk, Dr. Hammalawa Saddhatissa Nayaka Thera, who in 1956 administered the Five Precepts to Babasaheb Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar to embrace Buddhism. The Buddhist revival which he had led has raised the population of Buddhists in the birthplace of Buddhism from a mere two hundred thousand in the 1950s to well nigh fifteen million. The pioneering Indian bhikkhus of the Movement such as Rahul Sankritayana, Jagadish Kashyap and Anand Kausalyayan had their Buddhist education in Vidyalankara Pirivena just as a generation of Indian scholars represented by Dhammanand Kosambi, Satish Chandra Vidyabhushana and Padmanabha Jaini had their training at Vidyodaya Pirivena.
The second is the Anagarika’s mission to London. As far-reaching as his service in India and the USA was his effort to set up in 1925 the London Buddhist Vihara which had become a focal point in Sri Lanka’s involvement in the spread of Buddhism in the West. Still administered and maintained by the Anagarika Dharmapala Trust, it enlisted the services of an illustrious array of scholar-monks of Sri Lanka.
Another protégé of Olcott to carry on a worldwide mission of spreading the message of the Buddha was Sir Don Baron Jayatilaka, scholar, educator and statesman. Apart from participating in a series of international parleys, he used his writing and editorial skills for this purpose. His Journal, THE BUDDHIST, reached out to a wide reading public. When in England to negotiate constitutional issues with the colonial administrators, he found time to assist the first ever bhikkhu of England, Ananda Metteyya, in editing and publishing his journal.
CONTINUING ROLE IN MODERN TIMES
The development of Buddhist education in Sri Lanka had a ripple effect in especially Myanmar. The Buddhist colleges like Ananda, Dharmaraja and Mahinda attracted students who on return continued to be active in the promotion of Buddhism. One of them was U Chan Toon, who, as Attorney General and Supreme Court Justice, succeeded Gunapala Malalasekera as the President of the World Fellowship of Buddhism (1958-1963).
Bhikkhus from neighbouring countries as well as from Europe came for training in Sri Lankan temples. Vajirarama in Bambalapitiya under the leadership of Pelene Vajirajnana Nayaka Thera assumed an active missionary role. Narada Mahathera led a series of successful missions to Nepal and Vietnam to introduce Pali Buddhism and the institutions he established continue to serve the people. Piyadassi followed him as an itinerant missionary active in many countries. Ananda Maitreya and Ambalangoda Polwatte Buddhadatta Mahanayaka Theras were associated with the development of Buddhism in Myanmar.
The international Sangha represented by such famous personalities as Bhikkhu Silcara of England, Bhikkhu Lokanatha of Italy, Amirtanand Mahathera of Nepal and Nyanatiloka Thera of Germany found inspiration and support from Sri Lanka. The Island Hermitage of Dodanduwa where such bhikkhus as Nyanasatta, Nyanaponika and Nyanamoli under the leadership of Nyanatiloka turned out to be erudite and innovative interpreters of Buddhism, became a focal point for the spread of Buddhism to the West. Their learned treatises are among the most sought after in the world. Nyanasatta even wrote on Buddhism in Esperanto. Nyanatiloka’s Buddhist Dictionary and The Word of the Buddha remain standard reference works. Bhikkhu Dharmapala of Netherlands motivated students to be Buddhist activists and the Buddhist Students Union that he set up produced a generation of active workers who contributed to the spread of Buddhism. Later as Van Zeist, he functioned as the Deputy Editor of the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism.
A special development within Sri Lankan Buddhism was the emergence of the lay scholar-activists who complemented and supplemented the contribution of the Sangha. Starting with Mudaliyars Louis de Zoysa, Edmund Gunaratne, Louis Corneille Vijesinghe, Sri Lanka has given the world a fair number of Pali and Buddhist scholars like Gunapala Malalsekera, A. P. de Zoysa, Cassius Pereira (later Bhikkhu Kassapa), K. N. Jayatilleke, N. A. Jayawickrema, Jotiya Dheerasekera (later Dhammavihari Thera), W. F. Jayasuriya, W. S. Karunaratne, David Kalupahana, Y. Karunadasa, Shanta Ratnayake, Asanga Tilakaratne, P. D. Premasiri, G. A. Somaratne and many more. Sri Lankan scholars are known to serve with distinction in many Universities and colleges in the world.
Access to quality English education as well as facilities for publication has enabled Sri Lanka to be a productive centre of Buddhist publications. Kandy Buddhist Publication Centre has been for over six decades an active supplier of high level books, brochures and papers to an ever widening readership all over the world.
Among the widely read and sought books by those interested in Buddhism are Narada Mahathera’s The Buddha and his Teachings, Buddhism in a Nutshell, and A Manual of Abhidhamma – since revised and enlarged by Bhikkhu Bodhi, Paravahera Vajirajnana Nayaka Thera’s Buddhist Meditation in Theory and Practice, Henepola Gunaratana Thera’s Path of Serenity and Insight, W. F. Jayasuriya’s Introduction to Abhidhamma, K. N. Jayatilleke’s The Message of the Buddha, and my own Buddhism – The Religion and its Culture, What in Brief is Buddhism, and Buddhist Answers to Current Issues. Bhikkhu Walpola Rahula’s What the Buddha Taught has attained the unique distinction of being the most widely published and translated book by a Sri Lankan author.
AN UNSOLICITED ASSESSMENT OF A FOREIGN DIGNITARY
The position that Sri Lanka occupied in this respect around 1940 is best summarized through the following montage of quotes from speeches made in Sri Lanka and China by Master Tai-xu, the exceptionally influential Chinese reformer of Buddhism, who visited the Island in 1928 and 1940:
“Now Buddhists in Ceylon are making Buddhism progressive by all new means. Dharmapala has introduced Buddhism to Europe and America. This is the glory of Ceylonese Buddhism. …. The revival of Indian Buddhism is linked to the joint efforts of Ceylonese Buddhists. …. Buddhism has aroused the interests of Europeans and Americans due to the efforts of Ceylonese Buddhists in recent years. It is due to their efforts that Buddhism has been able to spread in the world. …. When I visited New York, London, and other places, I was welcomed and treated by the branches of Mahabodhi Society created by Ceylonese Buddhists. Therefore, I have been associated with Ceylonese Buddhists for decades in our joint efforts for the world Buddhist movement. … Ceylon does not have the custom in which monks return to lay life because Ceylonese consider becoming monks to be noble and thus they despise the returning to lay life. … Their level of knowledge is generally higher than that of Burmese and Thailand peoples. … They have made great efforts to study the doctrines and observe the commandments. That is why many Buddhists, not only Buddhists from Burma and Thailand, but also scholars doing research into the Theravada Buddhism in Pali language all over the world have come to study Buddhism in Ceylon. The Buddhists in Ceylon have widely engaged in many causes, such as social welfare, culture, education, etc., thus making benefits to the state, society and even the broad masses in the world. This marks the great spirits of compassionate love of Buddhism. Though the Buddhism in Ceylon is generally considered to be Theravada Buddhism, it is indeed the practice of Mahayana Buddhism. … Although the Buddhist canon in Ceylon is not so rich as that in China, it is very strictly organized and pure. The position of monks in society is high. As soon as we entered Ceylon, we immediately feel that the people of Ceylon are in a true Buddhist country. I feel strongly that Ceylon is a model for Chinese Buddhists in their reform.” (Culled from speeches as taken down by Weifang, Tai Xu’s Diary abroad, Complete Works by Venerable Tai Xu, volume 56: translated for me by Darui long)
As so stated, Master Tai-xu’s remarkable movement to bring Chinese Buddhism from the mountains to cities and villages and from the funeral ceremonies to everyday life was no doubt modeled on the Sri Lankan experience. His interpretation of Humanistic Buddhism for this purpose has been made by Grand Master Hsing Yun of the Fo Guang Shan Order the most successful and widespread multi-pronged approach to propagating Buddhism in the world.
Master Tai-xu spoke of Sri Lanka with admiration and hope in 1940. The country was still a British colony, though semi-self-governing. The emerging decade brought Sri Lanka to the comity of brave new independent nations rediscovering their heritage and exploring their place in the world. Political, economic, social, educational and cultural imbalances were being diligently addressed.
2500 Buddha Jayanti to be celebrated as a landmark event with both a religious and national significance was in the horizon. It was almost a hundred years from the time that James d’Alwis predicted the disappearance of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the erudite introduction to his Sidat Sangara. In preparation for the Buddha Jayanti, the Buddhists were energized and motivated to look ahead.
All Ceylon Buddhist Congress under the leadership of Gunapala Malalasekera planned to mobilize the international Buddhist community. Its representatives gathering in Sri Lanka in 1950 decided to form themselves into the World Fellowship of Buddhism. Urged by the active Buddhist organizations of the country, the government stepped in to celebrate Buddha Jayanti as a national event. Its program was ambitious as can be seen that some of the activities like the translation of the Tripitaka into Sinhala and the Encyclopaedia of Buddhism took half a century to be completed. Among the non-governmental initiatives, the most important was the setting of the mission in Germany.
Though Buddha Jayanti was relevant to South and Southeast Asia, it drew the attention of the whole world, especially as India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos and, of course, Sri Lanka implemented extensive programs. The Chattha Sangayana (sixth synod) of Myanmar brought together the learned Sangha of these countries in a joint effort to edit, rehearse and publish the Tripitaka. Scholar-monks of Sri Lanka played a major role and the general editor with overall authority was a Sri Lankan who had settled down in Myanmar.
Inspired by Buddha Jayanti, Sri Lanka spent the next two decades in clarifying its future role in the promotion of Buddhism. The establishment of two new Universities with the formal mission of developing Buddhist studies proved to be vital. They provided hundred of bhikkhus with the training and the inclination for international Dharmaduta work. Today, a network of Sri Lankan temples has sprung up in practically every major county including some in Africa and Latin America. Supplemented by scholars and publishing enterprises, this network has the capacity to enhance substantially Sri Lanka’s role in the spread of Buddhism in the world. It is my hope that the 2600 Sambuddhatva Jayanti due to be observed in May 2011 will further galvanize Sri Lanka to continue its magnificent historical position as a radiating centre of the teachings of the Buddha.
Let me conclude by answering the question I posed myself at the beginning. What would have happened if Buddhism had not found a permanent home in Sri Lanka during the last twenty-three centuries?
With rise of schisms and reinterpretations resulting in the evolution of Mahayana and Tantric Vajrayana movements and the increasing competition and challenges from Hinduism, the simple, straight-forward and authentic teachings of the Buddha would have vanished into thin air, leaving behind only what is recorded in the Chinese Agama Sutras, which due to the overarching importance of the Mahayana Sutras are hardly studied and not yet fully translated into world languages.
The historic Buddha of the Sakya clan would have been relegated to the background as one of their pantheons which include Amitabha Buddha, Medicine Buddha, Dhyani Buddhas and cosmic Buddhas of many thousands of Buddha fields of the Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions..
The Pali language would have disappeared altogether and neither the quai-canonical nor non-canonical literature in Pali would have ever developed. If anything of the Pali Canon survived, it would have been only in fragments just as the Sanskrit or Khotanese Buddhist works.
The enormous Pali commentarial literature generated by translating the Sinhala commentaries would never have come to being.
The Sinhala Reform of Parakramabahu I would not have taken place and the Southeast Asian countries which have benefited from it would have remained, if at all, Mahayana or Tantric Buddhist countries or even Hindu.
The Buddhist shrines of India, connected with the life of the Buddha and reflecting the aesthetic creativity of the early Buddhists, would have been in the hands of the Hindus just as the Buddha himself has been absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as an incarnation of god Vishnu.
Neither the splendid heritage of Buddhist architecture and art of Sri Lanka would have come into existence nor could it have played the historic role as described above.
If for whatever reason, Sri Lanka failed even to retain its Mahayana affiliations, it could have been another Pakistan, Malaysia or Philippines.
What is more, the International Buddhist community would not be gathering in Colombo today to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of the World Fellowship of Buddhists founded in Sri Lanka by Gunapala Malalsekera in May 1950. And you and I will not be preparing to celebrate with utmost dedication the 2600 Sambuddhatva Jayanti – the 2600th anniversary of the attainment of Buddhahood by Prince Siddhartha Gautama or, in other words, the 2600th Birthday of Buddhism.
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By Richard Capone, CEO Let's Go Learn
A lot of schools have asked us about the implications of the new Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium. In its own words, the Smarter Balanced Assessment Consortium is a “state-led consortium working collaboratively to develop next-generation assessments aligned to the Common Core State Standards (CCSS)…”
With the next generation of state assessments based on the Common Core standards, implemented in schools during the 2014-15 school year, you should expect to see the latest technology in testing. Like Let’s Go Learn’s assessments, these will be adaptive and will be totally online.
There will be several parts to the Smarter Balanced assessments. There will continue to be mandatory end-of-year assessments, summative in nature and allowing for the measurement of student progress and the comparison across schools and states. With such a purpose in mind, one can assume that while these assessments will likely provide more information than current assessments, they still will not be as diagnostic as an assessment whose main goal is to inform instruction.
In addition, there will be optional assessments that can be used during the school year as well as “formative tools” that teachers can use. These assessments and tools are intended to inform instruction.
At Let’s Go Learn, our approach to testing has always been focused on the diagnostics. Our format of diagnostic assessment will be different than the Smarter Balanced Assessment. While we both report on Common Core standards, we focus on finding instructional points that teachers can use. For instance, our ADAM K-7 assessment is built to the Common Core standards, but it assesses students based on 44 linear strands found in K-7 math. This means we find the exact instructional level of a student within a wide range of mathematical construct, regardless of their grade level. Our diagnostic range will adapt higher and lower, allowing teachers to pinpoint student strengths and weaknesses. And our assessment is valid at the section level. In order to be valid with such a high number of sections, we have more items per concept. With over ten years of adaptive test experience, Let’s Go Learn has had plenty of time and experience to fine tune our adaptive testing, providing valid and reliable assessments that teachers can really use.
In terms of what you will need to do to prepare, you will have to be able to test all students online at your district. Let’s Go Learn customers are already accustomed to doing this, but if you have not used any form of online testing, you may want to do so prior to the rollout. The window for testing will increase because states realize that all students will need to go through computer labs. Thus instead of testing everyone in a week, it will probably be a 4 week window.
I recently presented at the Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley about adaptive testing and the Smarter Balanced Assessment and how to prepare for its coming. I will be presenting two more time in the near future in California. Stay tuned for these dates and locations. I’ll post them to this blog. Feel free to contact us if you have questions.
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Why does Jesus refer to himself as the "Son of Man"? This is similar to Why does Jesus speak of himself in the third person?, but I am specifically looking for an explanation of the "Son of Man" references.
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From "The Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels"
There are several theories about what Jesus was alluding to in calling himself son of Man (literally son of 'a-dam'):
With any of these motives, by speaking of himself in the third person, he is making an audacious claim (the power!) but couching it in the most humble terms he can.
He was alluding that he would fulfill the prophecy made by the Prophet Daniel in Daniel 7.
It was as direct a claim of messiah ship a first century Jew could make. The Jews understood this and is why he was so widely held as a blasphemer by the Jewish people. This is further reiterated by passages like
The Jews understood that only God had the power to forgive sin. We even have a passage where his disciples admit that he is the messiah.
I have heard that it is a mystery why Jesus referred to Himself as the Son of Man. And yet it was in fact what Jesus called Himself the most.
I see it like this, Jesus is speaking as God, because He is God. His perspective on everything is from the point of view of God. So what makes Jesus unique foremost, is not that He is a man who is God, but rather that He is God, but also a man. In all the Universe, here is God as "the Son of Man (mankind)". Or - I am God and also a man, not I am a man who is also God.
This is a reference to a vision in the book of the prophet Daniel:
Jesus refers to this when He is brought before the council, as described in Mark 14:
See also: Luke 22:69
He also refers to it when speaking about the End Times:
I would say He referred to himself as "the son of man" to keep His identity a secret until it was the right time to die and let the Jews know He was the messiah. (as he did in Mark 14:61-64) Not only is He the son of God, but He is too the son of Joseph. A man of flesh. This going along with Hammer's answer on March 10 that He is speaking from God's point of view.
Jesus wanted to keep His identity secretive until the right and final moment. Which is why He silenced the demons in Mark 1:34 and others in Matthew 8:3-4, 16:20 & 17:9 so that they would not say He was the son of God and He would be charged with Blasphemy.
protected by Caleb♦ Oct 22 '14 at 8:39
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Summer: (n) That period of time between June and August where kids forget almost everything they’ve learned during the previous school year.
Right?! I mean, doesn’t it seem like that’s the case most of the time? LOL!
In our homeschool, in order to retain as much learning as possible, I like to continue some of our main subjects through the summer, subjects like math and writing. I’ve found that by doing a little bit here and there, through the summer months, we can keep concepts fresh and it’s not so difficult to jump back into school in the fall. To keep up on our math studies this summer, we’ve been trying out LearnBop for Families by LearnBop.
LearnBop is an online interactive math program for students in grades 3-12. Designed to personalize learning for students and boost their confidence, LearnBop is different from other online math programs due to its step-by-step solution guide to missed problems. It’s like having a math tutor right in your computer.
I received a 12 month subscription ($14.95 a month) to the LearnBop Single Student Plan. This plan is for one student but LearnBop also offers a Family Plan ($19.95 a month) for up to 4 students.
To begin LearnBop, you choose a “roadmap” to start out your student on. The roadmap can be a grade level or a particular subject you want your student to focus on. Subjects include: operations and algebraic thinking, number and operations in base ten, measurement and data, geometry, number and operations-fractions, ratios and proportional relationships, the number system, expressions and equations, statistics and probability, and functions.
After choosing a “roadmap” for your student, the program is divided into smaller “units” that need to be mastered. Each unit features a warm-up, about three or more instructional videos, as well as “Bops”, which are the actual math problems.
As your student works through the units, the program keeps track of your student’s progress. Your student will need to achieve 90% accuracy to master a particular unit. If a student gets a problem incorrect, the program takes a little detour into the mechanics of the problem through step-by-step instruction. This is the math tutor-like part.
You can jump around throughout the program. You do not have to complete the units in order. Even the warm-ups and instructional videos are not required. If your student wants to jump right into solving the “Bops”, he can do that. However, the instructional videos provide the essential teaching and learning.
While working through the units, your student can earn different “awards” for their hard work and achievements. There are “awards” for not giving up, staying focused, mastering a concept, completing a roadmap, mastering 10 concepts, your first milestone, and many more.
Usage and Thoughts
I used this program with my 5th grade son, so I naturally chose the 5th grade “roadmap” as a starting place for him.
After logging into the program, I found that I had been provided with an account for myself as well as one for my son. I played around with my account a little bit and, although I didn’t use it much, I could have started my own roadmap and done some high school algebra or whatever topic interested me!
My son worked through the units according to his interest, as I didn’t give him any requirements on which unit to begin with. He needed a pencil and some scratch paper to solve the problems within the”Bops”. He especially enjoyed choosing the avatar and theme for his dashboard, a detective theme. The dashboard was a little busy for my son. He and I both found it a bit confusing.
My son started each unit, as the program suggested, with the quick warm-up provided. I thought that the warm-up was a type of diagnostic and would reveal what gaps my son had, if any. However, I couldn’t find the grades for the warm-up and I am still unsure how the warm-up affected his unit or relates to his “roadmap”.
The instructional videos were good at explaining concepts. We enjoyed those. The videos feature graphics to help illustrate ideas and I think the visuals really helped my son grasp concepts more quickly.
The math problems in the “Bops” were laid out well with lots of white space. Each question contained a hint, which was a really nice feature. Also, my son would get feedback after each question, so he knew right away if he had answered a question correctly or not.
We ran into a few little technical glitches here and there. For example, in the problem seen above, the entire problem was not showing. After reading the information in red, you are supposed to answer with either a yes or no answer, but obviously something was missing. Later I tried the problem again and finally the rest of the math problem did show up and we were able to answer the problem.
LearnBop contains a great deal of mathematical content. I think it has been helpful to my son. It’s been a good refresher course for him. However, because we did experience some technical difficulties, and my son did not enjoy using LearnBop, due to the busy interface, I don’t think we will continue using the program at this time. I think if the program was just a little more user friendly, the warm-ups did provide feedback and identify gaps, and the technicalities were dealt with, it could be a really good program.
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Sky Rockets in Flight
This year’s Orionids could be an early-morning delight
The waxing moon reaches first-quarter phase Oct. 18, when it appears due south at dusk and sets around 11:30pm. As the moon fills night by night, it appears 10 degrees to the east and sets a little more than a half-hour later each evening.
The sun sets around 6:20 this week, and as dusk settles to darkness, Jupiter blazes low in the southwest. As the gaseous giant sinks ever-closer to the horizon, it seems to intensify, a result of the distorting effect that earth’s atmosphere has on its light. Shortly after sunset, the star Antares appears halfway between Jupiter and the horizon. While Antares shines a distinct red, it is far more dim than Jupiter and sets by 8pm. Jupiter doesn’t linger much longer, setting before 9pm.
Mars rises with the constellation Gemini around 10:30pm. The red planet has grown distinctly larger and brighter in just the past month, and it will continue to do so as it nears its closest pass by Earth, around Christmas.
High above the east-southeast horizon, Venus, Saturn and the star Regulus greet early risers up an hour or more before daybreak at 7:20am. After last week’s tight conjunction of the three, Venus continues to drift, day by day, toward the horizon. At week’s end, Saturn is five degrees above Venus, but that distance will double by next week. Saturn and Regulus end the week equidistant, with all three objects forming a near line early Saturday; But it will take more than a month before Saturn and Regulus drift 10 degrees apart.
This year’s Orionid meteor shower peaks late Saturday, with top estimates at 20 per hour from 2 to 3am. Keep an eye out for these shooting stars a anytime between 10pm and dawn a few nights before and after peak.
Illustration: © Copyright 1925 M.C. Escher/Cordon Art-Baarn-Holland; Graphics: © Copyright 2007 Pacific Publishers. Reprinted by permission from the Tidelog graphic almanac. Bound copies of the annual Tidelog for Chesapeake Bay are $14.95 ppd. from Pacific Publishers, Box 480, Bolinas, CA 94924. Phone 415-868-2909. Weather affects tides. This information is believed to be reliable but no guarantee of accuracy is made by Bay Weekly or Pacific Publishers. The actual layout of Tidelog differs from that used in Bay Weekly. Tidelog graphics are repositioned to reflect Bay Weekly’s distribution cycle.Tides are based on National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and are positioned to coincide with high and low tides of Tidelog.
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After Link received her training at Fort Knox, she volunteered for overseas duty and was soon deployed to Northern Africa to serve as a World War II nurse. As one of 233,985 West Virginians to serve in World War II, Link died in an automobile accident in September of 1943 defending America’s freedom on foreign shores.
Virginia Link’s sacrifice epitomizes a proud state that, per capita, has had more citizens serve in the Armed Forces than any other and one that is home to five veterans’ affairs (VA) hospitals, seven VA clinics, eight special programs, a veterans’ nursing home and a Veterans’ Council. Each year, this brave and noble sector of society known as veterans is honored by the Legislature. This session, February 19 was deemed Veterans’ Visibility Day by the Senate and House under separate resolutions.
Over the years, the West Virginia Legislature has created many laws to improve the welfare of veterans. Five veterans’ bonus amendments to the state constitution have been ratified over the years, highlighting the importantance of recognition and compensation for those who served our country in times of war.
West Virginia has 58,053 World War I veterans and 233,985 World War II veterans. Ratified in 1950, the first Veterans Bonus Amendment provided a bonus for veterans who served in either of the World Wars. A veteran serving in the continental United States could receive $10 for each month served, those serving abroad could receive $15 per month served.
West Virginians have been able to receive bonuses for serving in other wars too. The state had approximately 112,000 residents that served in the Korean Conflict and 36,000 that served in the Vietnam War. The Legislature has created veterans bonuses for those wars as well.
The only bonus that can still be claimed is the Veterans Bonus Amendment for Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq, which was ratified in 2004. Certain time periods apply for this bonus, but this amendment applies to anyone who served on active duty during those periods. However, for Kosovo and Afghanistan, a veteran must have received a campaign badge or expeditionary medal for his or her service. The veteran receiving the bonus must have been a resident of West Virginia for at least six months prior to enlisting and must have been honorably discharged from service. The bonus is $600 for veterans inside the combat zone. Veterans who did not serve inside the combat zone in Iraq and Afghanistan are eligible for a $400 bonus. The bonuses are limited to one per person.
Legislative assistance for state veterans has stretched beyond these bonus amendments. In 2005, there was a growing difficulty to find someone to play “Taps” at military funerals. Many groups, such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars, the American Legion and Buglers Across America, agreed it was a problem across the state and the nation. In response, the Legislature passed House Bill 2286, which serves as an incentive for students to assist with “Taps”. Now students are being encouraged to learn to play “Taps” and in return receive community service credit for playing at military funerals.
Due to the large number of veterans in West Virginia, a quality veterans’ nursing home was crucial to provide nursing care to those who had served. During the 74th Legislative Session, Senate Bill 1005 was passed to authorize the sale of revenue bonds so the state could fund 35 percent of shared construction costs for a veterans’ nursing home. A lottery scratch-off game also was created to fund a portion of the nursing home. Located in Clarksburg, the nursing home broke ground in 2003. The construction of the building is complete and is currently in the final stages of inspection.
While bills and bonus amendments were passed to give thanks to the men and women who bravely served our country, the value of our Armed Forces goes beyond mere monetary expression. Serving and having served in conflicts past and present, these men and women have made sacrifices for our country that are sometimes taken for granted. However, our service persons’ greatest contribution is that they afford the rest of us the luxury of living lives free of the troubles they struggled to eradicate, a noble endevour worthy of recognition. That is why, beyond the financial support offered or the holidays celebrated, perhaps the greater thanks is to let these awards of merit and bravery act not as ends in themselves, but instead as continued reminders that, without what they have done, we very well might not be able to carry on what we do.
House Bill 2120 will set minimum standards for candidates for municipal judge. These candidates will have to submit to a criminal background check by the State Police. The candidate will have to pay all costs associated with the check. If the background check reveals convictions for certain misdemeanors and/or felonies, the candidate will be deemed ineligible. The bill will also require municipal judges who are not licensed attorneys to attend continuing education classes.
House Bill 2285 will update the meaning of federal adjusted gross income and other terms used in the West Virginia Personal Income Tax Act. This will apply any changes made to the federal Internal Revenue Code in 2006 to the state code. Such bills are passed annually to explicitly keep state tax laws up-to-date.
House Bill 2314 will update the meaning of several definitions related to the state’s corporate net income tax. This will apply any changes made to the federal Internal Revenue Code in 2006 to the state code. Such bills are passed annually to explicitly keep West Virginia tax laws up-to-date.
House Bill 2917 will eliminate the requirement of accelerated payments of the consumer sales and service tax and personal income withholding tax for the last month of the fiscal year. Currently, taxes due by certain businesses for the first 15 days of June have to be paid by June 23; taxes for other months are due during the next month. The bill will remove the accelerated payment requirement starting in July 2007.
These bills now will go to the Governor for his consideration.
House Bill 2575 would modify current law relating to Commercial Driver’s Licenses (CDL) to comply with federal law. The Division of Motor Vehicles (DMV) would be responsible for imposing civil penalties on any employer who permitted a driver to operate a commercial motor vehicle that is out-of-service, and if found in violation the employer would be fined $2,750. The new provision would decrease the period of suspension from 90 days to 60 days for driving a commercial motor vehicle without holding a valid commercial license, operating a commercial motor vehicle while the license is suspended, or operating an “out-of-service” vehicle. In addition, the DMV would immediately disqualify a driver’s privilege to operate a commercial motor vehicle upon notice from the Assistant Administrator of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration that the driver poses an imminent hazard. Under this bill, the DMV Commissioner would be authorized to suspend or revoke the CDL of any person who is convicted of an offense in another state that would have been grounds for a suspension or revocation in West Virginia. An employer would also be liable for an infraction of federal, state or local regulations pertaining to railroad highway grade crossings, and upon conviction he or she would be required to pay no more than $10,000.
House Bill 2745 would increase the maximum fine for providing alcohol to a person under 21 years old from $100 to $250.
House Bill 2825 would eliminate an antiquated provision in state law that allowed private clubs to segregate on the basis of race or color and still obtain a license to sell alcoholic beverages.
House Bill 2956 relates to civil actions filed in state courts and would amend two sections of state law relating to the legal power of out-of-state plaintiffs. The bill would give plaintiffs a diminished ability to try their case within the state when the basis for the lawsuit does not directly pertain to West Virginia. The burden of proof is placed on the defendant to show that a West Virginia court is not the proper location to pursue that lawsuit. The state could be inappropriate for reasons such as: lack of access to sources of evidence, proximity of witnesses, need to view a property and other factors that precipitate an expedient discovery phase and civil trial.
House Bill 2718 would allow each of the four counties with racetracks (Jefferson, Kanawha, Ohio, and Hancock) to elect whether or not to allow table games at those existing locations.
House Bill 2972 would enforce a requirement that voters fill in a separate area on an electronic voting ballot if he or she is also going to write-in a candidate. Ballots that do not have the separate marking for a write-in candidate would no longer be counted in an effort to lessen the need for county commissioners to inspect each ballot.
House Bill 2955 would continue a flat-rate excise tax on motor fuel at approximately 20 cents per gallon until August 1, 2013.
House Bill 2875 would modify the procedure for filling a vacancy on a county commission in the event that the commissioners cannot agree on a candidate. Currently, the commissioners must decide who will fill the seat and in the event that a quorum cannot agree on a candidate within 60 days, each county commissioner would write the name of a nominee from the same political party as the vacated seat to be submitted and drawn out of a container by the Chief Justice of the County’s Circuit Court; with the chosen candidate becoming the appointed county commissioner. Under the bill, the decision would have to be made within 30 days from when the seat is vacated, and if the commissioners cannot agree, the county executive committee of the vacating county commissioner’s political party would choose the replacement from within their membership.
House Bill 2544 would increase the penalty for causing death by driving under the influence from one-to-10 years to three-to-15 years in a state correctional facility.
House Bill 2804 would eliminate the timetables that are set up to monitor various stages of utility relocations for highway projects and place the responsibility and costs on the utility company for failure to comply with proper removal notices. Under the bill, the Division of Highways would be required to reimburse utility companies for subsequent relocations due to plan changes after a project has begun construction and would authorize meetings between the Division of Highways and utilities to maintain schedules.
House Bill 2933 would exempt from current nursing licensing provisions the care of the sick when done in connection with the religious beliefs of a church or other spiritual organization at the request of the afflicted recipient. To qualify, treatment must be given in the recipient’s home or at a non-medical healthcare institution.
House Bill 3117 would clarify that a person cannot submit a bid to perform work as a contractor with the state of West Virginia unless he or she has a state contractor’s license.
Senate Bill 68 would allow the Director of the Office of Miners’ Health, Safety and Training to take into account a coal mine’s failure to comply with previous warnings when deciding whether to issue an order to shut down the mine for reasons of there being an “imminent danger.” The bill also limits the use of “belt air” as mine ventilation and requires the inspection and review of mines that currently use it.
Senate Bill 76 relates to establishing underage drinking as an unlawful act rather than a status offense. Buying alcohol while underage would result in a misdemeanor and may result in a fine of $50 and possible jail time of 72 hours. Anyone who buys alcohol for a minor would be fined up to $100 and be jailed up to 10 days.
Senate Bill 116 would clarify state voyerism laws, and would exempt law-enforcement officers during a criminal investigation and lawful security surveillance.
Senate Bill 177 would create a new Division of Energy in the Department of Commerce. It would also require the Public Energy Authority to develop a five-year energy policy plan to be presented to the Governor and the Joint Committee on Government and Finance before December 1, 2007.
Senate Bill 204 would require magistrate court judges to assess the cost of juries (for the total of their embarkment, mileage, etc.) at their actual cost rather than current the flat rate of $200.
Senate Bill 219 would prohibit smoking in a motor vehicle when those under 14 years of age are present. This would only be a secondary offense, meaning someone could not be pulled over for the infraction, but found to have transgressed only after having been pulled over for another reason.
Senate Bill 387 This bill provides that an honorably discharged veteran may not be denied the opportunity to have a bronze military grave marker placed on his or her gravesite.
Senate Bill 395 would modify the definition of “intractable pain” (meaning difficult to manage) in the law so that it would come into accordance with the one recommended by the Federation of State Medical Boards. This definition change is already being used by the W. Va. Board of Medicine and the Board of Osteopathy in their policies pertaining to the use of controlled substances to manage pain.
Senate Bill 399 relates to the issuance of drivers’ licenses. Any driver’s license given up upon relocating to another state must be destroyed and the original state must be notified. For an instruction permit, the applicant must pay five dollars to take the written test and may re-take it up to two times. The organ donor option section would also be provided in this section. This bill also states that a level one instruction permit holder, 18 years of age and younger, may not use a wireless communication device while driving unless contacting a 911 system. Penalties range from a $25 first offense, to a $75 maximum fine.
Senate Bill 411 relates to the founding of the West Virginia Correctional Center Nursery Act. The center would allow imprisoned pregnant women to keep their infants with them in a special housing unit. In order to be eligible to participate in the program the inmate must be pregnant at the time she is delivered into the custody of the Division of Corrections, give birth on or after the date the program is implemented and she and the child must meet any other criteria established by the division.
Senate Bill 414 would raise the fees charged by circuit clerks for various services, such as garnishing a person’s salary and executing the seizure of one’s property to provide the payment of a legal judgment.
Senate Bill 489 relates to the duties of the Workforce Investment Council in the development of a strategic five-year state workforce investment plan that would attempt to establish a public agenda with goals of promoting the success of the state. This would attempt expressly, among other things, to find jobs for PROMISE scholars in West Virginia.
Senate Bill 530 would allow political parties to authorize a voter who is not a member of a political party (i.e. an independent), or not affiliated with any party appearing on the general election ballot to vote in the party’s primary election.
Senate Bill 603 relates to the 21st Century Schools Technology Initiative and would replace and enhance current technology used in the state’s classrooms. This bill would bring technology in public schools up to date with that which is now available across the country.
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the trick to study of both subjects is to know normal assessment findings so that when you see something abnormal you will be able to recognize it. children are often unable to articulate clearly any symptoms they are having so observation and assessment of their behavior is important. you also need to review the normal behavior of a child that should be present at the various stages of development from birth through adulthood. again, abnormal findings in assessments of newborns, toddlers and school age children will be likely to be the basis for good test questions. for ob, in particular, know what normal labor and delivery is. a lot of things go wrong during pregnancy and labor. these are things you are likely to get tested on.
- this is a slide slow presentation on normal and abnormal labor from the new york medical college. some very nice photographs and drawings to illustrate points.
- list of links of lectures, forms and tutorials on a variety of ob subjects from new york medical college
and includes links to the complete online textbook, laboratory tests commonly ordered in ob/gyn, medications commonly used in ob/gyn, ultrasound and x-ray used in ob/gyn, a large number of useful clinical forms you can download and print, and access to procedure videos that include a vaginal delivery, episiotomy, circumcision, pelvic exam, pap smear and much more.
- "vaginal birth" an interactive slide show. also includes a picture and short explanation about c-section.
- good pictures of cervical effacements and dilatation during labor
- the main page. links to pages of lots of helpful ob information surround the globe at the top of the page. within these links is assessment data for the various stages of labor.
- listing of emedicines topics on obstetrics and gynecology
- there are videos you can watch at this site that include comfort techniques during labor, an epidural procedure and a c-section (scroll down to the bottom of the page for the link).
- this site has a very comprehensive guide to the assessment of a mother and newborn. there are some blank pages within the document for some unknown reason. this form
is a list of questions to guide the nursing student when they make the home visit after the birth. from the university of indiana school of nursing.
- this is a prenatal care planning case study activity from the university of michigan school health system. it is a 7 page guide that takes you through a case scenario of a diabetic primigravida patient. it shows you, in steps, how to develop a nursing care plan using nanda languages. this is a learning activity for the nursing working for this facility. in the scenario they are directed to chose nursing diagnoses, noc outcomes and nic interventions. unfortunately, no answers are provided.
- common pediatric medications and monitoring from the children's hospital of iowa handbook of neonatology.
- pediatric assessment sheet (kind of old)- the last page, however, has an assessment of the patient by age appropriate behavior for a child
- this is a pediatric care planning case study activity from the university of michigan school health system. it is a 9 page guide that takes you through a case scenario of a 10-month old admitted following a laparotomy nissen procedure and gastrostomy tube placement. it shows you, in steps, how to develop a nursing care plan using nanda languages. this is a learning activity for the nursing working for this facility. in the scenario they are directed to choose nursing diagnoses, noc outcomes and nic interventions. unfortunately, no answers are provided.
- a list of links into subjects covered in pediatrics at the emedicine website
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As of today, all that we send into space is made here on Earth, and considerable money is spent on transportation of object to orbit. In sci-fi movies, we’ve seen orbital plants and factories building stations, ships, etc. Why can’t it be like that today?
Experts of the Made In Space company will try to find answers to this question. However, in their plans, orbital factories are replaced with 3D-printers. The goal of the guys is to launch an array of industrial 3D-printers that will produce (that is print) parts of the space shuttles and space stations.
According to representatives of Made In Space, manufacturing in space will save both money and time. Moreover, if the technology take hold and justify itself, it will be possible to organize the 3D-enterprise on the Moon. Perhaps it is thanks to them that colonies will be able to produce construction materials for buildings and robots.
Jason Dunn, co-founder of Made In Space, believes that all things for space are better off built in space.
At this stage, Made in Space professionals engaged in the evaluation of different models of 3D-printers, which can be used for the goal. Besides, test models of plastic parts are being “printed”.
One of the biggest challenges of the company is to make printers workd steadily and produce high-quality components in zero gravity. The Made in Space intends to resolve this issue within next 6 months.
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Information and communication technologies are rapidly changing every aspect of human society on an unprecedented global scale. These technology-driven social revolutions are fueled and funneled by the ever increasing rate of production of new knowledge and the distribution models that restrict or enable access to that knowledge. Knowledge and access to it will in turn shape humanity’s ability and willingness to effectively respond to growing populations, over-consumption, biosphere and climate destabilization, and the continued growth of wealth disparities – the key global issues that will shape human health in the next century.
Against this background, we will focus on how the widespread adoption of a single communication technology like the internet and open licensing and access models for medicine, science, and technology will enable the rapid deployment of critical health and education systems throughout the developing world.
The first of all liberties
Billions of people suffer from diseases and disabilities that prevent them from leading productive lives. In many places, whole communities struggle without access to clean water and sanitation. Millions suffer from diseases that in other places are completely preventable or easily treatable. Each day, 100,000 people die of starvation (“Starvation,” 2009), and more than 12,000 children die from malaria, respiratory illness, or unsafe drinking water (“Health,” 2009).
State of the world’s health
There are 300 million illnesses and 5 million deaths caused by tuberculosis, malaria, and AIDS each year. As many as 2 billion people are infected with hepatitis B (“Hepatitis B,” 2009). Schistosomiasis (200 million cases per year), dengue fever (50 million cases per year), measles (30 million cases per year), onchocerciasis (18 million cases per year in Africa alone), typhoid and leishmaniasis (approximately 12 million each per year, globally), rotavirus (600,000 child deaths per year), and shigella childhood diarrhea (600,000 deaths per year) constitute only a portion of the disease burden in the developing world.
Infectious diseases kill approximately 8 million adults and 9 million children each year and are the second leading cause of death worldwide. Thirty-nine new infectious diseases have been identified over the last 40 years, and new strains of those previously known have developed, such as the H1N1 flu virus. Conversely, previously known and largely eradicated diseases have recently reemerged, such as cholera, diphtheria, dengue fever, meningitis, plague, hemorrhagic fever, and yellow fever. Concentrated livestock production, massive urbanization, and increased encroachment on animal territory could trigger new pandemics, while climate change is altering insect and disease patterns globally with unpredictable consequences.
Non-communicable chronic conditions such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, heart disease, and stroke now kill more people even in developing countries than infectious diseases. Approximately 80% of 2009’s 35 million chronic disease-related deaths will occur in low- and middle-income countries; further, non-communicable diseases are expected to account for 70% of all deaths by 2030.
AIDS is the third leading cause of death worldwide, and the leading cause by an infectious disease (“AIDS,” 2009). Among those with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis is the leading cause of death. HIV dissemination may peak by 2012 at over 2 million per year, and is then expected to steadily decline. AIDS related deaths dropped from almost 3 million in 2006 to approximately 2 million in 2007, reflecting increased access to treatment by a third of those who need it. The Clinton Foundation has played a significant role in reducing costs of second-line drugs to $100 per year and the daily regimens to $1 per day in some high-need areas. While no vaccines are yet available, new genetic-based vaccines are undergoing trials. Radioactive anti-HIV antibodies and pre-exposure treatment are showing promise in animal models, and one controversial study suggests male circumcision may reduce infection by as much as 50%.
The ongoing global financial crisis has stimulated international councils such as the G-20 to rethink their basic assumptions regarding economics and finance. The worldwide trend of poverty reduction continues, and although remittance aid to poorer countries has more than doubled since 2002, it is likely to fall substantially in the near future due to food, fuel, and financial crises.
About 1 billion people live on $1.25 per day and 2.2 billion on $2 per day. If the world economic slowdown does not last longer than several years, the 1990 poverty rate will be halved by 2015. However, high population growth likely ensures that by 2015, there will still be 1 billion people living on less than $1.25.
Global technological dualism
Rapidly growing disparities in the creation, utilization, expenditure, and availability of technology between rich and poor countries has been described as the global digital divide (Pick & Azari, 2008, p. 92). Further, the global digital divide involves “economic, educational, and social aspects” (Pick & Azari, 2008, p. 92) that differentially influence the levels of ICT (information and communication technology) infrastructure in developing nations. The knowledge divide describes a second aspect of global technological dualism as the increasing disparities between those who can access, navigate, and apply knowledge and those who cannot.
Global digital divide
The global digital divide includes both the disparities in access to ICT within countries (digital divide) and the uneven development of ICT among countries (geographical divide), causing less developed nations to fall behind in technology, education, labor, democracy, and tourism (Guillen & Suarez, 2005).
Interestingly, Foulger suggests that the most striking facet distinguishing the global digital divide from the four millennia of media divides proceeding it is the willingness of the privileged group to make an issue of it. In this spirit, he proposes solutions to seven distinct obstacles: “Social and Legal Constraints”, “Economic Priorities”, “Basic Infrastructure”, “Literacy and Language”, “Network Infrastructure”, “Computer Resources”, and “Choice” (Foulger, 2002).
The digital divide describes differential access to technology as well as inequalities in requisite knowledge and skills needed to effectively participate as a digital citizen. Chen and Wellman argue that while diffusion trends are slowing and even stalling in many developed nations, the digital divide is growing in almost all countries, especially in developing countries where access is most strongly correlated with socioeconomic status (Chen & Wellman, 2004).
Drori and Jang have mapped the global digital divide by country and blocks of countries to determine correlations between IT penetration and national characteristics. Their research suggests that cultural features more strongly predict IT penetration than political climate or economic capabilities (Drori & Jang, 2003).
Global knowledge divide
The scientific, technological, and information post-industrial revolutions made possible the information and knowledge societies that characterize developed nations in the modern information age. However, many of the assumptions made by global digital divide analysts ignore the social and cultural factors that determine how and to what degree information and new knowledge are valued in developing societies (Rumiany, 2007). These values in turn may influence ICT penetration by defining access as a private (rather than public) good and therefore as a commodity to be profited from. The growing knowledge divide is therefore the more subtle yet fundamental aspect of global technological dualism – information is both the content distributed by communications technology and that which informs ICT development decisions.
Information / knowledge societies
Information Society is one of the broadest and most inclusive terms used to describe the society-wide consequences of the post-industrial information revolution. Within this broad category one may identify supporting concepts such as Information Age, which describes the three-decade period between the widespread adoption of computers and the emergence of the knowledge economy in post-industrial nations, and the knowledge era, which describes the nature of content rather than socioeconomic processes.
In specifically economic terms, the information and knowledge economies emphasize the content or intellectual property being traded through open markets. The digital economy focuses on the trading of bits rather than material goods. The network economy describes businesses as interdependent ecosystems rather than isolated agents. Social networking refers to global-scale, many-to-many collaboration systems. The Internet Economy focuses on the nature of markets that are enabled by the Internet.
O’Hara argues that “profound changes to established patterns of life, root metaphors, necessary expertise and habits of mind” are accompanying the global shift to knowledge societies (O’Hara, 2007). Increasingly, especially in developing nations, graduates of western-style Enlightenment-based socializing systems such as colleges and universities are poorly prepared for the leadership challenges of transitioning to a globalized knowledge society. This misalignment may be addressed in part by deeper collaboration and integration between telecenters (ICT development) and universities (R. D. Colle, 2005; Royal D. Colle & Roman, 2003), and by reorienting traditional academic-industry-government relations to facilitate the emergence of entrepreneurial universities (Etzkowitz, Webster, Gebhardt, & Terra, 2000). O’Hara goes furthest in insisting that for colleges and universities to meet the needs of the life-long learner in the 21st century,
… revolutionary changes are required in mission, curriculum content, pedagogy and modes of inquiry. The purpose must become explicitly aimed at producing a shift in the deep structures of consciousness and towards the development of trans-disciplinary expertise—entirely new literacies and new approaches to learning that both fit the current economic realities and are more attuned to the … needs of an emerging global knowledge society (O’Hara, 2007).
ICT as poverty reduction
The current digital divide is more dramatic than any other inequity in health or income (Edejer, 2000). With the formation of a global market largely controlled by institutions with entrenched inequalities, McElhinney addresses the role of vested interests in determining access to and application of information and communication technologies in the emerging global knowledge society (McElhinney, 2005). Castells takes this further by articulating the important role of the public voice (public diplomacy) in the emerging global public sphere to act beyond “the strict negotiations of power relationships” and build broad coalitions of human interests based on shared cultural meanings (Castells, 2008).
The Internet is a global network of networks that use a standardized Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve digital information. It consists of millions of private and public, academic, business, and government networks carrying a vast array of information resources and services. It is also a revolutionary tool that enables the efficient and instantaneous transfer of information among users. This globally accessible information system can be used for international trade, online digital libraries, online education, telemedicine, e-government and other applications that would solve critical endemic problems in the developing world. Norris states, “in poorer villages and isolated communities, a well-placed computer, like a communal well or an irrigation pump, may become another development tool, providing essential information about storm warnings and crop prices for farmers, or medical services and legal land records for villagers” (Norris, 2001, p. 40).
Nearly 1.67 billion people are connected to the internet – approximately 25% of humanity (“World Internet Usage Statistics News and World Population Stats,” 2009) – with more internet users in China than citizens in the United States (“List of countries by number of Internet users,” 2009). There are over four billion mobile phones currently in use, 60% of the global population (ITU Corporate Annual Report, 2008). Mobile devices are evolving into personal electronic companions, combining the traditional functions of computers, telephones, cameras, music players, TVs, and libraries. These dynamic smart phones can connect to the internet, are location aware and capable of adapting to individual users. The built environment is being connected via the internet and low-cost nanotech sensors, cameras, and transceivers for myriad purposes. Humanity, ubiquitous computing, and the built environment appear destined to become intractably interconnected.
Internet bases are being constructed in remote villages, internet-ready mobile devices are being designed to enable educational access by low income groups, and new business models are being created to connect the poorest two billion people with the rest of civilization via the internet. Emerging e-government systems are capable of supporting civil rights, education, democratization, and economic development by delivering needed services, creating citizen feedback channels, and facilitating public-private collaborations. Significantly, the Internet can connect developing country professionals learning or working internationally with the development processes in their home nations.
The internet increases economic expansion and decreases child mortality in the developing world (Bradshaw, Fallon, & Viterna, 2005). Public health and education are key beneficiaries of ubiquitous open information access. Documented examples include real-time epidemiological tracking (Curioso, Peinado, Rubio, Lazo-Escalante, & Castagnetto, 2009), development and deployment of open-source information systems for public health data (Qian Yi et al., 2008), and increased rural education opportunities (Zhao, 2008). Participatory government and cosmopolitan values are also increasingly correlated with internet penetration (Guillen & Suarez, 2005).
Accessibility: Penetration and Usage
As of June 2009, approximately 1.67 billion people worldwide use the Internet (“World Internet Usage Statistics”, 2009). Africa has some 50 million Internet users, for an Internet penetration of just 5%. Europe’s Internet penetration is 8 times higher (“ICTs in Africa” 2009). The quality of information available via the internet, including critical health information, is inconsistent, and high costs, English language dominance, lack of relevant content, and lack of technological support are barriers for disadvantaged communities. Edejer advocates maximizing internet penetration, decreasing the socioeconomic and cultural barriers to access, and exploiting the full potential of the internet to continuously translate universal information into useful knowledge (Edejer, 2000).
Licensing and Access Models
“Shortly after a large-scale clinical trial in 1955, the first inactivated polio vaccine was being injected into tens of millions of people around the world – possibly the most successful pharmaceutical product launch in history. Asked why he had not obtained a patent on the phenomenally successful vaccine, Jonas Salk reportedly replied, ‘That would be like patenting the sun.’ A few decades later, this view seemed laughably quaint.” (Dove, 2002)
Knowledge revolutions in science, medicine, and technology have made possible unprecedented levels of wealth, health, and education. But both physical access to ICT and the skills requisite to use it are highly concentrated in developed countries, leaving much of the world’s population at a growing disadvantage. According to the National Research Council for the National Academies,
“Data and information produced by government-funded, public-interest science is a global public good caught between two different trends. On the one hand, the Internet provides valuable new opportunities for overcoming geographic limitations and the promise of unprecedented open access to public information for research. The synergistic aspects of the availability and access to such information result in a broad range of positive externalities and network effects that increase exponentially with the addition of new Internet users. On the other hand, there are growing restrictions on the availability and use of public data and information arising from the privatization and commercialization of such sources. This countervailing trend undermines the traditional scientific cooperative and sharing ethos. It diminishes the public domain and open access to such global public goods and leads to a host of lost opportunity costs at both the national and international levels.” (Esanu & Uhlir, n.d.)
Trends in Intellectual Property Law
Until recently, both US intellectual property law and the property laws of most developed countries did not allow raw facts to be patented or copyrighted as property. Commercial proprietary ownership was limited to a finished product entering the marketplace. The data upon which the product was based remained free and open (“What is Intellectual Property?,” n.d.).
Further, US law required all federal government works appropriate for copyright to fall directly into public domain – reflecting the major role government resources play in scientific, medical, and technological research. This practice in federally funded research was designed to encourage the broad dissemination of data at or below cost, in the belief that the investment of public resources should yield public benefits. Each of these tenets evolved, at the slow rate of change inherent to the legal system, from concepts originating before the industrial revolution.
Modern ICTs have rapidly and permanently changed the way information is collected and disseminated. In many fields, data are published nearly as quickly as discovered. Juxtaposed, copyright law, built on the assumptions appropriate to analog technology, has failed to keep up. In response, a large and active global community has formed to support open access — that is, making data, information and knowledge “digital, online, free of charge, and free of most copyright and licensing restrictions.” (“What is CC?,” n.d.) Major research foundations have adopted policies to require open access to research results. For example, the NIH now requires open access to funded research. Faculty at colleges and universities are passing resolutions to ensure that their work is published openly (“Cornell Faculty Senate Resolution” 2005; “Faculty Senate Passes Author Rights Resolution,” 2007; “US07/08-17” 2007). And most major journals have granted their authors self-publishing rights.
Legislatively, there are alarming trends toward greater privatization, even of databases and basic research. The EU has adopted a “database right” that grants intellectual property protection to facts (“EUR-Lex – 31996L0009 – EN,” n.d.). Under the Bayh-Dole statute, researchers using federal funds are encouraged to patent and commercialize their research (Leaf, 2005; Roseman, 2008). In some cases, the commercialization has moved upstream to the levels of research and data, creating complex legal quandaries. While often providing immediate financial returns to the researchers and research institutions, privatization also stifles innovation, as the usefulness of information increases when connected with other information, and decreases when segregated by law.
Therefore, ironically, at a time when technological advances permit global access and distributed processing of data, legislation is increasingly favoring the privatization and isolation of new knowledge.
The Commons: An Open Movement
The open non-ownership model will almost certainly be a key component in tomorrow’s global economic system. However, intellectual property issues, compensation for creatives, and equitable policies to regulate competition among communication models are as yet largely unresolved.
Open source is an approach to the design, development, and distribution of software, guaranteeing certain practical rights such as to copy, to distribute, to access source code, and to change source code (Perens, 1999). The principle of “open source” has been adapted to many other fields important to international development, including content, architecture, science research, education, and health.
Open access describes toll-free online access to articles that have traditionally been published in toll-access scholarly journals (Suber, 2007). Ten to fifteen percent of all peer-reviewed journals are open access journals (“Directory of open access journals,” n.d.).
The major national and international research funding institutions are beginning to require open access standards for the research they support. Seventeen have adopted Green OA self-archiving mandates (“Access to Research Outputs,” n.d.), and four more have proposed mandates (“ROARMAP,” n.d.).
The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) adopted a mandate in September 2007, the first North American public research funder to do so (“OA Self-Archiving Policy: Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR),” n.d.). The U.S. National Institutes of Health Public Access Policy; the US Federal Research Public Access Act; the Wellcome Trust’s Position Statement in Support of Open and Unrestricted Access to Published Research; the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Policy on Access to Research Outputs; and the Howard Hughes Medical Institute have all made significant investment in open access policies for the research they fund.
However progressive North America may be described as being in its recent embrace of open access policies, Europe has produced more results: For example, sixteen major Dutch universities have cooperatively launched DAREnet, making over 47,000 research papers open access (Libbenga, 2005). By the end of 2009, NARCIS will provide access to 185,000 open access publications. The European Commission has recommended that research funding agencies mandate published articles arising from EC-funded research be made available in open access archives.
Open content, open knowledge
For content or knowledge to be regarded as “open”, it must meet certain basic requirements. It must be socially accessible without technological restriction; allow for redistribution and reuse; be free of discrimination against persons or groups, or fields of endeavor; and the open license must be distributed with the work without package limitations or restrictions upon the work of others (“Open Knowledge Definition,” n.d.).
Open design is public sharing of design information – for physical products, machines, or systems. The process is generally facilitated via the Internet and without monetary compensation. The goals and philosophy are identical to those of open source, though different in object of application.
More than 80% of the world’s human population lives in countries where income disparity is widening, while just less than 80% of the world’s population lives on $10 a day (purchasing power parity adjusted) (“Human Development Reports,” n.d.). The U.N. Millennium Development Goals aim to “achieve improvement in the lives of 100 million slum dwellers by the year 2015”, addressing the nearly 1 billion currently living in slum settlements (“United Nations Millennium Development Goals,” n.d.). Architecture for Humanity, Design for the Other 90%, and the Open Architecture Network are high-profile open design projects seeking to use the open source model to provide cost-effective, sustainable design for the developing world. The design focuses are meant to address the needs of the nearly 6 billion people with little or no access to the majority of products and services available in developed countries, and the billions of those without regular access to adequate shelter, basic health services, clean drinking water, primary education, or necessary transportation services by networking tens of thousands of international designers in collaborative, systematic efforts.
“Over the past 20 years, the culture of science has undergone what is arguably its most radical change since World War II: instead of being seen as a strictly public good, basic research is now a patentable commodity. The money is nice, but of course it has strings attached. As university budgets have come to rely on the massive revenue streams gushing from faculty patents, pressure is increasing for administrators to turn laboratory findings into cash cows.” (Dove, 2002)
Most scholarly journals don’t purchase from or pay royalties to authors. Researchers have historically given their work to publishers in exchange for visibility, prestige, career advancement, and to establish their priority. Most science-focused journal articles are based on publicly funded research. Willinsky argues for the logic of providing public access to the results of publicly-funded research with the contention that scientific research carries with it a responsibility to circulate the results as widely as possible (Willinsky, 2009). Further, scholarly articles published under an open access model have been found to have a greater research impact (Antelman, 2004) and are twice as likely to be cited (Eysenbach, 2006), adding value to the work and in turn contributing to its claim as knowledge. Open access, argues Willinsky, is in the self-interest of the researcher-authors who create knowledge and increases the return on investment to the public in whose interest research is ostensibly conducted.
The benefits of open access research publishing models are not unnoticed by the researcher-authors themselves: a 2006 survey of the attitudes of UK and Nederland authors commissioned by JISC and SURF found that nearly a third of authors preferred a joint rights model under a Creative Commons license (Hoom & van der Graaf, 2006), a growing trend.
Scientific research depends on access to and use of factual data, and is becoming more data-intensive in almost every discipline. The Mertonian tradition of open science has historically discouraged the proprietary exploitation of research data by requiring that the datasets on which research is based be made available as a precondition for publication.
Open science is a hypernym for technological tools, many of which are Web-based, that help scientists communicate about their findings (Lloyd, 2008). Information available to researchers, as far as possible, is made available to absolutely everyone. Open Notebook Science, the practice of making the entire primary record of a research project (including the so-called dark data) publicly available online as it is recorded, is the modern embodiment of both the Mertonian tradition and the extreme implications of the open access movement.
Open health systems
ICTs have the potential to reduce health disparities by providing access to information otherwise and previously unavailable, and by providing a broad range of other health-related Internet-based resources, including the location of and subsequent communication with health providers (Kalichman et al., 2002). Unfortunately, those who have preventable health problems and lack health insurance coverage are the least likely to have access to such technologies (Eng et al., 1998). Barriers to access include cost, geographic location, illiteracy, disability, and factors related to the capacity of people to use these technologies appropriately and effectively. The current digital divide is more dramatic than any other inequity in health or income (Edejer, 2000).
Many developing and emerging nations’ governments are seizing on the opportunities provided by the internet by implementing open access health projects. Health departments are able to leverage open-source software to implement low-cost information systems for access to modern data analysis and visualization tools (Qian Yi et al., 2008), and web-based geospatial data (GIS) (Kamadjeu & Tolentino, 2006). India, for example, has launched a new open source initiative for developing drugs to treat diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, and HIV (Singh, 2008).
“The communication revolution, which affords an opportunity for bringing ordered structures with reliable information to the internet, is especially essential for poor countries as they enter the global dialogue. Wiring the poor world, however, will not close the information gap between the haves and have-nots. Improving information access will require a far more equitable global world order. The prosperity of industrialized countries over longer stretches of history relates in no small measure to the cheap products obtained from poor countries. Transfer of this wealth to Europe and North America continues and is expanding. … cancellation of the colossal debt from poor to rich countries would do more for improving health care than providing free subscriptions to leading medical journals for every health professional in developing countries. The time is appropriate for the health profession to speak out.” (Lown, Bukachi, & Xavier, 1998)
Yach and Bettcher argue that the transnationalization of disease and health risks means that new forms of transnational collaboration between developed and developing nations are required to minimize risks and build on opportunities. For countries and communities to successfully navigate the globalized health landscape, the point of departure must be at the convergence of enlightened self-interest and altruism (Yach & Bettcher, 1998).
Separate from the issue of access to the internet and the information it transmits, medical research is in many cases barred from internet publication by the vested interests of the traditional publishing model and copyright laws (Barbour, Chinnock, Cohen, & Yamey, 2006).
The Information Era has created bold challenges and unique opportunities for improving global public health via telemedicine, distance education, and home care. But a truly universal information super-highway has an economic price, which has not, as yet, been properly evaluated. Detailed studies are needed to prove the cost and medical effectiveness of these technologies, especially for developing nations that lack the technological infrastructure and cultural capital to implement and therefore benefit from full ICT penetration. The transnationalization of disease and health risks requires new forms of transnational collaboration between developed and developing nations to minimize risks and build on opportunities.
Both physical access to ICT and the skills requisite to use it are highly concentrated in developed countries, leaving much of the world’s population at a growing disadvantage. Ironically, at a time when technological advances theoretically permit global access to data, legislation is increasingly favoring the privatization and isolation of new knowledge. This trend, if unchecked, will lead to a host of lost opportunity costs at the international level (Esanu & Uhlir, n.d.), especially for developing countries. In contrast, a vibrant open access, non-ownership model has emerged in crucial areas such as software, research data, and design. Linux, the WikiMedia Foundation, and the Science Commons exemplify the open source and open access philosophies. Architecture for Humanity, Design for the Other 90%, and the Open Architecture Network are high-profile open design projects seeking to use the open source model to provide cost-effective, sustainable design for the developing world.
To date, the quality of health information available on the web is inconsistent, and the visibility of research from developing countries is limited. Many argue that the way forward is full universal ICT penetration as a platform to exploit the full interactivity of the internet, which ideally allows rapid feedback and change to continuously mould information into useful knowledge, ostensibly to the benefit of all. However, the countries least prepared to bridge the digital divide have average life-spans much lower than those in developed nations; they have the highest infant mortality rates and the highest rates of HIV infection; they have average GDPs per capita an order of magnitude lower than developed nations; and their literacy rates are often lower than 20%. Therefore, bridging the digital divide is an effect, rather than a cause, to strive for. Until more basic problems are remedied, many of the world’s poorest citizens will remain fundamentally excluded from the internet and its benefits, even if it were to be made physically available to them.
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Libbenga, J. (2005, May 11). Dutch academics declare research free-for-all. The Register.co.uk. Retrieved November 1, 2009, from http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/05/11/open_access_research/.
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Lloyd, R. (2008, September 2). Era of Scientific Secrecy Near End | LiveScience. Live Science.com. Retrieved November 7, 2009, from http://www.livescience.com/culture/080902-open-science.html.
Lown, B., Bukachi, F., & Xavier, R. (1998). Health information in the developing world. Lancet, 352(9134), SII34. doi: Article.
McElhinney, S. (2005). Exposing the interests: decoding the promise of the global knowledge society. New Media Society, 7(6), 748-769. doi: 10.1177/1461444805056014.
Norris, P. (2001). Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide (p. 320). Cambridge University Press. Retrieved October 28, 2009, .
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O’Hara, M. (2007). Strangers in a strange land: Knowing, learning and education for the global knowledge society. Futures, 39(8), 930-941. doi: 10.1016/j.futures.2007.03.006.
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Perens, B. (1999, March 29). Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source
Revolution. Text.Article, . Retrieved November 1, 2009, from http://oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/perens.html.
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Qian Yi, Hoskins, R. E., Hillringhouse, E. A., Sorensen, S. S., Oberle, M. W., Fuller, S. S., et al. (2008). Integrating open-source technologies to build low-cost information systems for improved access to public health data. International Journal of Health Geographics, 7, 1-13. doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-7-29.
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- Want to Help the Developing World? Buy a Satellite (humanrights.change.org)
- Susan Blumenthal, M.D.: How Science Is Crucial To Improving Health Worldwide (huffingtonpost.com)
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The process of recording diagnostic information, usually for the purposes of debugging and monitoring the status or "health" of various systems.
Logging is an effective way of peering inside a particular system or process to see what it is doing. Logs are frequently stored line-by-line in files, but it's also common to write log data to terminals/streams (
stderr, for instance) or databases.
Logging makes it possible for developers or sysadmins to find and fix problems without interrupting the flow of the users of the application or system. An error or informative line may be written to a log, where an authorized user may review them and act accordingly. Often, it is not necessary or secure to output log data to the general public, or users of the application.
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DIFFERENT TYPES OF CHAMELEONS AND THEIR COLOR PATTERNS
Chameleons come in every color you can think of. Most chameleons have many different colors but that just depends on the type of chameleon you are looking at. A lot of people are led to believe that chameleons change color to blend in with their surroundings but that isn't true they are born with a coloration to blend in with their environment, thats why most chameleons are green to blend in with the leaves high in the canopy of a tree where they live. But a chameleon will change color slightly brighter than its original color to scare or fend off other chameleons as a way to defend their land/ territory, the example video at the top of the page shows a chameleon changing color as a way to defend its self.People say that they think that the chameleons hat have the most colors are the coolest but you may think differently. You can also get a good idea of what type of chameleon you are looking at by the color and variations on their body.
What type of chameleon is this?
Can you tell what type of chameleon this is? If you didn't know already this is a Jackson chameleon. The way you can tell it's a Jackson chameleon is the distinct three horns on its forehead. Some people may say that they use these horns to fight and kill each other, but they are somewhat right, males use these horns as a way to fight for a female. And females pick their mates mostly depending on which male has bigger horns. This is a very helpful website if you want to learn more about chameleons.
What chameleon is this?
Do you know what type of chameleon this is? If you didn't know this is a Panther chameleon. You can tell that this is a panther chameleon because it has a slightly thicker neck than most chameleons. A Panther chameleon is normally blue but can also be red or green. There are many different types of chameleons biologists believe that there are about 135 different types of chameleons living in every continent except for Antarctica.
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Here is what Ken Caldeira says:
Carbon dioxide emissions will have to be all but eliminated by the end of this century if the world is to avoid a temperature rise of more than 2 ºC, scientists warned yesterday. And it might even be necessary to start sucking greenhouse gases out of the atmosphere.
The findings are the culmination of five years work by Ensembles, a major European research consortium led by the UK Met Office Hadley Centre and involving 65 other research institutes worldwide. In the first study of its kind, scientists in the project used a variety of the latest global climate models to determine the reductions needed to stabilize levels of greenhouse gases, termed CO2 equivalents, at 450 parts per million. That level, which offers a reasonable chance of keeping the temperature rise under 2ºC, is the goal of European climate policy.
The results suggest that to achieve that target, emissions would have to drop to near zero by 2100. One of Ensemble's models predicted that by 2050, it might also be necessary to introduce new techniques that can actually pull CO2 out of the atmosphere.
Any bets on whether or not people will "stop building new CO2-emitting devices within the next decade"? As I have often said, no one really knows the possibilities of air capture (chemical, biological, geological) and sequestration at scale, and we won't until a greater effort is devoted to it. But whether you like it or not, the slow pace of mitigation policies to meaningfully deflect trajectories from business-as-usual means that air capture is gaining traction as a policy option, and will continue to do so. It is not at the center of debates over climate -- yet -- but it is moving closer.
The results suggest that simply switching to renewable sources of energy may not be enough to stabilize emissions. "It's clear that if we continue our current emissions trajectory and we want to stay at 450 parts per million, we'll need to pull CO2 out of the atmosphere," says atmospheric scientist Ken Caldeira, who works at the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Global Ecology in Stanford, California. That could mean deploying new techniques for capturing carbon, such as biochar, reforestation or air filtering, on a massive scale.
Caldeira adds that action now could be a better option. If people stop building new CO2-emitting devices within the next decade, they could achieve the same result at a lower cost.
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February is Black History Month in America's schools. During my 40-year teaching career, I always made certain my American history students understood that the Civil War was the most important event in our nation's history, Abraham Lincoln was the greatest of all our presidents and, above all, made certain they understood slavery was the only real cause of this terrible war.
One hundred and fifty years ago, a divided Congress approved the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. Steven Spielberg's film, "Lincoln," is the story of the political battle to pass the amendment.
Spielberg's multi-million-dollar epic is a spectacular civics lesson, capturing the political realities facing a president whose primary purpose was to hold the union together.
My personal fascination with the war began when I was in the sixth grade. My morning newspaper delivery route was the Springfield Street historic district in Chicopee, and every Saturday morning I made my collections visiting these historic houses.
I imagine some of my questions annoyed my customers. I wanted to know the names of the original owners and when the houses were built.
The tenant in the Ebenezer Hall house on Chapin Street told me that runaway slaves had used his barn as a station on the Underground Railroad. Many years later, I would discover that the barn was actually built in 1869, four years after the Civil War ended.
After telling me about the runaway slaves, he let me look inside the barn. That afternoon, I paid for my papers at Hastings News Stand and headed across the street to the library. The librarian took me to a glass case; she unlocked it and handed me a little green book: "The Annals of Chicopee Street," written by Clara Skeele Palmer.
The book was published in 1899. Palmer was a widow who lived for many years in her father's house on Chicopee Street. Her grandfather, Dr. Amos Skeele, had purchased the Roswell Chapin house in 1804.
In her book she writes that, in the 1850s, the homestead was a station on the Underground Railroad.
Palmer's father, Otis Skeele, was a member of the Immigrant Aid Society in Springfield. The group organized in Boston by Charles Francis Adams was helping to finance free-soil settlers in Kansas.
The center of the Abolitionist Movement in Chicopee was the First Congregational Church on Chicopee Street.
I returned the book to the librarian and was out the door. I rode my bicycle down Chicopee Street to the old church. Perched on the old sandstone front steps, looking northward up the Connecticut River, I imagined flatboats carrying bags of grain and desperate human cargo.
The Skeele house had burned down in 1894, and a radio station was now located on the site. I was convinced that 100 years before, runaway slaves hid in Otis Skeele's root cellar on their way to freedom in Canada.
Black history's first heroes and heroines were runaway slaves. These young men and women emancipated themselves. The Underground Railroad was a network of paths through the woods and fields, river crossings, boats and ships, trains and wagons, all haunted by the specter of recapture. Its stations were the houses and the churches of men and women, all of them agents of the "railroad," who refused to believe that human slavery and human decency could exist together in the same land.
The runaways found the route through Connecticut to be the safest. Slave catchers were given a difficult time in the old Connecticut River Valley. The Connecticut route ran from Greenwich and New Haven to Hartford. From there, they were shipped by boat to Springfield and Chicopee where they were lodged overnight; the next morning they continued their trip upriver to Northampton, usually in parties of four.
The slaves reached the Jones Ferry landing under cover of darkness, spending the daylight hours in the safe houses near the First Congregational Church. The journey was resumed at nightfall.
In the 1850s, the old Puritan church was led by the Rev. Eli B.Clark. In 1839, he was ordained the church's fourth pastor. He coordinated the railroad's Chicopee Street station on the Underground Railroad. The majority of his congregation suspected, but only a handful knew for sure.
Even today, historians researching the story in the Connecticut River Valley's Congregational churches find that this atmosphere of secrecy endures. Remember these people were God-fearing, law-abiding citizens engaged in open defiance of federal laws. The fewer people who knew what was going on, the better.
No one knows how many people fled from bondage on its invisible tracks. Probably no one will ever know. The black Americans who risked all for freedom on the road north never learned the names of their benefactors.
Stephen R. Jendrysik, a retired history teacher, is Chicopee city historian, a member of the Chicopee Historical Society's board of directors and president of the Edward Bellamy Memorial Association.
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nanotubes are used to make statically dissipative plastic compounds
that are molded into a variety of automotive parts where toughness and
"Class A" surface are important.
body parts (i.e.. fenders, door handles, mirror housings) that
are electrostatically painted. FIBRIL nanotubes are a key component
of resins that are designed for on-line painting of plastic body panels.
Fuel system components (i.e.. fuel lines, quick connects,
O-rings, filter housings, pump modules) that contact moving fuel and
thus must be electrostatically dissipative to prevent charge build-up.
Nanotubes Offer Unique Performance Advantages for Automotive Applications.
Greater retention of the base resin’s
toughness (without the use of
impact modifiers). Retention of base resin toughness is critical in
many automotive applications where parts such as fenders and fuel lines
must not exhibit brittle failure in an accident, especially at low temperature.
The low loading of FIBRIL nanotubes needed to give ESD conductivity
ensures that the base resin properties are minimally affected. Eliminating
the need for impact modifiers preserves the high heat resistance that
is needed for resins that are used in on-line painted body panels.
Retention of other key resin properties – again,
the low loading of FIBRIL nanotubes needed to give ESD conductivity
ensures the preservation of important resin properties such as durometer
softness in elastomers, or chemical resistance in polymers used in fuel
Class A smoothness of an as-molded part – the
small size of FIBRIL nantubes ensures that an external body part can
be directly painted right out of the mold without the use of either
a conductive primer or a surfacing primer.
Minimal increase in base resin viscosity – the
low nanotube loading means that the final compound will have a melt
flow very similar to the base resin. This is important in filling large,
long-flow parts like a fender or small, tight-tolerance parts like a
quick connect. It is also important in co-extrusion of high barrier
fuel lines, where the inner layer must be static dissipative.
electrical conductivity throughout the part and balanced
shrink/thermal expansion coefficients –
the small size and curvilinear shape of the nanotubes ensures a complete
and random distribution throughout the part.
of Physical Properties (170KB
for Conductive Plastics Move to Next Performance Level (783KB
High Performance Conductive Composites with Carbon Nanotubes
Nanotubes: A High Performance Conductive Additive
(476 KB PDF)
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Environmental Factor, May 2008, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
UNC Physician Discusses Autism and Brain Development
By Robin Mackar
"Brain enlargement is a real phenomenon in autism," said Joseph Piven, M.D., a physician-researcher in the Department of Psychiatry at the University of North Carolina (UNC) Chapel Hill, as he addressed NIEHS during the April 4 Frontiers in Environmental Sciences seminar. The talk, titled "Imaging the Developing Brain in Autism," highlighted Piven's work using magnetic resonance imaging to look at early brain development. David L. Armstrong, Ph.D., acting chief of the Laboratory of Neurobiology, NIEHS, was lecture host.
Piven and his colleagues are interested in determining the pathogenesis of autism related disorders. Much of his talk, which came during Autism Awareness month, focused on providing evidence that brain enlargement is a characteristic of autism. He provided highlights from a study he and his colleagues published in 2005 that compared brain volume and head circumference in children with and without autism.
The UNC researchers found that head circumference appears normal at birth, but a significantly increased rate of head circumference growth appears to begin around 12 months of age. At two years of age in autistic children, the scientists also found enlargement of the gray and white matter cerebral volumes. Indirect evidence suggests that this increased rate of brain growth in autism may have its onset postnatally in the latter part of the first year of life.
"There is something happening in the brains of autistic children between 6 and 12 months," he stated. "We hope to find out what is happening so we can provide insights that will lead to earlier diagnosis of autism."
Piven also discussed the different etiologies of autism and how Tuberous Sclerosis, Fragile X Syndrome and Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome might provide helpful models for elucidating critical linkages among gene, brain, and cognition in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. He also discussed some of the work his team is doing involving the monoamine oxidase A gene.
Piven concluded by saying that more longitudinal research needs to be supported so we can look at the development of children over time.
Piven and his colleagues received an Autism Center of Excellence (ACE) award from NIH in 2007 for the work they are doing to identify brain differences in children who develop ASD. In addition to his duties as a professor, Piven serves as the director of research for the TEACCH (Treatment and Education of Autistic and related Communication-handicapped Children) Division and the director of the UNC Neurodevelopmental Disorders Research Center.
(Robin Mackar is News Director in the NIEHS Office of Communications and Public Liaison and a regular contributor to the Environmental Factor.)
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High Definition Fiber Tracking
There are numerous brain imaging techniques that allow us to gain insight into what damage the brain may have incurred after a patient has a traumatic injury. The ever popular fMRI measures blood flow to infer neural activity. Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) uses the magnetic properties of water to look at white matter in the brain, while positron emission tomography (PET) uses radiolabeling to look for a specific chemical in the brain. All of these are important for possible disease diagnosis, however, there is skepticism around how dependent we should be on this technology, as the results should never be taken as the absolute truth.
Now, a new type of brain imaging developed by researchers at the University of Pittsburgh allows researchers to look for connections that have been broken as a result of traumatic brain injury, much like an X-Ray allows doctors to look for broken bones. It is called High Definition Fiber Tracking (HDFT). Although the technology is not specific at the cellular level, it is accurate in observing specific connections that have been lost as a result of injury. These lost connections act as a reliable predictor for cellular information, such as the percentage of axons that have been lost.
The accompanying publication in the Journal of Neurosurgery focuses on a case study of a man who sustained severe brain damage after crashing an all-terrain vehicle (public service announcement: this is why we wear helments!!!). Initial MRI scans showed hemorrhaging in the right basal ganglia, which was confirmed by a later DTI. The patient had extreme difficulty moving the left side of his body, and it was assumed to be a result of damage to the basal ganglia. It was not until the patient had a HDFT test that doctors could pinpoint the true problem: fiber tracts innervating the motor cortex had been lost.
Above is a comparison of the techniques that the researchers saw. The first column consists of scans from a normal patient, while the second two columns are the brain injury patient 4 and 10 months post injury. The imaging techniques used are MRI, DTI, and HDFT. The HDFT gives a clearer picture of what specific connections in the brain have been lost.
The following image comparing DTI with HDFT also shows the inaccuracies of the older technologies.
In healthy subjects, the DTI shows connections and fiber tracks which do not correspond with what we know about brain anatomy, including false turns (deviations from the pathway), false continuations (midline crossing), and looping (travel in random directions). The HDFT scan is consistent with brain anatomy. Thus, the use of HDFT was essential in pinpointing exactly what connections had been lost as a result of the patient’s traumatic brain injury (see Figs 5 and 6 in accompanying paper, linked below).
HDFT has the potential to become the future of diagnoses in patients who have sustained traumatic brain injury, thus revolutionizing how we can treat these patients.
The following video shows a summary of the new technology in addition to the patient in the research paper’s case study:
Further videos and news releases are available on the HDFT lab website, linked below.
New High Definition Fiber Tracking Reveals Damage Caused by Traumatic Brain Injury -University of Pittsburgh Medical Center
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| 0.949619 | 669 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Things you are likely to want to include in a first lesson with a group studying for FCE include, in no particular order:
- Finding out what they know about the exam and their motivations for taking it
- Finding out their experiences of EFL exams such as taking Cambridge PET or previous attempts at taking FCE
- Students sharing and/ or learning some information about the exam, including exam tips
- Students sharing and/ or learning some tips for self-study
- The teacher finding out something about the students’ strengths and weaknesses
- Lots of speaking
- The teacher and other students learning some personal information about each other (often known as GTKY, for “getting to know you”)
- An introduction to some of the most important language for FCE students such as comparing/ contrasting, speculating or typical speaking mistakes (which the class will probably also come back to later in the course)
- A clear link to the homework and the first bookwork (be it in the first class or later on)
An obvious place to start is with FCE Speaking Part One, as the format of this part of the exam is personal questions that people are likely to want to ask each other anyway such as “Do you have any hobbies?” and “Where are you from?” Some Speaking Part One questions are also what a teacher would be likely to ask during needs analysis such as “Why are you taking the FCE?” and “How long have you been studying English?” The class can do an actual needs analysis task such as interviewing each other in pairs to fill in forms, linking from that to other similar questions on different common FCE Speaking topics such as food and accommodation. For example, students ask each other past, present and future questions about self-study, using English etc and make notes in boxes in the table given. They then brainstorm what the questions could have been, before doing the same with other FCE topics like “family” and “other languages”, going on to practise asking and answering the same questions in a more exam-like format.
You can also start the GTKY, needs analysis and Speaking Part One practice with a game, for example students throwing two dice and asking each other questions about the topic and time (distant past, right now, etc) that the numbers represent.
The needs analysis and/ or Speaking Part One stages above can be extended into other parts of the exam, for example:
- Ending needs analysis with discussion of the best ways of studying for the exam and improving their English more generally, then doing a Speaking Part Three task where students discuss and choose different methods such as “Do lots of practice tests” and “Have English radio on while you sleep”, and/ or doing Speaking Part Four-style discussion questions on the topic.
- Examining typical Speaking Part One errors with the format of Use of English Part One (multiple choice cloze) and/ or Use of English Part Two (open cloze).
- Students reporting back to the class on similarities and differences between them, then moving onto Speaking Part Two (extended speaking about two photos), perhaps after a presentation of suitable language.
The last one is particularly useful because Speaking Part Two includes the speculating and comparing language that are two of the most common priorities for students. You can also do specific practice of those language points with a GTKY and/ or needs analysis focus. For comparing and contrasting, you could give students suitable topics (e.g. “EFL exams”) and language (e.g. “far more”) to use to find similarities and differences between each other with. Unlike most GTKY tasks, this also works with students who already know each other.
Another task which is useful for language they really need is getting students to speculate about each other before they ask each other GTKY questions, for example using the topics and phrases given on a worksheet to make statements like “I’m fairly sure you’ve already taken other English exams like TOEIC” and “You’ve probably already tried some FCE practice exams”. This can be turned into a game by making the level of certainty they use the level of the bet that they are placing on their statement, e.g. ten points (or ten dollars) for “I’m absolutely certain that…” and just one point for “You could possibly…”. They get that many points if they are right and lose that many points if their speculation is wrong.
Obvious homework after the first class includes:
- Writing up their answers to some Speaking Part One questions
- Doing a Writing Part One (letter or email) style task that has been designed to include lots of the same kinds of topics and language as were covered in the first class, e.g. a penfriend letter, giving a friend advice about studying for the FCE, or writing to an English school in the UK to enquire about an FCE course
- Some written exercises on the language that they’ve studied during the class, e.g. some Use of English style exercises on the language of speculation or an essay which includes comparing and contrasting
- Real exam paper versions of the Use of English style exercises that they did on Speaking Part One language
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Return to Currituck Co.
CURRITUCK COUNTY MARRIAGES OF FREED PEOPLE
Excerpts from Somebody Knows My Name
Barnetta McGhee White, Ph.D.
There were always slave ministers of the gospel who performed marriage ceremonies in the slave community. None of these were considered legal contracts by the slaveholding population, but they were certainly considered moral and spiritual contracts by the participants. Because there was no statutory law recognizing marriage between slaves, one must look to the common law. At common law, it is the declared assent of the mind to the act of marriage which makes it legal.
By the end of the Civil War, former slaves were in destitute conditions and the South was in shambles. Many Southern states had to rewrite their state constitutions to make them comply with the Constitution of the United States, and all of them had to pass new laws, acts, and codes to reflect the new status of over 4 million men, women and children who had been enslaved for generations, but were now free. One area needing immediate attention was the recognition and legalization of those marriages which had been contracted during slavery according to the customs of the slave community. Although the couples may have considered themselves morally married, as they were under common law, the states sought ways to ratify these alliances. In North Carolina, as well as in other confederate states, slave marriages performed by regular civil or religious authorities had been absolutely forbidden by law.
In North Carolina, the General Assembly in 1866 passed An Act Concerning Negroes and Persons of Color or of Mixed Blood. This Act contained 19 sections. Section 1 defined "persons of color". Section 5 decreed that those persons whose cohabitation was to be ratified into a state of marriage were required to appear before the local Clerk of County Court or Justice of the Peace to acknowledge that fact. Section 6 described the penalty for failure to do so before Sept. 1, 1866. Those acknowledgements were to be recorded and regarded as proof that a marriage had existed. Section 6 resulted in the vast majority of the couples reporting their marriages between March and September, 1866.
Only 71 records of cohabitation have survived in Currituck County. The justices gave very few surnames for the wives. Click on the husband's name for a look at an image of the marriage.
|Bunnell, Smart||Phillis Bunnell||20|
|Cornick, Charles||Fanny Wilson||2|
|Cowell, Isaac||Rutha Morse||15|
|Gordon, Joseph||Polly Barnard||less than 1|
|Lamb, Thomas||Jenny Williams||50|
|Mercer, Edmund||Anny Jarvis||14|
|Mercer, Harry||Rhoda Dozier||14|
|Owls [Olds?], Spence||Elizabeth||5|
|Scott, Elbert||Caty Bunnell||20|
|Wilson, Allen||Claresa Overman||2|
|Wilson, James||Sarah A. Wilson||2|
|Wilson, Wesley||Mary Foreman||2|
|(no last name), Pompey||Sarah||
Permission to post the above marriages was kindly given by Barnetta McGhee White, Ph.D, who compiled a wonderful 3-volume book, Somebody Knows My Name, on marriages of freed people in the state of North Carolina. Images were scanned and submitted by Ben Bateman, Jr.
© 2016 Kay M. Sheppard
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Habitat for birds, caribou and other wildlife in the Western Arctic will be protected under the new plan.
Flickr: Western Arctic National Parkland
After years of fighting to protect Alaska’s western Arctic from unrestricted oil drilling, our campaign to protect America’s largest tract of public land has paid off.
With the issuing of its Record of Decision on a final management plan for the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, the U.S. Department of Interior has made final its plans to protect "Special Areas" containing important wildlife habitat for caribou, migratory birds, polar bears and wolves.
This decision is what we’ve been working for. It will help protect animals in this land teeming with Arctic wildlife. It also protects Alaska Native communities who depend on western Arctic land to feed their families and preserve their culture.
Slideshow: Birds of the Western Arctic (NPR-A)
A total of 11 million acres of the NPR-A will be protected from oil and gas development while still allowing industry access to 72 percent of the reserve’s economically recoverable oil.
So the reserve will help meet America’s demand for energy, and irreplaceable habitat will be set aside to ensure its protection for future generations.
That’s fair, balanced, and cause for celebration.
Your support of The Wilderness Society and your letters and comments on behalf of the Arctic are a huge part of this success. And that’s something to celebrate, too.
Facts about the NPR-A, Western Arctic:
The NPR-A is also known as the Western Arctic Reserve.
It is America’s largest tract of public land.
The area is home to caribou herds and Teshekpuk lake, a globally significant bird area.
Birds of the Western Arctic
Birds that rely on the Western Arctic Reserve include: King Eiders, black brant, yellow billed loons, tundra swans, snow geese, northern pintails.
Teshekpuk Lake Special Area within the National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska:
View National Petroleum Reserve - Alaska in a larger map
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|1669||Robert LaSalle, French general and explorer, arrived at east side of Irondequoit Bay.|
|1687||Marquis de Denonville came to Irondequoit Bay to start his famous march into Seneca territory.|
|1741||Seneca Indians deeded a 20 mile wide stretch of land which included Webster Park to the British.|
|1756||Sir William Johnson camped on Webster's shore enroute from Schenectady and Oswego to Fort Niagara.|
|1778||The Phelps and Gorham purchase of six million acres from Massachusetts included Webster.|
|1790||Land was set aside at West Webster for a cemetery which has been in continuous use.|
|1805||Caleb Lyon settled at Lyon's Point, present Nine Mile Point.|
A grist mill and sawmill were built on Four Mile Creek near Lake Road.
Abram Foster settled at Lyon's Point.
|1810||Town of Penfield was organized.|
Letts' Tavern, the first inn, was built at corner of State and Webster-Fairport Roads.
A running battle between American and British ships was observed in the Webster Park - Nine Mile Point area (9/11/1813).
|1814||Methodism was recorded as growing in North Penfield (Webster).|
The year was known as the "cold summer." Frost was recorded every month except July.
Mulberry growing for silkworm industry was attempted.
A stagecoach route was established between Rochesterville and Oswego.
The post office on Ridge Road West was opened.
Webster Rural Cemetery was organized.
A Congregational Society was started by Reverend Asa Carpenter.
The milling industry was at its height .
|1829||The Congregational Society became the Presbyterian Society.|
The first brick store was built in Webster Village .
Buttermilk Tavern and a brick store were built at corner of Ridge and Five Mile Line Roads.
|1831||The Presbyterians erected a small edifice on South Avenue, the first church within Webster boundaries.|
The first Baptist church was constructed on South Avenue.
A Methodist church was built on Ridge Road, which became known as the "old" or "center church" .
|1835||John Whiting built an elaborate house on Lake Road. the south portion of the Webster Park pavilion is part of the original building.|
Webster becomes a seperate town from Penfield.
Byron Woodhull was elected the first supervisor.
|1844||The Universalist church was built of cobblestones on West Main Street.|
|1845||Burnett brickyard was started on Lake Road.|
|1849||The "Boston" church was erected on the Town Line Road - the second Methodist church.|
|1850||A town pump in the center of the four corners of the village furnished water for many families and travelers.|
|1851||The Union Cemetery was laid out on the Webster-Nine Mile Point Road.|
|1855||The Baptist congregation removed the original building on South Avenue and erected the present one of cobblestones.|
The first Evangelical church was erected on Salt Road.
Mississaugas Indians left the West Webster area and returned to Canada.
|1861||Holy Trinity church was erected on Ridge Road.|
|1865||The first post office was started in Union Hill.|
|1867||A bridge was built across the outlet of Irondequoit Bay to complete the road across the sandbar.|
|1868||The first Lutheran church was erected at the corner of Ridge and Five Mile Line Roads.|
Episcopal services were held in the schoolhouse near Nine Mile Point.
|1878||First baseball team of Webster was organized.|
|1880||Webster Grange was organized and the members held a picnic at Drake's Landing, present Glen Edith.|
|1881||First town library was started in a private home.|
The first newspaper of Webster, Webster Star, was established.
The community of Forest Lawn was begun.
The cornerstone of the Immanuel Lutheran church was laid.
|1890||Bicycles appeared in town.|
|1891||The Rome, Watertown and Ogdensburg Railroad was leased to the New York Central and Hudson Railroad.|
|1893||Town pumb was removed from the center of the four corners in the village.|
Dr. James E. Smith became Webster's first veterinarian.
The Webster Herald, Webster's present paper, was established.
Grange Hall was built on East Main Street.
Timeline continued 1900-
WEBSTER MUSEUM AND HISTORICAL SOCIETY
18 Lapham Park Webster, New York 14580 585.265.3308
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Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68)
You may have seen reports in the media about clusters of a respiratory
illnesses, Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68, occuring in parts of the United
States, including Virginia. The Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) is gathering information to better understand:
- EV-D68 and the illness caused by this virus;
- how widespread EV-D68 infections may be and the populations affected; and
- whether other states are experiencing severe respiratory illness, possibly due to EV-D68.
In addition, as of October 1, 2014, the CDC is working closely with the Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment (CDPHE) and Children’s Hospital Colorado to investigate reports from August 9 to September 17, 2014 of nine children hospitalized for sudden onset of neurologic illness with limb weakness of unknown cause.
- Respiratory specimens from eight of the children were tested for rhinovirus/enterovirus; two were negative and six were positive. Of the six, four were positive for enterovirus D68 (EV-D68); two are pending.
- The CDC is investigating whether this cluster of neurologic illness in Colorado may be linked to this large EV-D68 outbreak.
View the latest updates on EV-D68 from the CDC.
The Virginia Department of Health and the Fairfax County Health Department are continuing to work with hospitals and health care providers to monitor for severe respiratory illnesses, particularly in young children, that may be caused by EV-D68. The Health Department encourages parents, children and all members of our community to take the prevention steps listed below, which are the same steps that help prevent colds, the flu, and other common illnesses.
What Steps Can I Take to Avoid Becoming Sick?
important to understand:
- No vaccine to prevent EV-D68 is currently available.
- Enteroviruses are spread person-to-person through close contact with an infected person, or by touching objects or surfaces that are contaminated with the virus and then touching the mouth, nose, or eyes.
To help protect yourself and others from EV-D68 infections:
- Wash your hands often with soap and water for 20 seconds.
- Avoid touching eyes, nose and mouth with unwashed hands.
- Avoid close contact (touching and shaking hands) with people who are sick.
- Disinfect frequently-touched surfaces, such as toys and doorknobs, especially if someone is sick.
- Cover coughs and sneezes with a tissue or the upper sleeve of your shirt.
- Stay home from school or work when sick. This is the season for respiratory illnesses and in general it is important to stay home when sick, particular if you or your child has a fever. (Fairfax County Public Schools policy states that students stay home until 24 hours after fever resolves.)
- In addition, the CDC recommends that everyone 6 months of age and older receive an annual flu vaccine. The flu vaccine won't prevent EV-D68, but it will protect you against influenza, another potentially severe respiratory illness.
What are the Symptoms of EV-D68?
EV-D68 has been reported to cause mild to severe respiratory illness,
such as low-grade fever, cough, runny nose, sneezing and body/muscle
aches. Some people also may have a rash.
Infants, children, and teenagers are most likely to get infected with enteroviruses and become sick.
- Some people, especially those with weakened immune systems or underlying medical conditions, such as asthma, may have severe complications and need to be hospitalized.
Infected individuals generally recover on their own without incident by treating symptoms.
How Does EV-D68 Spread?
- EV-D68 causes respiratory illness, and the virus can be found in respiratory secretions such as saliva, nasal mucus, or sputum.
- The virus likely spreads person-to-person when a sick person coughs or sneezes. The infected droplets from a cough or sneeze may land on a nearby person or infect surfaces that are later touched by other people.
What is the Treatment for EV-D68?
There is no specific treatment for EV-D68 infections. If you, or your
child, are experiencing cold-like symptoms and are having difficulty
breathing, contact your health care provider right away.
- Many infections will be mild and self-limited, requiring only treatment of the symptoms.
- Some people with severe respiratory illness caused by EV-D68 may need to be hospitalized and receive intensive supportive therapy.
- No antiviral medications are currently available for treating of EV-D68 infections.
- Enteroviruses are very common viruses; there are more than 100 types.
- CDC estimates that 10 to 15 million enterovirus infections occur in the United States each year.
- Enteroviruses can cause respiratory illness, febrile rash, and neurologic illnesses, such as aseptic meningitis (swelling of the tissue covering the brain and spinal cord) and encephalitis (swelling of the brain).
- Most infected people have no symptoms or only mild symptoms, but some infections can be serious.
- Most enterovirus infections in the United States occur seasonally during the summer and fall.
- In August 2014, hospital officials in Kansas City, MO and Chicago, IL notified CDC of an increase in severe respiratory illness among children seen in the emergency rooms and admitted to the hospitals.
- Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) infections are thought to occur less commonly than infections with other enteroviruses.
- The EV-D68 strain currently circulating is not a new strain; it is the same strain of EV-D68 found last year and in previous specimens from other countries.
- EV-D68 was first identified in California in 1962. Compared with other enteroviruses, EV-D68 has been rarely reported in the United States.
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| 0.939238 | 1,264 | 3.046875 | 3 |
The restoration is remarkable, but the concept used in this construction is astonishing and innovative. Brilliant really, Walter Christie was a gifted engineer, and made the first front wheel drive car, http://justacarguy.blogspot.com/2011/03/first-front-wheel-drive-car-1904.html and raced it in 1905 in the Vanderbilt Cup.
But getting back to the steam pumper... Christie didn't get in over his head and make the existing tech obsolete, he made it better. You may have realized that Microsoft is the world's top software company because it makes it's Windows better, not obsolete, and this made Bill Gates the world's richest man... improvements, not obsolescence.
Like I was saying, Walter looked at what needed to be improved, and took the opportunity to make horse drawn fire steam pumpers self propelled once they were equipped with his front wheel drive units instead of horses. Horses were already 10 years into the age of the car, and the writing was on the wall.
Fire department equipment is really expensive, and Walter focused on the biggest fire departments on the East Coast to contract with to improve the existing equipment to speed up the delivery of equipment to fires. Notice in the below photo that the front and back have little in common
To easily compare this to the horse drawn model, just click on this link and see it from my gallery http://justacarguy.blogspot.com/2011/03/san-diego-firehouse-museum_11.html last month of the steam pumper in the San Diego Fire House Museum: http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-grHmaUD0Lo4/TXsYFPJKzLI/AAAAAAABekg/4c49389P3bw/s1600/DSC_0055.JPG
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| 0.95674 | 381 | 2.578125 | 3 |
This image shows the smoggy, fuzzy atmosphere of Saturn's largest moon, Titan. It is the only moon in the Solar System with a thick atmosphere. This dense atmosphere is composed of nitrogen. Traces of hydrocarbons give it a yellow-orange color. Titan is Saturn's largest moon and is the second largest moon in the Solar System. It is actually larger then the planet Mercury. The Cassini mission to Saturn confirmed that Titan has oceans of liquid methane on its frozen surface.
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Teen Fashion Show - Poetry in Motion: Runway and Rhymes
Problem StatementStatistically, reading for pleasure declines as readers enter adolescence. The Johnson County Library strives to inspire teens to read and to keep the written word relevant to their lives.
To help teens identify with literature and the written word and to help celebrate April as National Poetry Month in 2008, the Johnson County Library created the Alternative Teen Fashion Show, now called “Poetry in Motion: Runway and Rhymes.”
The Johnson County Library had three goals for the fashion show: 1) Connect teens with literature and help them experience it in a new way; 2) Connect teens with the library as a creative space; and 3) Make the program as teen-driven as possible with teen designers, models, poets, and DJs.
Teen designers are required to find their inspiration from the written word: novels, poetry, picture books, etc. The designs are worn by teen models on the runway and accompanied by teen poets from Johnson County. Local schools have gotten involved by providing designers, poets, and DJs, making this one of the most successful partnership programs with schools in the service area.
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| 0.95935 | 238 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Wal-Mart Discount City opened in Rogers, Arkansas.
It was the first Walmart store.
It was on this day that U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law.
This law made it no longer legal in the United States to discriminate against others because of their race.
It is still in effect, with discrimination because of gender, age and religion also prohibited.
Forbes’ magazine reported that Microsoft’s chairman, Bill Gates, was the worth $12.9 billion, making him the world’s richest man.
In 1999, he was worth about $77 billion.
Today, he’s worth $79.3 billion!
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| 0.9678 | 147 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Bacterial diseases: Introduction
Bacterial diseases include any type of illness or disease caused by bacteria, a type of microbe. Microbes are tiny organisms that cannot be seen without a microscope and include viruses, fungi, and some parasites as well as bacteria. The vast majority of bacteria do not cause disease, and many bacteria are actually helpful and even necessary to good health. Millions of bacteria normally live on the skin and in the intestines and can also be found on the genitalia. Bacterial diseases result when the harmful bacteria get into an area of the body that is normally sterile, such as the bladder, or when they crowd out the helpful bacteria in places such as the intestines.
Harmful bacteria are called pathogenic and include Neisseria meningitidis, which can cause meningitis, Streptococcus pneumoniae, which can cause pneumonia, and Staphylococcus aureus, which can cause a variety of infections. Other common pathogenic bacteria include Helicobacter pylori, which can cause gastric ulcers, and Escherichia coli and Salmonella, which can both cause food poisoning.
Pathogenic bacteria can enter the body through a variety of means, including inhalation into the nose and lungs, ingestion in food or through sexual contact. Once bacteria enter the body, a healthy immune system will recognize the bacteria as foreign invaders and try to kill or stop the bacteria from reproducing. However, even in a healthy person with a healthy immune system, the body is not always able to stop the bacteria from multiplying and spreading. As the harmful bacteria reproduce, many emit toxins which damage the cells of the body, resulting in symptoms of a bacterial disease.
Symptoms of bacterial diseases often include fever and chills. For more information on symptoms, refer to symptoms of bacterial diseases.
Bacterial infections can lead to serious, even life-threatening complications, such as sepsis, kidney failure, toxic shock syndrome, and death. People at risk for bacterial diseases and its complications include those who have had a significant exposure to a pathogenic bacteria, such as Neisseria meningitidis, or Streptococcus pneumoniae. Other risk factors include having a compromised immune system due to such diseases as HIV/AIDS or combined immunodeficiencies. People who take certain medications, such as corticosteroids, which suppress the body's natural immune response, are also at risk for contracting bacterial diseases. Other risk factors include malnutrition, high stress levels, having a genetic predisposition to bacterial infection, and being very young or very old.
Making a diagnosis of bacterial diseases begins with taking a thorough personal and family medical history, including symptoms, and completing a physical examination. The types of diagnostic testing performed for a suspected bacterial disease varies depending on the symptoms. A complete blood count (CBC) is a blood test is generally done on anyone who might have a bacterial disease. A complete blood count measures the numbers of different types of blood cells, including white blood cells (WBCs). Different types of WBCs increase in number in characteristic ways during an infectious process, such as bacterial diseases.
A culture and sensitivity test (C and S) may be performed. This test requires taking a small sample from the body area that is suspected to be infected with bacteria and grows the sample in a lab. This test determines the type of bacteria causing a bacterial disease as well as which antibiotics would be most effective in treating that specific bacteria. Common samples tested with a culture and sensitivity include those from the throat, blood, and sputum from the lungs. Samples from lesions and abscesses are also tested with a culture and sensitivity.
Diagnostic tests may also include a lumbar puncture, also called a spinal tap, which involves withdrawing a small sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from the spine with a needle. The sample of CSF is tested for white blood cells and other indications of bacterial diseases that may be in the spine or brain.
X-rays may be performed to assist in the diagnosis of some bacterial diseases. This may include taking a chest X-ray for suspected cases of pneumonia. Other imaging tests may include CT scan. Additional tests may be performed in order to rule out or confirm other diseases that may accompany bacterial diseases or cause similar symptoms, such as diarrhea or neck stiffness.
It is possible that a diagnosis of bacterial diseases can be missed or delayed because some symptoms, such as fever, headache, and nausea and vomiting, are similar to symptoms of other diseases. For more information on misdiagnosis, refer to misdiagnosis of bacterial diseases.
Bacterial diseases are treated with antibiotics. For more information on treatment, refer to treatment of bacterial diseases. ...more »
Bacteria are single-celled creatures with tiny flagella.
Bacteria are alive.
They are very small organisms, often only a single cell.
Bacteria need to get energy,
and may emit toxins or waste products.
By comparison, viruses are much smaller, and are not exactly "alive" in the normal sense. ...more »
Bacterial diseases: Symptoms
Symptoms of bacterial diseases vary depending on the type of bacterial infection and the area of the body that is infected. The symptoms of bacterial diseases can also resemble symptoms of other diseases, such as colitis, influenza and other viral infections. The classic symptom of a bacterial infection is fever, although not all people with a bacterial infection ...more symptoms »
Bacterial diseases: Treatments
The first step in treating bacterial diseases is preventing its occurrence and spread. Vaccines are available to prevent some bacterial diseases, such as meningitis, pneumonia, tetanus, and rabies.
Prevention of the spread of harmful bacteria that cause bacterial diseases also includes frequent hand washing and covering the mouth and nose with a ...more treatments »
Bacterial diseases: Misdiagnosis
A diagnosis of bacterial diseases may be delayed because some symptoms are vague, nonspecific, or may initially be mild. These include body aches, weight loss, fatigue, or irritability. Other symptoms, such as chest pain, headache, cough, or diarrhea, may initially be assumed to be related to another condition, such as influenza, "stomach ...more misdiagnosis »
Symptoms of Bacterial diseases
See full list of 6
symptoms of Bacterial diseases
Home Diagnostic Testing
Home medical testing related to Bacterial diseases:
Wrongly Diagnosed with Bacterial diseases?
Bacterial diseases: Related Patient Stories
Bacterial diseases: Deaths
Read more about Deaths and Bacterial diseases.
Alternative Treatments for Bacterial diseases
Alternative treatments or home remedies that have been listed in various sources as possibly beneficial for Bacterial diseases may include:
Types of Bacterial diseases
See full list of 397
Types of Bacterial diseases
Causes of Bacterial diseases
Read more about causes of Bacterial diseases.
More information about causes of Bacterial diseases:
Disease Topics Related To Bacterial diseases
Research the causes of these diseases that are similar to, or related to, Bacterial diseases:
Misdiagnosis and Bacterial diseases
Antibiotics often causes diarrhea: The use of antibiotics are very likely
to cause some level of diarrhea in patients.
The reason is that antibiotics kill off not only "bad" bacteria,...read more »
Read more about Misdiagnosis and Bacterial diseases
Evidence Based Medicine Research for Bacterial diseases
Medical research articles related to Bacterial diseases include:
Click here to find more evidence-based articles on the TRIP Database
Research about Bacterial diseases
Visit our research pages for current research about Bacterial diseases treatments.
Clinical Trials for Bacterial diseases
The US based website ClinicalTrials.gov lists information on both federally
and privately supported clinical trials using human volunteers.
Some of the clinical trials listed on ClinicalTrials.gov for Bacterial diseases include:
See full list of 1062
Clinical Trials for Bacterial diseases
Statistics for Bacterial diseases
Bacterial diseases: Broader Related Topics
Types of Bacterial diseases
Bacterial diseases Message Boards
Related forums and medical stories:
User Interactive Forums
Read about other experiences, ask a question about Bacterial diseases, or answer someone else's question, on our message boards:
Article Excerpts about Bacterial diseases
Microbes belonging to the bacteria group
are made up of only one cell. Under a microscope,
bacteria look like balls, rods, or spirals. Bacteria are so small that a
line of 1,000 could fit across the eraser of a pencil. Life in any form on
Earth could not exist without these tiny cells.
(Source: excerpt from Microbes in Sickness and in Health -- Publications, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases: NIAID)
Definitions of Bacterial diseases:
Infections and associated diseases by bacteria, general or unspecified.
- (Source - Diseases Database)
Contents for Bacterial diseases:
User Surveys and Discussion Forums
» Next page: What is Bacterial diseases?
Medical Tools & Articles:
Tools & Services:
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- Ask or answer a question at the Boards:
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http://www.rightdiagnosis.com/b/bacterial_diseases/intro.htm
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| 0.941152 | 1,912 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Yeah thats interesting too. I always wondered what chips industrial PLCs use. Do they use commercial ones manufactured by large fab houses or do they program their own controllers with FPGAs, ASICs, etc?
How long can the arduino or those AVR/PIC chips run continuously? Say blinking LEDs on Pin 1. How long can it last until it skips a beat or stops working properly or downright fails?As long as you don't subject the chip to operating temperatures beyond their ratings and power supplied is always within proper ratings I see no limit to continuous operating, there is no 'wear out' factor for the chip. I have a 5x5x5 led cube run with a 328p chip that has been running non stop for over 2 years now, with only a house power outage stopping it momentary a couple of times. For example, if you make an RFID door to unlock it for a home automation application, you'd want the ensure your controller is quite reliable lol.The chip will not be the limiting factor to the system reliability, the power supply most likely will be or perhaps the electro-mechanical locking mechanics.Yeah thats interesting too. I always wondered what chips industrial PLCs use. Do they use commercial ones manufactured by large fab houses or do they program their own controllers with FPGAs, ASICs, etc?
How long can it last until it skips a beat or stops working properly or downright fails?
However, standard 8-bit AVRs are used all over in successful industrial and commercial products, and this has been the case for many, many years. - wjl Oct 15 '11 at 1:31[/i]http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/2324/why-are-atmel-avrs-so-popular
To make matters worse each shipment of parts not only had bugs but different bugs requiring a hardware and software change for each shipment. This may not be a big problem for a hobbyist but it's a disaster for a company that wants to put its product into production.
I expect that [AVRs] are very robust indeed. I would not expect MCUs from Microchip, TI, Maxim, NXP, ST Micro, etc. to differ significantly in that regard.
[Atmel] Microcontroller segment net revenues increased 95% to $892 million for the year ended December 31, 2010 from $458 million for the year ended December 31, 2009. The increase in net revenues was primarily related to increased volume shipments from customers for both AVR and ARM-based 8-bit and 32-bit microcontrollers. Microcontroller net revenues represented 54%, 38% and 33% of total net revenues for the years ended December 31, 2010, 2009 and 2008, respectively.
About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are 8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to Semico, over four billion 8-bit microcontrollers were sold in 2006.A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has as many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.
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| 0.950234 | 732 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Description: Warfare in the New Kingdom has been described as nothing short of a revolution. New Kingdom armies appear to have been, for the first time in Egyptian history, composed of a large body of soldiers who served full-time in the military and were organized on a state scale. The motivation for this change is thought to have been activated in the wars with the Hyksos and maintained its momentum throughout the 19th and early 20th Dynasties. Some scholars have argued that with the introduction of the chariot, scaled armour and composite bow, Egypt transformed itself into a cohesive military power and that the Egyptians held a tactical advantage over their Canaanite neighbours.
This lecture will look at the nature of the New Kingdom Egyptian presence in the Levant and its relationship with its residents. To examine this research question, this lecture will look at data from fortification sites in the Levant, in conjunction with data detailing the logistical considerations of the Egyptian military at this time and its weapon capabilities.
About The Speaker: NICHOLAS WERNICK is a Calgarian completing his PhD in Egyptian Archaeology at the University of Liverpool. The topic of his thesis is ancient Egyptian militarism in the Late Bronze Age and what the nature of ancient Egyptian imperialism in the Levant was like during the New Kingdom. In addition to his PhD work, he has been published in academic journals and Ancient Egypt Magazine. He is a member of the calgary Chapter Executive, webmaster for www.calgaryssea.ca and an Adjunct Member of the Board of Trustees of The Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities/Société pour l’Étude de l’Égypte Ancienne.
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https://www.archaeological.org/events/11851?page=2
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| 0.963676 | 345 | 2.890625 | 3 |
The Well at the World's End, by William Morris, , at sacred-texts.com
They Come Through the Mountains Into the Plain
On the morrow early they all fared on together, and thereafter they went for two days more till they came into a valley amidst of the mountains which was fair and lovely, and therein was the dwelling or town of this Folk of the Fells. It was indeed no stronghold, save that it was not easy to find, and that the way thither was well defensible were foemen to try it. The houses thereof were artless, the chiefest of them like to the great barn of an abbey in our land, the others low and small; but the people, both men and women, haunted mostly the big house. As for the folk, they were for the more part like those whom they had met afore: strong men, but not high of stature, black-haired, with blue or grey eyes, cheerful of countenance, and of many words. Their women were mostly somewhat more than comely, smiling, kind of speech, but not suffering the caresses of aliens. They saw no thralls amongst them; and when Ralph asked hereof, how that might be, since they were men-catchers, they told him that when they took men and women, as oft they did, they always sold them for what they would bring to the plain-dwellers; or else slew them, or held them to ransom, but never brought them home to their stead. Howbeit, when they took children, as whiles befell, they sometimes brought them home, and made them very children of their Folk with many uncouth prayers and worship of their Gods, who were indeed, as they deemed, but forefathers of the Folk.
Now Ralph, he and his, being known for friends, these wild men could not make enough of them, and as it were, compelled them to abide there three days, feasting them, and making them all the cheer they might. And they showed the wayfarers their manner of hunting, both of the hart and the boar, and of wild bulls also. At first Ralph somewhat loathed all this (though he kept a pleasant countenance toward his host), for sorely he desired the fields of Upmeads and his father's house. But at last when the hunt was up in the mountains, and especially of the wild bulls, the heart and the might in him so arose that he enforced himself to do well, and the wild men wondered at his prowess, whereas he was untried in this manner of sports, and they deemed him one of the Gods, and said that their kinsman had done well to get him so good a friend. Both Ursula and the Sage withheld them from this hunting, and Ursula abode with the women, who told her much of their ways of life, and stories of old time; frank and free they were, and loved her much, and she was fain of such manly-minded women after the sleight and lies of the poor thralls of Utterbol.
On the fourth day the wayfarers made them ready and departed; and the chief of the Folk went with them with a chosen band of weaponed men, partly for the love of his guests, and partly that he might see the Goldburg men-at-arms safe back to the road unto the plain and the Midhouse of the Mountains, for they went now by other ways, which missed the said House. On this journey naught befell to tell of, and they all came down safe into the plain.
There the Goldburg men took their wage, and bidding farewell, turned back with the wild men, praising Ralph much for his frankness and open hand. As for the wild men, they exceeded in their sorrow for the parting, and many of them wept and howled as though they had seen him die before their faces. But all that came to an end, and presently their cheer was amended, and their merry speech and laughter came down from the pass unto the wayfarers' ears as each band rode its way.
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| 0.991991 | 851 | 2.53125 | 3 |
01 August 2011
The image shows Vesta from the south polar region (to the lower right) to about 30°N. The image was taken through the panchromatic filter on July 24, 2011 as part of a rotation characterisation sequence (RC3); it has a scale of about 400 metres per pixel and shows impact craters of different sizes, grooves parallel to the equator and north of it, as well as dark features within some of the craters.
The image shows a mosaic of Vesta’s equatorial region (30°N to 30°S). The mosaic is composed of observations taken through the panchromatic filter and obtained on 24 July 2011 as part of a rotation characterisation sequence (RC3); it has a scale of about 400 metres per pixel and shows impact craters of different sizes, grooves parallel to the equator and dark features within some of the craters. The mosaic is in equidistant map projection, based on a digital terrain model from RC3a/OPNAV18/RC2 and Lambertian photometrically corrected.
NASA’s Dawn spacecraft is another step closer to Vesta; only 5200 kilometres now separate the asteroid and its new ‘neighbour’, Dawn. The Framing Camera on board the spacecraft is imaging Vesta’s surface with steadily increasing accuracy. Researchers at the German Aerospace Center (Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt; DLR) starts generating detailed maps and elevation models using these data. The images show Vesta from ists south pole to areas in the northern hemisphere and allow first geological analysis.
It is expected that by 11 August, Dawn will have approached to within approximately 2700 kilometres of Vesta. "Then the in-depth analysis of the asteroid begins; with these images, we will create 3D models of Vesta in order to understand its rough surface", explained Ralf Jaumann, Head of the Planetary Geology Department at the DLR Institute of Planetary Research in Berlin. By August 2012, the distance between the spacecraft and the asteroid will have been reduced to approximately 200 kilometres. At that time, the objective of the DLR researchers is to map the surface of Vesta and generate a three-dimensional terrain model in order to understand its origin and evolution. Through the exploration of the asteroid, scientists will learn more about the birth of the planets. Dawn has spent four years travelling to Vesta and is currently about 184 million kilometres from Earth.
Discovered on 29 March 1807 by German astronomer Heinrich Olbers, the asteroid underwent a period of melting and cooling following its formation some 4.5 billion years ago. Since then, however, its appearance and composition have hardly changed. Hence, Vesta offers a snapshot of some of the oldest geological processes in the Solar System. At that time, Jupiter's strong gravitational pull prevented other planets from forming in what we know today as the Asteroid Belt, where Vesta is located.
With a mean diameter of 520 kilometres, the irregularly shaped Vesta is one of the larger asteroids. In previous images - for example, those acquired by the Hubble Space Telescope - scientists discovered a large, circular depression with a diameter of roughly 460 kilometres with a vast mountain in the centre at the asteroid's South Pole. This deep 'hole' is probably the result of a collision with another asteroid. A few of the fragments resulting from impacts on Vesta have left the asteroid belt and orbit the Sun - some have even made their way to Earth as meteorites.
Vesta is now providing the first opportunity to study an asteroid at close quarters over an extended period of time. Along with the German Framing Camera, Dawn is also carrying the Visible and Infrared Spectrometer, an instrument developed by the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica; INAF) and the Gamma Ray and Neutron Detector (GRaND) instrument, built by the Los Alamos National Laboratory.
About the mission
The Dawn mission to the asteroids Vesta and Ceres is managed by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. The University of California, Los Angeles, is responsible for overall Dawn mission science. The Dawn Framing Cameras have been developed and built under the leadership of the Max Planck Institute for Solar System Research, Katlenburg-Lindau, Germany, with significant contributions by DLR German Aerospace Center, Institute of Planetary Research, Berlin, and in coordination with the Institute of Computer and Communication Network Engineering, Braunschweig. The Framing Camera project is funded by the Max Planck Society, DLR, and NASA/JPL.
Last modified:01/08/2011 18:47:00
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| 0.923855 | 998 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Definitions for kwanzaˈkwɑn zə
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word kwanza
the basic unit of money in Angola
a festival featuring African-American culture; celebrated between Christmas and New Year
The currency of Angola
Kwanza is an album by Archie Shepp released on Impulse! in 1974. The album contains tracks recorded from September 1968 to August 1969 by Shepp with four different ensembles. The Allmusic review by Thom Jurek states "Kwanza may not be one of Shepp's better known recordings, but it is certainly one of his fine ones".
The numerical value of kwanza in Chaldean Numerology is: 4
The numerical value of kwanza in Pythagorean Numerology is: 4
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
We've actually had more customers since the kwanza crashed. They can't get dollars so they buy luxuries.
Images & Illustrations of kwanza
Find a translation for the kwanza definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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http://www.definitions.net/definition/kwanza
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| 0.882079 | 229 | 2.734375 | 3 |
5. Put energy into solving problems.
Have you noticed how intense we get when we’re focused on the negative? Instead, shift the energy of the conversation toward solving a problem.
"Cookies here? Not going to happen. But," you say emphatically, your eyes wide, "do you think you guys could get your homework done tomorrow in time to bake chocolate chip cookies? Who wants to stir the mix and lick the spoon?"
By following these five steps, you will give your kids the consistency they need. They will learn that negotiating, whining, and melting down don't work with you. You’re also teaching them constructive ways to deal with anger and frustration, skills they will find valuable as they grow up.
More Parenting Resources
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http://www.additudemag.com/adhd/article/9142-6.html
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| 0.96406 | 156 | 2.546875 | 3 |
JUDY WOODRUFF: Now to the grim story of violence against women in the Central American nation of Guatemala.
This is the first of two reports from Ray Suarez and our Global Health Unit.
RAY SUAREZ: In a modest home in the heart of Guatemala City, Rosa Franco Sandoval holds tight to the memory of her daughter, Maria-Isabel. Pictures of 15-year-old Maria-Isabel at her 15th birthday celebration, her Quinceañera,taken shortly before her murder in 2001, are a daily reminder of a life cut short.
ROSA FRANCO MARIA SANDOVAL, Mother (through translator): Maria-Isabel was a happy girl. Very dynamic, a high school queen who dreamed of becoming an air force pilot.
RAY SUAREZ: Maria-Isabel worked part-time at a clothing boutique where a known drug trafficker came in one day to shop. He met the teen and insisted she become his girlfriend.
ROSA FRANCO MARIA SANDOVAL (through translator): He had money and belonged to the Cartel del Golfo. He believed that all women should pay attention to him, but my daughter refused.
RAY SUAREZ: One evening, the girl left work to find three cars waiting outside the shop.
ROSA FRANCO MARIA SANDOVAL (through translator): She was forced into a car and kidnapped. Co-workers saw how her mouth was covered. I was watching the news, and they were saying a woman had been found face down dead. She had Maria-Isabel’s clothes, and I kept saying, no. But the camera focused on her feet. It was her, Maria-Isabel.
RAY SUAREZ: Stories like those of Franco’s daughter have become commonplace in Guatemala. Organized gangs have moved in…
RAY SUAREZ: … challenged and corrupted the justice system. Guatemala has become an epicenter of violence in Central America. Violence against women in particular has hit record levels.
Amnesty International reports 717 women were killed in 2009. Of those, many had been raped and mutilated. According to the United Nations, nearly 45 percent of Guatemalan women have suffered some kind of violence in their lifetimes. And abuses that don’t end in death are under-reported.
The country has a long history of brutality toward women. During a long and bloody civil war, rape was often used as a weapon. And cultural biases that tilt power to men have only compounded the problem.
CLAUDIA PAZ, Attorney General, Guatemala (through translator): Violence against women and gender-based violence is one of the biggest problems of our country.
RAY SUAREZ: Even Guatemala’s top law enforcer, attorney general Claudia Paz, admits most crimes against women go unpunished.
CLAUDIA PAZ (through translator): The justice system hasn’t given violence cases the importance they deserve. And with violence against women, the problem is even worse. We live in a culture of sexist behavior. And violence against women is either not seen or women are considered somehow responsible, somehow guilty.
RAY SUAREZ: Horrific cases like those of Maria-Isabel show how gangs often torture young girls, with the goal of scaring entire neighborhoods, police, and even the justice system.
ROSA FRANCO MARIA SANDOVAL (through translator): Her face was destroyed. She had a rope around her neck. They took off nails, a piece of ear. Her legs were broken.
CLAUDIA PAZ (through translator): These are very powerful men that use women as their objects. And if women no longer want to be in that situation, if they want to leave, they are killed. Women are used as instruments to threaten their adversaries: If they don’t do what I want, I will kill your wife, your daughter, your mother.
RAY SUAREZ: Pushing back against a society that tolerates brutality a group of Guatemalan girls came together at a workshop dedicated to gender violence.
The session was part of a larger program run by an international NGO, the Population Council. Called Abriendo Oportunidades, or Opening Opportunities, the program is intended to give voice to the most marginalized of Guatemalan populations, indigenous girls.
Jennifer Catino oversees the Latin American programs for the Population Council.
JENNIFER CATINO, Population Council: It’s a history of political and social violence, a history of marginalization and discrimination, a very patriarchal history where girls and women have been marginalized and oppressed.
Then you have, on top of that, the rise of activities related to drug trafficking and organized crime. And so all of these layers of violence have created a situation that place girls and women at very high risk.
RAY SUAREZ: The girls here have traveled great distances. Each is expected to bring back what they have learned to their communities.
JENNIFER CATINO: Change starts locally. And I think that these girls are, in their communities, demonstrating desire for their own lives to be different from the lives of their mothers and their grandmothers. That’s really creating significant change in these communities.
RAY SUAREZ: But changing attitudes in small, isolated rural communities has its challenges.
Alejandra Colom runs Abriendo Oportunidades in Guatemala.
ALEJANDRA COLOM, Population Council: The challenge is to engage the community to see each face as a recognizable face, see their sisters and their mothers and their daughters in every single victim.
RAY SUAREZ: On a road in Guatemala’s rural heartland, a team is walking from door to door, combating violence against women and girls using a combination of 21st century technology and good old-fashioned community organizing.
ELVIA RAQUEC YAQUI, Guatemala (through translator): We walk door to door, knock on people’s houses and ask if there are girls who we can invite to join the clubs. With the GPS, we put a point in every household that has girls between the ages of 8 and 17.
RAY SUAREZ: Girls are interviewed about threats they encounter in their villages.
ELVIA RAQUEC YAQUI (through translator): We are able to map public spaces considered safe spaces. We identify where girls may be at risk to be sexually assaulted or places where it is just unsafe to go.
RAY SUAREZ: Age is critical here. Often, when girls hit puberty, fathers order them to stay home to protect them from sexual attacks they might encounter walking to and from school. And that handicaps their futures. They’re required to do chores instead.
But buy-in from a member of the local community council and the local mayor shows families influential men are ready to stand up to protect women and girls.
Alejandra Colom says engaging households, particularly fathers, is key.
ALEJANDRA COLOM: You talk about the opportunities. You talk about the positive things that can come from allowing their girls to go to school, to learn new things. But you also make them a little afraid.
You — I think part of the discussion is, what will happen when it is your daughter or your sister or your mother? And then, by trying to put familiar faces into the victims, then I think the reflection and the discussion becomes more honest, because it — they realize it will happen to them, unless they do something about it.
RAY SUAREZ: The groups meet weekly for drills about self-esteem, education, and health. Every year, new peer leaders are identified and mentored.
Marcia Yat was an intern for the girls network and now serves as a mentor. She led a group of more than 300 girls in Santa Cruz Verapaz in northern Guatemala. And she stood up for one young girl named Maribel Chinquin, who saw her father beating her mother.
MARCIA YAT, Guatemala (through translator): The other children saw how their mother was being choked by their father. He used ropes. But when one of the boys tried to stop it, the father beat him.
MARIBEL CHINQUIN, Guatemala (through translator): We knew my mother was very afraid of my father, afraid when he would come back from work.
RAY SUAREZ: Last November, after years of abuse, Maribel’s mother died.
At Marcia’s urging, Maribel stood up to her father and insisted she and her siblings be removed from his care.
MARIBEL CHINQUIN (through translator): I want my brothers and sisters to be treated well. And I want to go to school.
RAY SUAREZ: For now, Maribel is back in school. She and her siblings are safe from their father. It’s cases like these that mark progress for leaders like Colom.
ALEJANDRA COLOM: Every person counts. Every time you have a father realize this is important, every time you see a community leader tell you that he got engaged in — for solving a dispute or stopped something from happening, and every time you hear a girl say she feels safer, it’s a gain.
So, we focus on each individual case. And then we try not to see all the work that’s ahead.
RAY SUAREZ: It’s the only way you can go on, right?
ALEJANDRA COLOM: That’s the only way you can go on, is day by day.
RAY SUAREZ: Attorney General Claudia Paz echoes that sentiment.
CLAUDIA PAZ (through translator): Change can’t occur immediately. Twenty to 50 years of impunity can’t be changed from one day to the next. But we have begun.
RAY SUAREZ: And while admitting the change is slow, Paz points to 57,000 cases of abuse reported in 2010, a sharp increase in reporting from previous years.
JUDY WOODRUFF: Ray’s next report examines efforts to teach Guatemalan women about family planning.
There’s much more on our Web site, including a slide show of images of daily life in Guatemala, Ray’s reporter’s notebook, and a timeline showing key moments in the country’s history.
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| 0.956928 | 2,179 | 2.921875 | 3 |
11/30/2009. The origins of this type can be traced back to the Noury designs. The Noury N-75 prototype and the design rights were bought by Fleet Aircraft of Fort Erie, Ontario, Canada in Spring 1945.
It was first flown at Fort Erie, by Fleet's Test Pilot T.F. Williams on June 4, 1945, and test flying continued until July 26, when the prototype was put in the shop for alterations. They included a new fin and rudder and the installation of a Continental C85 engine which became the standard powerplant. Fleet's Chief Engineer, George E. Otter, responsible for the alterations, had also done the original stressing for Noury. The prototype's first flight after alteration was on September 26, with Williams at the controls.
The new aircraft was designated Model 80 and named Canuck by Walter N. Deisher, Fleet's Vice-President and General Manager, after the Curtiss JN-4 (Canadian) he flew at Ottawa after the first war. The aircraft seated two side-by-side and had a generous baggage allowance of 104 lb (48 kg). Stick control was provided and longitudinal trim was by an elevator tab controlled by a handle on the cabin roof, and wheel brakes and a steerable tail wheel were standard equipment. The 85 hp Continental engine had fuel injection-a popular feature.
The fuselage was constructed of welded steel-tube and was fabric covered. The wing of the Noury-built prototype had wooden spars but all production machines had extruded duralumin spars and sheet duralumin ribs and were fabric covered. Fabric attachment was by the Fleet patented sheet-metal screws rather than the usual rib stitching.
A single three-seat Canuck was made, CF-FAL (c/n X-238), in which the third person could be seated on a jump se at in the baggage compartment. This was designated Model 81 and the construction number had an X prefix.
Fleet developed seaplane floats for the Canuck and they were first tried on June 12, 1946, on CF-DEE (c/n 016), which was fitted with a ventral fin, but it was found to be unnecessary. This first float design was unsatisfactory and only 14 were made. In December 1946 comparative tests were made between CF-DEE fitted with Fleet floats and CF-DPY, (c/n 051), fitted with Short floats (presumably from a Moth).
In March 1947 a float development program was undertaken by altering the contours of a set of Fleet floats fitted to CF-DPY, by fitting wooden boards to the float bottoms and altering the contours as required. This resulted in a float design which gave satisfactory results in service, and had the unusual feature of utilizing the land undercarriage for the front mounting.
The Canuck proved popular and sold readily to flying clubs, charter companies and private owners in Canada, and in addition 24 were exported, 19 to Argentina, three to Brazil and one each to Portugal and the United States. However, Fleet had overestimated the market and ran into financial problems. The company was reorganized as Fleet Aircraft & Manufacturing Ltd. and then decided to stop the Canuck production. The design and all remaining components were sold to Leavens Bros of Toronto.
Leavens built a further 25 aircraft and supplied a fuselage which was assembled as a 26th. Early aircraft produced by Leavens were largely an assembly operation of Fleet-built components but later aircraft required more and more manufacturing operations as the stock of Fleet-built parts was used up. Finally, the remaining parts and drawings were sold to Marcel Dorion Aviation of Montreal, which intended to develop the design into a four-seater, but this came not to fruition. In all 224 Canuck aircraft were produced.
Co-owner of this website, Ron Dupas, learned to fly and soloed in a Fleet Canuck in the early 1960's.
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| 0.985971 | 819 | 2.578125 | 3 |
By Kate Wong
RALEIGH—Twenty years ago, paleontologist Mary Schweitzer made an astonishing discovery. Peering through a microscope at a slice of dinosaur bone, she spotted what looked for all the world like red blood cells. It seemed utterly impossible—organic remains were not supposed to survive the fossilization process—but test after test indicated that the spherical structures were indeed red blood cells from a 67-million-year-old Tyrannosaurus rex. In the years that followed, she and her colleagues discovered other apparent soft tissues, including what seem to be blood vessels and feather fibers. But controversy accompanied their claims. Skeptics argued that the alleged organic tissues were instead biofilm—slime formed by microbes that invaded the fossilized bone.
Schweitzer and her colleagues have continued to amass support for their interpretation. The latest evidence comes from a molecular analysis of what look to be bone cells, or osteocytes, from T. rex and Brachylophosaurus canadensis. The researchers isolated the possible osteocytes and subjected them to several tests. When they exposed the cell-like structures to an antibody that targets a protein called PHEX found only in bird osteocytes (birds are descended from dinosaurs), the structures reacted, as would be expected of dinosaur osteocytes. And when the team subjected the supposed dinosaur cells to other antibodies that target DNA, the antibodies bound to material in small, specific regions inside the apparent cell membrane.
Furthermore, using a technique called mass spectrometry, the investigators found amino acid sequences of proteins in extracts of the dinosaur bone that matched sequences from proteins called actin, tubulin and histone4 that are present in the cells of all animals. Although some microbes have proteins that are similar to actin and tubulin, the researchers note that soil-derived E. coli as well as sediments that surrounded the two dinosaur specimens failed to bind to the actin and tubulin antibodies that bound to the extract containing the apparent osteocytes.
Schweitzer and her collaborators detailed their findings in a paper released online October 16 in the journal Bone and in a talk given October 17 in Raleigh at the annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. “Here’s the data in support of a biofilm origin,” Schweitzer said in her presentation as she showed a blank slide. “We haven’t found any yet.”
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WINSLOW, JOSHUA, army and militia officer, diarist, office holder, judge, and politician; b. 23 Jan. 1726/27 in Portsmouth, N.H., youngest of three children of John Winslow and Sarah Peirce (Pierce); d. June 1801 at Quebec, Lower Canada.
In 1745, at the age of 18, Joshua Winslow became a lieutenant in a New Hampshire regiment raised for William Pepperrell*’s expedition against Louisbourg, Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). Continuing his military career after the fall of the fortress, he exchanged his provincial commission for a regular one as ensign in Pepperrell’s newly formed 66th Foot. Winslow also received an appointment as commissary general of the British forces in Nova Scotia. It was in this capacity that in 1750 he accompanied the two expeditions commanded by Charles Lawrence* which resulted in the construction of Fort Lawrence on the Chignecto Isthmus the same year. He continued his service as commissary at Fort Lawrence and then at Fort Cumberland (near Sackville, N.B.), the former Fort Beauséjour captured in 1755. At this time he met and had as an assistant Brook Watson, who later was to be of considerable help when Winslow became a loyalist refugee.
On 3 Jan. 1758 Winslow married his cousin Anna Green; the two sons and two daughters they eventually had were to die relatively young. There is some evidence that Winslow was involved in business in Massachusetts in the early 1760s, but for most of that decade he was in Nova Scotia. In August 1761 he was appointed to “a committee to admit persons into the township of Sackville” and, along with John Huston, one of its earliest settlers, he had an important influence on the township’s composition. The committee decided on the layout of settlement areas within the township, formulated guidelines on the allotment of acreage, and distributed tracts of land. In 1765 Winslow was among the leading men of Cumberland County who petitioned for the county’s representation in the House of Assembly. When this request was granted Winslow was chosen as the area’s representative, although he did not serve as one of Cumberland’s officially elected members until 1770–72. In April 1764 he had been appointed a judge of the Inferior Court of Common Pleas for Cumberland County, and he had been a colonel in the militia since June 1762, justice of the peace for Cumberland County, and truckmaster for Indian trade.
Despite his acquisition of land and offices in Nova Scotia, as well as his continuing duties as commissary, Winslow retained his New England connections. In 1770 his ten-year-old daughter Anna was sent to Boston, Mass., “for schooling” and, judging by Anna’s diary, in April 1772 her parents were “preparing to quit [their] present habitation” at Cumberland in favour of their residence at Marshfield Mass. In 1776, some years after Winslow had “sold out and removed,” John Eagleson*, one of his critics in Nova Scotia, surmised that he would find in “New England his native country, a Clime better suited both to his Civil and Religious Sentiments.” Instead, the increasingly rebellious climate of Massachusetts proved unacceptable to Winslow and he soon was identified as a tory sympathizer. Arrested, and then released, by one of his nephews, he decided escape to Halifax was necessary.
In August 1780 he was still in Halifax. Recommended that month “by some eminent Merchants of London as a person of great Honour & conversant in Business,” he was soon appointed to oversee payment of “the Subsistence & Extraordinaries of the Forces serving at Quebec. “For some reason the letter of appointment did not reach Governor Frederick Haldimand until the fall of 1782, but a “Variety of difficulties” had retarded Winslow’s arrival until the spring of that year. Winslow carried with him a supporting letter from Welbore Ellis, secretary of state for the American colonies, and Haldimand also soon received a strong recommendation concerning Joshua’s “Merit” from Brook Watson. Ellis in his letter emphasized to Haldimand Winslow’s suitability for a seat on the Legislative Council but felt it would be better “for the King’s Service that he should owe it to you, and therefore your Recommendation of him will be waited for before any step is taken for his Appointment.” Although Haldimand on several occasions recommended Winslow to fill any vacancy which might occur on the council, Winslow never was appointed.
Winslow nevertheless settled at Quebec and served as deputy paymaster until his death. After the war ended he was reunited with his wife but in the interval, probably in 1779, their last living child, Anna, had died. With the division of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada in December 1791, additional responsibilities were entrusted to Winslow. That month he became Lower Canada’s receiver general and held this office until Henry Caldwell took over in July 1794. His health must have deteriorated considerably during his last years, for after his death one of his colleagues commented: “If death be ever desirable it surely was so in his case.”
Even allowing for the exaggerated comments of his friends and patrons, Winslow appears to have been an individual who was respected and trusted as a man of principle. Despite the acceptance of the revolutionary cause by relatives and friends, and despite the threat to his immediate family, Winslow felt his interests were best protected by supporting the crown. Once his choice was made, his friends in London saw to it that he was reasonably well rewarded. Ironically, after his death his wife wasted no time in returning to New England, where she died in 1816.
Joshua Winslow’s journal has been published as The journal of Joshua Winslow, recording his participation in the events of the year 1750 memorable in the history of Nova Scotia, ed. and intro. J. C. Webster (Saint John, N.B., 1936).
BL, Add. mss 21705: 16; 21707: 101–2; 21710: 214–15; 21715: 172–73; 21716: 74; 21717/2: 487; 21723: 49, 270, 429; 21724: 298, 360; 21727: 76; 21733: 167–68; 21752/2: 426–27, 442, 455, 457, 522; 21753: 65–66 (transcripts at PAC). PAC, MG 11, [CO 42] Q, 67:16, 21, 229, 313, 362; 69/2: 331; 71: 386–87, 392, 398, 400; MG 23, D4; RG 8, I (C ser.), 76: 1–11; 223: 62; 224: 29–30. PRO, WO 34/61: 57 (mfm. at PAC). [A. G. Winslow], Diary of Anna Green Winslow, a Boston school girl of 1771, ed. A. M. Earle (Boston and New York, 1894). [John Winslow], “Journal of Colonel John Winslow of the provincial troops, while engaged in removing the Acadian French inhabitants from Grand Pre . . . ,” N.S. Hist. Soc., Coll., 3 (1883): 105, 133–34, 139–40. Directory of N.S. MLAs, 371, 383, 385, 389. G.B., WO, Army list, 1790: 326. “Louisbourg soldiers,” comp. Charles Hudson, New-England Hist. and Geneal. Reg. (Boston), 24 (1870): 379. Wallace, Macmillan dict. Merrill Jensen, The founding of a nation: a history of the American revolution, 1763–1776 (New York and Toronto, 1968), 437. J. D. Snowdon, “Footprints in the marsh mud: politics and land settlement in the township of Sackville, 1760–1800” (ma thesis, Univ. of N.B., Fredericton, 1975), 20–22, 69. Howard Trueman, The Chignecto Isthmus and its first settlers (Toronto, 1902; repr. Belleville, Ont., 1975), 29–30, 33. J. C. Webster, The forts of Chignecto: a study of the eighteenth century conflict between France and Great Britain in Acadia ([Shediac, N.B. ], 1930), 104; “Sir Brook Watson: friend of the loyalists, first agent of New Brunswick in London,” Argosy (Sackville, N.B.), 3 (1924–25): 3–25.
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(1874 - 1897)
One of the unsung heroes of the
Philippine Revolution was Flaviano
Yengko, a law student of the
At the age of five, he was
enrolled at the Escuela Normal. He
finished the course for primary teachers with the qualification maestro de ascenso. He took up Latinidad under Enrique Mendiola and
later under Benedicto Luna. Then he enrolled at the Colegio de
He was generous. A classmate, broke because of lavish spending was in dire predicament regarding a back account of eight pesos with the university. Flaviano told him, ”Don’t worry. With my gold spectacles and your gold watch chain, we can easily raise more than ten pesos from the pawnshop”.
He was versatile. He
performed well in class and was an eloquent orator, a witty debater, and a good
athlete. He was given to the arts. One of his paintings, A Landscape was awarded a prize in the Regional Exposition of the
In Imus, he fell in love with a beautiful Cavitena. She favored him, but her father did not think him man enough, put off by his fancy clothes. The preferred a rival who had the making of a revolutionary.
The outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in August 1896 gave him the opportunity to prove his manly courage. In response to Bonifacio’s call to arms, he quit his law course and secretly left his home in Tondo. He left a note: “Mother. I am laving without your consent and knowledge because I will be fighting for our fatherland.”
On November 9,he had his first engagement in the Battle of Binakayan. The ardor he manifested in battle, and his unusual valor in action caught the attention of Aguinaldo ho, consequently, took him in the general staff with the rank of captain. He participated in other military engagements, winning rapid promotion .
The Christmas of 1896 saw him in the uniform of a Colonel. Despite the gore and grime of combat, he to keep himself well-groomed.
In February 1897,Spanish
General Cornelio de Polavieja launched an intensive offensive in
After the fall of Perez
Dasmarinas, the Filipino forces took their position in the town of
At the military hospital in
Imus, his sweetheart comforted him. With the satisfaction of a reciprocated
love and the glory of having fought for his country, he died on
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1. A Syracusan by origin, but born and educated at Carthage, and the son of a Carthaginian mother, his grandfather having been banished by Agathocles, and having settled at Carthage. (Plb. 7.2
; Liv. 24.6
He served, together with his elder brother Hippocrates, with much distinction in the army of Hannibal, both in Spain and Italy; and when, after the battle of Cannae, Hieronymus of Syracuse sent to make overtures to Hannibal, that general selected the two brothers as his envoys to Syracuse. They soon gained over the wavering mind of the young king, and induced him to desert the Roman alliance. (Plb. 7.2
; Liv. 24.6
But the murder of Hieronymus shortly after, and the revolution that ensued at Syracuse, for a time deranged their plans: they at first demanded merely a safe-conduct to return to Hannibal, but soon found that they could do more good by their intrigues at Syracuse, where they even succeeded in procuring their election as generals, in the place of Andranodorus and Themistus.
But the Roman party again obtained the upper hand; and Hippocrntes having been sent with a force to Leontini, Epicydes joined him there, and they set at defiance the Syracusan government. Leontini was, indeed, quickly reduced by Marcellus, but his cruelties there alienated the Syracusans, and still more the foreign mercenaries in their service; a disposition of which Hippocrates and Epicydes (who had made their escape to Erbessus) ably availed themselves, induced the troops sent against them to mutiny, and returned at their head to Syracuse, of which they made themselves masters with little difficulty, B. C. 214. (Liv. 24.21
.) Marcellus immediately proceeded to besiege Syracuse, the defence of which was conducted with ability and vigour by the two brothers, who had been again appointed generals. When the Roman commander found himself obliged to turn the siege into a blockade, Epicydes continued to hold the city itself, while Hippocrates conducted the operations in other parts of Sicily.
The former was, however, unable to prevent the surprise of the Epipolae, which were betrayed into the hands of Marcellus ; but he still exerted his utmost efforts against the Romans, and co-operated zealously with the army from without under Himilco and Hippocrates.
After the defeat of the latter he went in person to meet Bomilcar, who was advancing with a Carthaginian fleet to the relief of the city, and hasten his arrival; but, after the retreat of Bomilcar, he seems to have regarded the fall of Syracuse as inevitable, and withdrew to Agrigentutum. (Liv. 24.33
.) Here he appears to have remained and co-operated with the Numidian Mutines, until the capture of Agrigentum (B. C. 210) obliged him to fly with Hanno to Carthage, after which his name is not again mentioned. (Liv. 26.40
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When we were planning our honeymoon this year (which at that stage was already a babymoon), we had our eye on Burma. A friend lived in Yangon, and the country looked interesting. But parts of Burma have malaria that is resistant to chloroquine, the preferred drug for treating and preventing the disease. I asked my doctor about other anti-malarial medication, and she said there wasn’t enough existing evidence about other drugs to confirm that they were safe for pregnant women.
We ended up choosing a malaria-free vacation destination instead and didn’t think anything more about it. But for pregnant women with chronic or newly acquired conditions, choices about whether to take medication and what kind can have real risks and consequences, and doctors are often in the dark about exactly what these repercussions are.
With more women getting pregnant later in life, pregnancies are often accompanied by chronic conditions such as diabetes, asthma, depression, and lupus. In fact, a recent article in the Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin noted that at least 10 percent of pregnant women in the United Kingdom have a chronic illness requiring medication, and at least 40 percent of pregnant women in the U.K. take a prescription drug during their pregnancy. In the United States, this statistic is even higher, with 64 percent of women taking a prescription medication during their pregnancy.
Indirect maternal deaths in the U.K.—those caused by a condition unrelated to but potentially aggravated by pregnancy—have almost doubled in the past 20 years. Some of these deaths may well be attributable to poor adherence to medication. Women who are expecting often take a cautious approach to drugs, especially because so little is known about their risks and benefits to their unborn child.
Many of these risks remain unknown because pregnant women are a tricky cohort in which to test drugs. They are described as “therapeutic orphans” when it comes to clinical drug trials. Pharmaceutical companies are not willing to navigate the legal and ethical minefield of testing drugs on pregnant women, especially because pregnancy lasts only nine months, a short window in which the tests could pay off in additional sales. As a result, drugs are often prescribed to this population off-label, meaning that they haven’t been specifically approved for pregnant women. The editors of the Drug and Therapeutics Bulletin argue that not only is enrolling pregnant women into drug trials important, it’s unethical not to do so. The authors of a New England Journal of Medicine review of how pregnant women were treated during the H1N1 flu pandemic say such research “is not only permissible but also imperative.”
Pregnancy was not always off-limits when it came to medication. Before the 1960s the placenta was generally thought of as an impenetrable barrier, protecting the fetus from contaminants. However, after 10,000 children were born in the late 1950s and early 1960s with birth defects as a result of their mothers taking thalidomide, opinion swung in the other direction.
In 1977 the FDA excluded all women of childbearing potential from early phases of drug testing, a decision that was overruled only 20 years ago. The goal was to protect fetuses and pregnant women. The irony is, as an article in The Lancet points out, that the scale of the thalidomide tragedy could have been reduced had the drug been properly trialled.
The lack of drug testing has led pregnant women (and the doctors who treat them) to a conundrum. Either they risk ditching medications they need or they take drugs that haven’t been specifically tested on pregnant women and could pose an unknown danger. This occurred with anticonvulsant sodium valproate, which was found to be associated with an increased risk of impaired cognitive function among children whose mothers took the drug while pregnant.
On the other hand, studies have found that women who stop taking medications they need can be at serious risk, too. A study in the Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology found that 30 percent of women with asthma reduced or stopped their asthma medications in the first few months of pregnancy. A separate review reported that 6 percent of pregnant women with asthma are hospitalized for an acute attack. Furthermore, a third of asthmatics intended to stop or stopped taking inhaled corticosteroids during pregnancy, with 44 percent of asthmatic women revealing that they had concerns about the ways that asthma medication and asthma attacks would affect their baby.
Anne Drapkin Lyerly, associate director of the Center for Bioethics at the University of North Carolina, co-founded the Second Wave Initiative, a project that promotes the responsible inclusion of pregnant women in biomedical research. She recalls a case in which a woman with severe asthma was taken off her medication by her doctor. She presented to the emergency room with a severe asthma attack. Instead of treating her, hospital staff tried to reach her doctor. The woman died.
Lyerly and Ruth Faden, another founder of the Second Wave Initiative and the director of the John Hopkins Berman Institute of Bioethics, argue that pregnant women are often seen as just vessels, with their own health regarded as secondary to the health of their unborn child.
This is particularly true in the case of pregnant women who take antidepressants, which some research has found to have adverse outcomes for the baby when taken throughout pregnancy. However, the needs of the baby and the needs of the mother should not be mutually exclusive. “If a newborn has a mother who has crippling depression, the infant also suffers,” Faden says.
“The bottom line is that what we have is a really unfair circumstance. We don’t have as much evidence as we would like in medicine generally, but there is something profoundly wrong when we have one group in the population that has to be managed with far less evidence than anybody else,” Faden says.
Her view is echoed in numerous studies, including a recent review of tuberculosis outcomes among pregnant women. The authors found that there is an “urgent need for research in pregnant and postpartum women” in the area of pharmacokinetic safety and the ideal timing for treating latent tuberculosis.
Lyerly points out that the FDA doesn’t always approve drugs for every segment of the population, but the counterpoint is that pregnant women’s bodies function differently than do the bodies of women who aren’t expecting.
In 2001, when bioterrorism was regarded as a major threat, the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology recommended amoxicillin for the management of pregnant women exposed to anthrax. In 2007 a small trial, which drew blood from pregnant women who were already taking amoxicillin, found that it was impossible to achieve therapeutic doses. “Your kidneys just metabolize it so quickly,” Lyerly says. “So that recommendation would have been completely wrong because of the lack of data.”
That trial is the type of research that Lyerly and Faden would like see more of. They refer to it as low-hanging fruit, where pregnant women who are already taking medication are monitored through blood or urine tests, for example, and then followed up with after the birth of their child.
“If we could simply make observational research a really high priority, we could get all kinds of useful, maybe not gold-standard findings, but useful findings about the outcomes that are associated with the different decisions physicians have to make,” says Faden.
Currently there is what Lyerly describes as a “weird myopia” that causes researchers to miss out on the opportunity to study pregnant women. The National Children’s Study, for instance, is studying the effects of the environment on children from before birth to when they turn 21.
“You have this cohort of 100,000 women who are taking medications and being exposed to things. There are health implications for women as well, and these aren’t being studied at all through the National Children’s Study,” Lyerly told me.
Second Wave has spoken to the researchers in charge of the project, and there may be some opportunities to study pregnant women post-hoc. Steven Hirschfeld, the director of the National Children’s Study, said that the current proposal, which is under external scientific review, is to collect prospective medication exposure information from approximately 50,000 women. “We also expect to collect retrospective historic exposure in about another 50,000 women,” he said.
Lyerly sees some cause for optimism that the situation is improving. She points to research into the use of drugs in children. Previously, children were, like pregnant women, therapeutic orphans of clinical trials and were treated like “small adults” for dosing recommendations. But two pieces of groundbreaking legislation, the Pediatric Research Equity Act (2003) and the Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act (2002), have resulted in many labeling changes for the pediatric use of drugs.
Perhaps pregnant women could be headed in the same direction. The FDA is cautious about the inclusion of pregnant women in clinical trials and has said that it needs to be done on a case-by-case basis. “Pregnant women are often excluded from clinical trials and, when women become pregnant during a clinical trial, they are often discontinued from the trial. Thus, at the time a drug is approved, the decision to prescribe it to pregnant women usually is based on animal data with little or no human safety data,” an FDA representative said in an email. But the agency has made strides in the right direction, by launching in 2009 the Medication Exposure in Pregnancy Risk Evaluation Program to study the effects of prescription medication on pregnant women. The first full MEPREP study is evaluating the risk of birth defects in children whose mothers were prescribed sulfonamide antibiotics during their first trimester compared with mothers who were not taking antibiotics and mothers who were prescribed other antibiotics during their first trimester.
Trials seem to also be on the rise, with one 2012 study finding that 264 drug trials have been conducted specifically on pregnant women in the United States within two years of the study. The five most common drugs studied were vitamins, metformin, misoprostol, progesterone, and insulin.
Internationally, the European Medicines Agency published guidelines in 2005 that provide criteria for the “active surveillance for collecting post-authorization data” of pregnant women who have been exposed to new or established medical products. The World Health Organization and the Joint United Nations Program on HIV and AIDS released a guidance document for ethical considerations in HIV prevention trials. It specifically calls for the recruitment of pregnant women in such trials.
Lyerly was particularly excited when the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases began a trial testing the H1N1 vaccine on pregnant women, who are more vulnerable to the potentially pandemic virus.
Some studies have claimed that women would be reluctant to enroll in clinical trials because of fetal safety concerns. However, Lyerly, who was working at Duke, where the vaccine was being tested, said that women were “beating down the doors” to be registered.
One woman told Lyerly that she would rather be given the vaccine and examined closely than just have her doctor prescribe it to her and hope for the best.
“I felt like I was closely monitored and watched,” the woman told Lyerly. “I felt safer.”
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| 0.975908 | 2,362 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Newspapers have long used sidebars, short stories presenting sidelights to the main news story. Textbook publishers do the same thing. A science text offers a short biographical sketch of the scientist who developed a particular theory to accompany the chapter explaining his ideas. Sidebars are a tool that memoirists and family historians might use as well.
Here are some examples of ways you can use sidebars to include interesting stories or bits of information to provide interesting sidelights to your book without interrupting its narrative flow:
- Biographical sketches: When a family history goes back more than a generation or two, it sometimes becomes difficult to find much information about ancestors other than what is contained in vital records. However, occasionally you uncover much more about one ancestor when you discover a journal or letter collection or because the person was of some historical significance and more records of his or her life exist. Write a brief biographical sketch of the person and place it in a sidebar (accompanied by a picture if you have one).
- Details of time and place: Details of settings like the city or town you or your ancestors lived in as it was at the time you are writing about, the family farm, home or place of business can be described in a sidebar.
- Details of specific historical events to provide context for events you mention in the books main narrative: The further back in history the events your book describes, the more likely your reader will not be familiar with them. A brief sidebar to highlight a significant moment will help them appreciate the world in which the events occurred. Let’s look at two examples from my own family. My parents dated at the 1939 San Francisco World’s Fair held on Treasure Island in the center of San Francisco Bay.. A brief sketch of the Golden Gate International Exposition will help the reader get a sense of their world. On my mother’s side of the family ancestors participated in the 1889 Oklahoma Land Rush along with 50,000 others who rushed into the former Indian Territory to claim a 160 acre homestead. A sidebar describing the broad picture of the rush adds color to the family’s experience.
- Colorful anecdotes: In everyone’s family history there are stories that have become part of family lore, but cannot be documented as fact. In my own family we have a wonderful story of how my grandfather went to Alaska in the Gold Rush of 1898, failed to find gold, but managed to support himself as a boxer, becoming, as my dad proudly recalled, heavyweight champion of Alaska. This undocumented story, which is far too colorful to leave out, gets a sidebar in the family history, separating it from that which we can document.
- Authorial content: As you research and write a family history you, as the author, have experiences or reflections on what you discover. Sometimes you run into brick walls and can’t discover a piece of information about an ancestor. At other times, you reflect upon what an ancestor’s experience might have been like or upon a theme that emerges from the lives of several ancestors. Maybe you want to speculate upon the thoughts and feelings of a person whose life you are recounting. All of these things might be separated from the main text in a sidebar.
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| 0.953716 | 659 | 3.6875 | 4 |
Individual differences |
Methods | Statistics | Clinical | Educational | Industrial | Professional items | World psychology |
The social or mental hygiene movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries was an attempt by Progressive-era reformers to control venereal disease, regulate prostitution and vice, and disseminate sexual education through the use of scientific research methods and modern media techniques.
Many reformers, such as Dr Marie Stopes, were also exponents of eugenics. Inspired by Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection, they argued for the sterilisation of certain groups, even racial groups, in society. This link between racial hygiene and social hygiene can be seen in Australia, where the Racial Hygiene Association of New South Wales is now named The Family Planning Association.
Social hygiene as a profession grew alongside social work and other public health movements of the era. Social hygienists emphasized sexual continence and strict self-discipline as a solution to societal ills, tracing prostitution, drug use and illegitimacy to rapid urbanization.
The American Social Hygiene Association was formed in 1913.
The movement remained alive throughout the 20th century and found its way into American schools, where it was transmitted in the form of classroom films about menstruation, sexually transmitted disease, drug abuse and acceptable sexual behavior in addition to an array of pamphlets, posters, textbooks and films.
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| 0.933477 | 281 | 3.203125 | 3 |
This is the most delicious news you'll hear all day!
Lowering the fat content in chocolate has been a real challenge for food scientists, as it takes a certain fat percentage for the liquid to be handled during production.
But according to a study at Philadelphia's Temple University, a simple electrical trick might remove some of that necessity.
Apparently when you run the liquid chocolate through an electrical field, the chunks tend to bond into chains, leading to a smoother liquid — meaning it may not need so much fat.
According to researchers, it should now be easy to remove 10%, possibly even 20% of the fat from processed chocolate — without losing any taste!
The study was partially funded by Mars — makers of Snickers, Milky Way, M&Ms, Twix, & more — so we may see reduced fat content in a LOT of popular candy in the near future.
For now, the lower fat chocolate still needs to pass more tests — for texture, nutrition information, and longevity in storage.
But with demand so high, we're guessing the process will go smoothly…
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| 0.938139 | 221 | 2.546875 | 3 |
The heart is not an inanimate pump: It is a living, dynamic community of millions of hardworking cells. Its job is to deliver blood to organs that would die without it. Blood contains oxygen and nutrients necessary for the functioning of every cell in the body, including heart cells.
Everyone's heart beats around 70 times per minute, or 100,000 times per day, or about 2.5 billion times in the average lifetime. This vital organ is programmed to work automatically for every second of every day for as long as you live, no matter what else you're doing mentally or physically. In other words, your heart never rests.
Your heart is located just about in the center of your chest and is divided into four chambers: The two smaller upper chambers are known as the left atrium and right atrium and the two larger lower chambers are the left ventricle and right ventricle. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right atrium and is then pumped into the right ventricle and through the pulmonary artery to the lungs, where it is enriched with oxygen (and loses carbon dioxide).
The oxygenated blood is then carried to the left atrium via the pulmonary veins, from where it enters the left ventricle, the main pumping chamber of the heart. It is the thick, powerful muscle of the left ventricle that pumps blood to all the organs of the body via the aorta. From a cardiologist's point of view, it is the left ventricle that is the most important chamber because it is the area of the heart most likely to be affected by a heart attack.
As blood enters the aorta, some is immediately directed to the coronary arteries. The left main coronary artery divides into two major coronary arteries — the left circumflex artery (LCx) and the left anterior descending artery (LAD). A third major artery, the right coronary artery (RCA), has its own point of origin from the aorta. All of these arteries have branches, which are also known as coronary arteries. They supply the beating heart muscle with blood and oxygen. If anything obstructs the flow of blood through one of these arteries for more than 20 to 30 minutes, the heart will likely not receive enough oxygen, and the part of the heart muscle fed by that artery will die. This is what happens when you have a heart attack.
Heart failure occurs when your heart muscle is damaged to the point that your heart can no longer pump sufficient blood to the rest of your organs. When your heart is damaged and can no longer pump efficiently, blood also tends to back up into the lungs, making them heavier, which results in difficulty breathing.
Learn more at the Everyday Health Heart Health Center.
Last Updated: 11/14/2008
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Cosines of Three Angles
Date: 05/08/2003 at 22:02:14 From: Shannon Subject: Angles of triangles Show that the largest angle of the triangle whose sides are 4, 5, and 6 is exactly twice the size of the smallest angle.
Date: 05/08/2003 at 22:54:00 From: Doctor Mitteldorf Subject: Re: Angles of triangles You can calculate the cosines of the three angles using the Law of Cosines. For example, the largest angle: 6^2 = 4^2 + 5^2 - 2(4)(5) cos(C) cos(C) = 1/8 Once you have the two cosines, you can test the statement that angle C is twice angle A by using the cosine formula for double an angle: cos(2A) = cos^2(A) - sin^2(A) = 2cos^2(A) - 1 - Doctor Mitteldorf, The Math Forum http://mathforum.org/dr.math/
Search the Dr. Math Library:
Ask Dr. MathTM
© 1994-2015 The Math Forum
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The culling of thousands of animals during the foot and mouth outbreak was unnecessary, according to a former government vet.
More than four million animals were slaughtered during the outbreak
Dr Nick Honbold, who was a Defra vet during the outbreak in 2001, says it would have been better to limit the scale of the cull.
He says the study of field data found no evidence the contiguous cull helped to hasten the end of the outbreak.
Dr Honbold says the data was taken from Defra's databases and records.
Dr Honbold's claims are made in an article published in the Veterinary Record.
The veterinary epidemiologist now works for the Department for Agriculture and Rural Development in Belfast.
As part of the cull, healthy animals on farms next to infected ones were killed, despite protests from farmers and vets.
Dr Honbold says the research concentrated on the three areas in England which had the largest numbers of clustered infected premises during the outbreak.
They were the South West (Devon, Cornwall and Somerset), Cumbria and the Settle/Clitheroe area.
The study suggests non-contiguous culling was unnecessary
Researchers compared the outbreaks with control policies such as the speed of slaughter on infected premises and the intensity of contiguous culling.
"We found a very definite effect of speed of slaughter on infected premises," he said.
Many farmers and vets criticised the contiguous cull, claiming it was unnecessary and unjustified.
Now Dr Honbold's report appears to give weight to that view.
He said: "The outcome of our research suggests that the necessity for an extensive and intensive contiguous cull was not as it seemed to be at the time of the outbreak, when it was claimed to be essential for the control of the epidemic."
He believes the speed of culling animals on infected premises was the most important factor.
He says the disease could only spread from infected farms because there is no other reservoir in nature for the virus.
Official figures from Defra at the end of the foot and mouth outbreak show that more than four million animals were slaughtered, of which about one and a half million were non-contiguous.
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Using fencing to combat poverty and obesity in Detroit
Founder Bobby Smith said getting kids involved in non-traditional sports can help them break the cycle of poverty and gain access to college.
He said he was able to get out of his low income situation though fencing. When he was young he got a scholarship to work with the Olympic fencing team. At that time he lived in an inner city neighborhood in New Jersey. Bobby said it was that experience that allowed him to get a scholarship to Wayne State University for fencing.
En Garde Detroit focuses on sports and culture. Smith says he uses the non-traditional sport of fencing as a tool to draw students in. He then teaches students about culture and leadership.
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The Regulations, requirements and different types of building foundations
Every country has a general set of Building Regulation Standards that has to be strictly imposed when designing and constructing any form of structure. The building standards are necessary to ensure that any construction made is safe for human occupancy and for people around the construction. Of late, a clause that a building has to be energy efficient for conservation and that it should have access to and about the building have been included.
In the UK, Building Regulations are divided into sections to deal with the various aspects of building construction.
UK Building Regulations
- Part A - Structure
- Part B - Fire safety
- Part C - Site preparation and resistance to moisture
- Part D - Toxic substances
- Part E - Resistance to the passage of sound
- Part F - Ventilation
- Part G - Hygiene
- Part H - Drainage and waste disposal
- Part J - Combustion appliances and fuel storage systems
- Part K - Protection from falling, collision and impact
- Part L - Conservation of fuel and power
- Part M - Access to and use of buildings
- Part N - Glazing - safety in relation to impact, opening and cleaning
- Part P - Electrical safety
Each building that has to be erected or extended, inclusive of other special constructions, must comply with the strict building regulations. Part A- Foundation may well be the "foundation" of the Building Regulations as a structure's footing and foundation system is its core base.
What is a Foundation and its Requirements?
The foundation is the structural component that transfers load from the building to the supporting ground. The supporting ground could be soil, rock or seabed. The foundation basically holds the building up so it will not sink to the supporting ground. It also holds the structure so it will not be blown away by strong winds like tornadoes. Whole houses being sucked up by tornadoes is not a make-believe story. The stories are true and the core problem was the foundations were not deep and strong enough.
The basic requirement for any structure regarding its loading is that the building shall be constructed in such a way that the combined dead and live loads together with the projected wind load can be carried and transmitted to the ground safely and without any deflection or structural damage. The second requirement is that any ground movement such as swelling, shrinkage, freezing or land-slip should not impair the stability of the building.
The code mandates that all foundations be located centrally under the wall. FOr foundations that are under chemically harsh conditions, a special concrete mix is recommended. For foundations under normal soil conditions, a regular 50 kg. Portland cement with a mixture 200 kg of fine aggregate and 400 kg of course aggregate will be fine. Most contractors are well-versed with these provisions. The required minimum footing (T) is 150 mm or 6 inches. The width of the foundation footing depends on the type of soil the foundation will rest and the load as expressed in k/N per linear meter. To make it simpler, the usual concrete foundation size to be poured on a slightly dense ground is 400 mm by 400 mm by 160 mm. Of course the size will vary accordingly with the increase in building height and capacity.
Reinforced concrete is a different application. Computations are done by structural engineers for high rise buildings for the proper size of foundations and the size and number or reinforcement bars as stiffeners. Concrete is compressive strength while a reinforcement bar is tensile. The two work together for a stronger composite.
Different Types of Foundation
There are so many names and types applied to foundations. However, there are only two basic types according to the depth of a foundation: deep and shallow. Deep foundations are used for high rise buildings. The depth is almost as half the height of the building itself and piles are embedded before finally pouring the foundations. Shallow foundations are only about 1 to 2 metres in depth and mostly used in the construction of one to four storey buildings. A seismic isolation foundation is also used for earthquake proofing a building. This type does not have a 100% guarantee but the seismic foundation will greatly help a building constructed in an earthquake prone location.
- Continuous or Spread Footing: This type of foundation is built along the entire length of the wall. The width of the footing is wider than the wall. The load of the structure is effectively spread over a large area. In some countries this type of footing is called wall footing. Footings are typically placed below the frost line. Rebars are highly recommended to add tensile strength to the footing. A step footing is a variation of a spread footing. This system connects all columns and foundation wall making the foundation solid.
- Slab on grade foundation: A layer of a minimum of 150 mm to 250 mm thick concrete slab is required. The slab is thicker at the sides for reinforcement bars. A layer of gravel is necessary before as the slab's base course. A mould is set on the ground for the slab to be poured so that there would be no extra space between the ground and the structure. This type of foundation is best for warmer climates where there is frost line to worry about.
- Mat Foundation: It has the same dimension of the building so the weight is evenly distributed on the mat. For high rise buildings, piles could have been required before pouring the mat foundation so as to make sure that the soil is compact and dense. Reinforcement bars are placed along the base spaced and sized as specified. A mat foundation could be several metres high when used for high-rise buildings.
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Advantages And Disadvantages Of Biodiesel Fuel
Compared to other alternative fuels, biodiesel fuel supports some unique features and qualities. Unlike any other alternative fuels, it has successfully passed all the health effects testing requirements, meeting the standards of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments. Here in this article, we will shed light on both the advantages and disadvantages of biodiesel fuels. Read on to know more.
Advantages of biodiesel fuel
• Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source unlike petroleum-based diesel.
• An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way to utilize this surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
• One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than petroleum diesel.
• The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
• Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended with other energy resources and oil.
• Biodiesel fuel can also be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel engines without making any alterations.
• It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is another biodiesel fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.
• The lubricating property of the biodiesel may lengthen the lifetime of engines.
Disadvantages of biodiesel fuel
• At present, Biodiesel fuel is bout one and a half times more expensive than petroleum diesel fuel.
• It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, plaus there is the energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.
• Another biodiesel fuel disadvantage is that it can harm rubber hoses in some engines.
• As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected in the fuel filter, thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first several hours of biodiesel use.
• Biodiesel fuel distribution infrastructure needs improvement, which is another of the biodiesel fuel disadvantages.
We hope you found the above article on biodiesel fuel advantages and disadvantages both informative and useful.
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Being a backseat passenger may be a regular part of your child’s routine, but it doesn’t have to be boring. In addition to singing songs, my preschooler and I enjoy playing games in the car. These activities allow us to interact while I drive, and reinforce developmental skills as she grows. Most of the games can be played with more than one child at the same time. Here are some favorites.
“I Spy.” Each of us takes a turn looking outside for something of a certain color for the other person to identify. The first player says something like “I spy with my little eye something red,” which could be a stop sign, a fire engine or another object. The other player calls out possible objects until discovering the correct one.
Alphabet Hunt. Have your youngster look for each letter of the alphabet on the signs and license plates you pass during your journey.
Phonics Game. Have your child think of words that begin with the “sound” of a particular letter of the alphabet. For the letter b, for example, ask your child to think of words starting with the sound “buh.” For more advanced players, think of a word for each letter of the alphabet.
Spelling Bee. For your beginning speller choose simple words, such as “hat,” “cat” and “rat.”
Rhyming Time. This rhyming and phonics game is appropriate for older preschoolers. Chant the following to a simple tune: I’m thinking of a word that rhymes with house, it starts with an “m” so it must be “_____.”
Follow My Rhythm. Chant a simple rhythm for your child to repeat. As she becomes more able to follow your lead, slowly make the patterns more complex. If you’re musically inclined, create a short rhythmic tune for your child to imitate.
Guess My Number. Tell your child you’re thinking of a number between one and 10, or between any two numbers, depending on your child’s knowledge. Each time your child guesses a number, say whether yours is higher or lower than the one guessed, until your child arrives at the actual number.
Counting Game. Ask your child to count 10 blue cars, 10 stop signs and so on. Older children can keep score with a pencil and a small notebook.
Story Together. Create a story together with your preschooler. Start with an intriguing first sentence then have fun with the plot as you take turns narrating the next parts of the story.
Twenty Questions. Think of a person, place or thing and offer clues. For younger children, clues can be obvious. “I’m thinking of the town where Grandma lives.” “I came to your birthday party and my first name begins with C.” Older kids can tolerate more frustration, so clues for them can be more complex. The clue “The seventh book about me will be the last in the series” could be followed with “My best friends are Ron and Hermione.”
Once you get in the habit of playing games, being in the car can become a special time together. Connecting through games is also a natural precursor to the car ride conversations you’ll be eager to have as your child grows.
Nuestros consejos para padres son sólo sugerencias. Le recomendamos también consultar a su proveedor de servicios médicos y contactarlo de manera inmediata si su pregunta es urgente o acerca de alguna condición médica.
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WARSAW – If you look through the bars of the locked gate at 14 Prozna Street in Poland’s capital, a place that was the center of the Jewish ghetto 70 years ago, you may spot a small statue of a figure kneeling in prayer. That figure is Adolf Hitler.
“Amen,” a new exhibition by Italian artist Maurizio Cattelan, which includes the praying Hitler, has caused outrage among the Jewish community in Poland as well as among Jewish and Catholic organizations worldwide that regard the exhibit as extremely offensive.
Cattelan, 52, an Italian-born sculptor living in New York, is known for his controversial work. One of the most famous is “La Nona Ora” (“The Ninth Hour”) depicting Pope John Paul II being struck down by a meteorite.
Last month, Cattelan opened a show at the Center for Contemporary Art in Warsaw.
Most of the exhibits are displayed inside the museum, which is elsewhere in Warsaw. Only the praying Hitler has been placed in the middle of the former Jewish ghetto.
The Center for Contemporary Art has a description of Cattelan’s exhibition on its website: “In a Warsaw ravaged by the cataclysmic 20th century, Maurizio Cattelan’s works take on a particular dimension; they become an artistic commentary on the Catholic credo. What, in fact, does love thy enemy mean? What does forgive those who trespass against us mean? Evoking the traumas of history, they deal with memory and forgetfulness, good and evil.”
Cattelan’s decision to put the Hitler figure in the former Jewish ghetto has angered many in Poland, Jews and Christians alike. The organizers of the international film festival Human Docs being held in Poland and dedicated to human rights, have decided to hold a debate on the question “What’s Hitler up to in Poland? The moral impact of provocation in art.”
Historians and artists have tried to explain Cattelan’s decision to place the figure in one of the most sensitive places for Jews in Poland and to resolve the question of whether it is a legitimate art exhibit or an offensive provocation. Some said the kneeling figure appears to be vulnerable and ambiguous. On one hand, the hero is an icon of evil; on the other, the view of Hitler kneeling may evoke sympathy in the viewer. Viewing this object, they say, provokes mixed feelings.
A few days after the Hitler figure was placed in the yard of 14 Prozna Street, someone covered its face and hands in an attempt to obscure its identity, perhaps fearing the reaction it would produce.
Another sign of the strong emotions the figure has raised is that, despite there being no public access to the exhibit, the museum’s management has mounted 24-hour security around it.
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1. One of the paradoxes associated with the media coverage of sports is that the media open up new opportunities for spectators to view sports, but they also limit and define the experiences of spectators. Explain how the media can do both of these things simultaneously.
Many people would agree that they would rather go to a sporting event rather then watching it on television. But on the other hand some would prefer to stay in the comfort of their own home. In the past decade or so, media has opened up new opportunities for spectators. When we watch sports on television the images and messages we hear are designed to heighten the content. By staying in and watching the game on television the viewer can see different camera angles, close-ups, slow motion shots, play by play description and so on. If one were to attend a sporting event they would not have the luxury of all that, but what they would have is the experience of being there. Mind you, most facilities now do have screens where the fans can see replays and so forth. Another possibility may be installing in the seats a place to insert headphones to listen to commentary (like in a plane). Being at a sporting event, we able to be part of a group (spectators), being able to smell the grass, smell of the ice. Enjoying the taste of a hotdog and a cold beer. There is an excessive amount of media coverage that is going on in the sports industry. The commentators are constantly advertising things. Like Dr. Kiger said, "it's not like the old days, the commentators would tell stories in between pitches or during rain delays. I personally cannot stand watching games on television. With all the commercials and ads here and there I lose interest in the game. The media can do both things simultaneously by
allowing the commentators to do their job of commentating and when there is a break in the game, then that is when they can throw
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| 0.974982 | 390 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Wildlife imports into the United States are fragmented and insufficiently coordinated, failing to accurately list more than four in five species entering the country.
So reports a team of scientists from the Wildlife Trust, Brown University, Pacific Lutheran University, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the Global Invasive Species Programme.
A paper on their findings is published in this week's issue of the journal Science.
The poorly regulated U.S. wildlife trade can lead to devastating effects on ecosystems, native species, food supply chains and human health.
"As our world, in many senses, grows smaller and smaller with the ease of international travel, the network of connections has increased, facilitating the spread of diseases," said Rita Teutonico, senior advisor for integrative activities in the National Science Foundation's (NSF) Directorate for Social, Behavioral & Economic Sciences (SBE).
SBE co-funded this research through the agency's Human and Social Dynamics (HSD) priority area. HSD was supported by all NSF Directorates, and by NSF's Office of International Science and Engineering and Office of Polar Programs.
"These scientists report a pattern of trade in wildlife that includes a very large number of animals, coupled with a poor understanding of what species are traded," said James Collins, NSF Assistant Director for Biological Sciences. "The findings highlight the need for further research because of the unknown effects these animals and their pathogens can have on native organisms."
A global trade in wildlife generates hundreds of billions of dollars each year. The researchers report that during a six-year period from 2000 through 2006, the U.S. imported more than 1.5 billion live animals.
"That's more than 200 million animals a year--unexpectedly high," said scientist Peter Daszak, president of the Wildlife Trust, who co-led the research.
The animals collected were from wild populations in more than 190 countries around the world, and were intended for commercial sale in the U.S.--primarily in the pet trade.
"This incredible number of imports is equivalent to every single person in the U.S. owning at least five pets," said biologist Katherine Smith of Brown University, co-leader of the study.
More than 86 percent of shipments contained animals that were not classified to the level of species, making it impossible to assess the full diversity of animals imported, or calculate the risk of non-native species introductions or disease transmission.
"Shipments are coming in labeled 'live vertebrate' or 'fish,'" said Daszak. "If we don't know what animals are in there, how do we know which are going to become invasive species or carry diseases that could affect livestock, wildlife--or ourselves?"
The wildlife trade has previously led to disease introductions such as the 2003 monkeypox outbreak following the import of infected African rodents for the pet trade.
"The threat to public health is real, as the majority of emerging diseases come from wildlife," said Smith. "Most of these imported animals originate in Southeast Asia--a hotspot for emerging diseases."
The research team calls for direct measures to decrease the risk of such "pathogen pollution" and proposes guidelines to protect human, animal, and ecosystem health.
- Stricter record keeping should be required to inform risk analysis on animal imports.
- Third-party surveillance and testing should be established for both known and unknown pathogens at the exportation points in foreign countries.
- Greater public education is needed to educate individuals, importers, veterinarians and pet industry advocates about the dangers of diseases that emerge from wildlife and that can make their way to domesticated animals and humans.
"We need to look at all the factors that impact ecosystems--the whole picture," said Daszak. "The global wildlife trade is promoting a process that will impact our health and the health of the planet."
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Access to water is vital for every living creature on the planet.
Despite its abundance, over two-fifths of people face severe shortages of this precious commodity.
We asked you to tell us how water affects your life.
You sent us your photos, and told us about your experiences from every corner of the globe.
And, on Sunday, 8 June, we broadcast some of your stories in a special programme, Global Village Voices, on the BBC World Service.
Select the link below to listen to the programme, or read the transcript.
Welcome to Global Village voices . I'm Zeinab Badawi and in this programme we'll been hearing from you about how water affects your lives - ordinary stories from people all over the world but with a common thread - water is a precious resource.
It is indeed one of the world most important resources - yet two fifths of the people of our planet face severe shortages of it.
In Africa - the situation is most acute and access to clean drinking water alone accounts for thousands of deaths a day , particularly children.
For many like Joyce Tunda in Tanzania -getting clean water is a daily struggle to keep her and her family well - and alive.
My name is Joyce Tunda. Collecting water takes me five hours a day. I leave home at two in the morning and I get water at six. I have two children - one died from diarrhoea. The other is fourteen - she's usually sick because of the dirty water we are using.
In neighbouring Uganda the situation is also desperate for many.
Moses Deleo Wichane set up an organization called Divine Waters to try to bring clean supplies to his village.
So far they have drilled over 100 hand pumped wells in rural communities. Here's his story.
I am called Moses DeLeo Wichane. Right now I'm talking from Lira, Uganda.
There's a big, serious shortage of water in, not only northern Uganda, but throughout the country because most families cannot afford to bring tap water into their homes and into their areas.
And a government can only reach those areas, like town areas, and only a few individual rich men can afford to tap this water to this their houses.
So the rural people and other urban people, who cannot afford to do that, or even tenants who are renting, the only source that they can use is from these bore holes and springs.
As I talk now in Lira where I am in a district, the coverage of water which is a clean water source is only about 23%. So that means we have like about 77 [%] at least to cover to make 100%. So you see how low that is.
But the government is beginning now to realise that the greatest need is to provide safe drinking water."
Across the continents now in India-the access to clean water is also an everyday struggle for many.
Water in the river Ganges is sacred to Hindus - but many find they are unable to get fresh daily supplies.
The river water is polluted with high levels of rubbish and sewage.
Here's Navarantnam Ramachandra
My name is Ramachandra.
For several there has been a shortage of water in this area, but I was surprised when I walked around to see numerous pond - some of them are several hundred feet long.
There's one right behind me here and they are all completely neglected. The water is, I think, suitable - beyond about half a mile away is the extent of the corporation area - a municipal area.
Water is supplied there for a couple of hours a day. And a lot of people from here line up with their buckets around those houses there to buy water - to purchase it at about 1.50 rupee per bucket.
And every day a huge lorry comes - I don't know where they get their water from - but they come round these housing areas and sell it at 2 rupees a bucket.
And there is a sort of big business in this water supply and there is nothing the government or the corporation, anybody is doing anything about it.
And my feeling is that there is no reason why there should be this shortage of water around this area considering these numerous ponds that you see.
Many people in India blame their water problems on the building of huge dams.
The construction of the Narmada dam brought thousands of people to the streets in protest.
This is Himanshu Thakar's story.
Large dams can have many very significant impacts on common persons lives and their access to water and livelihood.
India has already built more than 4,000 large dams. In the world it is the third largest dam-building country.
But if you specifically focus on a dam and what kind of impact it can have, it will give you an idea that what range of impacts the dams can bring.
First of all the dam submerges a huge amount of land which leads to the submergence of lands of the people, the villages, their common properties, their forests and so on.
So direct displacement is the first impact due to the dams and its submergence.
The second direct impact is that the dam also takes away a lot of land from the people for the building of colonies for the canals and several other infrastructure-related work.
To give you an example, in case of Sardar Sarovar, the most known struggle is the struggle due to the displacement due to the submergence brought about by the dam.
But the dam submerges only about 40,000 hectares of land, which is not a big amount.
But the canals of the dam is going to take away more than two lake hectares of land - which is five times the land that will go under submergence.
That gives you an idea of the impact that the other related infrastructure can bring, on the impact that can be brought on the people.
The third major direct impact of the dam is due to the submergence of forest that it brings about.
In India the forests are all inhabited by people - mostly indigenous people stay in the forest or depend on the forest. And when those forests are destroyed, they lose their livelihood, their culture and everything.
And not only that, they also do not get compensated because the government declares all of them are illegal occupiers.
And so they not only lose everything that belongs to them, they are not even recorded as displaced people and do not get any rehabilitation benefits.
For people who have little or no access to water, or who have to ration what little water they have, the abundance of the element in the Western World can come as quite a shock.
Robyn Anderson came to England from South Africa, and she tells us how amazed she was to see how the British waste their water:
My name is Robyn Anderson. I came over from South Africa in 1997.
On arriving in England, firstly I was amazed by the amount of rain you get.
When I was growing up in South Africa, we would often experience a couple of year's drought and then heavy rain.
During the times of drought, the water levels in the dam would almost be non-existent.
We'd have to take precautions just to make sure there was no wastage.
Growing up in this lifestyle of trying to conserve water, I was amazed in England the attitude towards water because of its abundance.
I found it very much taken for granted. For example, when my partner runs a bath it will be almost full up to the brim, whereas I would be used to filling the bath only half-way up.
And if he was cleaning his teeth, the water would run the whole time while he was cleaning his teeth.
If people in South Africa had to be exposed to the way people in wealthier countries used and wasted water they'd be shocked and I think they'd be abhorred because they value water because they have to struggle that much more in times when they don't have as much.
We go through situations where you're not allowed to water your garden at all. You end up having to recycle bath-water, etc.
And there's always a famous advertising campaign that says "Don't bath - shower with a friend" which is a humorous way of promoting water conservation, but it strikes a chord.
But I think it'd be quite horrific... In hotels and guesthouses in South Africa they've now taken to - because of the huge tourist markets - putting up signs in the bathrooms: "Water is a precious resource, please conserve." And they're trying to bring it across to tourists that water is a problem."
But its not just hot countries that have problems with their water supplies.
Even in countries where the rainfall is heavy - ordinary people have their lives affected by lack of water all year round.
And remote locations no matter where they are in the world suffer the most from not being linked up to running water.
Here's a story from a mother in a remote Scottish Island
My name is Jenny Redaway and I and my son live in Tobermory on the Island of Mull which is off the west coast of Scotland.
We do get an awful lot of water, particularly on the west coast.
In May of this year - 2003 - we actually got in Scotland 164% of the average May rainfall.
On the other hand, earlier on this year, we had three very dry months and the people on the island who don't have a mains water supply had their springs and their wells drying up.
So even then, even in a really wet place in the world, we can still have water shortages.
I happen to think, in the Western World, we spend a lot of money - quite rightly - on promoting energy saving.
But we don't do very much at all about water saving.
I think we should be doing an awful lot more to educate people about how much little water there is available in the world, what we can be doing to conserve water, and how we can actually keep things going for the future.
Personally I think the water because it is such a limited resources needs to be part of not just a single government agreement but it needs to be actually a worldwide kind of agreement because we're not talking about something that we can just renew.
We live where we've got lots of wind - we can generate electricity through wind turbines.
What we've really got to be doing is realising there is an absolute limit to the actual limit to the amount of fresh water available to us.
And we should be globally - a bit, if you like, like Kyoto - we should agreeing at what we are going to do as a global unit about the problems of water shortages.
People in rich countries use 10 times more water than in poor ones - but still as the world comes to accept it cannot increase its supply of freshwater - people are coming to terms with the fact they have to change the way we use our supplies.
In southern California, farmers are making use of a new system to grow their crops - hydroponics - where they use water to cultivate their produce and so avoid the heavy burden of having to irrigate soil.
David Goldman in Pasadena USA is one farmer who is trying out the new system.
Growing our plants in a hydroponics environment, water is... Well, hydroponics means water working - so it's extremely important to us.
It's so important that we use reverse osmosis equipment to filter everything out of the water. We conserve every drop of water we can. We recycle the water as long as we can for several weeks.
During hot years we don't take that much of a hit in the hydroponic system - the plants will drink more water but since we lose almost nothing to evaporation, our water bills are really not that much higher in the summer time.
However, the other half of our operation - the organic half - that's grown in the ground - our water bill just skyrockets and we really start to see - we really start to appreciate the hyrodroponically-grown produce.
It saves us a ton of money and water bills in the summertime.
I think the biggest issue that farmers here in southern California are facing is the fact that the natural resources that we've all grown accustomed to are beginning to diminish and the water supply is becoming a little more scarce - the price of water is going up.
And the other reason is that land is becoming more and more scarce and definitely a lot more expensive and it doesn't become as cost-effective to farm on that land any more.
So I think a lot of growers are in the process turning towards hydroponics because of the fact that it uses less land, it uses a lot less water.
It doesn't matter how fertile the land is, we can produce hydroponic produce on any kind of land - we can produce it on concrete.
So I think there's going to be a big move - there already is a big move - but I think its just going to continue to go in that direction.
As we use more and more of our natural resources up, I think a lot of growers are going to start looking towards hydroponics as a way of growing in the future.
From southern California to southern Spain - both arid regions of the world where ordinary people are having to make the most of their environment and find inventive ways to beat nature and her water supply.
Michael Baker is an Englishman who has set up a farming project in Coin.
My name is Michael Baker. Currently I am living on a project in Southern Spain that I have set up, having been working in the UK on sustainable living, and recycling, and organic farming / organic husbandry.
The project that I set up here in Southern Spain contains particular reference to rain harvesting and conservation of water.
In doing this, I've got deeply involved in the full process from recycling the water from the clouds, bringing it down, filtering it, using it domestically, in low quantity and with grey water products outpouring from the house that goes straight into the crops that we are growing.
It's a small project but the emphasis is utmost on water conservation - environmental sustainable living.
Water itself - for drinking and for agricultural purposes - is not a single issue.
Its an issue that involves both first world countries and third world countries.
Here in Southern Spain it is a major issue. If you look on the BBC World Service plan map, you will see that Southern Spain is one of the areas identified as a particular area of concern.
Here there is a sharp contrast between the need for the population to generate income from tourism - so tourism is attracted to the Costa itself.
There are certain aspects to the tourism here, I would focus on golf courses, where large quantities of water are used on the coast itself to keep golf courses in good order.
But here, inland, there is a particular big issue going on at this present moment in time, about damming the Rio Grande in Southern Spain, to provide more water for the resources on the coast.
The consequence of this is that many people locally will lose their income.
They will lose very fertile soil where they've been growing oranges, avocados and other fruit.
In consequence to that there is a major change, a social change, and an environmental change just to meet the needs of the tourism industry and in particular golf courses."
Water borne diseases account for the deaths of one child every 8 seconds.
It is a horrific statistic - and 75% of illness treated in some parts of Sudan were due to bad drinking water.
Eric Green is an American who goes to Sudan to drill water wells and try to do his part in changing this.
I started going to Sudan a few years ago with an organisation - Safe Harbour International Relief.
On one of the teams I asked the doctor - I said, what's the greatest need that we have here - and he said, by far its water.
He said three-quarters of all the illnesses that he was treating at the clinic were directly related to bad water.
It was crazy - when were up in the Nuba mountains and we saw these people - the water source where all the people in the village were getting their water was from these mud puddles that the cows were drinking out of and they had the glaze like when we get the little oil residue on the top of the water from our automobiles
They had that same kind of glaze on top of the water. And these people wouldn't think anything of just reaching in with a cup and drinking the water straight from there.
And there are all kinds of water-borne diseases in this water and that's all they have. So it was an absolutely horrible situation.
I also learned that the Trikana tribe in northern Kenya don't ever take showers because there's just not the water to have accessible.
So they really don't bathe or anything, which is very bad health-wise.
They would love to have dam built in southern Sudan. If they had a dam they could increase the crop productivity - the soil is very good but we have no water to do the things that would need it.
So maybe with a few dam projects, or things like that, they could get the food and the crops and there wouldn't be the starvation issues that are always coming up in Africa right now.
In Iraq - access to water and power has been an issue long before the recent war. It is one of the key issues for the new administration.
Hanaa Ahmad Ali - who lives in South-west Baghdad with her four children and her husband who was an army officer under Saddam Hussein.
She explains what the situation is like for ordinary Iraqis.
Hanaa Ahmad Ali:
Since the beginning of the war we have started to suffer from the shortage of electricity and water.
Although there was some shortage during the previous regime, now we are suffering for a long time.
Sometimes we don't have electricity or water for a whole day.
Its not just impoverished countries who experience problems with their water supply.
Uruguay has traditionally been one of the better off countries in South America, but residents there are battling to maintain control of the water distribution network.
Hi, my name is Vic Nelson. I'm from Montevideo, Uruguay.
Uruguay sits on top of one of the biggest Aquifers in the world, called the Guaraní.
And there have been moves by the government to privatise the distribution of water.
In response to that - at the instigation of the water-worker's union - they have created what is called "The National Commission in Defence of Water and Life".
And they are collecting signatures for a national referendum.
The minimum number of signatures they need to force a referendum is 250,000 and they have already collected 220,000 which shows that the population is interested in the problem.
There has been a tremendous campaign in the media, but also they already have experience in a coastal town, Maldonado.
The distribution of the water there was a disaster.
Prices shot up, during the summer months water was scarce, and given this experience people are beginning to see that water is a vital element and it should remain in the hands of the state, which after all means it remains in the hands of the people.
But despite support for the petition, Victor says that the government may be forced to accept contracts from foreign companies because of the financial crisis in Uruguay.
Well there are two ways to see this.
One is that I'm pretty sure that the government in the middle of a financial crisis will be tempted to accept whatever offer they receive.
But on the other hand, the experience in Uruguay is that referendums have to be obeyed by the government.
So if, as I think, the required number of signatures is collected and the referendum is won, I am pretty sure that they will have to listen.
Remember also that certain sectors of Uruguayan society are very much against this privatisation - amongst them the Armed Forces.
And the people want to keep the water in the hands of the state because they have realised that it is a vital element.
Uruguay is mainly an agricultural country. Water is very important. Therefore they want to keep control of that element in their hands for the future generations.
That's how they are coping in Uruguay.
Over at the other side of the world now in Australia, we hear from one person who's life depends on there being enough rain.
It's a common enough story for many people in that continent.
My name is Dominick Reyntiens and I live on the east coast of Australia in a place called Byron Bay.
I live actually in the hills behind Byron Bay and we're totally dependent on rainwater where we live.
We don't have any town water supplied to us so we have what we have collect in our rainwater tanks.
So it's really quite important and we think about it a lot even though we're in a high rainfall area and water shortages aren't a huge issue.
But the interesting thing is two hours up the coast, I've got relatives where the geography is changed and water is a big issue for them.
If they actually relied on rainwater all the time, they'd be in a lot of trouble.
They need the town to supply it to them - pump it up to them.
Dominick voices what all the people who have shared their experiences with us believe.
Wherever you live in the world, dry or wet, poor or rich, access to clean water is paramount.
Here's Dominick again.
One of the things that I always thought in this debate is that water just doesn't know any boundaries - it doesn't obey boundaries - it doesn't sit in one country.
A river starts in one country, flows through another and exits into the sea in another country.
Water tables stretch between territories like they do in Israel and some people can afford to pump the water table up.
Some people can't and those people could be really close to each other and they can see - wait a minute, these guys have got water, they're pumping it out of the ground - we can't pump it out the ground and here we are, we're dying for the lack of this liquid.
And the other thing is, we talk about it as resource commodity but it's not, it's an absolute necessity - we need it to live.
No water - you die.
If you look at all the desert regions of the world, there are not many conurbations in them because there is no water.
If you look at every city in the world and it's built on a river. We need to live, to transport - it's everything to us - without it we're dead.
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Professor Donald Jump and his co-workers report that fish consumption and omega-3 supplements may still help reduce the risk of heart disease, and that some fatty acids, from certain sources, are more effective than others.
The heart health benefits of fish oil, and the omega-3 fatty acids it contains, are well-documented, being first reported in the early 1970s by Dr Jorn Dyerberg and his co-workers in The Lancet and The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
To date, the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been linked to improvements in blood lipid levels, a reduced tendency of thrombosis, blood pressure and heart rate improvements, and improved vascular function.
Writing in the Journal of Lipid Research , the researchers note that recent studies may have reported ‘less conclusive’ data because of the very effectiveness of modern drug therapies for heart disease.
“It’s less clear how much impact fish oils have in preventing further cardiovascular events in people who already have heart disease,” said Jump.
“The studies done several decades ago showed value even for that patient population, but the more recent studies are less conclusive. We believe that one explanation is the effectiveness of current state-of-the-art treatments now being offered.”
Jump noted that some of the early studies done on fish oil were prior to so many effective medications being widely available and heavily used. “And people often forget that nutrients, like fish oils, are less potent than prescription drugs, and often have their best value when used for extended periods,” he added.
“When so many people in these studies are taking a regimen of medications to address the same issues that fish oil might also affect, it’s easy to understand why any added benefit from the fish oils is more difficult to detect.”
Other key findings from the review include:
- Plant-derived sources of these fatty acids, such as flaxseed oil or chia seeds, have less benefit than those from cold-water fish, because of differences in how the human body processes these nutrients.
- For individuals unwilling or unable to consume fish or fish-oil supplements, some products made from yeast or algae are high quality.
“We still believe the evidence is strong that the EPA and DHA content in heart tissues and blood is important to health and to the prevention of cardiovascular disease,” Jump said. “To meet the current recommendations for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease, individuals are advised to consume 200-300 milligrams of combined EPA and DHA per day.”
The research was supported by the US Department of Agriculture and the National Institutes of Health.
Commenting on the review, Harry Rice, PhD, VP of scientific and regulatory affairs for GOED, the omega-3 trade association, told NutraIngredients-USA: “I think the authors' conclusion that non-fish sources of n-3 PUFA vary in their capacity to regulate blood levels of EPA & DHA and CVD risk factors is premature.
“I think it's more likely that there's a variation in how long it takes to equilibrate those levels, and in the long-term, the ramp-up stage is of little significance.”
Source: Journal of Lipid Research
2012, Volume 53, Number 12, Pages 2525-2545
“Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation and cardiovascular disease: Thematic Review Section: New Lipid and Lipoprotein Targets for the Treatment of Cardiometabolic Diseases”
Authors: D.B. Jump, C.M. Depner, S. Tripathy
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Getting kids to care about oral health can be like pulling teeth. But cavities aren't just painful - they can interfere with learning, speech, eating and play.
Roughly one in six American kids has untreated cavities, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. And experts say those tiny holes can have major consequences on growth and development.
"Tooth decay is the most common chronic disease of childhood, and in the worst case it can change a kid's life for the short or long term," said Dr. Jonathan Shenkin, a pediatric dentist based in Augusta, Maine, and spokesman for the American Dental Association. "Taking steps to prevent it early on - as soon as the first tooth erupts - is key to having a lifetime of good oral health."
Tooth decay accounts for 51 million missed school hours and 25 million missed work hours among parents annually, according to the American Dental Association. But some simple steps can cut the risk of cavities and set up good dental habits for life.
The ADA offers the following tips:
Join the Conversation
To raise public awareness about the importance of children's dental care, ABC News' chief health and medical editor Dr. Richard Besser will host a one-hour tweet chat on Twitter today from 1-2 p.m. ET. Experts from the American Dental Association, American Academy of Pediatrics, the Mayo Clinic and many other professional groups will be joining Besser on the chat to answer your questions and offer advice.
Want to participate? It's as easy as 1-2-3:
Following the tweet chat is even easier if you go to tweetchat.com, sign into twitter and enter the #abcDRBchat hashtag. A box will pop up that only includes tweets from the chat. And when you have something to say, the hashtag will automatically be added to your tweet.
Join the chat. Share your story!
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In the wake of the horrific attacks of September 11, many people find their feelings of sadness and shock mixed with anger and calls for war. But war would be horribly wrong for at least five reasons.
1. Guilt hasn’t yet been proven.
As the New York Times acknowledged, "Law enforcement officials … appear to have little solid evidence tying Mr. bin Laden’s group to the attacks" (NYT, 20 Sept. 2001). If we believe in law and justice, when crimes are committed we don’t advocate that victims who have a strong hunch about culprits impose punishment. We demand proof. We reject vigilantism. We reject guilt by association. This is elementary and uncontestable, except when fear and the drums of war cloud consciousness. In the case of September 11, though an Islamic or Middle Eastern connection seems clear, there are many extremist groups that might have been responsible. To rush to punitive judgment, much less to war, before responsibility has been determined violates basic principles of justice. Guilt should be proven, not suspected.
2. War would violate International Law.
International law provides a clear recourse in situations of this sort: present the matter to the Security Council, which is empowered under the UN Charter, the fundamental document of contemporary international law, to take appropriate action. The Security Council has met and unanimously denounced the terrorist attacks, passing a strong resolution. But the Security Council resolution did not — despite what Washington might claim — authorize the use of force, and especially not a unilateral use of force. The resolution ends by saying that the Council "remains seized of the matter," which, as former UN correspondent Phyllis Bennis notes, is "UN diplo-speak" meaning that "decision-making remains in the hands of the Council itself, not those of any individual nation." To be sure, the UN Charter allows countries to act in self-defense which would permit the United States to shoot down a terrorist plane, for example. But it has long been clear UN doctrine that self-defense does not allow countries to themselves launch massive reprisal raids — precisely because to allow such reprisals would lead to an endless cycle of unrestrained violence.
3. War would be unlikely to eliminate those responsible for the September 11 attacks.
If bin Laden is indeed the evil genius responsible for the September 11 attacks, is it credible that he and his top aides would be so bumbling as to wait around for the U.S. military to exterminate them? We know they have already abandoned their training camps (NYT, 19 Sept. 2001). They may have relocated themselves to some unknown caves in the Afghan mountains, they may have moved into various Afghan villages, blending in with the population, or they may even have left the country entirely. Are U.S. bombers and cruise-missiles really going to find bin Laden and unknown associates? It’s doubtful that Washington has good intelligence as to their whereabouts; when the U.S. launched cruise missiles at bin Laden in 1998 — with the advantage of surprise — its information was out of date and he was already gone. It’s likely to be even harder to find him and his lieutenants now. War is hardly the most effective way to pursue the perpetrators and they are hardly likely to be its primary victims.
4. Huge numbers of innocent people will die.
It was precisely the fact that the September 11 attacks killed large numbers of civilians that made the attacks terroristic and so horrific. If it is immoral to slaughter thousands of Americans in an effort to disrupt the U.S. economy and force a change in U.S. policy, it is no less immoral to slaughter thousands of Afghans in an effort to force the Taliban to change its policy. The United States is moving large numbers of warplanes and missile-launching vessels into the region, yet there are hardly any military targets in Afghanistan for them to attack. It is inevitable that civilians will bear the brunt of any major campaign — civilians who, in their vast majority, probably are ignorant not only of the recent terrorist assault on the U.S., but probably even of bin Laden himself. Ground forces might be less indiscriminate, but it’s hard to imagine that Washington’s military plans won’t involve the massive application of force, with horrendous human consequences.
While the image of bombers flying over Afghanistan and bombing a people whose average lifespan is about 45 years of age and who are suffering terrible deprivation already — not least due to the Taliban, which the U.S. helped create and empower — is horrifying enough, it is important to realize that death and deprivation come in many forms. Even without widespread bombing, if the threat to attack the civilian population or outright coercion of other countries leads to curtailment of food aid to Afghanistan, the ensuing starvation could kill a million or more Afghans by mid-winter. Is this the appropriate response to terror?
5. War will reduce the security of U.S. citizens.
What drives people to devote — and even sacrifice — their lives to anti-American terrorism? No doubt the causes are complex, but surely deep feelings of anger and frustration at the U.S. role in the Middle East is a significant factor. If the United States goes to war some terrorists will probably be killed, but so too will many innocent people. And each of these innocent victims will have relatives and friends whose anger and frustration at the United States will rise to new heights, and the ranks of the terrorists will be refilled many times over. And the new recruits will not just come from Afghanistan. To many Muslims throughout the Middle East, war will be seen as an attack on Islam — and this is one reason that many of Washington’s Islamic allies are urging caution. Significantly, the New York Times reports that the "drumbeat for war, so loud in the rest of the country, is barely audible on the streets of New York" (NYT, 20 Sept. 2001). Their city suffered unbearable pain, but many New Yorkers know that the retaliatory killing of people in the Middle East will not make them any safer; on the contrary, it is likely to lead to more, not less terror on U.S. soil, and in any event, would inflict the same pain on still more innocent people.
The dynamic of terror and counter-terror is a familiar one: it leads not to peace but to more violence. Israel’s response to terrorism hasn’t brought Israelis more security. Nor has retaliatory terrorism made people more secure elsewhere. Indeed, it is quite likely that the perpetrators of the terror attack on the United States would like nothing more than to induce a massive U.S. military response which might destabilize the whole region, leading to the creation of millions of holy warriors and the overthrow of governments throughout the Islamic world. Whether bin Laden’s al-Qaeda or some other extremist group or groups is responsible, war might play right into their hands, reducing the security of us all.
Composite Interview 2
By Noam Chomsky
1. How do you see the media coverage of this event? Is there a parallel to the Gulf War in "manufacturing consent?"
Media coverage is not quite as uniform as Europeans seem to believe, perhaps because they are keeping to the NYT, NPR, TV, and so on. Even the NYT conceded, this morning, that attitudes in New York are quite unlike those they have been conveying. It’s a good story, also hinting at the fact that the mainstream media have not been reporting this, which is not entirely true, though it has been true, pretty much, of the NYT. But it is entirely typical for the major media, and the intellectual classes generally, to line up in support of power at a time of crisis and to try to mobilize the population for the same cause. That was true, with almost hysterical intensity, at the time of the bombing of Serbia. The Gulf war was not at all unusual. To take an example that is remote enough so that we should be able to look at it dispassionately, how did the intellectuals of Europe and North America react to World War I — across the political spectrum? Exceptions are so few that we can virtually list them, and most of the most prominent ended up in jail: Rosa Luxemburg, Bertrand Russell, Eugene Debs,…
2. Assuming that the terrorists chose the World Trade Center as a symbolic target, how does globalization and cultural hegemony help create hatred towards America.
This is an extremely convenient belief for Western intellectuals. It absolves them of responsibility for the actions that actually do lie behind the choice of the WTC. Was it bombed in 1993 because of concern over globalization and cultural hegemony? A few days ago the Wall Street Journal reported attitudes of rich and privileged Egyptians at a McDonald’s restaurant wearing stylish American clothes, etc., and bitterly critical of the US for objective reasons of policy, which are well-known to those who wish to know: they had a report a few days earlier on attitudes of bankers, professionals, businessmen in the region, all pro-American, and harshly critical of US policies. Is that concern over "globalization", McDonald’s, and jeans? Attitudes in the street are similar, but far more intense, and have nothing at all to do with these fashionable excuses.
As for the bin Laden network, they have as little concern for globalization and cultural hegemony as they do for the poor and oppressed people of the Middle East who they have been severely harming for years. They tell us what their concerns are loud and clear: they are fighting a Holy War against the corrupt, repressive, and "un-Islamist" regimes of the region, and their supporters, just as they fought a Holy War against the Russians in the 1980s (and are now doing in Chechnya, Western China, Egypt (in this case since 1981, when they assassinated Sadat), and elsewhere. Bin Laden himself probably never even heard of "globalization." Those who have interviewed him in depth, like Robert Fisk, report that he knows virtually nothing of the world, and doesn’t care to. We can choose to ignore all the facts and indulge in self-indulgent fantasies if we like, but at considerable risk to ourselves, among others. Among other things, we can also ignore, if we choose, the roots of the "Afghanis" such as bin Laden and his associates, also not a secret.
3. Are the American people educated to see this? Is there an awareness of cause and effect?
Unfortunately not, just as the European people are not. What is crucially important for privileged elements in the Middle East region (and even more so, on the streets) is scarcely understood here, particularly the most striking example: the contrasting US policies towards Iraq and Israel’s military occupation. About the latter, the most important facts are scarcely even reported, and are almost universally unknown, to elite intellectuals in particular. Very easy to give examples. Can easily refer you to material in print for many years, if you like, including right now.
4. How do you see the reaction of the American Government? Who’s will are they representing?
The US government, like others, primarily responds to centers of concentrated domestic power. That should be a truism. Of course, there are other influences, including popular currents — that is true of all societies, even brutal totalitarian systems, surely more democratic ones. Insofar as we have information, the US government is now trying to exploit the opportunity to ram through its own agenda: militarization, including "missile defense," a code word for militarization of space; undermining social democratic programs and concerns over the harsh effects of corporate "globalization," or environmental issues, or health insurance, and so on; instituting measures that will intensify the transfer of wealth to very narrow sectors (e.g., eliminating the capital gains tax); regimenting the society so as to eliminate discussion and protest. All normal, and entirely natural. As for a response, they are, I presume, listening to the foreign leaders, specialists on the Middle East, and I suppose their own intelligence agencies, who are warning them that a massive military response will answer bin Laden’s prayers. But there are hawkish elements who want to use the occasion to strike out at their enemies, with extreme violence, no matter how many innocent people suffer, including people here and in Europe who will be victims of the escalating cycle of violence. All again in a very familiar dynamic. There are plenty of bin Ladens on both sides, as usual.
5. Economic globalization has spread the western model all over, and the USA in primis have supported it, sometimes with questionable means, often humiliating local cultures. Are we facing the consequences of the last decades of american strategic policy? Is America an innocent victim?
This thesis is commonly in advanced. I don’t agree. One reason is that the western model — notably, the US model — is based on vast state intervention into the economy. The "neoliberal rules" are like those of earlier eras. They are double-edged: market discipline is good for you, but not for me, except for temporary advantage, when I am in a good position to win the competition.
Secondly, what happened on Sept. 11 has virtually nothing to do with economic globalization, in my opinion. The reasons lie elsewhere. Nothing can justify crimes such as those of Sept. 11, but we can think of the US as an "innocent victim" only if we adopt the convenient path of ignoring the actions of the US and its allies, which are, after all, hardly a secret.
6. Everybody agrees that nothing will be the same after 11th september, form daily life with a restriction of rights up to global strategy with new alliances and enemies. What is your opinion about this?
The horrendous terrorist attacks on Tuesday are something quite new in world affairs, not in their scale and character, but in the target. For the US, this is the first time since the War of 1812 that its national territory has been under attack, even threat. Its colonies have been attacked, but not the national territory itself. During these years the US virtually exterminated the indigenous population, conquered half of Mexico, intervened violently in the surrounding region, conquered Hawaii and the Philippines (killing hundreds of thousands of Filipinos), and in the past half century particularly, extended its resort to force throughout much of the world. The number of victims is colossal. For the first time, the guns have been directed the other way. The same is true, even more dramatically, of Europe. Europe has suffered murderous destruction, but from internal wars, meanwhile conquering much of the world with extreme brutality. But India did not attack England, or the Congo Belgium, or the East Indies the Netherlands. One can think of marginal exceptions, but this is truly novel in several centuries of history — not in scale, regrettably, but in the choice of target.
I do not think it will lead to a long-term restriction of rights internally in any serious sense. The cultural and institutional barriers to that are too firmly rooted, I believe. If the US chooses to respond by escalating the cycle of violence, answering the prayers of bin Laden and his associates, then the consequences could be awesome. There are, of course, other ways, lawful and constructive ones. And there are ample precedents for them. An aroused public within the more free and democratic societies can direct policies towards a much more humane and honorable course.
7. World-wide intelligence services and the international systems of control (Echelon, for example) could not forsee what was going to happen, even if the international islamic terrorism network was not unknown. How is it possible that the Big Brother s eyes were shut? Do we have to fear, now a Bigger Big Brother?
I frankly have never been overly impressed with concerns widely voiced in Europe over Echelon as a system of control. As for world-wide intelligence systems, their failures over the years have been colossal, a matter I and others have written about, and that I cannot pursue here. That is true even when the targets of concern are far easier to deal with than the bin Laden network, presumed to be responsible for the Sept. 11 crimes. Surely one would expect the network to be reasonably well understood by the CIA, French intelligence, and others who participated in establishing it and nurtured it as long as it was useful to them for a Holy War against the Russian enemy, but even then they did not understand it well enough to prevent such events as the assassination of President Sadat in 1981, the suicide bombing that effectively drove the US military out of Lebanon in 1983, and many other examples of what is called "blowback" in the literature on these topics.
By now the network is no doubt so decentralized, so lacking in hierarchical structure, and so dispersed throughout much of the world as to have become largely impenetrable. The intelligence services will no doubt be given resources to try harder. But a serious effort to reduce the threat of this kind of terrorism, as in innumerable other cases, requires an effort to understand and to address the causes.
When a Federal Building was blown up in Oklahoma City, there were immediate cries to bomb the Middle East. These terminated when it was discovered that the perpetrator was from the US ultra-right militia movement. The reaction was not to destroy Montana and Idaho, where the movements are based, but to seek and capture the perpetrator, bring him to trial, and — crucially — explore the grievances that lie behind such crimes and to address the problems. Just about every crime — whether a robbery in the streets or colossal atrocities — has reasons, and commonly we find that some of them are serious and should be addressed. Matters are no different in this case — at least, for those who are concerned to reduce the threat of terrorist violence rather than to escalate it.
8. Bin Laden, the devil: is this an enemy or rather a brand, a sort of logo which identifies and personalizes the evil?
Bin Laden may or may not be directly implicated in these acts, but it is likely that the network in which he was a prime figure is — that is, the network established by the US and its allies for their own purposes and supported as long as it served those purposes. It is much easier to personalize the enemy, identified as the symbol of ultimate evil, than to seek to understand what lies behind major atrocities. And there are, naturally, very strong temptations to ignore one’s own role — which in this case, is not difficult to unearth, and indeed is familiar to everyone who has any familiarity with the region and its recent history.
9. Doesn’t this war risk to become a new Vietnam? That trauma is still alive.
That is an analogy that is often raised. It reveals, in my opinion, the profound impact of several hundred years of imperial violence on the intellectual and moral culture of the West. The war in Vietnam began as a US attack against South Vietnam, which was always the main target of the US wars, which ended by devastating much of Indochina. Unless we are willing to face that elementary fact, we cannot talk seriously about the Vietnam wars. It is true that the war proved costly to the US, though the impact on Indochina was incomparably more awful. The invasion of Afghanistan also proved costly to the USSR, but that is not the problem that comes to the fore when we consider that crime.
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Group receives US-German grant to study the nanostructure of ferroelectric domains
Researchers are examining orientation of dipoles and their effect on nonlinear, acoustic, electric and other material properties
Five universities in the U.S. and Germany have received a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF) and the German Research Foundation (DFG) to study ferroelectric materials at a scale of length at which they have not previously been investigated.
The three-year, $1.2-million Materials World Network grant will support research and student exchanges involving Lehigh, Florida and Penn State and the Universities of Bonn and Paderborn in Germany. It is led by Volkmar Dierolf, associate professor of physics at Lehigh.
Ferroelectric materials are used in many electronic and optical applications, ranging from barcode readers in supermarkets to high-speed electro-optic modulators to devices that power the information superhighway.
In the new project, "Nanoscale Structure and Shaping of Ferroelectric Domains," researchers will conduct lab experiments and computer simulations to study the properties of ferroelectric domain walls in ferroelectric materials.
Ferroelectric materials have intrinsic microscopic electric dipoles, or molecular units with a positive charge on one end and a negative charge on the other. The materials have a built-in asymmetry, says Dierolf, which causes all dipoles to point in one direction, either up or down. Ferroelectric domains are regions of a ferroelectric material with the same dipole orientation. Ferroelectric domain walls separate domains with opposite dipole orientations.
"A material's nonlinear, acoustic, electric and other properties depend on the direction of this dipole," says Dierolf, "and the dipole can be manipulated and controlled in order to engineer devices."
Dierolf develops ion probes that can be monitored by their emission spectrum to examine how defects – both intentional and unintentional – affect the properties of materials at the sub-micron scale. Dierolf and his students are seeking to learn how small the ferroelectric domain can be.
"As with soup bubbles," says Dierolf, "the bigger domains tend to grow at the expense of the smaller ones. Many exciting devices could be realized if we learned to reduce the domain size."
Dierolf uses a technique called near-field optical spectroscopy to study the ferroelectric domains and ferroelectric domain walls.
"Ordinary optical microscopy resolves to the width of a wavelength," says Dierolf. "When we use near-field optical microscopy, we insert a tip with an opening measuring one-tenth of a micron into the focused light to increase the microscope's resolution. One of our specialties is to observe domain inversion in the microscope in real time. For that, we apply an electric field through the tip to make the domains switch while we monitor the emission of our probes."
The goal of the researchers, says Dierolf, is not only to image the ferroelectric materials but also to learn to control their domains at the nanoscale. Using near-field optical spectroscopy, Dierolf has imaged the domain wall regions with a resolution of 70 nanometers, and has made local electric field measurements along that length, obtaining instant feedback about domain growth and the shape of domains and domain walls.
Dierolf's group is the first to use near-field optical spectroscopy to image domain-wall structures.
The other university researchers in the international collaboration are engaged in a variety of tasks related to ferroelectric materials. Some are attempting to simulate the behaviors of the domain walls, while others are seeking to fabricate new integrated optical devices.
"This is an integrated approach that bridges the gulf between fundamental scientific research and the pursuit of actual applications," says Dierolf, whose previous research has been reported in the journals Applied Physics Letters, Photonics Spectra and Laser Focus World.
"We are attempting to span the gamut from theory to control of materials to fabrication of devices."
Until now, says Dierolf, much of the research into ferroelectric materials has been conducted at either the bulk or atomic scale.
The U.S.-German collaborators are charting new territory.
"The range at which we are studying these materials falls between the bulk and atomic scales," Dierolf says. "The collective phenomenon that occurs when a group of atoms switches their dipoles involves a few hundred atoms. This lies between what the atomic physicists have learned by studying actual individual atoms and what materials scientists have learned by studying much larger assemblies of thousands or tens of thousands of atoms.
"This is the nature of research into ferroelectric materials at the nanoscale: We look at things that are neither individual atoms or defects nor bulk materials, but rather are in between those two."
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
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Xenology: An Introduction to the Scientific Study of Extraterrestrial Life, Intelligence, and Civilization
© 1975-1979, 2008 Robert A. Freitas Jr. All Rights Reserved.
Robert A. Freitas Jr., Xenology: An Introduction to the Scientific Study of Extraterrestrial Life, Intelligence, and Civilization, First Edition, Xenology Research Institute, Sacramento, CA, 1979; http://www.xenology.info/Xeno.htm
19.2.4 Large Scale Biospheric Engineering
Assuming a Type II civilization can find all the materials and energy it may require, normal expansive development and material growth may proceed. As it matures, the stellar culture may place more and more artifacts in solar orbit in an attempt to soak up every last joule of the sun's output. They may not want to go to the trouble of turning their star off, or they may lack the technological acumen to do it, or they may find the idea unethical, unnatural, and morally repugnant.
So while it is not inevitable, the chances are good that at least some extraterrestrial Type II cultures wish to preserve their sun in its natural state. On the basis of this assumption, Freeman Dyson predicted more than twenty years ago that the end result of interplanetary industrialization may be a shell of artifacts completely encasing the star. Seen from a great distance this "Dyson Sphere" would radiate only waste heat at a wavelength of about 10 jim in the deep infrared.1022
Theoretically, a normal solar system should have plenty of mass with which to construct a solid Dyson Sphere around a star. (At least one writer has likened this to "a ping pong ball with a star in the middle."673) If the entire planetary mass of Sol's system was spread into a solid shell at the radius of Earth's orbit, the resulting artifact would run a bit less than 10 meters thick. The interior surface area would be the equivalent of a billion Earths, about three hundred million billion square kilometers of habitable land.
There are a number of mechanical difficulties associated with the solid Dyson Sphere. If rotating, the equatorial section would bow outward due to centrifugal force. Similarly, the "poles" would lack support and flatten, causing dynamic instability and collapse of the structure. If stationary, solar tidal forces would give rise to large compressive stresses.* The shell seems too thin to maintain proper rigidity. Furthermore, the gravity on the outer surface would be only 0.6 milligees so no reasonable atmosphere could be held. Objects or gases or people living on the inside would fall gently into the sun. There have been many attempts to save the Sphere by positing antigravity devices at critical points along the surface, but these heroic efforts remain unconvincing. For a Type II society, at least, a solid Dyson sphere is out of the question.
Anyway, the Square-Cube Law predicts that we'll get more square meters of living area out of each kilogram of building materials used if we construct the smallest habitable structures possible. For this reason, Dyson himself proposed that the Sphere should be comprised of swarms of relatively small space habitats. If we use Cole Planetoids equipped with large, very thin solar collector mirrors, we could build about 1014 of them interior to Earth's orbit. Each would weigh about 1013 kg, and could be pressurized with a breathable oxygen atmosphere. If they were constructed with a doubling time of 25 years, only 1200 years would be required to complete the transition to a mature Type II stellar industrial civilization.
Larry Niven has come up with a fascinating alternative to the Dyson Sphere. His proposal: A giant Ringworld (Figure 19.3), a great ribbon of matter shaped like a hoop with the same diameter as Earth's orbit.753 The great structure whirls around the sun at 1240 km/sec to provide a constant 1-gee gravity across the Ring. If the entire planetary mass of our solar system was used, the Ringworld would measure about 1000 meters thick. At last -- a project truly worthy of a stellar culture.
Figure 19.3 The Niven Ringworld753
Ring mass = 2.5 x 1027 kg
Radius = 1.5 x 1011 meters (1 AU)
Wall height = 2 x 106 meters
Floor thickness = 1000 meters
Walls 2000 kilometers high at either edge of the Ringworld ribbon, aiming toward the central star, would be enough to hold in most of the atmosphere. An inner ring of shadow squares -- orbiting panels to block out parts of the sunlight -- provide a day/night cycle for Ringworld inhabitants. By bobbing the structure up and down, the apparent angle of the sun changes and we get seasons. You could even see the stars, as well as a beautiful checkered arc, traversing the nighttime sky.
The interior surface area would be equivalent to three million Earths, and the artifact would require on the order of 1036 joules to assemble -- a project well within reach of a Type II civilization. The engineering effort would necessarily be a massive one. Looking at the outer surface of the Ringworld, Niven says:
Seas would show as bulges, mountains as dents. Riverbeds and river deltas would be sculptured in; there would be no room for erosion on something as thin as a Ringworld. Seas would be flat-bottomed -- as we use only the top of a sea anyway -- and small, with convoluted shore lines. Lots of beachfront. Mountains would exist only for scenery and recreation. A large meteor would be a disaster on such a structure. A hole in the floor of the Ringworld, if not plugged, would eventually let all the air out, and the pressure differential would cause storms the size of a world, making repairs difficult.673
More than one Ringworld could circle a sun, although this would require additional mass borrowed either from the local star or from a neighboring system. Many different intelligent races could wrap noncoplanar Ringworlds around the same star, with differing radii to avoid collision and provide a variety of temperature regimes.
There is also the possibility of harnessing the basic Ringworld structure for interstellar travel on a massive scale. Niven elaborates:
The Ringworld rotates at 1240 km/sec. Given appropriate conducting surfaces, this rotation could set up enormous magnetic effects. These could be used to control the burning of the sun, to cause it to fire off a jet of gas along the Ringworld axis of rotation. The sun be-comes its own rocket. The Ringworld follows, tethered by gravity. By the time we run out of sun, the Ring is moving through space at Bussard ramjet velocities. We continue to use the magnetic effect to pinch the interstellar gas into a fusion flame, which now becomes our sun and our motive power.673
Pat Gunkel has designed a structure analogous to the Ring but of considerably lower mass. Imagine a strand of hollow metal macaroni, about a trillion meters long but only a kilometer or two in cross-sectional diameter and a few hundred meters thick. Gunkel joins the two ends together in a great hoop around the sun, sets it rotating in smoke ring fashion to get artificial gravity on the inner surface, and calls it Topopolis.673 With a complete artificial biosphere set up inside, and solar collectors set up outside for energy, this huge tunnel world would have a habitable surface area of only about 20 Earths. But each one we make costs us only about 3 x 1027 joules and weighs only about one-thousandth as much as the Earth.
So far we've discussed projects for Type II civilizations. Let's have a look at a few designs that will require the muscle of a galactic Type III civilization.
Dr. Daniel Alderson proposes a massive structure shaped like a giant phonograph record with the star in the center hole (Figure 19.4). Gravity will be uniform and perpendicular to the Disk everywhere except at the edges. A slow spin should partially counteract the sideways inward pull of the central star and provide a stable celestial pole. A 1000-km-high retaining wall should be constructed on the lip of the inner hole, to prevent the leakage of atmosphere into the sun.673
Figure 19.4 The Alderson Disk673
Disk Mass = 6 x 1033 kg
Inside radius = 5 x 1010 meters
Outside raduis = 6 x 1011 meters
Floor thickness = 5 x 106 meters
Uniform g field over Disk; g = 0.16 gees
The Alderson Disk (see illustration previous page) weighs in at about 6 x 1033 kg, or about 3000 solar masses. The innermost radius is about 50 million kilometers, just inside the orbit of Mercury; the outermost radius is set at 600 million kilometers from the sun, about midway between the asteroid belt and Jupiter. The Disk is 5000 km thick, so the surface gravity is 0.14 gees (about like Luna). If the air is pressurized to 1 atm at the surface, then the total weight of the atmosphere is only 2 x 1029 kg, less than one-tenth of a solar mass extra. Since gravity is so low, the air thins out very slowly with altitude: 40 kilometers up, the pressure is only down to 0.5 atm which is still breathable. Also, note that both sides of the artifact can be inhabited.
Since the Disk is far more massive than the central star, the sun should be bobbled up and down to create seasons. Computer-controlled Shklovskii Grasers mounted on the inside edge could induce vertical motion, and would also serve to nudge the star back to center if it begins to stray towards the inside annular edge of the Disk. The energy required to assemble the Alderson Disk should be about 5 x 1044 joules, which should be fairly trivial for a galactic culture.
One science fiction writer waxes enthusiastic about the idea:
The Disc would be a wonderful place to stage a Gothic or a sword-and-sorcery novel. The atmosphere is right, and there are real monsters. Consider: We can occupy only a part of the Disc the right distance from the sun. We might as well share the Disc and the cost of its construction with aliens from hotter or colder climes. Mercurians and Venusians nearer the sun, Martians out toward the rim, aliens from other stars living wherever it suits them best. Over the tens of thousands of years, mutations and adaptations would migrate across the sparsely settled borders. If civilization should fall, things could get eerie and interesting.673
Due to its size, the Alderson Disk would probably have to be a cooperative venture of a group of Type II cultures (perhaps 10-100 of them) or of a single emergent Type III galactic civilization. The additional land area made avail-able is enormous. The useful living surface would be the equivalent of more than 4 billion Earths.
The value of large-scale economic cooperation is fairly obvious. Perhaps, in view of this, we should take a second look at the solid Dyson Sphere concept. Is it possible for a galactic community to build one?
Probably. It will be recalled that the main problem, other than simple lack of mass, was the matter of dynamical instability. Even if the hollow sphere was rotated fast enough to support the equatorial zone of the structure against collapse, the polar regions would fall in and destroy the Sphere. Veteran science fictioneers Jack Williamson and Frederick Pohl pondered the problem and came up with a most ingenious, workable solution. Here, in their own words, is how it's done:
Surround the star with several layers of ring-shaped tubes. The tubes themselves are stationary, but they contain a heavy, low-viscosity fluid flowing fast enough to create the centrifugal force required to support the tubes and loads above them. One set of parallel tubes holds up the “equator“ -- which isn‘t really moving -- and other sets, tilted at suitable angles, support the regions near the “poles.“ The tubes are also heat engines, with the fluid driven by energy absorbed from the sun and flowing through generator stations which supply power to all the inhabited levels. Master computers adjust the velocity of flow to fit the loads.2834
The Sphere is massive -- about 15 solar masses. The shell is equivalent to a wall of solid steel more than 3 km thick, but since much of the room is taken up by living quarters, passageways and so forth, the hull is actually more than 60 km deep. The total energy needed to assemble the Sphere would probably run on the order of 1043 joules, but to propel it through space at 17%c (the stated velocity) will require an additional 4 x 1046 joules of energy.
Though the surface gravity is only 1% that of Earth, this is still enough to hold a tenuous atmosphere just above the external armor plating. Part of this is interstellar gas, but most of it is a helium-oxygen mixture left over from nuclear power plants which use water for fuel. The oxy-helium air is just barely breathable at the lower altitudes, with predictable consequences:
The outer surface was at first an endless plain of bare metal, but much of it is now covered with soil from accumulated cosmic dust and the industrial wastes dumped from the occupied levels. Plant life has evolved there, supported by the energy-flow from below through a process of thermosynthesis. These plants are often luminescent, so that vast landscapes glow with varied color. There's animal life, adapted to the low gravity and to varied local conditions of light or darkness, heat or cold, wild storms or unending calm -- with no rotation and no external sun. Most of these beings evolved on the surface, but some are migrants from below. A few are human.2834
* This may not be fatal to the project. According to equations for gravitational tidal stress on large structures provided by Dyson,1450 the minimum materials strength needed to hold a solid Dyson Sphere together should be no more than 1012 N/m2. Flawless diamond has a theoretical maximum compression strength of ~1012 N/m2 and shearing strength ~1011 N/m2 so it may be possible to work something out.2838 At compressions above 1011 N/m2, the normally colorless diamond takes on a delicate light brown color.2939
Last updated on 6 December 2008
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Dill dared Jem to go further than the Radley gate. This shows the fear and hostility people have against Boo Radley. Fear is the only thing that could make this kind of thing become a dare. This fear is aroused by the urban legend about Boo Radley, where he is portrayed as a crazy man that stabs some scissors into his father's leg. It is said that if you touch anything near his house (such as a tree in his yard) you will die. So far, this story's focus is on Boo Radley's legends, so that is why this dare has a significance in this story.
Dill dares Jem to go and touch the Radley house. Both the boys thought that by doing this Boo would automatically come out and do something bad to them. Jem does it because his sister is there and because he doesn't want Dill and her to think he's scared of anything since thy are both smaller than him. In this book I see jem like the kind of leader character but i think that will change as we advance in the book. This is something good though because as he grows up he tries to always teach his little sisiter a new lesson and this time that lesson is about how to be brave no matter how scared you are.
Dill dares Jem to touch the Radley's house door, which so far, "nobody" has done it before. Dill dares Jem to touch the house because he himself is interested on how Boo Radley looks, and thinks that by doing this, Boo would come out of the house. Jem doesn't want to look like a coward on front of Dill and Scout, forcing himself to do it. There has been lots of rumors and stories about Boo Radley, making him look as a bad, wild person, when nobody knows how he looks and how he acts. I would be curious, but that doesn't mean that I have the right to be saying lies.
Jem was dared to go and touch the door of the Radley Place. As Uin sad before, this really shows how much fear the rest of Maycomb feels about Boo Radley. But infact, Boo might not be the evil man who stabbed his father with scissors. He may, infact be scared of the rest of the people in Maycomb. That is probably why Boo never comes out of his house. But if people knew, and at least gave Boo a chance, he may not be that man that likes to harm people after all.
Dill dared Jem to touch the Radley house. Scout explains us that Jem had never rejected a bet in his life before so he did it. This tells us quite a bit. For one thing, I agree with what Uin said about that it represented the fears that people had of Boo. It also means that apparently it seems to be very hard to touch the gate or very "risky" for some people. If not, it would have never become a dare. These fears then arouse suspicion and a Urban Legend is created.
Dill dares Jem to go further into the Radley Place. I agree with Uin that this shows the fear and hostility that people have to Boo Radley. Fear is aroused because of the Urban Legend of Boo. It also shows that how risky it might be to approach something that you do not have a clue about.
What Dill did is that he dared Jem to got further past the gates of the Radley place. What Jem hears this, he went pale white. What happens is that it demonstrates that Stereotypes and rumors are powerful enough to cause great fear. They have never seen Boo Radley before and they no nothing about him except for the rumors and the fact that he has never come out of the house in quite a while. So, the point is that people are fearful even for things that they barely know about (in this case boo Radley.)
Dill dares Jem to touch the Radley's home. Jem was afraid, but since he had never said no to a dare, he accepted. This showed that people do fear Boo. If people did not fear him, but feared another thing, Dill would have dared Jem to do the other thing instead of touch the Radley home.
A man who dares to waste one hour of time has not discovered the value of life. See the link below for more info. #dares www.ufgop.org
Thank you for sharing your thoughts and for inspiring us. Keep it up and continue on what your doing. Visit my site too.triciajoy.comwww.triciajoy.com
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| 0.984453 | 952 | 2.671875 | 3 |
- Sacred Music
- Secular Music
The Renaissance was an exciting time in the world history. World exploration
by Columbus and Sir Francis Drake, and scientific advancement by Galileo
and Copernicus led the world in new directions. Artists such as Leonardo
da Vinci and Michelangelo flourished while playwrights like Shakespeare
wrote plays and poetry.
The Renaissance saw the rise of the middle class. No longer did all of the wealth belong to the
nobility. People moved to cities, and spent more time seeing plays
and concerts. Music was now part of any good education. With
the invention of the printing press around 1450, sheet music was printed
and made available to everyone. By 1600, popular music of the day
was available across Europe, and the middle class learned to play instruments
using method books for recorder, lute, and guitar.
Composers like Josquin des
Prez and Giovanni Palestrina led the way into
a new way of composing. Man, rather then God, became the new focus in a
great deal of music. Composers now turned to another dimension of
music that had been neglected up to then. The use of harmony changed
music for ever.
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| 0.929637 | 250 | 3.828125 | 4 |
The following is the text of an IBM Data Processing Division press release distributed on July 1, 1968.
Formal acceptance of two, new super-speed computers -- IBM System/360 Model 95s - - by NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center was announced here (Washington, D.C.) today by International Business Machines Corporation.
The two computers are the first and only ones in IBM's Model 90 series equipped with ultra-high-speed thin-film memories. Over a million characters (bytes) of information are stored in each on magnetic "spots" four millionths of an inch thick.
With an access time of 67 nanoseconds (billionths of a second), these are the fastest, large-scale memories in user operation.
Both of NASA's Model 95s are handling space exploration problems which require unusually high computation speeds.
The Model 95s are capable of computing 14-digit multiplications at a rate of over 330-million in a minute.
One Model 95 is the primary data processing facility for the Center's Tracking and Data Systems Directorate. It provides additional computing support to the Project, Technology and Systems Reliability Directorates.
The second Model 95 is being used by astrophysicists at NASA to create massive mathematical models of the universe. The boost in computing capability is enabling them to simulate the evolution of galaxies, stars and planets to a degree never before possible.
The speed of the thin-film memories gives the Model 95s a performance edge -- up to twice as fast on certain problems - - over the Model 91, which was the first super-speed computer in the Model 90 series. IBM's initial Model 91 was placed in operation earlier this year by NASA-Goddard.
These memory units, developed and manufactured at IBM's Components Division facility at Burlington, Vermont, utilize advanced array and circuit technology to achieve high speed. The magnetic storage element consists of a very thin nickel-iron-cobalt film which is vacuum-deposited on a copper plate. The storage elements are driven and sensed by means of thin copper strip lines. New circuit and packaging techniques are used with the unique memory array to achieve the fast - - 120 nanoseconds - - cycle time.
Each Model 95 is equipped with 16 thin-film memory units. The data width, at which information is transferred to the processor, is eight bytes.
In addition to the thin-film memory, the Model 95 has a 4-million character core memory. The core memory has a cycle time of 750 nanoseconds. The memory combination gives the Model 95 five-million-plus character main storage system -- more than twice the storage capacity of the Model 91.
The Model 95 has auxiliary storage of about one billion alphanumeric characters. It consists of disk, drum and data cell devices. With five high speed printers, it can generate up to 5,500 lines of information a minute.
The Model 90 series was initiated by IBM as a program to advance the state of computer art and to serve a limited number of sophisticated data processing users. With its program objectives met and all deliveries now scheduled over the next 12 months, IBM has stopped accepting orders for these computers.
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Cracking your knuckles causes arthritis - you probably know that's an old wives' tale. Though it could injure ligaments around the joints and lead to weaker grips, there's no proof every pop puts you one step closer to arthritis - specifically osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis (OA) develops when the cartilage that cushions the ends of the bones in your joints breaks down. The bones then begin to rub against one another, causing pain. OA is the most common form of arthritis, but there's no cure, so the more you know, the better.
Here are three more misconceptions about OA:
Myth: Arthritis is a natural part of aging
Yes, it usually appears after age 45. And yes, the older you are, the more wear and tear you have. But not every older adult develops osteoarthritis. Obesity is also a major risk factor - more weight means more stress on lower body joints.
Myth: Meds should be your first line of treatment
Reduce pain and improve joint function - that's the goal of osteoarthritis treatment, and medications (from over-the-counter acetaminophen to prescription pain pills) certainly help. But according to the Arthritis Foundation, simply moving your body is the best medicine for OA, and it's an effective first step. Gentle exercises, such as walking or swimming, help strengthen muscles and bones, increase flexibility and make joints more stable. That'll also help you lose weight, which will further reduce joint strain.
Myth: Supplements cure joint pain
Glucosamine and chondroitin are two that are reputed to battle osteoarthritis, but an analysis of 10 studies showed these supplements don't do much to relieve pain associated with knee and hip OA. Another supplement that probably doesn't work: vitamin D. It has been suggested it can help treat knee OA, but it does not appear to lessen the symptoms or slow its progression.
• The Doctors is an Emmy-winning daytime TV show with pediatrician Jim Sears, OB-GYN Lisa Masterson, ER physician Travis Stork, plastic surgeon Andrew Ordon, health and wellness expert Jillian Michaels and psychologist Wendy Walsh. Check www.thedoctorstv.com for local listings.
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The Bank was established as a corporate body by Royal Charter under the Bank of England Act 1694. Since then there have been a number of enactments directly affecting the Bank and its organisation. Various statutory provisions remain in force which are concerned with the Bank’s organisation, governance, powers and functions.
The constitution of the Bank of England is largely contained in the following documents. The copies, or relevant parts, have been amended as appropriate to show what remains in force. Other statutes regulate the operations of the Bank in certain respects.
The Memorandum of Understanding on financial crisis management between HM Treasury on the one hand and the Bank and the Prudential Regulation Authority on the other, entered into pursuant to the 2012 Act, is also relevant.
The 1694 Charter incorporates the Bank, constitutes its capital stock and authorises it to have a common seal, to hold land and other property, and to sue and be sued. As a chartered corporation, incorporated pursuant to statute, the powers of the Bank have to be determined by reference to the 1694 Charter and statute and subsequent Charter and legislative amendments.
The 1844 Act obliges the Bank to separate its issue and banking functions and to keep them in distinct departments. Under the 1946 Act the Bank was nationalised and its capital stock transferred to HM Treasury. At that time a revised Charter was granted and the 1946 Act and the Charter contained various provisions relating to the management of the Bank. Importantly, section 4(l) of the 1946 Act enabled HM Treasury from time to time to give directions to the Bank as, after consultation with the Governor, they thought to be necessary in the public interest.
The 1998 Act introduced several important changes:
- Part I and Schedule 1 replaced the provisions relating to the constitution and operation of Court in the 1946 Act and the 1946 Charter. As a result much of the 1946 Charter became redundant and has been replaced by the 1998 Charter.
- Part I and Schedule 2 imposed formal reporting requirements on the Bank and placed the funding on a statutory basis.
- Part II and Schedule 3 conferred operational responsibility for monetary policy on the Bank and established the Monetary Policy Committee (the ‘MPC’) as a Committee of the Bank with responsibility for the exercise of its powers in relation to the formulation of monetary policy. Section 4(l) of the 1946 Act has been amended to exclude monetary policy from the matters in relation to which the Treasury can give directions.
- Part III deals with the transfer of the Bank’s supervisory functions to the Financial Services Authority and Part IV with miscellaneous matters.
The 1998 Charter, apart from continuing the 1694 Charter, contains provisions relating to the transfer of capital stock and the declaration required of Governors and Directors.
The 2009 Act introduced further important changes regarding the responsibilities, powers and role of the Bank. These included provisions regarding the governance of the Bank and a new statutory financial stability objective. It created a new Special Resolution Regime (SRR) for dealing with distressed banks and building societies. It conferred a statutory oversight role on the Bank in relation to inter-bank payment systems recognised by HM Treasury and created a new framework for the issuance of banknotes in Scotland and Northern Ireland to be overseen by the Bank. The Act also granted the Bank immunity in its capacity as a monetary authority (including its central bank and financial stability-related functions) and authorised the Bank to disclose financial stability-related information to certain bodies.
The 2012 Act introduces significant changes to the regulatory framework for financial services and abolishes the Financial Services Authority. The Act creates a new regulatory structure consisting of the Bank’s Financial Policy Committee (‘FPC’), the Prudential Regulation Authority (a subsidiary of the Bank) and the Financial Conduct Authority (‘FCA’). It also makes other important changes to the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000 and to the 1998 and 2009 Acts. In particular, as regards the Bank, under changes introduced by the 2012 Act the Bank assumes responsibility for the supervision of central counterparties and securities settlement systems in the United Kingdom to sit alongside its existing responsibilities for overseeing recognised payment systems. It also introduces revised governance arrangements regarding the roles of Court and the newly created Oversight Committee in the 1998 Act and provides for revised appointment arrangements of the Governor of the Bank, with the effect that the Governor is to be appointed for a single term of eight years rather than a maximum of two five-year terms.
The 1998 Act was brought into force on 1 June 1998. A list of the Orders made under the 1998 Act, together with the dates on which they came into force, is set out in the document headed ‘Orders’. Various changes to the 1998 Act and related Orders have been made since 1998, in particular with the introduction of the Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, the 2009 Act and more recently the 2012 Act. These too are shown in the relevant documents, as are the Bank immunity and information disclosure provisions introduced by the 2009 Act (as amended by the 2012 Act) and the provisions in the 2012 Act concerning collaboration between HM Treasury and the Bank, FCA or PRA.
The 2012 Act is being introduced on a phased basis during 2013. The first Commencement Order was made on 23 January 2013 at which point certain provisions relating to the FCA’s and the PRA’s power to make orders or regulations came into force. Other provisions relating to appointments came into force on 19 February 2013. The 2012 Act came into force more fully on 1 April 2013. The full text of the 2009 Act and the 2012 Act can be accessed on: www.legislation.gov.uk
Crown Copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen’s Printer for Scotland.
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Online Staff Report
Burpee Explorers will present “Explore Invertebrates Annelida” from 1 to 2:30 p.m., Saturday, May 4, at Burpee Museum of Natural History, 737 N. Main St., Rockford.
The event is for ages 6 and older with an adult. Pre-registration and payment are required. Cost is $18 per child members, $20 per child non-members (adult is free). Call (815) 965-3433, ext. 1020, to register.
Annelids are segmented worms. Work with Lumbricus terrestris (a pretty fancy name for the common worm) to learn why these simple creatures are important in their habitats. In addition, get a close-up look at their predator, the frog, and learn of its importance.
We all see these little creatures wiggling on the sidewalk after a rain. Many a child has come to their rescue. In this class, the Explorers will work with several different species of segmented worms. They will learn that segmented worms, Annelida, do not include the flat worms or roundworms. The day’s discoveries will include the importance of earthworms. Actually, the glaciers of the Ice Age eliminated earthworms from extensive sections of North America. Their return is a result of the expansion by pioneers in the settlement of North America. Earthworms greatly benefit agriculture.
The Explorers will work with both preserved specimens as well as live specimens. The students will conduct simple, non-invasive tests to observe the responses of worms to light, temperature and moisture. Each Explorer will receive a preserved earthworm for study. They will examine the external features that allow it to burrow. Their study will also include examining internal features.
Earthworms are amazing creatures in that they actually have five aortic arches that function as a heart. Furthermore, they have a closed circulatory system, like more advanced creatures.
Participants will be using microscopes and performing specific tests to learn the attributes of this phylum. They get to participate in real science.
Burpee Explorers is a once-a-month science class that began six years ago. For 2012-13, these classes have focused on invertebrates. Previously this year, the Explorers have examined preserved and live crayfish, preserved jelly fish, preserved starfish, preserved squid, fresh mussels and fresh pig hearts. The class meets the National Science Education Standards for Life Science.
Posted May 1, 2013
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“Grow Your Own For Kids” by Chris Collins and Lia Leendertz
Mitchell Beazley, $14.99
Gardeners don’t just happen; they’re grown.
Chris Collins and Lia Leendertz are helping create the next generation of gardeners with their new book “Grow Your Own for Kids.”
Over 112 pages, the authors take young people through the entire gardening process, from choosing gear to planting seeds to nurturing their crop to making a scarecrow.
Many of the book’s 30 projects require some help from adults — boiling freshly picked corn, for example — but children can do most of them with just a little guidance and minimal assistance.
Here are several of Collins and Leendertz’s fun ideas:
- Smiley sunflowers: Kids love sunflowers. The large seeds sprout easily and grow quickly into enormous plants. The book demonstrates how to make them even showier by plucking florets from the seed head as the flower grows. Create a face, a design or even a name. They’ll remain there as the plant shoots skyward.
- Pizza herb garden: It’s “pizza” for two reasons. The garden is round and it’s divided into slices, with each slice holding a different herb that can be used in a pizza. Collins and Leendertz show how to lay out the circle and how to separate the slices with rocks or gravel. There’s also a lesson on how to make a pizza sauce.
- Taters in a sack: Potatoes grown in a sack grow quicker and are protected from critters such as slugs. Start with seed potatoes from your garden center, and a large container, such as a sack. The book shows how to plant the seed potatoes then tells how to care for them and harvest them.
- Make a bird feeder: A block of suet is melted — with adult assistance — and combined with wild bird seed. The mixture is then packed into a coconut that has been cut in half - with adult assistance. After it sets, it gets hung in a shady tree.
- Water, water everywhere: Even experienced gardeners can misjudge when and when not to water. The authors cover the when, but also the where (from beneath), as well as conservation and how to know if your plant is thirsty.
- New plants for nothing: One project shows how to grow new plants from old ones in the fall or spring by collecting seeds, rooting cuttings, dividing large plants and turning runners into plants.
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I admit that I don't think this is one my better designs but I though I should publish it anyway.
On Saturday in my home town was the annual commemorations of the Shutting of the Gates of Londonderry in 1688 which led directly to the Siege of Derry. At the beginning of the celebrations the 'siege flags' are placed on the city walls. These are replicas of the flags that were used during the conflict.
Notice the green ensign on the left this was supposedly the ensign used by one of the relief ships that saved the city.The Green Ensign is an historical flag flown by some Irish merchant vessels from the 17th century to the early 20th century. The flag consists of a green field with a golden harp and a canton containing either the English Flag (St George's Cross) or a version of the Union Flag, depending on which flag was used at the relevant point in history. There remains a lively debate concerning whether the flag had any form of local official status within the British Isles or was simply an unofficial, informal flag used by some merchant ships. It was definitely used as it appears in several historical flag charts and books.
Left: Irish Ensign on 1783 flag chart. Right: More clear Picture of what it might have looked like
Now you might be wondering what this historic flag which probably wasn't official got to do with modern day Northern Ireland. Well it gave me an idea for the biases of a new flag:
For obvious reason I replaced the Cross of St George with that of St Patrick, and put the NI Assembly flax plant logo on top of the harp, I also used a brighter more emerald green. The problem is today green is considered a nationalist colour. If you have read any of my other posts you would find that I have used the more traditional colour of blue and green together loosely representing unionism and nationalism. But that wouldn't work in this case and I don't think a blue field works as well as green:
The best compromise I see is to put the harp in the traditional blue shield set on a green field:
Now with the flag goes a coat of arms so I designed a new coat of arms. It fallows the standard design basics of previous designs. The Shield is naturally a the one on the flag but to distinguish it from that of the Irish Republic, I placed a red hand on it:
It has shamrocks and Giant's Causeway stones at the base. Flax plant crest, and a Union Flag representing N.Is place in the United Kingdom and Unionism, and a green harp flag representing Irish Nationalism.
I do relies that to attempt to represent both traditions equally and use a Union Flag and not an Irish Tricolour is somewhat controversial However I think it would be too ironic to place a Republic of Ireland flag on a NI coat of arms as this would suggest shared sovereignty which, while North and South and UK and Eire often work together, is not the case.
So I decided to replace the UK flag with St Andrew's Saltire as most unionists are of Scottish descent and would identify with that flag symbolising their Ulster-Scots heritage:
While this represents unionism and nationalism more equally, I feel that it is to political, which should have no place on a coat of arms that represents everyone, so I decided to use St Patrick's Saltire:
However I don't like this so I replaced one with the cross of De Burke the Norman Earl of Ulster. This is appropriate as most of NI would be on the ancient De Burk lands:
I also made a version where the red hand of Ulster is on the De Burk cross turning into the province of Ulster Flag, this is sometimes associated with nationalism, but it has also been used by Ulster Unionists in the past and I think it is becoming more accepted in the unionist community:
Of the Latter two I like both and would use either one of them. Now just to adjust the flag, so that the shield on it matches the coat of arms:
I have removed the flax plant logo from the flag as this is the crest of the coat of arms and unless the full coat of arms is being used on the flag shouldn't be included.
Of course another alternative is to just use a banner of the coat of arms:
But this laves out the green and I feel the green field and St Patrick's Saltire really gives the flag some character.
All Comments are Welcome.
Siege flags picture from the Associated Clubs of the Apprentice Boys of Derry. Green Ensign Picture and flag chart from Wikipedia all new flag designs and coats of arms are by Samuel McKittrick
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CAMBRIDGE, Mass. — One night late in 1979, an itinerant young physicist named Alan Guth, with a new son and a year’s appointment at Stanford, stayed up late with his notebook and equations, venturing far beyond the world of known physics.
He was trying to understand why there was no trace of some exotic particles that should have been created in the Big Bang. Instead he discovered what might have made the universe bang to begin with. A potential hitch in the presumed course of cosmic evolution could have infused space itself with a special energy that exerted a repulsive force, causing the universe to swell faster than the speed of light for a prodigiously violent instant.
If true, the rapid engorgement would solve paradoxes like why the heavens look uniform from pole to pole and not like a jagged, warped mess. The enormous ballooning would iron out all the wrinkles and irregularities. Those particles were not missing, but would be diluted beyond detection, like spit in the ocean.
“SPECTACULAR REALIZATION,” Guth wrote across the top of the page and drew a double box around it.
On Monday, Guth’s starship came in. Radio astronomers reported that they had seen the beginning of the Big Bang, and that his hypothesis, known undramatically as inflation, looked right.
Reaching back across 13.8 billion years to the first sliver of cosmic time with telescopes at the South Pole, a team of astronomers led by John M. Kovac of the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics detected ripples in the fabric of space-time — so-called gravitational waves — the signature of a universe being wrenched violently apart when it was roughly a trillionth of a trillionth of a trillionth of a second old. They are the long-sought smoking-gun evidence of inflation, proof, Kovac and his colleagues say, that Guth was correct.
Inflation has been the workhorse of cosmology for 35 years, though many, including Guth, wondered whether it could ever be proved.
If corroborated, Kovac’s work will stand as a landmark in science comparable to the recent discovery of dark energy pushing the universe apart, or of the Big Bang itself. It would open vast realms of time and space and energy to science and speculation.
Confirming inflation would mean that the universe we see, extending 14 billion light-years in space with its hundreds of billions of galaxies, is only an infinitesimal patch in a larger cosmos whose extent, architecture and fate are unknowable. Moreover, beyond our own universe there might be an endless number of other universes bubbling into frothy eternity, like a pot of pasta water boiling over.
In our own universe, it would serve as a window into the forces operating at energies forever beyond the reach of particle accelerators on Earth and yield new insights into gravity itself. Kovac’s ripples would be the first direct observation of gravitational waves, which, according to Albert Einstein’s theory of general relativity, should ruffle space-time.
According to inflation theory, the waves are the hypothetical quantum particles, known as gravitons, that carry gravity, magnified by the expansion of the universe to extragalactic size.
“You can see how the sky is being distorted by gravitational waves,” said Andrei Linde, a prominent inflation theorist at Stanford. “We are using our universe as a big microscope. The sky is a photographic plate.”
Marc Kamionkowski of Johns Hopkins University, an early-universe expert who was not part of the team, said, “This is huge, as big as it gets.”
“Although I might not fully understand it,” Kamionkowski said, “this is a signal from the very earliest universe, sending a telegram encoded in gravitational waves.”
The ripples manifested themselves as faint spiral patterns in a bath of microwave radiation that permeates space and preserves a picture of the universe when it was 380,000 years old and as hot as the surface of the Sun.
Kovac and his collaborators, working in an experiment known as BICEP, for Background Imaging of Cosmic Extragalactic Polarization, reported their results in a scientific briefing at the Center for Astrophysics here on Monday and in a set of papers submitted to The Astrophysical Journal.
Kovac said the chance that the results were a fluke was only one in 3.5 million — a gold standard of discovery called five-sigma.
Guth pronounced himself “bowled over,” saying he had not expected such a definite confirmation in his lifetime.
“With nature, you have to be lucky,” he said. “Apparently we have been lucky.”
The results are the closely guarded distillation of three years’ worth of observations and analysis. Eschewing email for fear of a leak, Kovac personally delivered drafts of his work to a select few, meeting with Guth, who is now a professor at MIT (as is his son, Larry, who was sleeping that night in 1979), in his office last week.
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"The Fountain of Regeneration"
In this engraving of the Festival of Reunion or Unity of 10 August 1793, a female statue of Nature in the form of the Egyptian goddess Isis represents the regeneration of the French people. It sits on the site of the Bastille prison, whose fall signaled the beginning of the Revolution. The engraving depicts the statue as made of stone, but in fact it was hastily constructed of papier mache. This engraving was printed in 1797 as part of a series of commemorative prints of events of the revolution.
Source: mfr 84.65.1
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| 0.946202 | 127 | 3.125 | 3 |
What is the vision for children's health and how can health IT help?
The HRSA Maternal and Child Health Bureau states their vision as:
A future America in which the right to grow to one's full potential is universally assured through attention to the comprehensive physical, psychological and social needs of the maternal and child health population. We strive for a society where children are wanted and born with optimal health, receive quality care and are nurtured lovingly and sensitively as they mature into healthy, productive adults. MCHB seeks a nation where there is equal access for all to quality health care in a supportive, culturally competent, family and community setting.
The 2004 Institute of Medicine report, Children's Health, the Nation's Wealth, defined children's health as follows:
Children's health should be defined as the extent to which individual children or groups of children are able or enabled to (a) develop and realize their potential, (b) satisfy their needs, and (c) develop the capacities to allow them to interact successfully with their biological, physical and social environment.
This definition was based on the characterization of health as the result of lifelong processes and interactions that influence long-term health trajectories. Children have been shown to be highly susceptible to negative and positive factors during critical developmental periods. Thus, in order to encourage a child's development into his/her healthy adult counterpart, health promoting and protecting factors during these periods should be maximized. It is in these processes that Health IT will be useful. For example, health IT can improve physicians' access to children's health care, dental, school and other relevant records. This will permit physicians to address the child's entire history, rather than a single clinical event; encouraging recommendations and prescriptions targeted to the individual child.
Health IT will also empower families by providing them access to their children's care plans and other information needed to maximize the health of their children. Health IT can provide system integration on several levels, including private practice, public health agencies, schools, communities, and families. This type of information flow can be utilized in several ways. For example, it may be used to coordinate with schools in managing children with asthma; to track and assist children in foster care, or to coordinate care for children with special health care needs.
Health IT targeted towards children will improve the efficacy of care for children, which may be particularly helpful in treating the growing of number of children with chronic health problems. Health IT may help providers and families address these conditions at earlier stages or help prevent conditions and promote positive child health. These improvements will provide a foundation for the development of a healthy adult, resulting in a long term reduction of health care costs as well.
Vision for Children's Health Resources:
How Health IT Can Facilitate the Improvement of Children's Health:
E-mail the HealthIT e-mail box: firstname.lastname@example.org
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<urn:uuid:e69dc126-1123-44f3-a756-93e4cd0316b8>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.hrsa.gov/healthit/toolbox/Childrenstoolbox/Introduction/childrenhealth.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00160-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.958337 | 588 | 3.265625 | 3 |
4. Solve for x and check.
This is a rational equation so we run through the steps for solving rational equations. First, clear denominators. Multiply both sides by a common denominator. In this case the smallest common denominator is x(x - 2).
Since the left side has two terms, we need to multiply them both.
Assemble the surviving factors
3x +3x2 - 6x = 2x - 4
3x2 - 3x = 2x - 4
When we combine like terms we see that we have a quadratic. Transpose all the terms to the left leaving a 0 on the right.
3x2 - 3x - 2x + 4 = 0
3x2 - 5x + 4 = 0
Now that we have a zero on one side we see if the left side factors. It doesn't, so let's use the quadratic formula.
and we find a negative number under the rtadical. This gives us an imaginary answer. A negative inside the radical is the same as an i outside the radical, where i2 = -1.
Check: Even though we have a complex solution, we can still check it. Indeed, these checks provide us with a great deal of fun.
One can prove that if the soution wth the positive radical will check, then so will the solution with the negative radical, so we need only check the solution with the positive radical.
Copy down the original equation
except where we see an x, copy down the solution in parentheses.
Notice that this is just copying, and copying is easy. It gives us a very interesting simiplification problem. The first term on the left is a compound fraction, so we follow the procedures for compound fractions. Find common denminators for the fractions on the botom, and reduce the fraction in the bottom on the right.
We are now ready to invert and multiply.
It is now time to rationalize the deniminator. To clear radicals, mult iply the binomial in the bottom by its conjugate, which is what we call itwhen we change the sign in the middle of the binomial.
(a +ib)(a - ib) = a2 - i2b2 = a2 + b2
since i2 = -1. So our check becomes
Now we need to find common denominators on the left.
and, amazingly, since -7 + 12 = 5, it checks. The check for the solution which has the negative sign on the radical, is exactly the same except that at each step, the signs on the radicals will be different.
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<urn:uuid:efda001f-41c4-422f-a774-c036c631c940>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.sonoma.edu/users/w/wilsonst/Courses/Math_40/Q40/Solns40QF97/SolnQ6F97/SQ6p4.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00066-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.906354 | 556 | 3.296875 | 3 |
What are the impacts of climate change — now and in the future — on wildlife?
A good place to start is NOAA's climate page, which is sponsoring a webinar Thursday from 9 a.m. to 10 a.m.
It's easy to register online and then sit in on the presentation by two scientists. The one-hour session will look at the effects of climate change on migratory birds, and specifically on broad-tailed hummingbirds.
The webinar will also address the effects of drought and floods on other wildlife.
The session is sponsored by climate.gov and Ohio State University. Registration is free.
-- Speaking of climate, suppose you wanted to plot rainfall in Oregon from 1895 through 2000.
You could gather reams of data from the National Weather Service and create a spread sheet -- after spending hours poring over and crunching the numbers.
Or, you could go to the National Climatic Data Center's "Climate at a Glance" page, add in the time parameters and then stand back as a supercomputer creates an easy-to-read graphic.
The interactive website tool also ranks the data in different ways that you get to choose.
You can also go deeper, running the same or different request say for just one of Oregon's nine climate zones, from temperature and precipitation, to drought severity.
This tool is simply fantastic.
-- The weather tools at climate.gov don't stop there.
You can also create your own custom weather records data, be it daily, monthly or yearly, digging down through layers of records that were broken or tied for the entire U.S. by region, state or county.
Warning: This site is highly addictive if you can't get enough weather.
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<urn:uuid:07deb0cf-5b4a-4ed9-b01b-70783ed142c9>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.oregonlive.com/weather/index.ssf/2014/05/oregon_weather_watch_plot_your.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00182-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.929203 | 356 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is an El Niño-like pattern of Pacific climate variability, oscillating between its warm and cool phase about every 20–30 years as defined by ocean temperature anomalies in the northeast and tropical Pacific Ocean. When sea surface temperatures are cooler than average in the interior North Pacific and warm along the Pacific Coast, and when sea level pressures are below average over the North Pacific, the PDO has a positive value and is classified as a “warm phase.” The opposite also holds true (Figure 1).
The oscillating pattern correlates with relatively wetter or drier periods in the western portion of North America. Shifts in the PDO regime occurred in 1925, 1947, and 1977 (Figure 2). Some climatologists believe that another shift began around 1995, although more observations are needed to discern the phase change.
Analysis of the instrumental record suggests the decadal-scale pattern of the PDO is equally influenced by three climatic factors:
- fluctuations in El Niño and La Niña events that have a four to seven year cycle
- changes in the atmospheric low-pressure pattern known as the Aleutian Low
- changes in the Kuroshio-Oyashio current that swirls through the northern Pacific Ocean
|PDO Phase||North Pacific Sea Surface Pressure||North Pacific Sea Surface Temperatu||Influence on El Niño Conditions||Influence on La Niña Conditions|
Researchers from the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington suggest that the PDO phases can combine with El Niño and La Niña conditions in certain ways to affect precipitation in the West, particularly in winter. The positive phase of the PDO, with warm sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, can enhance an El Niño episode, amplifying the effects this warm pool of water has on the western United States. This tends to lead to wetter-than-average winters during El Niño events and relatively average winters during La Niña events. This same phase of the PDO would weaken any La Niña episodes that would occur during this time period. Similarly, during a negative phase of the PDO, La Niña events would be enhanced, and El Niño events would be weakened.
Decreases in winter precipitation associated with negative PDO conditions and intensified La Niña conditions could, for example, put stress on the urban water systems of the Southwest. Even moderately drier-than-normal conditions could have serious effects in some sectors. For example, CLIMAS researchers have documented that ranching operations in the Southwest are highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Forest fire management is another area crucially influenced by climatic conditions and trends.
Figure 1. Sea surface temperature patterns during positive and negative PDO phases. Image courtesy of University of Washington.
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<urn:uuid:3b290c9e-5b47-4121-9bc3-29569002efce>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.climas.arizona.edu/node/47
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395546.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.918851 | 575 | 3.828125 | 4 |
Friday, March 12, 2010
ESSAY #2: ARCHETYPES AND ANALYSIS OF THE SHORT STORY
ESSAY #2: ARCHETYPES AND
ANALYSIS OF THE SHORT STORY
DUE TUESDAY, MARCH 23, 2010,
AT 12:00 MIDNIGHT EDT
ESSAY TOPIC: Archetypes and Analysis of the Short Story
ESSAY TITLE: ESSAY #2: ARCHETYPES AND ANALYSIS OF THE SHORT STORY
ESSAY STRUCTURE: Analyze and Discuss
ESSAY COMPONENTS: “A Good Man is Hard to Find” and “A Worn Path” (choose one) and “Archetypes” handout (http://www.flagler.k12.fl.us/media/documents/02053085-6ca6-495a-aa6a-ecb27a004a9b.pdf)
ESSAY QUESTION: “An archetype is an original pattern, model or symbol, a persistent representation of an idea of concept across cultures which seems to represent common patterns of human life . . . making it (the archetype) the basis for universal themes.” (Nix)
Choose from “A Good Man is Hard to Find” and “A Worn Path.” Use the “Archetypes” handout to uncover and discuss the archetypes (universal themes) of the story and how they add to a deeper understanding of the character(s) and the text.
ESSAY VALUE: Be sure to include all components of the essay question in your essay. This essay has a value of 100 points.
ESSAY GUIDELINES: Be sure to follow the guidelines for preparing and submitting your essay. Essay guidelines are available here:
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<urn:uuid:edbafb7c-5bae-412c-abb0-b33414cf51b2>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://english101wcc02.blogspot.com/2010/03/essay-2-archetypes-and-analysis-of.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397428.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.828644 | 395 | 2.625 | 3 |
The fabled first 100 days of FDR's administration in 1933 set the tone for how people would come to think of the New Deal: an aggressive attack on depression and poverty by an activist federal government willing to throw enormous sums of money at economic problems. Brinkley (History/Columbia; Voices of Protest, 1982) offers a history of New Deal liberalism that charts how the notion, and the reality, of the New Deal changed from Roosevelt's second term through the end of WW II. One of the major transformations wrought by the New Deal, argues Brinkley, is that, because of its successes, much of the American left came to an accommodation with capitalism that was unthinkable in the beginning of the 20th century. Subsequently, liberal activity in America would focus more on social issues than on economic issues. While acknowledging the justness of many social causes, particularly civil rights, Brinkley views this shift with more than a bit of sadness, writing: ``It does not seem too much to imagine the New Deal's retreat from reform as one major source of American liberalism's more recent travails.''
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<urn:uuid:24b7f922-a056-476a-9730-67b649247891>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/alan-brinkley/the-end-of-reform/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.960516 | 224 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Japan is still recovering from the meltdown, earthquake, and tsunami in Fukushima, so it makes sense that public fears over radiation are at an all time high. Whereas a more conventional Geiger counter could easily run you hundreds of dollars, the Pocket Geiger from Radiation Watch starts at just $46.
The Pocket Geiger is an accessory for the iPhone and it works in tandem with the accompanying app. You connect it to your iDevice, load the app, and let it use its eight photodiode sensors to detect nearby radiation. This way, you can know whether or not you’re in the safe zone.
As an added public precaution, the app is designed to upload your readings to a central database. The readings are then aggregated by Radiation Watch and collectively displayed on a map. Again, this makes it easier for you to know where it’s safe and where it’s not. Sadly, the map is only visible to the over 10,000 members. This really should be public knowledge.
The entry-level Pocket Geiger costs $46. The Pokega Type2–which runs off the iPhone’s power rather than relying on its own dedicated battery–sells for $65.
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<urn:uuid:e9d76973-49f4-4974-9cfe-4374a6aad398>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.mobilemag.com/2012/03/01/radiation-watch-46-pocket-geiger-counter-for-iphone/
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403502.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00026-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.919833 | 249 | 2.515625 | 3 |
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