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Unit 14: Chemical Equilibrium
• To understand the nature of equilibrium and the difference between chemical and physical equilibrium.
• To define the equilibrium comstant in terms of the law of mass action.
• To write equilibrium constant expressions for both homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria (different phases) and how to express equilibrium constants for multiple equilibria.
• To explain the relationships between the rate constant and the equilibrium constant for a reaction. Why is the equilibrium constant a constant, and why does it vary with temperature?
• To explain how knowing the equilibrium constant enables us to predict the direction of a net reaction towards equilibrium and to calculate equilibrium concentrations.
• To explain the 4 factors that may affect the position of equilibrium: concentration, volume/pressure, temperature, catalyst.
• To use LeChatelier's principle to predict the changes.
Course Goals and Essential Questions
• How can we learn about things that are to small to see?
• What relationships can I construct among basic concepts, skills, and understandings?
• How can I best assess my own learning and progress?
• How can I better use technology in my learning?
• How can I become a better digital citizen?
• How can I think more divergently, create, innovate?
• How can I use my experience in chemistry to learn to think and communicate clearly, logically, and critically in preparation for college and a career?
Prior Knowledge and skills
• Writing and balancing equations
• Using reaction stoichiometry
• Using molarity in calculations
• Calculation of reaction rates and rate constants
Learning Targets Ch. 14.1 The Concept of Equilibrium; the Equilibrium Constant Q&P 14.1-14.1
Students will know and be able to.....
1. Describe chemical equilibrium using the terms forward and reverse reactions and dynamic process.
2. Write the equilibrium constant in terms of the equilibrium concentration of products and reactants and their respective stoichiometric coefficients for both homogenous and heterogeneous equilibria.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.2 Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions Q&P 14.5-14.32
Students will know and be able to.....
1. Express the relationship between Kp and Kc.
2. Determine equilibrium constant given equilibrium concentration data.
3. Demonstrate that if a reaction can be expressed as the sum of two or more reactions, the equilibrium constant for the overall reaction is given by the product of the equilibrium constants of the individual reactions.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.3 The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium Q&P 14.33-14.36
Students will know and be able to...
1. Relate equilibrium constants to rate constants from chemical kinetics.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.4 What does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? Q&P 14.37-14.48
Students will know and be able to....
1. Describe the relationship between reaction quotient and equilibrium constant and predict the direction a reaction will proceed to reach equilibrium.
2. Use the concepts of equilibrium to determine concentration of all species in a solution.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.5 Factors that Affect Chemical Equilibrium Q&P 14.49-14.62
Students will know and be able to....
1. Use Le Chátelier’s principle to describe how changing concentration, volume, pressure, or temperature will shift the reaction so that equilibrium will be maintained.
2. Describe the effect of a catalyst has on equilibrium concentrations.
Links and Resources
Creative Commons License
This work by Luann Christensen Lee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright 1989-2016 L.C.Lee, www.chemistar.com.
Back to AP Chemistry page
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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 25/July 1884/Adaptation to Climate
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ANIMALS and plants are fitted by their organization to adapt themselves to many changes of place and vicissitudes of climate. Most of the domestic plants that are cultivated in the north originated in southern regions. The trees of the orange family were not cultivated in Italy in Pliny's time. The citron was not raised there with success till the third century; and lemons and oranges, which now grow in Southern Tyrol, not till later. The mulberry, which has now made its way to Norway, likewise did not flourish in Italy when Pliny wrote. Juicy peaches were not grown in Greece in the time of Aristotle, and even in Rhodes the blossoms only developed into a thin, woody fruit; but the peach-tree, bearing choice fruit, is now common through all France, and in the gardens of Central Germany. Chestnuts, originally at home only in warmer Asia, are now equally so in Italy and Western Germany. Some plants, notably the cereals, have enjoyed a very extensive diffusion in the course of centuries, and are now cultivated in nearly every part of the habitable earth. Our domestic animals, which mostly came from Asia, have gone with man to all the quarters of the world; and it is worthy of note that it is just those cereals and domestic animals that have proved themselves most useful to man, and are essential to civilized life, that preeminently possess the faculty of adapting themselves to all climates, and of producing the most diversified varieties.
The power of adaptation to climates appears to be most highly developed in man. He is less than any other being bound to any particular zone, and is further suited to the widest diffusion, because, confined to no especial food, he is, in the fullest sense of the word, omnivorous. He is, not only by the organization of his body, but especially by his mental power and his energetic will, fitted above all other creatures to accommodate himself to the most various influences that can affect him from without, and by continuous habitude to endure or make bearable the strangest conditions. He can live at the extreme limits at which organic life can exist, and can sustain a degree of cold at which quicksilver freezes. Thus, three Russians lived for seven years in Spitzbergen without suffering in health. Admiral Wrangell, while in the Chuckchee country in 1820, experienced a cold of nearly 50° below zero, while his men were as lively and happy as if it had been summer; and Parry and Franklin withstood a still greater cold. Man can also sustain an almost incredible degree of heat. The celebrated physician, Boerhaave, believed that no being breathing with lungs could live in an atmosphere having as high a temperature as that of the blood. According to this dictum, one ought to die at a temperature of 100°, but Banks enjoyed good health on the Senegal when the thermometer rose in his cabin to above 120° and 130°. Men live on the southwest coasts of Africa, and in other hot regions, where the heat of the sand under their feet reaches 140° or 150°. Men in deep mining-shafts and under diving-bells are able to support an atmospheric pressure of 30,000 kilogrammes as well as a pressure of only 8,000 kilogrammes on the highest mountains. Cassini thought that no animal could live at a greater height than 4,700 metres, or 15,000 feet; but there are several inhabited places situated at a still greater height, as, for instance, Gartok, in the Himalayas. Alexander von Humboldt ascended Chimborazo to a height of nearly 6,000 metres, or 19,286 feet, without suffering any harm. The pressure of the atmosphere is so light at such elevations that, as Humboldt was assured, wild animals when driven up to them bleed at the mouth and nose. Only the dog is able to follow man as far and as high as he can go; but this animal, too, loses his acute smell in Congo and Syria, and the power of barking in Surinam and at great heights; and the finer breeds of dogs can not long endure the conditions of a height of more than 3,760 metres, or 12,500 feet, while there are towns in the Andes at as great a height as 13,500 or 14,000 feet.
But there are regions in which even man perishes, to whatever race he may belong, and however well prepared he may be to resist their deadly influence. Among such regions is the Gaboon valley, in which even the negro is disabled. The inhabitants of that district are decidedly weaker in constitution, and have greatly diminished reproductive powers, and the women are considerably in excess. There are similar regions nearer the centers of civilization. The Tuscan Maremma is famous for its deadly air, and the swamps of Corsica are of like character. In France the ponds of the Dombes and the mouth-country of the Charente were, till recently, no less dangerous. Life in great cities also seems to exercise a special influence on reproduction. Boudin could not find any pure Parisians who could trace the residence of their ancestors in the city back for more than three generations. In Besançon the "old families" generally die out in not quite a hundred years, and are replaced by families from the country; and the same is, to a greater or less extent, the case in London, Berlin, and other large cities.
Has it been proved that on ships, where men are crowded together for months under conditions incompatible with health, particular disorders are developed, to which sailors may, indeed, gradually accustom themselves, but which are apt to mature into fatal maladies among people hitherto in perfect health? Can we, as Darwin suggests, ascribe to such circumstances the fearful mortality and the diminishing fruitfulness of the Polynesian races? Does the consumption which has become epidemic and hereditary in those islands belong to the diseases that have insinuated themselves there by the aid of European sailors? Neither the land nor the sky has changed since the Polynesian archipelagoes were discovered; yet the aboriginal population is diminishing at a really frightful rate, while its bastard offspring and the pure Europeans are increasing rapidly.
To what extent the more or less pronounced dangerousness of a locality is affected by normal conditions or by casual injurious influences is not always easy to estimate. The character of the soil, a higher or lower temperature, dryness, and moisture, are not all that determine the character of a country. We have evidence of this in the fact that the process of acclimatization is not equally easy in both hemispheres. The white races fare much better in the hot countries of the southern hemisphere than in the corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Between the thirtieth and thirty-fifth parallels of latitude lie Algiers and a part of the United States—regions in which the acclimatizing of Europeans is attended with great difficulties. In the southern hemisphere, the southern part of the Cape Colony and New South Wales lie between the same parallels, and in those countries white men thrive. French and English troops exhibit a rate of mortality eleven times as great in the northern as in the southern hemisphere—a striking difference, which appears to depend upon the greater frequency and intensity of miasmatic fevers. North of the equator these fevers reach in Europe to the fifty-ninth degree of latitude, while south of the equator they seldom extend beyond the tropic and usually do not reach it. Tahiti lies under the eighteenth degree of south latitude, and is free from fevers. French and English troops stationed in the southern hemisphere afford a mean of 1·6 per thousand sick with fever annually, while among those stationed in the northern hemisphere the proportion of fever-sick is 224 per thousand. Thus miasmatic fevers are two hundred times more frequent north of the equator than south of it, notwithstanding that there are extensive regions in South America and Australia covered with standing water and exposed to a burning sun. To this may be added that attacks of fever are much less severe in the southern hemisphere. Only light fevers prevail in the great lagoons of Corrientes; how much more dangerous are the fevers of the Pontine marshes, which are, nevertheless, very far from the equator! A European can live with much greater security against the contingency of fevers on the banks of the Parana, in South America, than on the banks of the Garigliano, in Italy.
There has been no lack of attempts and theories to explain these differences in localities that seem otherwise generally to stand under the same physical relations, but none of them have been successful. Yet it appears to be established that the greatest difficulties in the way of Europeans becoming acclimated in places where their business leads them to settle are due to the presence of swamp miasms. We know that a variety of conditions must combine to produce such miasms, and we know also that man is able to contend against them. It is possible for man to open a campaign against Nature wherever he goes, and to introduce conditions more favorable to his becoming acclimated. But he has so far not been able to bring a whole country immediately into a healthy condition; only time seems to be competent to bring such a work to completion, and, waiting its course, numerous victims have to be offered up.
The cultivation of the eucalyptus, a tree of remarkably quick growth, appears to be one of the most effective means now available for improving the condition of unhealthy localities. There are frequently tracts of limited extent in the most sickly regions where the process of acclimatization is relatively easy and secure. Such points should always be chosen by new settlers. The contrary has generally been the case. The beauty and fertility of the alluviums at the mouths of rivers, with the conveniences they offer to trade, have generally been tempting enough to determine the location of the settlement, regardless of its qualities with reference to health; and towns have been planted in such places in consideration of the apparent value of the money-investment, but in complete forgetfulness of the immense capital in human lives they are destined to swallow.—Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from Das Ausland.
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Hives Q & A
What is urticaria?
Urticaria is another word for hives, raised patches of skin that develop as a result of an allergic reaction in the skin. Hives develop when the immune system overreacts or reacts abnormally to a trigger, resulting in an allergic reaction that causes hives to form. Hives can occur singly, but most often they occur in groups called plaques. Often, hives are accompanied by itching or sometimes stinging sensations.
What is angioedema?
Angioedema is a term used to describe hives that form under the skin, causing swelling which can often be significant. Angioedema can occur in many areas, including the eyes, mouth, throat and groin. When angioedema occurs in the eyes, the lids may become swollen shut, interfering with the ability to see. When it occurs in the throat and mouth, angioedema can interfere with swallowing and even breathing. People with angioedema often carry autoinjector pens so they can self-administer epinephrine to reduce swelling and prevent potentially life-threatening reactions.
How are hives and angioedema treated?
Both urticaria and angioedema can be treated with oral antihistamines to help reduce inflammation, swelling and itching. Topical medications may also be used, especially with hives, to help reduce swelling and itching. When hives are mild, applying cool compresses to the affected area can also help reduce itching. In most cases, hives will disappear within several hours as long as the allergen that caused the reaction is avoided. Sometimes, though, hives or angioedema can last much longer.
How can I tell if my hives need medical attention?
Although mild hives often can be managed at home, any type of hives – even mild cases – should be evaluated by a doctor to help identify the cause. Some hives can be caused by serious underlying diseases, and in some cases, mild cases of hives can quickly become much more serious, even causing swelling to occur in the throat and mouth.
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Southern Asia 1920: Treaty of Sèvres
The seizure of Arab Syria cemented France’s claim to the region just in time for the Treaty of Sèvres the following month. Here much of the Ottoman Empire was partitioned among the British, French, Greeks, and Armenians. However in reality the Treaty was essentially worthless as it was the Turkish Nationalists, not the Ottomans, who now ruled Turkey.
Changes to the map 25 July 1920–10 August 1920
Treaty of Sevres: The Treaty sees the Greek border shifted east to include the region around Smyrna and eastern Thrace. The British claims to Palestine and Mesopotamia, including Mosul, have been confirmed. The French have their position in Syria and Cilicia recognized. The Armenians have been granted large tracts in eastern Anatolia, including Erzurum and Trabzon. Furthermore the remaining Ottoman rump state is subjected to the demilitarization of the Straits, an Italian zone of influence in the southwest, and British and French zones of influence in the southeast. However, due to the Turkish Nationalist rejection of the Treaty, these claims and zones are only effective where the Allies have military forces.
Syria and the Levant: The French have consolidated their hold over the Syrian interior. However in the south - which was agreed to be British according to the Sykes-Picot Agreement - Jordanian sheikdoms maintain their independence.
Arabia: The Kingdom of Hejaz has been recognized by the Treaty of Sevres. The Ikhwan of Mutayr have turned to raiding Kuwait after ibn Saud bypassed their lucrative overland routes by building ports to the south. Upper Asir has been annexed by Nejd (although some sources say it has become a protectorate of Hejaz).
British Protectorates in the Persian Gulf
Indian Empire
Main Events
10 Aug 1920 Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan, and a number of minor Allied Powers including Greece and Armenia in Sèvres, France. The Treaty ceded large parts of the Ottoman Empire to Britain, France, Greece, and Armenia, and established European spheres of influence in the remaining wikipedia
10 Aug 1920 Wilsonian Armenia
The Treaty of Sèvres extends the western boundary of the Republic of Armenia to include the Ottoman vilayets of Erzurum, Bitlis, and Van - regions which had significant Armenian populations before 1914 - as well as the Black Sea port of Trabzon. However despite US President Woodrow Wilson’s backing of the proposal, the United States Senate rejects both the Treaty of the Sèvres and the mandate for wikipedia
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Industrial production of biodiesel feasible within 15 years
Within 10 to 15 years, it will be technically possible to produce sustainable and economically viable biodiesel from micro-algae on a large scale. Technological innovations during this period should extend the scale of production by a factor of three, while at the same time reducing production costs by 90%. Two researchers from Wageningen UR (University & Research Centre) believe this to be possible. In their article in Science (published 13 August), they provide a detailed explanation of the route that needs to be taken.
By producing microscopically small algae in bulk in large-scale installations, Europe should be able to become independent of fossil fuels in a sustainable way. Algae could even contribute to the sustainable production of food. To cultivate algae on a large scale, fertilisers (nitrogen and phosphates) could be extracted from manure surpluses and wastewater, with CO2 coming from industrial residues. The energy source for algae is sunlight. Biodiesel and an almost unlimited quantity of protein and oxygen are the sustainable products of this process. The amount of fresh water consumed in algal cultivation is minimal because seawater can be used.
In a nutshell, that is the idea put forward by Professor René Wijffels and Dr Maria Barbosa of Wageningen UR in their perspective article An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels in Science.
Sunlight and wastewater
Both authors demonstrate in their article that, according to calculations on energy consumption in transport in Europe, almost 0.4 billion m3 biodiesel would be needed to replace all transport fuels. The cultivation of micro-algae requires 9.25 million hectares of land - equal to the surface area of Portugal - assuming a yield of 40,000 litres of per hectare, to supply the European market.
Algae produce the maximum quantity of oily substances when growing under stress. Such conditions can for instance be induced by a shortage of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate.
Algae are much more efficient at converting sunlight and fertilisers into usable oily substances than agricultural crops such as oilseed rape. It is not even necessary to have full sunshine for algal cultivation, which is why it is possible to design reactors that look like vertical plates, on to which the light shines from one side. In this way, it is possible to produce 20-80,000 litres of oil per hectare. In comparison, one hectare of oilseed rape or oil palm yields only 1500 or 6000 litres, respectively.
Financial aspects
The 5000 tonnes of algae (dry matter) now produced annually in the whole world has a value of €250/kg. The price is so high because algae can make rare (and therefore expensive) substances like carotenoids and omega 3 fatty acids that are converted into high-quality products such as food supplements. That is extremely expensive when compared with the palm oil (cost price €0.50 /kg) used as a fuel. However, palm oil and other fuel crops are controversial. To investigate whether the use of algae as biofuels is feasible, a feasibility study was carried out on scale enhancement in algal cultivation. This showed that presently the cost price could be reduced to €4/kg. By making use of residues such as wastewater and CO2 from exhaust gases, by improving the technology and by shifting production to sunnier countries, it would even be possible to reduce the price to one-tenth of that level, namely, €0.40 /kg.
Even then, however, the production of bioenergy from algae would not be financially viable. To achieve that goal, the whole algal biomass would have to be utilised. This consists of roughly 50% oil (40 cents/kg, thus), 40% proteins (yielding 120 cents/kg) and 10% sugars (100 cents/kg). This causes the value to rise to €1.65/kg which is enough to run production on a large scale.
Algal proteins offer interesting possibilities. If all transport fuels were to be replaced by algal oil on a European scale, 0.3 billion tonnes of protein would become available as well. That is 40 times more than the amount of protein in the soya that Europe imports each year. Thus, algae would allow us to produce food and feed proteins as well as sufficient quantities of biofuel.
In order to manufacture biofuels from agricultural crops such as oilseed rape, 10,000 litres of fresh water are required to produce each litre of fuel. This is an incredibly large volume. By cultivating algae in seawater, it is possible to achieve the same result with just 1.5 litres of fresh water/kg of product.
With the aid of sunlight, algal growth requires 1.3 billion tonnes of CO2 (Europe produces 4 billion tonnes/year, mainly from fossil fuels) and 25 million tonnes of nitrogen (wastewater and fertilisers contain 8 million). In other words, algal cultivation would not normally compete with food production.
A sustainable pilot-study facility AlgaePARC (Algae Production and Research Centre) will soon be starting up in Wageningen. Here it will be possible to study the scaling up of algal production and to compare various technologies, taking into account energy costs for building, production and logistics during the production of biofuels from algae.
Algae need to be interesting as a food source for fish and shellfish farming within five years. Five years after that, it should be possible to achieve applications such as providing protein sources in foods as well as basic chemicals for the manufacturing industries. Then, in 10-15 years’ time, biofuels should be available.
Explore further
US military to make jet fuel from algae
Provided by Wageningen UR
Citation: Industrial production of biodiesel feasible within 15 years (2010, August 13) retrieved 21 April 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2010-08-industrial-production-biodiesel-feasible-years.html
Feedback to editors
User comments
Aug 13, 2010
This will never happen. Scaling these 'in principle' ideas to such massive scales required to replace existing and rising energy requirements is fraught with enormous practical problems and will never happen, especially in a marine environment.
Aug 13, 2010
?????? is this process more efficient than current solar cells. What is the energy conversion efficiency of algae? This all seems quite polly-annish.
Aug 14, 2010
This a typical example, where people claim to save then world (or in this case Europe) with one (simple) idea. You find the same estimations for biogas from grass or for biofuels from wood material.... Only to name two example from many. It will never work in the claimed way.
Aug 14, 2010
DamienS and michaeltb: Why will it never happen ?
Do you have any knowledge of micro algae since you are so certain ?
Aug 14, 2010
I alluded to the reason - it's just too massive a scale to be managed effectively and the marine environment is particularly unforgiving. Many similar schemes have been touted before, but when it comes to upscaling small pilot plants, all sorts of problems crop up which makes it either physically infeasible and/or uneconomic.
Aug 14, 2010
This is an exciting area of research, and it will become even more attractive as costs decline and fossil fuels become more expensive. Diesel-from-algae production is probably more practical in the southern U.S. than in Europe, where sunshine and cheap land are more plentiful. Production from marine bases hold vast potential in the equatorial zones, but there are so many scientific and commercial problems that need to be resolved first by land-based diesel-from-algae.
Aug 14, 2010
There was an article on here not long ago about using genetically modified algae that exude the oil on their own, and thus do not need all of the processing proposed here. I think we should be looking further into that, since processing costs can be significant.
I agree that the southern US is an ideal place for algae farming, and American industrial-style farming is some of the best in the world, so large scale production seems more likely here.
As for conventional solar, I doubt very much that in the next 10-20 years, we will have solved solar's crippling problems: the need to use very expensive and relatively inefficient panels made of rare materials, the lack of suitable energy storage technologies, and highly weather-dependent energy production.
Aug 17, 2010
I see one reason why this idea will not progress very far.
Aug 18, 2010
Too massive a scale to be managed effectively? So I guess that would apply to existing oil companies production as well? Or is that easier to manage?
And who said it had to be in a marine environment? All they said was sea water could be used. Ever hear of something called a pump?
Why do people insist that any solution MUST be a 100% replacement for the status quo? Couldn't this be a good, solid solution for replacing 10% of transportation fuel needs? Combine that with greater engine efficiency, some electrification, more mass transit, and you've cut your CO2 output by 75%. No that's no good it can't replace EVERY DROP OF OIL.
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Niacin Deficiency
Niacin deficiency is a condition that occurs when a person doesn't get enough or can't absorb niacin or its amino acid precursor, tryptophan. In the United States, niacin deficiency is exceedingly rare. However, there have been outbreaks of niacin deficiency in areas of the world where food is scarce.
Also known as vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid, niacin is one of eight B vitamins. Like all B vitamins, niacin plays a role in converting carbohydrates into glucose, metabolizing fats and proteins, and keeping the nervous system working properly. Niacin also helps the body make sex- and stress-related hormones and improves circulation and cholesterol levels.
Niacin Deficiency Symptoms
Symptoms of mild niacin deficiency include:
Severe deficiency, called pellagra, can cause symptoms related to the skin, digestive system, and nervous system. They include:
Niacin Deficiency Causes
In the 1800s, pellagra was common among poor Americans whose diets consisted mostly of corn, molasses, and salt pork -- all poor sources of niacin. Today, most people in the developed world get plenty of niacin in their diets. Niacin deficiency is more likely to be caused by problems that affect absorption of niacin or tryptophan. The most common cause is alcoholism. Other possible causes include disorders of the digestive system and prolonged treatment with the tuberculosis drug isoniazid (Laniazid, Nydrazid).
Niacin Deficiency Treatments
If you don't eat a lot of niacin-rich foods or if you have a medical condition that affects the absorption of niacin or tryptophan, speak to your doctor. Niacin supplements or multivitamin/mineral supplements, which usually contain at least 20 milligrams of niacin, can help prevent niacin deficiency.
MedlinePlus: "Pellagra."
University of Maryland Medical Center: "Vitamin B3 (Niacin)."
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension: "Facts about Niacin."Oregon State University Linus Pauling Institute: "Niacin."
MedlinePlus: "Niacin (vitamin B3, nicotinic acid), Niacinamide."
Merck Manual: "Niacin"
© 2017 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
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Basics / Sport-scientific Scripts
Dominant Abilities / Coordination / Strength / Speed / Endurance / Technique / What happens to the body when it gets in motion / Conditioning for Rowing / Anaerobic Threshold / Heart-rate Training -zones / Phases of Adaptation / Supercompensation / Annual Programming / Variety / Training for Young Athletes / Advice for young rowers click on the titlebar
to switch the language
Dominant Abilities 優越的能力
Identification of your sport's profile and its requirements is crucial for the planning and programming of a detailed training program. All sports are described by their relation to four major characteristics:
Coordination / 調和 Strength /力氣 Speed / 速度 Endurance / 耐力
It is essential to know how your particular sport relates to four major abilities and what form they take during performance in order to make proper decisions about training. Most sports dominant function is a combination of two, three or all four of these abilities. For example, sprints or jumps are power sports, which combine maximum strength and maximum speed.
Rowing and kayaking, on the other hand, are muscular endurance sports, where endurance and strength combined are the dominant abilities.
Many athletes and coaches treat these combinations as one characteristic and try to develop them together. A more effective way of training, which will lead to higher results is achieved if the components are first developed separately and then converted to needed combinations for the sport. For example, if the sport requires power development for the improvement of performance, during your annual cycle the strength aspect of it is initially developed starting with general and then maximum strength development, and then this strength is transformed to power.
There are sports, where coordination and technique are not dominant and the final result depends on the development of speed, endurance, strength or combination of those three. A good example of this is cyclic sports like running, cycling, rowing, where endurance and speed are dominant abilities to achieve the necessary velocity, with strength playing a supportive role. Coordination is based on precise, efficient technique to be as fast as possible. There are some cyclic sports where complex coordination is not a dominant ability and technique will not win the competition, however, to possess an effective level of technique one must learn it as a kid.
Table 3: Simplified examples of sports dominant abilities
For the better understanding of these aspects of different abilities let's take a simplified look at the basics of coordination, strength, speed and endurance. To precisely describe and categorize the concept of each individual characteristic is well beyond the frame of this script. However, this short outline should help you better understand the basic aspects of each ability. It should also help to shed light on your sport's categorization.
Dominant Ability
Achieve perfect form of complex skills
Perfect coordination with highest level of precision with relatively high level of strength and speed
Figure skating
Achieve the highest velocity
Precise coordination executed as fast as possible with speed and endurance
Achieve the highest velocity
Endurance, speed are dominant with strength as an influential factor, coordination based on precise as fast as
Possible execution of X-C skiing
Skills with intensities reaching limits
Speed skating
Achieve the highest level of strength and speed (power)
Strength and speed
Weight lifting
Achieve the highest average speed
Endurance and speed
Games (soccer, basketball, football, a.s.o.
Achieve the highest ability to execute complex skills in changing environment and in presence of opponent
Coordination, speed, endurance and strength
Fight sport (martial arts, wrestling, a.s.o. Tennis
Achieve highest level of concentration under high level of stress with very low physical engagement
Combined sports (decathlon, biathlon, heptathlon, modern)
Excel in all sports included
Complex mixture of most abilities
1999 Sport is Life
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Microsoft Office Tutorials and References
In Depth Information
Entering Formulas
A formula in a cell that contains a reference back to itself is called a circular reference .
Excel often warns you when you create a circular reference. In almost all cases, circular
references are the result of an incorrect formula. A circular reference can be direct
or indirect. For example, placing the formula =A1 in cell A1 results in a direct circular
reference. An indirect circular reference occurs when a formula in a cell refers to another
cell or cells that include a formula that refers back to the original cell.
Employ the Excel built-in functions whenever possible.
Every time you enter
a value into a cell in
the worksheet, Excel
automatically recalculates
all formulas. You can
change to manual
recalculation by clicking
the Calculation Options
button (Formulas tab |
Calculation group) and
then clicking Manual.
In manual calculation
mode, pressing the F9
key instructs Excel to
recalculate all formulas.
Excel includes prewritten formulas
called functions to help you compute a range of values and statistics. A function takes a
value or values, performs an operation, and returns a result to the cell. The values that
you use with a function are called arguments . All functions begin with an equal sign
and include the arguments in parentheses after the function name. For example, in the
function =AVERAGE(C4:C12), the function name is AVERAGE, and the argument is the
range C4:C12. Become familiar with the extensive number of built-in functions. When
you have the choice, always use built-in functions instead of writing and typing a formula
version of your mathematical expression. Such a practice reduces the possibility of errors
and simplii es the formula used in a cell, resulting in improved readability.
To Enter a Formula Using the Keyboard
The formulas needed in the worksheet are noted in the requirements document as follows:
1. Gross Pay (column F) = Hours Worked × Hourly Pay Rate
2. Federal Tax (column G) = 0.22 × (Gross Pay – Dependents × 24.32)
3. State Tax (column H) = 0.04 × Gross Pay
4. Net Pay (column I) = Gross Pay – (Federal Tax + State Tax)
5. Tax% (column J) = (Federal Tax + State Tax) / Gross Pay
The gross pay for each employee, which appears in column F, is equal to hours worked in column D times
hourly pay rate in column E. Thus, the gross pay for Emily Charvat in cell F4 is obtained by multiplying 65.25
(cell D4) by 20.50 (cell E4) or =D4*E4. The following steps enter the initial gross pay formula in cell F4 using
the keyboard.
With cell F4 selected, type
in the cell to display the formula in
the formula bar and in the current
cell and to display colored borders
around the cells referenced in the
formula (Figure 2 – 5).
formula begins
with equal sign
What occurs on the worksheet as I
enter the formula?
The equal sign ( = ) preceding d4*e4
alerts Excel that you are entering
a formula or function and not
text. Because the most common
error when entering a formula is
to reference the wrong cell in a
formula mistakenly, Excel colors
the borders of the cells referenced
in the formula. The coloring helps
in the reviewing process to ensure
the cell references are correct.
The asterisk ( * ) following d4 is the
arithmetic operator that directs Excel to perform the multiplication operation.
as formula is typed, it
appears in formula bar
and in active cell F4
colored cell borders
indicate cells included
in formula in active cell
Figure 2–5
Search JabSto ::
Custom Search
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Genetic history of North Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The genetic history of North Africa has been heavily influenced by geography. The Sahara desert to the south and the Mediterranean Sea to the North were important barriers to gene flow in prehistoric times. However, Africa is connected to Western Asia via the Isthmus of Suez, while at the Straits of Gibraltar North Africa and Europe are separated by only 15 km (9 mi).
Although North Africa has experienced gene flows from the surrounding regions, it has also experienced long periods of genetic isolation, allowing a distinctive genetic "Berber marker" to evolve in the native Berber people. Today, this genetic "Berber marker" is consistently found in the regions and populations that still predominantly speak the Berber languages, as well as in the Canary Islands which was inhabited by native Berbers and by their descendents to this day. A recent genetic study showed that North Africans are genetically similar to Paleolithic North Africans.[1]
Current scientific debate is concerned with determining the relative contributions of different periods of gene flow to the current gene pool of North Africans. Anatomically modern humans are known to have been present in North Africa during the Middle Paleolithic (300,000 years ago), as attested by the by Jebel Irhoud 1.[2] Without morphological discontinuity, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian industry, whose lithic assemblages bore relations with the Cro-Magnon cultures.[3] The Iberomaurusian industry was succeeded by the Capsian industry in the eastern part of North Africa.
In the 7th century A.D., part of the Berber countries was invaded by Muslim Umayyad Arabs. Under the relatively brief Arab-Umayyad occupation and the later arrival of some bedouin Arabs and Syriacs from the Near East in Asia and the arrival of some Jews and Muslims fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, a partial population mix or fusion might have taken place and might have resulted in some genetic diversity among some North Africans.[4] However, this partial fusion of Berbers and foreigners is mostly limited in terms of geographical distribution to the main Berber urban areas and some coastal plains of North Africa because migrants and refugees tend to gravitate towards major cities since ancient times and they tend to avoid the heartland. The Berber ethnic and genetic nature of North Africa (west of Egypt) is still dominant, either prominently (as in language or ethnic identity) or subtly (as in culture and genetic heritage).
Haplogroup E is the most common paternal haplogroup among Berbers. It represents up to 100 percent of Y-chromosomes among some Berber populations. Haplogroup E is thought to have emerged in prehistoric North Africa or East Africa,[5] and would have later dispersed into West Asia. The major subclades of haplogroup E found amongst Berbers belong to E-Z827, which is believed to have emerged in North Africa. Common subclades include E1b1b1a, E1b1b1b and E1b1b1*. E1b1b1b is distributed along a west-to-east cline with frequencies that can reach as high as 100 percent in Northwest Africa. E1b1b1a has been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa.[6][7][8]
West Eurasian haplogroups, such as Haplogroup J and Haplogroup R1, have also been observed at moderate frequencies. A thorough study by Arredi et al. (2004), which analyzed populations from Algeria, concludes that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation (including both J1 and E1b1b main haplogroups) is largely of Neolithic origin, which suggests that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Berber–speaking pastoralists from the Middle East[6][9] However, Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b is most likely indigenous to North Africa and migrated from North Africa to the Near East during the Paleolithic.[1]
E1b1b1b (E-M81) is the most common Y chromosome haplogroup in North Africa, dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. It is thought to have originated in North Africa 5,600 years ago. The parent clade, E1b1b, originated in East Africa.[5][10] Colloquially referred to as the Berber marker or Maghrebi marker for its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas, and other Berber-speaking groups, E-M81 is also quite common among North African groups. It reaches frequencies of up to 90 percent in some parts of the Maghreb. This includes the Saharawish for whose men Bosch et al. (2001) reports that approximately 76 percent are M81+.
This haplogroup is also found at high levels in Canary islands and parts of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) as well as much lower levels in Italy and France. In Iberia, it is generally more common than E1b1b1a (E-M78),[11] unlike the rest of Europe, and as a result E-M81 is found throughout Latin America[12] and among Hispanic men in USA.[13] As an exceptional case in Europe, this sub-clade of E1b1b1 has also been observed at 40 percent the Pasiegos from Cantabria.[5]
Sub clades of E1b1b1b (E-M81):
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Mozabite man, c. 1889
Kabyle women and baby.
Individuals receive mtDNA only from their mothers. According to Macaulay et al. 1999, "one-third (33%) of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa less than 50,000 years ago, and one-eighth (12.5%) have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East".[15] Maca-Meyer et al. 2003 analyze the "autochthonous North African lineage U6" in mtDNA, and conclude that:
The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity. Subgroup U6a reflects the first North African expansion from the Maghreb returning to the east in Paleolithic times. Derivative clade U6a1 signals a posterior movement from Northeast Africa back to the Maghreb and the Near East. This migration coincides with a possible
Afroasiatic linguistic expansion.
Haplotype V, have its highest concentration among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia (approximately 59%). It has been found at approximately 10% among the Mari people of the Volga-Ural region, leading to the suggestion that this region might be the source of the V among the Saami.
Additionally, recent studies have discovered a close mitochondrial link between Berbers and the Saami of Scandinavia, which confirms that Southwestern Europe and North Africa was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated Northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum and reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers.[19][22] With regard to Mozabite Berbers, one-third (33%) of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa ∼50,000 years ago, and one-eighth (12.5%) have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest (54.5%) having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East."[23]
• Total West Eurasian lineages (H, HV, R0, J, M, T, U, K, N1, N2, X) : 80 percent
• Total African lineages (L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5) : 20 percent
Some papers suggest that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to trans-Saharan slave trade.[25] However, in September 2010, a thorough study of Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that most of L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.[26]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
Map of North and Sub-Saharan African admixture in European populations
According to a paper published in 2017 most of the genetic studies in North African populations agree with a limited correlation between genetics and geography, and show a high population heterogeneity in the region. North African populations have been described as a mosaic of North African, Middle Eastern, European and sub-Saharan ancestries. This explains the current genetic structure in North Africa, characterized by diverse and heterogeneous populations, and why nearby populations inhabiting the same location might be genetically more distant than groups of people in geographically distant populations.[29]
Genetic influence[edit]
Y-chromosome DNA[edit]
The general parent Y-chromosome Haplogroup E1b1b (formerly known as E3b), which might have originated in the Horn of Africa or the Near East[6] is by far the most common clade in North and Northeast Africa and found in select populations in Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and South Eastern Europe. E1b1b reaches in Europe Greece and the Balkan region but, is not as high there as it is among African populations.[ name=pmid15069642/>
The general parent Y-chromosome Haplogroup E1b1b (formerly known as E3b), which might have originated in North Africa, the Horn of Africa or the Near East[6] is by far the most common clade in North and Northeast Africa and found in select populations in Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and South Eastern Europe. E1b1b reaches in Europe Greece and the Balkan region but, is not as high there as it is among African populations.[2].[6]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Genetic influences on Latin America[edit]
As a consequence of Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America, E-M81 is also found throughout Latin America[42][43][44] and among Hispanic men in USA.[45]
Ancient DNA[edit]
The E1b1b-M81 (~44%), R-M269 (~44%), and E-M132/E1a (~6%) paternal haplogroups have been found in ancient Guanche (Bimbapes) fossils excavated in Punta Azul, El Hierro, Canary Islands, which are dated to the 10th century. Maternally, the specimens all belong to the H1 clade. These locally born individuals carried the H1-16260 haplotype, which is exclusive to the Canary Islands and Algeria. Analysis of their autosomal STRs indicates that they were most closely related to Moroccan Berbers.[49]
In 2018, DNA analysis of Later Stone Age individuals from the site of Taforalt (Iberomaurusian, 15 000 BP) and Early Neolithic Moroccans from the site of Ifri N' Ammar (7 000 BP) revealed that they were related to the modern North Africans and carried Y-DNA E-M35, EM-215*, E-L19*, and E-M78*. These studies confirmed a long-term genetic continuity in the region showing that Mesolithic Moroccans are similar to Later Stone Age individuals from the same region and possess an endemic component retained in present-day Maghrebi populations (representing 20% to 70% of their total ancestry).[1][50]
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b c Loosdrecht, Marieke van de; Bouzouggar, Abdeljalil; Humphrey, Louise; Posth, Cosimo; Barton, Nick; Aximu-Petri, Ayinuer; Nickel, Birgit; Nagel, Sarah; Talbi, El Hassan (2018-03-15). "Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations". Science. 360 (6388): 548–552. doi:10.1126/science.aar8380. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29545507.
2. ^ Callaway, Ewen (2017-06-07). "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114. ISSN 1476-4687.
3. ^ Hublin, Jean-Jacques; McPherron, Shannon (2012-03-31). Modern Origins: A North African Perspective. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 9789400729285.
4. ^ Rando (1998), "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, Near-Eastern, and sub-Saharan populations" (PDF), Annals of Human Genetics, 62 (6): 531–50, doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.1998.6260531.x, PMID 10363131
7. ^ Kujanová, M.; Pereira, L. S.; Fernandes, V. N.; Pereira, J. B.; čErný, V. (2009). "Near Eastern Neolithic genetic input in a small oasis of the Egyptian Western Desert". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 140 (2): 336–346. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21078. PMID 19425100.
10. ^ Arredi et al. (2004)
11. ^ See for example Flores et al. (2004).
14. ^ Y-DNA Haplogroup E and its Subclades - 2008
15. ^
16. ^ Fadhlaoui-Zid, K.; Plaza, S.; Calafell, F.; Ben Amor, M.; Comas, D.; Bennamar, A.; Gaaied, E. (2004). "Mitochondrial DNA Heterogeneity in Tunisian Berbers". Annals of Human Genetics. 68 (3): 222–33. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00096.x. PMID 15180702.
29. ^ Arauna, Lara R and Comas, David (September 2017) Genetic Heterogeneity between Berbers and Arabs. In: eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester. DOI: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0027485 .
30. ^ "Cruciani et al., 2004, Phylogeography of the Y-Chromosome Haplogroup E3b" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
31. ^ Reduced Genetic Structure for Iberian Peninsula: implications for population demography. (2004) Archived 2008-04-06 at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Lacan et al. (2011)
34. ^ "Molecular genetic investigation of the Neolithic population history in the western Carpathian Basin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
37. ^ "The study shows that religious conversions and the subsequent marriages between people of different lineage had in fact a minor impact on modern populations both in Spain, and in Portugal", The religious conversions of Jews and Muslims have affected the population of the Iberian Peninsula Archived 2009-05-21 at the Wayback Machine, Elena Bosch, 2008
45. ^ Coco, C.; Magistrelli, P.; Granone, P.; Roncolini, G.; Picciocchi, A. (1992). "Conservative surgery for early cancer of the distal rectum". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 35 (2): 131–136. doi:10.1007/BF02050667.
46. ^ Rabab Khairat; Markus Ball; Chun-Chi Hsieh Chang; Raffaella Bianucci; Andreas G. Nerlich; Martin Trautmann; Somaia Ismail; et al. (4 April 2013). "First insights into the metagenome of Egyptian mummies using next-generation sequencing". Journal of Applied Genetics. 54 (3): 309–325. doi:10.1007/s13353-013-0145-1. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
47. ^ Kefi R, Bouzaid E, Stevanovitch A, Beraud-Colomb E. "MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS OF PREHISTORIC NORTH AFRICAN POPULATIONS" (PDF). ISABS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
48. ^ Bernard Secher; Rosa Fregel; José M Larruga; Vicente M Cabrera; Phillip Endicott; José J Pestano; Ana M González (2014). "The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14: 109. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-109.
49. ^ Ordóñez, A. C., Fregel, R., Trujillo-Mederos, A., Hervella, M., de-la-Rúa, C., & Arnay-de-la-Rosa, M. (2017). "Genetic studies on the prehispanic population buried in Punta Azul cave (El Hierro, Canary Islands)". Journal of Archaeological Science. 78: 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.11.004. Retrieved 21 April 2017.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
50. ^ Fregel et al.2018, Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe, PNAS June 12, 2018. 201800851; published ahead of print June 12, 2018.
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More Health and Nutrition Bites
Coffee consumption linked with reduced inflammation 03/20/19
Drinking milk and risk of hip fractures 02/20/19
All Health and Nutrition Bites
Fast food linked to depression in kids
Kids also eat more while watching TV
Kids who cook
Health & Nutrition Bites
Healthy snacking habits and skills start early
a group of adolescents having lunch together around a table in a school lunchroom
But how strong are those early habits, really? It might be surprising to you (it was to me), but there does seem to be some question among researchers regarding whether adolescent behaviors around food rise to the level of habit, as defined by the researchers in today's article: "Habits are formed when people repeatedly engage in the same behavior in the same context" (Appetite 2015;95:182-187).
The distinction here is between simply doing something on a regular basis: "she had a habit of eating popcorn at the movies," and a true habit: "it just wasn't going to the movies without popcorn." Adults know that habits like these can be hard to break, even if they don't involve harmful or physically addictive activities like, say, smoking.
Snacking - what one snacks on and when - often rises to the level of true habit in adults. In today's study the authors noted that an historical rise in the frequency and calorie count of snacking among kids 10-17 is due to an increase in choosing unhealthy snacks like sweets (candy) or savory snacks (potato chips). At that age, are those choices truly habits, with the associated difficulty of breaking those habits?
A survey of over 11,000 students at 121 schools in 9 European countries asked the students how often and on what they snacked and included a previously-established questionnaire regarding the formation of habits. For example, students were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 5 being "strongly agree") whether "unhealthy snacking is something I do frequently" and "unhealthy snacking is something I do without thinking."
Other sections of the survey asked about self-regulation strategies the students might use with respect to eating, ranging from "controlling the food environment directly" (not walking past the vending machine, for example), "changing the meaning of the food environment" (distracting oneself or ignoring the smell of popcorn at a movie theatre) or "addressing the goal to eat healthily" (reminding oneself of the reason to eat more healthfully, such as weight loss or fewer cavities).
Somewhat unsurprisingly, the authors found that choosing unhealthy snacks had already risen to the level of true habit, although the strength of that habit was termed "moderate," on average. On the other hand, the strength of that habit did increase with the students' age. The good news, however, is that the students reported "sometimes" using self-regulation strategies to manage their snacking. Those with a high habit strength who used "controlling the food environment strategies" or "changing the meaning of the food environment" strategies more frequently ate 1 fewer unhealthy snack per day than those with a high habit strength who used the same strategies less often.
What this means for you
Teaching your child good dietary habits isn't just about feeding them healthy meals - it's also about helping them gain the skills to make the right choices even in the face of temptation. These skills aren't limited to food-related issues, however - they're critical to academic and interpersonal success, as well. Talk to your child's pediatrician about resources for helping your child learn self-regulation skills.
First posted: August 19, 2015
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Tiny Isn’t Tiny
Saddle up
Watch: Anna - episode 5: New Shoes
Anna finds out that the horse she will ride is named “Tiny.” But it turns out that might not be the best name for this particular horse. Watch the video to see what happens when Anna meets her horse. And should she think about changing that horse’s name?!
Barn talk
How big do you think horses are? How big do you think they are compared to you? Do you think the size of horses is scary… or fun?
Take a ride
Anna was surprised at how big Tiny was! And horses are big. How do you think they compare to you in size?
You’ll need
1. Pencil, paper and scissors.
2. A blackboard, whiteboard or wall to mark children’s and horse’s height (but no horse required!).
1. Explain to children that horse height is measured in units called hands (and that this is funny because our height is measured in feet!). A hand is about four inches.
2. Have the children trace their hands on the paper and cut out their hand measurements (their hands will be smaller than 4 inches, but that’s OK).
3. Demonstrate how to use the hand as a way to measure (moving it one on top of another until you get to the top of the thing you’re measuring).
4. Have the children work in teams to use their hands to measure each other. Have them write down how many hands tall each of them is and if possible, mark their heights on the board or wall.
5. Explain that a horse is at least 15 hands high from its feet to its withers (which are like its shoulders). Have the teams mark off 15 hands high on the board or wall.
6. Have the children compare the horse’s height to their own height. Remind them that the horse also has a very long neck and a huge head on top of those 15 hands!
7. If you have a place where it’s possible, have children draw the rest of the horse, as best they can, to scale (with the 15 hands height as their guide).
Horses and standards
Common Core Standards for Math – Measurement and Data (Grade 2). Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.
Download PDF printable version of lesson plan (122KB)
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Emily Willoughby
Paleoart and bird illustration
The Terrible Claw
Diagnostic anatomical reconstruction of Deinonychus antirrhopus, intended loosely for Wikipedia but also as an experimental piece to show pretty much exactly how I believe this animal looked in life.
This was largely inspired by an interesting Facebook discussion with paleoartist Julius Csotonyi about arm-folding in paravian dinosaurs. It occurred to me that people seldom reconstruct paravians, particularly dromaeosaurs, with their arms folded in a reasonable and accurate way. Julius made the fair the point that these animals probably didn't carry their arms out in front of the body, as is so often depicted (in skeletals and otherwise — it makes sense in skeletals, to adequately show the hand and arm anatomy), because such an awkward orientation would leave the hand and arm feathers open to damage and breakage. But they also can't fold them tightly against the breast or back like birds do, because they lack the mobility to do so.
So how did Deinonychus normally carry its arms? Senter's 2006 paper on forelimb function in Deinonychus and Bambiraptor shows that the humerus couldn't rotate much past the horizontal with respect to the scapula. In addition, Sullivan et al. 2010 — winningly translated to layman coherency by Matt Martyniuk — shows that wrist mobility in many paravians is much less than you might expect, given their similarity to birds. The wrist of Deinonychus antirrhopus specifically would not have allowed it to bend its hands even 90° with respect to the arm!
Given these limitations, most of the flexion would have to occur at the elbow, but a fully flexed elbow would mean that the hands would be hanging below the body, not held sleek and secure alongside the body. The arm orientation in my illustration above is based on what I think is probably the perfect configuration for carrying the arms: a fully-flexed shoulder, a fully-flexed wrist, and a nearly fully-extended elbow. A few other people have drawn their dromaeosaurs with the same arm configuration, like Smnt2000 and Pilsator, so kudos to them.
Illustration based on the papers linked above as well as Scott Hartman's beautiful skeletal. Gouache on 12" x 20" hot-pressed illustration board.
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Strayer Chapter 9 Vocab
Terms in this set (...)
China's capital during the Song dynasty, with a populapopulation oof more than a million people.
Japan's second capital city(now known as kyoto) modeled after Chinese capital of Chang'an
A nomadic people who established a state that included parts of northern China.(1115-1234)
Sacred spirits of Japan whether ancestors or natural phenomena their worship much later came to be called shinto.
A nomadic people who established a state that included parts of northern China.(907-1125)
Korean dynasty (918-1392)
The capital of Korea in the medieval Era modeled on the Chinese capital of Chang'an.
Murasaki Shikibu
Perhaps japan's greatest author a woman active at the heian court who is best known for The Tale of Genji which she wrote around 1000 C.E.
Japan's first capital city modeled on the Chinese capital of Chang'an.
Neo- Confucianism
A philoopy that emerged in song dynasty China it revived confucian thinking wile adding in Buddhist and Daoist elements.
Pure Land Buddhism
A school of buddhism that proved to be immenimmensely popular in China emphasized salvation by the faith in the Amitabha Buddha.
Members of Japan's warrior classwhich developed as political power increasingly decentralized.
Shotoku Taishi
Japanese statesman (572-622) who launched the drive to make Japan into a centralized bureacratic state modeled on China he is best known for the Seventeen Article Constitution which lays oUT the principles of this reform.
Silla dynasty
The first ruling dynasty to bring a measure of political unity to the Korean peninsula.(688-900)
Song dynasty economic revolution
A major economic quickening that toil place in China under the song dynasy. Marked by rapid population, growth, urbanization, economic specialization, the development of an immense network of internal waterways and a great increase in industrial production and innovation.
Sui dynasty
Ruling dynasty of China (581-618) that effectively reunited the country after several centuries of political fragmentation.
Tang dynasty
Ruling dynasty of China from 618 to 907 noted for its openess to foreign cultural influences.
Highly stylized form of Japanese poetry that has been a favored mears of expression for centuries.
Tribute system
Chinese method of dealing with foreign lands and peoples that assumed the subordination of all non Chinese authorities and required the payment of tribute produce of value from their countried to the Chinese emperor.
Trung sisters
Two Vietnamese sisters who launched a major revolt against the Chinese presence in Vietnam in 39 C.E the rebellion was crushed and the sisters committed suicide but they remained symbols of Vietnamese resistance to China for centuries.
Turkish empire of the steppes flourished in the 8th century C.E.
Wendi, Emperor
Sui emperor particularly patronized Buddhism.
Major nomadic confederacy that was established ca. 200 B.C.E. and eventually reached from Manchuria to Central Asia.
Kore an dynasty (1392-1910)
An Lushan
Foreign born general wwho led a major revolt against the Tang dynasty in 755-763 perhaps provoking China's turn to xenophobia.
The way of the warrior referring to the military virtues of the Japanese samurai including bravery, loyalty, and emphas is on death over surrender.
Chinese buddhism
Buddhism was china's only large scale cultural borrowing before the 20th century buddhism entered China from India in the first and second centuries C.E. but only became popular in 300-800 C.E through a series of cultural accommodations. At first supported by the state buddhism suffered persecution during the 9th century but continued to play a role in Chinese society
Chu nom
A variation of Chinese writing developed in Vietnam that became the basis for an independent national literature.southern script.
Foot binding
Chinese practice of tight wrapping girls' feet to keep small begun in tang dynasty an emphasis on small size and delicacy was central to views of female beauty.
A phonetic alphabet developed in Korea in the fifteenth century.
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Thursday, January 15, 2015
Math Lesson - Math Fact Mastery
Math Facts can be tricky for some students to master, especially when they are not motivated to put in the practice required to master them. I have developed a fun, motivating way to get your students to WANT to practice their math facts. It is called Kicking It Math.
I have used key elements of brain research as I developed the program:
* Did you know that students can hold only 2-3 new pieces of information in their working memory at one time? That is why each new practice session only includes 2 to 3 new facts and their opposites. Instead of having students focus on threes or fives, they learn just a few new facts at a time.
*Learners learn 90% of what they SAY and DO (Bloom, 1987). This program incorporates both oral and written practice.
* Students can remember things more easily when they connect new information with something they already know (Woolfolk, 1998). All new practice sheets include previously learned facts along with the new facts. This isn't simply learning their 1s, then their 2s, etc. because that doesn't work.
* In this program, some of the harder facts (such as 9X6 are taught in the middle rather than the end so the student really has more time to work on it).
* Another way to increase student memory is through verbal rehearsal. When a student practices (at home or at school with a partner) and makes a mistake, they repeat the correct problem and answer three times to cement it in their brain. They are presented the same problem three tries later to work through it again.
* Memory increases when dopamine is involved - basically if it is fun, kids will remember more!
So enough of the research and on to the fun! In this program, students earn "belts" as they progress levels. So motivating!
Students start with oral practice of their math facts:
Then they take a timed test.
We keep track of our results individually and as a class.
Some of the feedback I have received:
You can buy these products at my Teachers Pay Teachers Store.
or you can save a little money and get the bundles:
Thank you!
1 comment:
1. Kelly,
This is sooo cute... I just bought it and can't wait to use it with my third grade students!
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The Discovery of the Electron
• Kerry KuehnEmail author
According to the ancient doctrines of Democritus and Epicurus, atoms are tiny indivisible masses rattling about through the vacuum of space. This atomic hypothesis was preserved—in one form or another—for over 2000 years. Yet by the close of the nineteenth century it was still not universally accepted. The most convincing evidence for atomism was rather indirect, having come out of (i) the study of chemical reactions, (ii) the kinetic theory of gases and (iii) Boltzmann’s probabilistic interpretation of entropy. Even among the atomists there was considerable disagreement regarding the nature and structure of the atom itself. For example, the followers of Roger Boscovich believed atoms to be little more than point-like mathematical centers of force. Boscovich’s atoms possessed an unchangeable mass, they could move through the vacuum of space, and they were endowed with an irreducible power to attract or repel other atoms. A very different view of the atom was maintained byWilliam Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Inspired by the earlier work of Hermann von Helmholtz, Kelvin imagined atoms to be like minuscule smoke-rings traveling through an all-pervasive frictionless fluid medium—the æther. These so-called vortex ring atoms were indivisible local excitations which could emit light by vibrating like the rim of a tiny ringing bell. In this way, the vortex ring model of the atom offered the possibility of explaining the complicated emission spectra of atomic gasses.
Kelvin’s vortex theory of the atom aroused the interest of another Thomson, J.J., who published his Treatise on the motion of vortex rings in 1883 while studying at the University of Cambridge. A few years later, J.J. Thomson would propose the existence of subatomic particles which weighed considerably less than the smallest known atom. In the reading selection below, Thomson describes his famous 1897 discovery of subatomic electrically charged particles. It is taken from the first chapter of his 1907 book on The Corpuscular Theory of Matter.
Magnetic Force Vortex Ring Lorentz Force Helmholtz Coil Upward Force
Copyright information
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
Authors and Affiliations
1. 1.Wisconsin Lutheran CollegeMilwaukeeUSA
Personalised recommendations
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IGCSE Online Tutorial - Jesmul Sir's Portal
IGCSE Online Tutorial - Jesmul Sir's Portal
Physics GCSE: Radioactivity
Revision Summary
Atoms are made up of:
· protons;
· electrons;
· neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the electrons orbit the nucleus. Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge and neutrons have no charge. The shape of the atom was discovered using the alpha-scattering experiment. This showed the original plum-pudding model to be wrong!
Atomic notation is used to describe atoms. The top number is the mass or nucleon number. It tells us how many protons and neutrons there are in the nucleus. The bottom number is the proton or atomic number, which tells us how many protons are in the nucleus. During reactions the total number of protons and neutrons must stay the same.
Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in the nucleus. It is this different number of neutrons that makes some isotopes unstable and radioactive. These isotopes are called radioisotopes.
Ionisation is where an electron is removed from a neutral atom, leaving the atom with a positive charge.
Radiation causes ionisation. This can be used to detect radiation, as the amount of ionisation can be measured with a Geiger-Muller tube.
Ionisation can damage or kill living cells, this can cause cancer to develop.
Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves are the three main types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay. All three types of radiation are emitted from the nucleus of the atom.
When radiation is emitted the unstable atom loses energy to become more stable. If alpha or beta particles are emitted, new elements are formed because of the change in the number of protons in the nucleus.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation all behave slightly differently due to the way they are made up. Alpha ionises the most over a small distance but is not very penetrating. Gamma is the most penetrating but ionises less over the same distance.
Decay equations can be used to work out what new daughter element will be produced when radioactive decay takes place.
Safety precautions must be taken when handling radioactive substances. These include, using long handled tongs, pointing sources away from people, wearing lead lined clothing, not inhaling or eating sources.
The half-life of a substance is the time it takes for half of the original parent atoms to decay. It is also the time it takes for the count rate of a substance to fall to half the original value.
Radiation is used in medicine to cure cancer, in industry to detect the thickness of materials and in dating.
Background radiation is radiation that is produced around us all of the time. Sources include certain rocks, cosmic radiation, radon gas in the air, nuclear waste and experiments, medical uses and some foods. The background radiation needs to be subtracted from experiment results on radioactivity.
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Web Results
History >> Biographies >> Middle Ages for Kids. Occupation: King of England Born: 1028 in Normandy, France Died: 1087 in Normandy, France Reign: 1066 - 1087 Best known for: Leading the Norman Conquest of England Biography: Early Life William was born in 1028 in the city of Falaise which was part of the Duchy of Normandy.
William the Conqueror. Interesting Facts and information about William the Conqueror in the Medieval era of the Middle Ages; Short Biography, Facts and History about the life of William the Conqueror
William the Conqueror: King from 1066-1087. I. On the death of Edward the Confessor the throne of England was claimed by William, Duke of Normandy. When Edward took refuge in Normandy after the Danes conquered England, he stayed at the palace of William.
William I of England, better known as William the Conqueror, overcame a difficult childhood to become one of the most influential kings in British history. Here are 10 facts about the man and his rise to power. 1. He was also known as William the Bastard
William I, byname William the Conqueror or William the Bastard or William of Normandy, French Guillaume le Conquérant or Guillaume le Bâtard or Guillaume de Normandie, (born c. 1028, Falaise, Normandy [France]—died September 9, 1087, Rouen), duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035 and king of England (as William I) from 1066, one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages.
W illiam the Conqueror, the Norman invader, defeated the last Anglo-Saxon King of England, Harold II Godwinson, in the famous Battle of Hastings, in 1066.He was sometimes known as William the Bastard and previous to his victory in Hastings, William Duke of Normandy.. A charismatic and ruthless leader, William the Conqueror believed he had a legitimate claim to the English throne.
William I or William the Conqueror became the first reigning Norman King of England in 1066. He ruled until his death 21 years later. William was a direct descendant of the Viking warrior Rollo. He served as the Duke of Normandy from 1035. By 1060, he began a conquest of England. In the autumn of ...
William the Conqueror was a Norman duke when he won the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 — a victory that would ultimately lead to him taking the English crown. Although William’s army won the battle decisively, it was hard-fought on both sides and unusually long by medieval standards. Both William and his opponent, Harold II, King of ...
William I (c. 1028 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward.
One of the earliest and most significant victories for knights in the Middle Ages was the Norman conquest of England, and a lot of what we know about that fight comes from William of Poitiers (c ...
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When raindrops first form and drop out of clouds, they are very large -- sometimes as
big as baseballs. They are also nicely spherical due to the surface tension inherent in
But as raindrops fall, air resistance drags on the drops and distorts them. We typically
represent that distortion as a teardrop because that's the shape they make when
they're hanging off something here on the ground. But in the air, raindrops actually
take on other shapes that are more like pancakes, parachutes, or broken grocery
Each raindrop, still falling, reaches a point where the air resistance is so great that the
drop flattens out and then bursts. What hits the earth, then, are the fragments of
larger raindrops that have exploded on the way down.
Very small droplets, those with a radius of 0.014 cm, remain spherical the whole way
There's another fact about raindrops that may also be related to the way they break
up on the way down. You would think that larger raindrops fall faster than smaller
raindrops; i.e., the force of gravity acting on an object with more mass would give it
greater acceleration than a smaller object. However, two researchers from Michigan
Tech University discovered that some smaller raindrops actually fall faster than larger
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Elementary Math
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Geometric Shapes: Circle
We’ve already seen some of the main geometric shapes in earlier posts. In this post, we’re going to look more in depth at the circle.
The circle is a geometrical shape that is made by drawing a curve that always has the same distance from the point that we refer to as the center.
In just a little bit, we’re going to learn about the different parts of the circle.
The “length” of the circle is called the circumference.
The only difference between the circumference of the circle and the circle is that the circumference is a numerical value (sometimes with units), and the circle the actual figure that the circumference is measuring.
The center of the circle is the point from which all points on the circle are the same distance.
A radius is a segment drawn from the center of the circle to any point on the circle.
A chord is a segment drawn from one point on the circle to another point on the circle.
A diameter is a chord that passes through the center of the circle. The diameter of a circle is the length of a diameter of the circle. The diameter is twice as long as the radius.
Was this post on the circle helpful for you? If so, share it so that your friends can know more about this geometric shape, too. We’ll keep looking at geometric shapes in future posts.
If you want to learn about geometry, don’t think twice about creating an account at Smartick!
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初三英语阅读理解训练题及答案一 初三英语阅读理解训练题及答案一 （一） Little Tom down the street calls our dog "The keep dog".Zip is a sheep dog. But when Tom tries to say" Seep", it comes out "keep". And in a way Tom is right. Zip is always bringing things hoem for us to keep! I'll tell you about some of them. Zip's first present was a shoe. It was made of green silk. We didn't know how Zip found the shoe. But after a moment Mary, my big sister, told me the shoe had a strange smell. I nodded(点头)and held my nose. "What do you think it is?" "It smells like something for cleaning. I think someone tried to clean a spot (污点) off the shoe. Then he put it at the door to dry." "Along came Zip. And good-bye shoe!" I said."We should take it back." "We can't ".said my sistter. "Maybe little Tom is right," Mary said. "Maybe Zip is a keep dog!"
2.Tom calls Zip "the keep dog"because . A.the dog likes keeping things B.the dog likes playing with shoes C.he doesn't know the dog's name D.he can't pronounce the word "sheep"well
3.What made the shoe strange was .
A.its colour B.its smell C.its size D.that it was a silk one
5.We can know from the reading that the dog . A. likes to give presents to people B.has been kept in at the writer's home C.has brought some trouble D.likes to be called "the keep dog" Key:
5.C （二） An old lady in a plane had a blanket 毯子） （ over her head and she did not want to take it off . The air hostess spoke to her, but the old lady said, “I have never been in a plane before , and I am frightened. I am going to keep this blanket over my head until we are back on the ground again !” Then the captain came. He said, “Madam, I am the captain of this plane. The weather is fine, there are no clouds in the sky, and everything is going very well. ”But she continued to hide. So the captain turned and started to go back. Then the old lady looked out from under the blanket with one eye and said, “I am sorry, young man, but I don’t like planes and I am never going to fly again. But I’ll say one thing, ”She continued kindly, “You and your wife keep your plane very clean!”
1. An old lady had .
3. spoke to her . A. The air hostess B. The man next to her C. her husband D. one of her friends
5. The woman didn’t like planes and she was never going . A. to fly again B. to travel C. to go abroad D. to go home Key:
1. Dick flew to New York because . A. he went there for a holiday B. he had work there C. he went there for sightseeing (观光) D. his home was there
4. Who would send him the name and address of his hotel? A. The manager (经理) of his hotel. B. The police office. C. The taxi driver. D. His wife.
B. Dick didn't work on the first night of his arrival. C. Dick forgot to send his wife a telegram. D. Dick wanted to go back to his hotel in a taxi. Key: 1-5 B A B D C （ 四）
Two farmers were on their way home one evening after a hard day's work. Both were tired. They happened to look up at the sky and saw a black cloud overhead.
"Ah!" said one farmer, "tomorrow we shall have rain and the rice will grow well." The second answered, "Nonsense (胡说), the rain will only kill the crops (庄稼)."
So they began to quarrel (争吵). Just then a third farmer came along and asked them why they were quarreling. Both farmers explained about the black cloud.
"What cloud?" asked the third farmer. They all looked at the sky. The cloud was no longer there.
Choose the right answer
1. The two farmers were .
A. going home
B. going to the field
C. going to work
D. going to see their friend
2. The two farmers on that day.
A. had a holiday
B. didn't work
C. worked hard
D. wanted to quarrel with each other
3. When there are black block clouds in the sky, .
A. it will rain soon
B. it will be fine
C. it will get hot
D. the sun is shining brightly
4. The two farmers fought in words because .
A. they were hungry
B. it rained
C. one said the rain would do good to the crops and the other didn't think so
D. they both hoped for rain
5. The third farmer came with and said to the other two. He .
A. wanted to make friends with them
B. joined them in the quarrel
C. wanted to know why they were quarreling
D. had nothings to do
6. How many farmers said that the rain would be helpful? .
A. None B. One C. Two D. Three
2011 考研英语阅读新题型 选 5)模拟 考研英语阅读新题型(7 模拟 题及解析 Directions:You are going to read a list of headings and a text about preparing in the academic community. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-G for each numbered paragraph (41-45). The first an ...
京翰教育中心 http://www.zgjhjy.com 泰兴市第三高级中学 №103054 高一年级 英语数科 阅读理解练习（7） 高一（ ）班 姓名 备课组长 宋德生 期中复习 A “How can I learn English well?” This is a question many students ask. In my opinion, the most effective way is to learn lessons by heart. If you can recite ...
大学英语四级阅读理解试题及答案（一） 一 There are three kinds of goals: short-term,medium-range and long-term goals. Short-range goals are those that usually deal with current activities,which we can apply on a daily basis.Such goals can be achieved in a week or less ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 19 来源：考试大 2010/4/28 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T 【阅读练习】 阅读练习】 Americans are proud of their variety and individualty, yet they love and respect few things more than a uniform. Why are uniforms so __1__ in the United States? Am ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 17 来源：考试大 2010/2/2 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T It’s never easy to admit you are in the wrong. Being human, we all need to know the art of apologizing. Look back with honesty and think how often you’ve judged roughly, said __ ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 18 来源：考试大 2010/2/3 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T Many a young person tells me he wants to be a writer. I always __1__ such people, but I also explain that there’sa big difference between "being a writer" and writing. ...
2011 年英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 9 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题， 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题，如需完整题库请登录 http://news.bangkaow.com 英语四级考试免费练习题 Cancer is feared by everyone. And this fear is reaching epidemic（流行性） proportions. Not the disease itself ? there is no such thing as ...
2011 年英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 8 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题， 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题，如需完整题库请登录 http://news.bangkaow.com 英语四级考试免费练习题 Until the 1980s， the American homeless population comprised mainly older males. Today， homelessness strikes much younger part of socie ...
09 年 MBA 英语阅读理解（精读精解）13 英语阅读理解（ 精读精解） [日期：2008-10-09] 来源：太奇 MBA 网 作者： [字体：大 中 小] 背景： As a track star in high school, Sallie Krawcheck ranked amon g her state's best at the high jump. But she hasn't jumped for a nyone since, and her unshakable indep ...
高考英语写作 基础部分 写作的潜规则： 写作的潜规则： 用简洁地道的语言把意思表达 清楚 用自己最高的语言水平把要求 的要点写清楚 句子好，才是真的好 句子好， 一个没有亮点的文章比一个有小错误 一个没有亮点的文章比一个有小错误 没有亮点的文章比一个有 的文章更可怕。。。 的文章更可怕。。。 打造完美的首句： 打造完美的首句： 不能低于12个单词 不能低于12个单词 不能出现低级词汇 不能出现并列的短句 用词要有难度?? 用词要有难度 尽量使用我们在高中阶段学的词汇 some/many??v ...
软件测试常用英语词汇 1．静态测试：Non-Execution-Based Testing 或 Static testing 代码走查：Walkthrough 代码审查：Code Inspection 技术评审：Review 2．动态测试：Execution-Based Testing 3．白盒测试：White-Box Testing 4．黑盒测试：Black-Box Testing 5． 灰盒测试：Gray-Box Testing 6． 软件质量保证 SQA：Software Qualit ...
文章源于科技论文发表网：www.59168.net QQ:1003 59168 英语教学类论文:自我决定动机理论在高职英语教学 英语教学类论文 自我决定动机理论在高职英语教学 中的应用 摘要： 学习动机在英语教学活动中起着重要的作用。本文以自我决 定动机理论为依据，结合高职生英语学习的特点和多年英语教学实 践， 探讨了如何激发和培养学生英语学习动机的策略，进而提高英 语课堂教学效果。 关键词： 自我决定动机理论 高职 英语教学 一、引言。 高职学生英语基础较差，上课听不懂，学习困难，无法与老 ...
学习自考《高级英语》 学习自考《高级英语》完全指导 高级英语是英语本科的一门必考课程，要占 12 学分，但实际上并没有那么可怕。但这门 课有一个显著的特点就是通过考试容易，考高分难。 （推荐辅导书）： 推荐辅导书）： 东方出版社的同步辅导与同步训练 该书主要用于全文翻译，课后练习的答案。 北大燕园的模拟试题 考前冲刺强化训练用。 吉林大学出版社的题典 平时经常练习用。 （推荐助学）： 推荐助学）： 黄浦夜大史志康所教授的高级英语，分为一年慢班和半年快班两种。「我上课的地方， 自考外语出名的好 ...
四级英语词组 LIST 1 be（not）in the mood(for sth./to do sth) stir up solution to the problem under no circumstances in/under the circumstance at the core of in one’s presence presence of mind derive from in proportion to result in result from as a result o ...
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Microbes (bacteria, viruses and parasites)
Public summary:
Learn about the fascinating world of microbes with our fun cuddly toy bacteria, viruses and parasites, plus awesome slides and pictures.
Three boxes of kit to explain microbiology
Useful information
Kit List:
Three small grey boxes, one for each of bacteria, viruses and parasites. Details of what is in each box are given in the explanation below.
Packing Away:
Please make sure that we have all the cuddly microbes, and that they go back in the right box.
Frequency of use:
We’ve put together three boxes to talk about microbes. This can be combined into one big experiment, or split into three separate ones. Please try to keep each type of microbe in its rightful box.
Bacteria box
In the box:
• 9 x cuddly bacteria
• 1 x cuddly penicillin bug (to talk about antibiotics)
• 1 x cuddly yeast (to say that not all microbes are bacteria)
• 1 x plate of plastic bacteria (E.coli)
• 2 x bacteria viewers (look a bit like small microscopes)
• 3 x slides sets for bacteria viewers
• 1 x flask for growing bacteria
• Packets of tools for growing bacteria
• Laminated fact sheets for cuddly bacteria
• Laminated instructions sheets for hand washing activity
• UV hand wash cream (this is £15 per bottle, so use only minimum amount per group)
• UV light for hand wash activity
If you want to do the hand wash activity you'll need a soap, warm water and bowl and some paper towels to dry hands on.
There are several things to do: lots of cuddly bacteria to talk about (everyone loves these), UV hand-washing experiment (good for younger kids) and bacteria viewers and lab props (better for older kids).
Stories you could tell:
- How some bacteria are really good for us and others are bad (with the cuddly bacteria)
- How you can pass on bacteria (good and bad) on your skin- see hand wash activity notes (good for younger kids)
- How to grow bacteria in the lab (with lab props and slide viewers)
Element One: Cuddly Microbes
The following explanations are also found on laminated sheets in the box, and there is some additional information on labels attached to the cuddly bacteria:
1) E. coli (Escherichia coli): Gram negative, rod shaped
*SLIDE in microscope box*
Found in the intestines of most mammals- it’s there inside you only hours after you’re born! There are lots of bacteria in our digestive system that are harmless to us – in fact they stop harmful bacteria from living and growing there instead. Sometimes E.coli can make us ill; some unusual strains produce toxins which can give us food poisoning. Biologists like E. coli: It’s very easy to grow in the lab and can make lots of proteins and DNA very quickly.
2 ) Salmonella (Salmonella enterica): Gram negative, rod shaped
*SLIDE in microscope box*
Can infect humans and animals, so sometimes infects people of food isn’t cooked properly (particularly chicken or eggs). Causes gastroenteritis (diarrhoea and vomiting…) The bacterium itself can actually live inside certain types of white blood cell, which is a very effective way of hiding from the cells of the immune system that circulate in the blood.
3 ) Typhoid Fever (Salmonella typhimurium): Gram negative, rod shaped
Very closely related to the Salmonella bacteria that cause food poisoning. Typhoid fever is a lot worse than food poisoning however: its symptoms include a high fever, abdominal pain, a skin rash and headaches. Some people can be infected without having symptoms, but can still pass it to other people making them carriers of the disease. 'Typhoid Mary' (Mary Mallon) was the first recognised asymptomatic carrier and spread typhoid around New York in the early 1900s in her work as a cook, over 50 have fatalities have been linked to her. It is spread by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the bacterium. Typhoid fever is most common in India and its spread can be prevented by good hygiene.
4 ) Diarrhoea (Campylobacter jejuni): Gram negative, spiral shaped
Most common cause of food poisoning in the UK, linked to handling raw chicken. It produces a toxin that kills certain human cells, which helps the bacteria to survive, without being attacked by the immune system.
5 ) TB (Mycobacterium tuberculosis): ‘Acid fast’ will not gram stain
Infects the lungs when the bacterium is breathed in. Here it gets contained by the immune system in a tough shell. Only about 1 in 10 people who have the bacterium get ill: this usually happens when the immune system is weak and cannot contain the bacterium. The disease can cause damage to the lungs and in really bad cases it can spread to other parts of the body.
6 ) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae): Gram negative, comma shaped
Usually spread when water is contaminated by the bacterium. Produces a toxin that stops you absorbing water through your intestines. This causes really bad diarrhoea, which can be fatal as you lose too much water and salt from your body.
7 ) Listeria (Listeria monocytogenes): Gram positive, rod shaped
Causes fever and muscle pains. If the bacterium can get to the brain this can cause meningitis. Pregnant women are the most commonly infected – the mother usually gets a mild fever but the baby might be badly affected or born early. The source of the infection is often food – pasteurising dairy foods helps kill the bacteria and reduce the numbers of infections.
8 ) Stomach Ache (Shigella): Gram negative, rod shaped
Very closely related to E. coli. When the bacterium is ingested it can get inside the cells of your intestine. It produces some toxins that can also make you ill.
9 ) Yogurt (Lactobacillus bulgaricus): Gram positive, rod shaped
One of a number of species of bacteria that can be used to make yoghurt.
What Wikipedia has to say about the use of L. bulgaricus in the manufacture of yoghurt:
“Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is commonly used alongside Streptococcus thermophilus as a starter for making yoghurt. The two species work in synergy, with L. bulgaricus producing amino acids from milk proteins, which are then used by S. thermophilus. Both species produce lactic acid, which gives yoghurt its tart flavour and acts as a preservative. The resulting decrease in pH also partially coagulates the milk proteins, such as casein, resulting in yoghurt's thickness. While fermenting milk, L. bulgaricus produces acetaldehyde, one of the main yoghurt aroma components. Some strains of bulgaricus also produce bacteriocins which kill undesired bacteria. It is often helpful to sufferers of lactose intolerance, whose digestive systems lack the enzymes to break down lactose to simpler sugars.”
10) gonorea, syphilis, chalmydia
(Yes, we know that they're not bacteria, but we'd found that people ask about antibiotics, so we think that they're a nice bonus to have in the box)
Penicillin (Penicillium chrysogenum)
This is a fungus that makes penicillin, an antibiotic that kills some types of bacteria. It does this to kill off the bacteria that are competing for the food it needs for growth, but we have used penicillin from this fungus to treat bacterial infections in humans.
Yeast for bread and beer
Also a kind of fungus. It's one cell, just like the bacteria, though the cell is much bigger. In bread the yeast can use the sugars in the dough for its growth; it breaks them down in a reaction that produces the gas carbon dioxide, which make the bread rise. In beer the yeast converts the sugars to alcohols.
Element Two: Growing Bacteria in the Lab
The kit:
• 1 x plate of plastic bacteria (E. coli)
• 1 x flask for growing bacteria
• Packets of tools for growing bacteria
NB. The kit we have has not been used in a lab and the 'bacteria' on the plate are not real!
Under sterile (no other bacteria) conditions:
1) You can grow some types of bacteria in the lab. E. coli is happy to grow on agar plates, as long as it has all the nutrients it might need. The L-shaped spreader is used when you put the cells on the new plate, to make sure that the bacteria aren't too close together.
2) If you want more cells than this, get some bugs you're interested in with the green tool.
3) The plastic flask can be used to grow bacteria in a growth medium/ broth. (Extra detail: For E. coli you'd usually use Luria-Bertani medium (LB) at 37 degrees C to provide the necessary nutrients. This contains 10g Tryptone (enzymatically digested milk protein casein - supplies amino acids), 5g of Yeast Extract (supplies lots of nutrients), 1g glucose, 10g NaCl pH ~7.2, deionized, distilled water to 1 litre.)
Element three: bacteria viewers
The kit:
• 3 x slides sets for bacteria viewers
These are essentially a more durable version of a set of slides and a microscope. In the set of slides (which come with a booklet for information) you can see various different shapes of bacteria - just like in the cuddly bugs:
1) Round (1= "coccus", 2+ = "cocci")
2) Rod (1= "baccilus", 2+ = "baccili")
3) Spiral
These shapes are determined by the cell wall (the tough outer layer) and the cytoskeleton (internal "scaffolding"). They matter because they affect how the cells can absorb nutrients from its environment, how they can attach to surfaces and how they're able to move.
Element four: Handwashing Activity
Why should we bother washing our hands? This activity uses glow in the dark stuff to show how easy it is to miss the bits of your hands where bacteria are...
The kit:
• Laminated instructions sheets for hand washing activity
• UV light for hand wash activity
*Also needs a bowl and paper towels that are not supplied in the box*
There is a set of laminated instructor notes in the box, taken from the Wellcome Trust. A full version can be viewed online here: http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads/pdf/teachers/handshake/handshake_tno...
• No hand washing: Form a ‘line’ around your group of children. Squirt UV cream on the first child’s hand and get them to rub their hands together, then shake the hand of the next person in the group, then they shake the next person’s hand... Shine the UV torch onto each of the kids’ hands to show up the ‘bacteria’. All should now wash their hands thoroughly.
• Compare the results with hand washing: Repeat the procedure but get each person to wash their hands in the bowl after the UV cream has been rubbed in but before they shake the hand of the next person.
• If the group activity isn’t suitable, you could always compare before and after hand washing on the same child.
• This should show that washing hands helps to remove microbes – and washing with soap does this better than with just water as the soap breaks down some of the natural oils on your hands that help the bacteria to stick. Look at where the bacteria were found – it’s easier for bacteria to stay between our fingers and under our nails – and that’s why it’s important to wash your hands properly!
Viruses box
In this box:
• 12 x cuddly viruses
• 1 x plastic model HIV virus (in box)
• microbiology text book
VIRUSES: Can be as simple as DNA or RNA in a protein coat. They use the cells of
their host to make lots of new viruses. Often these new viruses get released by
causing the cell to burst. Viruses can’t survive for very long outside of cells so new
viruses quickly find a new cell to infect.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): Retrovirus (RNA genome copies itself into DNA, using viral reverse transcriptase. The DNA integrates into the host chromosome and new viral genomes are produced by host transcription/translation machinery)
Can be spread via some bodily fluids and blood. Lives in white blood cells (CD4+ helper T cells) and eventually kills them, which means the immune system cannot function properly. People where HIV has killed too many white blood cells have AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), and this means that they can become very ill or even die from diseases that would not harm a healthy person (opportunistic infections – a big killer is tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis – cuddly bug in the bacteria box).
Common Cold (Rhinovirus): positive sense RNA
Spreads easily from infected people when they sneeze or contaminate surfaces. The virus is very happy at the temperature and conditions in the human nose which is where they initially infect. There are lots of different types of rhinovirus whose protein coats all look different to the immune system, which is why we don’t get become immune to the common cold.
Measles (Morbillivirus): negative sense RNA virus
Usually spread by breathing in virus from droplets in the atmosphere. Causes a fever, rash and red eyes. Most people will have been vaccinated against this with the MMR jab, which mostly eradicated measles from the UK. However since the scare about the MMR jab (spuriously linked to autism), the disease has been cropping up in affluent areas of London! (Vaccine scares can destroy herd immunity, the protection the population has when enough people are vaccinated and the virus cannot find enough hosts to spread to.)
Kissing Disease (Epstein-Barr Virus): DNA virus
Most of you will have this virus right now. It is usually spread via saliva, causing a mild fever in the majority of the population in early childhood. (Lots of people have asked me why this is and the answer is we don’t really know – scientists think it might be something to do with how the immune response develops over childhood.) However some people who don’t get the virus in early life might get it when they come into contact with other people’s saliva in their teenage years - they then get Glandular Fever. An interesting thing about the virus is that you never really get rid of it; some of its DNA forms little circles in the nucleus of the white blood cells it infects, and it can remain dormant (latent infection) for a long time (occasionally getting out into saliva but not making you ill). The virus that causes chicken pox can do this in nerve cells.
Influenza: Negative sense RNA virus
Infects almost all mammals (eg. swine flu, bird flu), aquatic birds are primary host. Common problem in humans - see most in winter when low air humidity allows the visus to spread more effectively. Spread by breathing in virus particles (Respiratory tract). Causes symptoms including fever, headache, cough, muscle aches and less commonly vomiting and diarrhoea. It can be vaccinated against, however it is able to change its structure (by mutating its genome which is a random process) so it can evade the immune system. This means flu vaccines keep having to be updated to protect people against the new variations of the virus. This, and the fact that influenza virus also infects birds, is the reason why it would not be possible to eradicate influenza. Could compare this to viruses like smallpox and polio which have or have nearly been eradicated because they have more stable genomes and no animal reservoir.
Rabies: Negative sense RNA virus
Enters via skin and exits via saliva - spread through being bitten by an infected animal (usually dog). Results in death by killing brain cells in the cerebellum. The virus travels to the brain from the bite site up the nerves and it progresses slowly, so it is possible to stop the progression of the disease by vaccinating after being bitten.
Ebola: Negative sense RNA virus
Spreads by direct contact. This virus has a high fatality rate of up to 90% (but closer to 40% in the most recent outbreak). It causes symptoms including fever, muscle aches, skin rash, vomiting + diarrhoea, weakness, bleeding from nose, mouth etc. The virus can infect many cell types and it spreads within the body through the circulatory system. It causes such severe disease because it causes clotting within the blood vessels, bleeding inside the body (haemorrhage) leading to a drop in blood pressure and multi-organ failure. It is also so severe because it originated in a different animal to humans - the fruit bat - and transmitted to humans relatively recently. This is in contrast to viruses such as the common cold which have been in human populations for a long period of our evolution meaning we have adapted to survive it.
Winter Vomiting Disease (Norovirus): Positive sense RNA virus
Very common in the UK and very contagious. Causes vomiting and diarrhoea. Spread can be prevented by washing hands regularly.
Polio: Positive sense RNA virus
See "Polio, vaccination and disease eradication" experiment
Chicken Pox: Double stranded DNA virus
Otherwise known as Varicella-Zoster virus, a member of the herpesvirus family. Highly contagious; Spread through direct contact, coughing and sneezing, and causes red spots on the skin all over the body. Causes mild symptoms if caught when young, but causes Shingles in adults which is more serious. After initial infection, the virus goes dormant (latent) in the nervous system, and later in life it might reactivate to cause shingles.
T4 (T4-Bacteriophage):
Bacteriophage are viruses but they do not infect humans – they infect bacteria. One day this might be useful to us for treating bacterial infections (‘phage therapy’) where you can infect specific bacterial cells with genes that kill them/stop them reproducing.
HPV, here's, cancer (not virus)
Parasites Box
• 6 x cuddly parasites (4x protozoa, 2x insects)
• 2 x cuddly mosquitos (parasite "vectors")
• laminated fact sheets
• laminated parasite matching game
• microbiology text book
What is a parasite?
- Being a parasite is essentially free-loading off the host that it feeds on.
- Some parasites live on the surface of their hosts, these are ectoparasites (e.g. some mites/lice, ticks).
- Some types parasites live inside their "prey", these are endoparasites. Some of these live in gaps between the host tissues (eg trypansomes, tapeworms) while others live inside the host cells (eg malaria parasites)
- Most parasites live in more than one species at some point in their lifecycle (see individual descriptions).
- The parasites that you're most likely to hear about are single-celled Protozoa (including the parasites that cause malaria and trypanosomiasis), and parasitic worms (such as tapeworms).
- There is constant conflict between parasite and host: the host’s immune system is trying to kill the parasite, and the parasite is trying to hide from the immune system. Co-evolution of the parasite with the host has led to them becoming well adapted to each other – a good parasite is one that manipulates the host so it can reproduce maximally but doesn’t kill the host because it needs somewhere to live!
- Parasitic diseases are a massive problem for global health. Malaria kills nearly 1 million people per year, most African children under 5 years old. Parasitic worms might reduce your quality of life so much that you can’t care for your family, leading to a wider impact (eg elephantiasis). In many regions where parasitic diseases are a problem there is very basic healthcare, making treatment more difficult to access.
- Also a big problem in animals - cost to pet owners of preventative treatment (to avoid illness), most farm animals have a significant parasite burden (gives economic costs of reduced production, greater food intake required, medications etc.
Some examples of parasites
PROTOZOA: Single-celled eukaryotes
1) Malaria (Plasmodium falciparum):
4 parasites cause malaria: Plasmodium falciparum (the most common and most deadly), Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale. These are carried by Anopheles mosquitoes, the vector, which are active and hence bite people at night. When they bite an infected person they take up the parasite into their digestive system (parasite stage = sporozoite), and then secrete it into the next person they bite in saliva (used to inject anticoagulants to keep the person bleeding so the mosquito can get its blood meal). The parasite then travels in the bloodstream to the liver where cells are infected (parasite stage = merozoite). Parasites are released and enter red blood cells in the circulation, where they multiply and burst the red blood cell, causing the symptoms of malaria. Inside some red blood cells the parasites become gametocytes which are taken up by another mosquito if it bites the person.
Symptoms at first include fever, chills, headache and vomiting. In some cases this can rapidly progress to severe anaemia, respiratory distress or cerebral malaria - and can be fatal. However if you live in a malarial area (and get infected often) you may develop partial resistance to malaria and be infected without symptoms (asymptomatic infection). When you travel to a malarial area (Asia, South America, Africa - but the range is spreading) you use chemoprophylaxis (drugs to stop an infection becoming established), in combination with avoiding being bitten (mosquito nets, DEET mosquito repellent) - and there are also drugs available to treat malarial infections.
2) African Sleeping Sickness (Trypanosoma brucei):
Parasites are injected into you by the bite of a tsetse fly in Africa (tsetse fly = the vector), or they can cross the placenta to infect a fetus. Trypanosomes don’t live inside cells like malaria but they live in the blood stream – this means they have to do clever things to hide from the immune system, such as constantly changing their protein coat so that the immune system can't recognise them as a parasite. 2 different trypanosome subspecies cause sleeping sickness: T. brucei rhodesiense gives a rapidly-progressing disease (death in weeks to months) whereas causes a slowly-progressing disease (you might not have any symptoms for years!). Sleeping sickness occurs when the trypanosomes enter the brain and start to destroy the areas that control sleep and wakefulness, leading to blurred sleep/wake transitions and falling asleep at inappropriate times, progressing to coma and death! Trypanosomiasis (disease caused by trypanosomes) is treatable - but it's much easier at the early stage (drugs: pentamidine/suramine) than once the parasites enter the brain (drugs: melarsoprol - which comes from arsenic and has nasty side effects that can be fatal themselves!).
African trypanosomes also infect cattle, making agriculture in areas with tsetse flies really unproductive - cattle become really thin and so can't work (pulling ploughs etc) and aren't useful as food for people either!
3) Chagas disease/ American trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma cruzi)
Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi). 10 million people in the world are infected, mainly in South America. The vector transmitting the trypanosomes to humans is the triatomine bug ('kissing bugs'). These live on the walls of houses and are nocturnal, biting people on their exposed faces when they are asleep at night. Unlike the African trypanosomes, South American trypanosomes aren't injected with the bug's saliva but the bug defecates next to the bite and it's the faeces that contain the parasites. They get into the person's bloodstream when they rub their face and smear the faeces into the bite!
The first sign of infection is often a large swelling of the eyelid on the side of the face that was bitten. Parasites can then enter the heart (30% cases) causing problems with the heartbeat, and maybe sudden death. Digestive problems can also occur (10% cases) when there is enlargement of the oesophagus as food can't enter the stomach - the food that gets trapped can start rotting which is pretty disgusting! Chagas disease is highly treatable though, with nearly 100% of people cured if treated early (benznidazole or nifurtimox).
4) Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)
Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic protozoa.The definitive host (where the sexual stage of the life cycle occurs) is the cat - gametes are formed in the digestive tract and exit in the faeces. Then they enter another host (intermediate host) when they eat or drink contaminated food or water. So far every warm-blooded animal tested can act as a host - including humans. Here the parasite can enter any nucleated cell and replicates to form a tissue cyst. This can be passed on to another intermediate host or a cat by carnivory.
Usually toxoplasmosis has very mild symptoms (there might be some fever) and in France up to 90% of adults are infected (due to the French love of rare meat)! However serious disease can be caused in immunocompromised people (AIDS sufferers or post-transplant patients on immunosuppressive drugs) and pregnant women (increasing the risk of spontaneous abortion and birth defects). This is why pregnant women are advised not to touch cat litter! (also explains why pregnant women are advised to clean fruit/veg thoroughly as gametes can contaminate them, and women become infected this way)
T.gondii infection of the brain can lead to changes in behaviour by changing the amounts of chemicals in the brain (dopamine). Rats and mice lose their fear response to the scent of cats (tested using cat urine) and are more curious - very important effect, as means rats are more likely to be caught and eaten by cats giving greater rate of infection of cats (completing the parasites life cycle). Studies in humans have linked toxoplasmosis to schizophrenia (including hallucinations and reckless behaviour), slower reaction times and greater chance of causing traffic accidents.
(There's some slides for these in "Microscopes & Cells" which can be borrowed - same for some preserved specimens in "Horrible Housemates".)
Flukes (Trematodes): Adult flukes are leaf-shaped flatworms. Prominent suckers at the mouth and on the stomach help maintain position. Flukes are hermaphroditic (both male and female) except for blood flukes (schistosomes), which are bisexual. The life-cycle includes a snail intermediate host.
Tapeworms (Cestodes): Adult tapeworms are elongated, segmented, hermaphroditic flatworms that inhabit the intestinal lumen. You can eat the cysts in undercooked animal tissues (pork is probably the greatest risk if undercooked), and then they develop in your intestines. They eat your food from your intestine – instead of you getting the nutrients. They attach to the intestinal wall using suckers in the head. Problematic in the developing world where there is already malnutrition. People used to use tapeworms as a slimming aid… They can grow up to 15 metres long and live for 20 years! Larval forms live in extraintestinal tissues.
Roundworms (Nematodes): Adult and larval roundworms are bisexual, cylindrical worms. They inhabit intestinal and extraintestinal sites.
1) Schistosomiasis (caused by a fluke/ trematode)
• Schistosomiasis is a chronic, parasitic disease caused by blood flukes (schistosomes)
• At least 230 million people require treatment every year – praziquantel
• Infection from larval forms released from freshwater snails in contaminated water
• Penetrate the skin and live in circulation where females release eggs
• Cause damage because of the host immune response to the parasites
2) Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) (caused by a fluke)
• Freshwater snail intermediate host, where reproduction occurs, then they are released as cercariae and swim through water to be ingested by ruminants normally, or sometimes humans eating uncooked foods like watercress
• Adult lives in the liver where they feed on the lining of bile ducts – makes cheese-like holes in the liver
• Produce eggs – up to 25000 a day per female
3) Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease, caused by a nematode)
• Dracunculiasis (caused by Dracunculus medinensis, a long thread-like worm) is a parasitic disease on the verge of eradication
• Exclusively transmitted by drinking water contaminated with parasite-infected fleas such as rural isolated ponds
• Takes 10-14 months for worm to mature in the body
4) Hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, kinds of nematodes)
• Soil-transmitted helminths (parasitic worms)
• Major burden of disease worldwide - estimated 576-740 million people infected with hookworm
• Hookworms live in the small intestine, eggs are passed in faeces of infected person – this is a problem in the developing world where people may defecate outside (near bushes, in a garden, or field) of if the faeces of an infected person are used as fertilizer, eggs are deposited on soil.
• Eggs then mature and hatch, releasing larvae (immature worms).
• The larvae mature into a form that can penetrate the skin of humans, and infection is mainly acquired by walking barefoot on contaminated
• Infection is treatable – anthelminthic medications eg. albenadazole
(There are two cuddly toys for this, so you can show a second uninfected mosquito feeding off a human host)
Mosquito (Culex pipiens):
• Most mosquitoes are harmless but some can transmit disease
• Viral diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and Chikungunya, transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti
• Parasitic disease malaria, carried by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
• Lymphatic filariasis (the main cause of elephantiasis – worms block lymphatics impairing lymph drainage causing swelling of the limbs)
• We have cuddly toys of mosquitoes – in the parasites box
(There's some cuddly toys and slides for these, and hopefully some preserved samples borrowed from the "Horrible Housemates" experiment)
1) Head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis)
• Lice are wingless biting or sucking insects. Lice infestation of any part of the body is called pediculosis!
• Live on your head (an ectoparasite) - has a single strong claw on each leg that can grab onto 6 hairs so they can move rapidly (may be on several heads in one day). But their short stumpy legs mean they can’t jump or walk well on flat surfaces.
• Your head provides a source of food - blood
• Eggs are called nits and the female attaches the eggs close to the scalp with a transparent quick-setting glue
• The time taken to hatch depends upon temperature
• Head lice have no lungs! They take in air by muscle contraction of the abdomen (via spiracles)
• Head lice have been recovered from prehistoric mummies!
2) Bed bug (Cimex lectularius)
• Ectoparasites that feed on human blood (haematophagous)
• Live in houses and especially beds – most active at night so they can feed on the host without being noticed
• Adults can survive more than a year without feeding
• They don’t usually spread disease but they can cause allergic skin reactions
• Light brown flattened oval-shaped body, vestigial front wings, microscopic hairs on abdomen that give a banded appearance
Risk Assessment
Date risk assesment last checked:
Sun, 20/01/2019
Risk assesment checked by:
Matt Worssam
Date risk assesment double checked:
Wed, 23/01/2019
Risk assesment double-checked by:
Risk Assessment:
Hazard Risk Likelihood Severity Overall Mitigation Likelihood Severity Overall
Microbe toys and accessories Trip hazard if dropped on the floor. 3 2 6 Keep all props in contained area and pick up any fallen toys as soon as is safe. Call first aider in case of injury. 2 2 4
UV cream UV cream in eyes. 2 3 6 When giving UV cream to children, tell them not to put their fingers near their eyes and ensure they rinse it off.
Call first aider in case of injury. If washing up liquid gets into an eye, demonstrator must call a first aider and may perform an eye wash if trained and confident to do so.
1 3 3
UV cream Slip hazard if spilled. 1 2 2 All spills should be cleared up immediately. Call first aider in case of injury. 1 1 1
UV cream Possible allergic reaction to cream? (Widely used in teaching, so severe reaction is likely to be rare). 1 3 3 Suggest that volunteer from group isn't one who is known to have sensitive skin.
Call first aider in case of allergic reaction, then seek further medical advice where appropriate.
1 3 3
Sensitive Topics We have a cancer cell and some things here which can cause cancer which effects lots of people, there are also several other potentially fatal diseases. 4 2 8 Deal with topic respectfully, move on if it seems distressing. Move to different experiment if required. 3 0 0
Publicity photo:
Experiment photos:
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.14100909233093262,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.923892617225647,
"url": "http://chaosscience.org.uk/node/686"
}
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Why Purple?
US Purple Heart
Why Purple?
The Purple Heart is the oldest known United States military decoration still in use. The Purple Heart formally known as the Badge of Military Merit was created by then General George Washington in 1782. Here is what he wrote:
General Washington understood two things. First, in order for the Continental Army to be successful against the British forces every soldier had to be dedicated to and understand the mission. Second, in order to keep the morale of the soldiers they had to be rewarded for exemplary service. It is assumed that General Washington chose Purple because it was associated with royalty, courage, rank, creativity, and nobility.
General Washington has taught us that leaders must reward exemplary service if they want it repeated. Leaders focus their teams on the mission and reward them for their accomplishments.
Let us help you focus your team on what’s really important…The Mission.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.40825408697128296,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9720553755760193,
"url": "http://kareemslater.com/why-purple/"
}
|
Answered By: Thomas King
Last Updated: Nov 29, 2018 Views: 1
FAIR stands for 'Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable'. To summarise briefly, 'Findable' means the data should have rich metadata and a persistent identifier, such as a DOI, to ensure it can be found using search engines or repository search functions; 'Accessible' means the data should have an explicit indication of its conditions of reuse, ideally (though not always) through the use of an open licence, and that when possible the format the data is made available in is accessible without expensive proprietary software; 'Interoperable' means the data should be described with community-agreed standards, such as the use of controlled vocabularies; and 'Reusable' means the chosen licence should be machine-readable, allowing for search engines to find it easily, and accompanied by sufficient information that the origin and purpose of the data is understandable.
Many universities, academic professional bodies and funders are developing their own guidelines for FAIR open data. If you would like to read further, we advise you begin with the Force11 statement on the FAIR principles.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06901973485946655,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9185411930084229,
"url": "http://libanswers.lib.uct.ac.za/faq/242758"
}
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Is the Earth round?
The Earth is an irregularly shaped ellipsoid.
Earth from space
While the Earth appears to be round when viewed from the vantage point of space, it is actually closer to an ellipsoid. However, even an ellipsoid does not adequately describe the Earth’s unique and ever-changing shape.
Additionally, the shape of the Earth is always changing. Sometimes this change is periodic, as is the case with daily tides that affect both the ocean and the crust; sometimes the change is slow and steady, as with the drift of tectonic plates or the rebound of the crust after a heavy sheet of ice has melted; and sometimes the shape of the planet changes in violent, episodic ways during events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or meteor strikes.
The National Geodetic Survey measures and monitors our ever-changing planet. Geodesy is the science of measuring and monitoring the size and shape of the Earth, including its gravity field, and determining the location of points on the Earth’s surface.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.0625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9640913009643555,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9148249626159668,
"url": "https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/earth-round.html"
}
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Soviet October in the Yankee Imagination
A century after the seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and Leon Trotsky, the current validity of the ideas of the Russian Revolution of October 1917 can be seen in the orientation of the struggles waged by the peoples of the whole against capitalist exploitation.
October cleared the roads to human liberation that Marxism had identified and discovered in other new ways. It led the nation to achieve great successes in economic, politics, culture, social justice and defense, to make backward Russia a world power in a short time.
October allowed the efforts and sacrifices of the peoples of the Soviet Union to reach the level of economic, military and scientific development that brought about a bipolarity of the world in which the nations of the planet could rest their hopes of progress. The United States was no exception.
In January 1919, Lenin invited the left wing of the Socialist Party of America (SPA) to join the newly-created Communist International in Moscow. In the spring of that year this wing took control of the whole party displacing its previous leadership, which was smaller and of social-democratic orientation.
From its origins, the SPA suffered attacks from several state governments and from the US federal government itself. It feared a repeat of the revolts that were taking place on European soil. In the United States, between the end of 1919 and January 1920, the “red terror” led the United States Attorney General to order the arrest of thousands of communists, with the Sedition Act of 1918 as a legal basis.
During the Great Depression of 1929, the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA) multiplied its pacts with small union groups. The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as president also meant the renewal of the unions and increased in them the influence of the CPUSA.
During this period, the CPUSA was distinguished by its defense of the Second Spanish Republic, a victim of the Francoist uprising that led to the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Leftists from all over the world joined to defend the Republic, providing funds for medical care and in many cases volunteering in the International Brigades. The CPUSA provided the first members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, which, in addition to supporting the Republican government of Spain, was the first military force made of US-made military force in which blacks and whites were integrated in the same ranks, with the same rights and obligations.
When the United States Communist Party (CPUSA) was formed in 1919, the Washington government had long suppressed the Socialists because they had opposed American intervention in World War I and made a campaign against military service. As of January 1920, the new target of persecution was the communists who began to be massively imprisoned. The CPUSA was forced into hiding and had to change its name several times to avoid arrest of its cadres and militants.
In the 1930s, the FBI persecuted Nazis and Communists under suspicion that they intended to launch an armed revolt against the federal government. In 1940, laws that made it illegal to hold a favorable opinion to overthrow the government came into force.
In 1941, when the United States was about to enter the world war in Europe and Japan, the Roosevelt government accused 29 members of the Socialist Workers’ Party (SWP), then political allied with the Fourth International, of sedition and conspiracy to overthrow the government. The FBI raided the offices of the SWP and formed a grand jury for the trial. The accused used the process to proclaim their socialist principles from the dock, rejected the imperialist war and refuted the presentation of the socialist revolution as a conspiracy or coup.
The United States’ entry into World War II in December 1941 forced an alliance with the Soviet Union that enabled the recruitment of communist militants into the US military. At the end of the Second World War, in 1945, and the beginning of the Cold War against the USSR, the official US “truce” with the CPUSA ended and an anti-communist psychosis was exacerbated by the alleged discovery of “Soviet espionage networks” and the denunciation of a growing power of the communists in the industrial trade union sector. Then came the McCarthy or witch-hunt period, one of the most shameful episodes in the legal history of the United States, which included the political murder of the couple Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, of sedition and conspiracy to overthrow the government a hate crime that still cries out for justice.
A CubaNews translation by Walter Lippmann.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06417679786682129,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.911487340927124,
"url": "https://www.counterpunch.org/2017/09/08/soviet-october-in-the-yankee-imagination/"
}
|
Table of Contents
Big O notation
Class Notation Description
Constant complexity O(1) Most instructions are executed once
Logarithmic complexity O(log N) Program becomes gradually slower with more input data
Linear complexity O(N) Runtime increases linearly with input data
Linear-logarithmic complexity O(N log N) Runtime is a bit more than doubled for doubled input (in devide and conquer algorithms)
Quadratic complexity O(N2) Quadrupled runtime for doubled input
Exponential complexity O(2N) Runtime grows expontentially for increased input.
The performance of a system is not only dependent upon the theoretical complexity of the algorithms. It also depends upon its environment, e.g. the operating system, the compiler, runtime environment and the hardware. As all this factors cannot be reliably derived from theory an emperical analysis is necessary as well.
Scientific method
• How much faster?
• What tried out with which effects?
• Make experiments reproducible
The purpose of optimization is to find a better approximation to the ideal runtime and resource consumption. The optimization process is a variant of the scientific method. It should be applied incrementally.
1. Start with the simplest possible solution for the required functionality
2. Analyze the performance and resource usage of the system
3. Identify the bottleneck
4. Define a testing scenario for the bottleneck (with best, average and worst case input data)
5. Apply the SCAMPER checklist to every instruction to find out a possibly better solution
6. Implement the improved solution
7. Rerun the testing scenario and compare the mutation with previous versions of the algorithm
8. Go back to step (5) until solution is good enough
9. Go back to step (2) until termination
Algorithm engineering
Books on this subject
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"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.7003291249275208,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8445322513580322,
"url": "http://notes.experimental-software.com/SoftwareEngineering/Programming/Performance.html"
}
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Open main menu
Japanese print from 1854 describing Commodore Matthew Perry's "Black Ships".
The Black Ships (in Japanese: 黒船, kurofune, Edo period term) was the name given to Western vessels arriving in Japan in the 16th and 19th centuries.
In 1543 Portuguese initiated the first contacts, establishing a trade route linking Goa to Nagasaki. The large carracks engaged in this trade had the hull painted black with pitch, and the term came to represent all western vessels. In 1639, after suppressing a rebellion blamed on the Christian influence, the ruling Tokugawa shogunate retreated into an isolationist policy, the Sakoku. During this "locked state", contact with Japan by Westerners was restricted to Dejima island at Nagasaki.
In 1844, William II of the Netherlands urged Japan to open, but was rejected. On July 8, 1853, the U.S. Navy steamed four warships into the bay at Edo and threatened to attack if Japan did not begin trade with the West. Their arrival marked the reopening of the country to political dialogue after more than two hundred years of self-imposed isolation. Trade with Western nations would not come until the Treaty of Amity and Commerce more than five years later.
In particular, kurofune refers to Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna of the Perry Expedition for the opening of Japan, 1852–1854, that arrived on July 14, 1853, at Uraga Harbor (part of present-day Yokosuka) in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan under the command of United States Commodore Matthew Perry.[1] Black refers to the black color of the older sailing vessels, and the black smoke from the coal-fired steam engines of the American ships. In this sense, the kurofune became a symbol of the ending of isolation.
Brooklyn Museum – Commodore Matthew Perry's "Black Ship"
First kurofune ships: nau do tratoEdit
Portuguese black carrack in Nagasaki, in the early 17th century.
In 1543 Portuguese traders arrived in Japan initiating the first contacts with the West. Soon they established a trade route linking their headquarters in Goa, via Malacca to Nagasaki. Large carracks engaged in the flourishing "Nanban trade", introducing modern inventions from the European traders, such as refined sugar, optics, and firearms; it was the firearms, arquebuses, which became a major innovation of the Sengoku period—a time of intense internal warfare—when the matchlocks were replicated. Later, they engaged in triangular trade, exchanging silver from Japan with silk from China via Macau.[2]
Carracks of 1200 to 1600 tons,[3] named nau do trato ("treaty ship") or nau da China by the Portuguese,[4] engaged in this trade had the hull painted black with pitch, and the term[5] came to apply for all western vessels. The name was inscribed in the Nippo Jisho, the first western Japanese dictionary compiled in 1603.
The Tokugawa shogunate retreated back into a policy of isolationism identified as Sakoku (鎖国, "locked country"), forbidding contact with most outside countries. Only a limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Netherlands was maintained.[6] The Sakoku policy remained in effect until 1853 with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry and the "opening" of Japan.
Gunboat diplomacyEdit
Commodore Perry's superior military force was the principal factor in negotiating a treaty allowing American trade with Japan, thus effectively ending the Sakoku period of more than 200 years in which trading with Japan had been permitted to the Dutch, Koreans, Chinese, and Ainu exclusively.
The sight of the four ships entering Edo Bay, roaring black smoke into the air and capable of moving under their own power, deeply frightened the Japanese.[7] Perry ignored the requests arriving from the shore that he should move to Nagasaki—the official port for trade with the outside—and threatened in turn to take his ships directly to Edo, and burn the city to the ground if he was not allowed to land. It was eventually agreed upon that he should land nearby at Kurihama, whereupon he delivered his letter and left.[8]
To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of Susquehanna and Joel Abbot was captain of Macedonian. Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed on Mississippi.[relevant? ]
The following year, at the Convention of Kanagawa, Perry returned with a fleet of eight of the fearsome Black Ships, to demonstrate the power of the United States navy, and to lend weight to his announcement that he would not leave again, until he had a treaty. In the interim following his previous visit, the Tokugawa shogunate had learned about the staggering destruction of the Chinese fleet by a handful of British warships in 1841 during the First Opium War, and about China's subsequent loss of Hong Kong to British sovereignty.[7] The shogunate realized that—if they wished for their country to avoid a similar fate—they would need to make peace with the west.
After a roughly a month of negotiations, the shōgun's officials presented Perry with the Treaty of Peace and Amity. Perry refused certain conditions of the treaty but agreed to defer their resolution to a later time, and finally establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States. The eight ships departed, leaving behind a consul at Shimoda to negotiate a more permanent agreement. The Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858, and within five years of the signing of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, Japan had moved to sign treaties with other western countries.[8]
Commodore Perry's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854.
泰平の Taihei no
眠りを覚ます Nemuri o samasu
上喜撰 Jōkisen
たった四杯で Tatta shihai de
夜も眠れず Yoru mo nemurezu
Awoken from sleep
of a peaceful quiet world
by Jokisen tea;
with only four cups of it
one can't sleep even at night.
There is an alternative translation, based on the pivot words. Taihei can refer to the "Pacific Ocean" (太平); jōkisen also means "steam-powered ships" (蒸気船); and shihai also means "four vessels". The poem, therefore, has a hidden meaning:
The steam-powered ships
break the halcyon slumber
of the Pacific;
a mere four boats are enough
to make us lose sleep at night.
Kurofune ("The Black Ships") is also the title of the first Japanese opera, composed by Kosaku Yamada, "based on the story of Tojin Okichi, a geisha caught up in the turmoil that swept Japan in the waning years of the Tokugawa shogunate",[9] which premiered in 1940.[10]
See alsoEdit
4. ^ Rodrigues, Helena. "Nau do trato". Cham. Cham. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
8. ^ a b Beasley, William G (1972). The Meiji Restoration. Stamford University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0804708150.
9. ^ "'Black Ships' opera". New National Theatre Tokyo.
10. ^ "Simon Holledge's interview with Hiroshi Oga citing the premiere of the 'Black Ships' opera". Archived from the original on 2010-05-31.
External linksEdit
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"fasttext_score": 0.046153903007507324,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9340119957923889,
"url": "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Ships"
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The Facts: What is a Psychoeducational Evaluation and Why is it Valuable
November 7, 2013
A psychoeducational evaluation, sometimes referred to as a psych-ed eval or neuropsych eval, is an assessment of how a student learns. It measures different types of reasoning, memory, and working efficiency. This is in contrast to learned knowledge, like math facts or vocabulary definitions.
Pyschoeducational evaluations are most commonly recommended for students who are having difficulty in school. However, the information in a psychoeducational evaluation is great for every student.
Mindprint got started as result of the founders’ own frustration with the psychoeducational process. They wanted to help other families by offering a streamlined psychoeducational evaluation at a fraction of the time and cost.
psychoeducational evaluation
Click to watch our video of the psychoeducational evaluation process
In the following post, Princeton-based adolescent psychologist Dr. Carol Blum explains what a psychoeducational evaluation is, why it can require so much time and expense, and what to consider before paying for one.
Question 1: What is included in a psychoeducational evaluation?
Psychoeducational evaluations vary according to the age of the child and the goal. However, most psychoeducational evaluations will include six key components:
1. Background Review.
Evaluations always begin with an initial interview with parents and student and review of academic records. It often includes behavior checklists completed by the parents, teachers and student and a test of fine motor skills. Psychologists might start with a cognitive screener like Mindprint to focus their evaluation.
2. Evaluation of Cognitive Skills.
The goal is an overall view of a child’s strengths and weaknesses in reasoning, memory, working efficiency and executive functions. Among the more popular tests are the Wechsler IQ tests: WPPSI (preschool), WISC (ages 6-16), and WAIS (ages 16+) Alternatively, psychologists might start with the Woodcock-Johnson or other normed and validated tests of cognitive abilities. Your clinician might have a good justification for using one test over another, but you’ll want to ask which test they are choosing and why.
3. Academic Achievement Testing.
This testing covers reading, writing, spelling, math, listening, etc. This part of the testing can be similar to tests taken in school, and some clinicians might use school tests rather than their own. Psychologists will compare the achievement test results with cognitive tests to understand discrepancies between achievement and overall capabilities.
4. Additional supplemental tests as needed.
Specific tests can be added to fine-tune understanding of specific areas that might be causing difficulty such as attention, language, memory, and processing skills. Psychologists will often add on tests if they want to confirm a diagnosis or if they need to understand any inconsistencies.
5. Personality and emotional testing.
Called “projective” testing, these tests are selected according to the child’s age and emotional maturity. Personality testing may include drawing, storytelling, the Rorschach, the TAT, or sentence completion. The goal is to understand where the child is emotionally as well as cognitively, as differences in cognitive age and emotional age can impact behavior and academic performance.
6. Observations.
The psychologist will always use their own professional observations to verify a diagnosis. They might also reference teacher observations or visit the school to assess environmental or behavioral considerations.
Question 2: How much does a psychoeducational evaluation cost?
The cost varies widely by professional and geographic location, but a psychoeducational evaluation usually costs between $2,000 and $5,000 and the process can take anywhere from 2 weeks to several months depending on the tests administered and the number of observational visits necessary. Health insurance may cover part of the cost of an evaluation that diagnoses psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, and ADHD), but usually will not cover the cost if there is an educational or learning challenge.
Question 3: How is a private psychoeducational evaluation different from the school psychologist’s evaluation?
A private psychoeducational evaluation will most likely be comprehensive and include all of the above. Usually there must be a demonstrated need for the school to provide an evaluation. For example, the child might need to be more than a year or two academically behind peers on standardized tests before the school will provide an evaluation. Parents might not want to wait that long.
There are certain areas a school evaluation often does not cover, including emotional challenges or behavior. Keep in mind, that the school psychologist works for the school, not the family, so their time might be limited or focused on the concerns raised by the school, not the parents. If you are having a school evaluation you will want to confirm what areas they are evaluating and what they are not taking into consideration.
Question 4: When is it the right time to seek an outside evaluation and not rely on the school?
A private evaluation offers more privacy to the family. Parents might opt to not share their results with the school. On the other hand, a school-based evaluation is free and available to all children, even if they attend private school or are home schooled. A private evaluation might be the only option in cases where the parent has concerns but the child does not meet the school’s demonstrated need for a school evaluation.
Question 5: Are there any “in-between” alternatives?
An at-home cognitive screener can be a good, relatively affordable first step for parents who have concerns but the school says the child does not qualify for an evaluation. At-home screeners can help validate concerns and decide on the best potential course of action. It offers you the privacy of a private evaluation without the cost. Keep in mind, however, that a diagnosis will still require consultation with a psychologist. If your screener results suggest that there is a problem, you can bring those results to the school as further evidence of your child’s need, potentially avoiding the costs of a private evaluation.
Other Resources
Department of Education
National Center for Learning Disabilities
Wrights Law
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Types of Muscular Dystrophy
There are many types of muscular dystrophy; of these Duchenne is the most common and most severe.
Duchenne This type of MD occurs when muscle fibers develop with abnormal dystrophin. Duchenne affects about one out of every 3,300 boys, who usually begin to show symptoms between ages two and five, with rapid muscle weakness first affecting the pelvic muscles. Most children lose the ability to walk by age 12 and must use a wheelchair, eventually developing muscle weakness in shoulders, back, arms, and legs. Even tually the muscles involved in breathing weaken, which can be fatal. Typically, children with Duchenne MD live only to about age 20 years. Although most children have average intelligence, learning disabilities (especially those involving verbal learning and reading comprehension) are more common in boys with Duchenne than in other children.
Becker This type of MD is similar to Duchenne, but it progresses more slowly. Symptoms typically begin during adolescence, although they can first appear as early as age five or as late as age 25. Muscle weakness first occurs in the pelvic muscles, affecting the ability to walk. As the disease progresses, strength in the shoulders and back is also affected. Because Becker progresses so slowly, many children with Becker have a normal life span.
Myotonic This is the most common adult form of MD, although half of all cases are still diagnosed in patients younger than 20. Primary symptoms involve facial weakness, a very slow relaxation of muscles after contraction, and weak hand muscles. The disease may be mild or severe, but because the defective gene is dominant, even someone with mild symptoms can transmit a more serious case of it to offspring. A less common congenital form affects only a small number of infants born to mothers with myotonic dystrophy, but it has a worse prognosis.
Limb-girdle This type of MD begins between ages five and 30, first affecting either the pelvic muscles or the shoulder and back muscles; eventually both areas are affected. The severity of muscle weakness differs from person to person, as does the rate at which muscle weakness progresses. Some people develop only mild conditions, but many others develop severe disabilities by middle age.
Facioscapulohumeral This type of MD can begin at any age, although it typically first appears during adolescence. Because this form of muscular dystrophy tends to progress slowly, teens who are affected usually have a normal life span. Muscle weakness first develops in the face, making it hard for children to close their eyes, whistle, or puff out their cheeks. The shoulder and back muscles gradually weaken, until it is hard for patients to lift objects or raise their hands over their head. Over time, the legs and pelvic muscles also lose strength. Some people develop minor physical symptoms (such as not being able to close the eyes during sleep), while others have profound disabilities. Rarely, infants develop symptoms during the first year or two of life, resulting in expressionless faces and serious muscle weakness during early childhood.
Congenital This type of MD is actually a group of disorders with two unique characteristics: At birth, babies have weak muscles, often causing joint contractures and deformities, and muscle biopsies show nonspecific abnormalities. Joint contractures occur when muscles attached to a joint have unequal strength; the stronger muscle pulls and bends the joint into a locked and nonfunctional position. A combination of the facial, arm and leg, pelvic, respiratory, and shoulder muscles can be weak at birth, but this muscle weakness rarely gets worse.
Some types of congenital MD affect the brain, triggering seizures and gradual but constant deterioration.
Other There are several other types of rare muscular dystrophy, including distal, ocular, ocu-lopharyngeal, and Emery-Dreifuss.
Muscular dystrophy is a treatable but not curable disease, although affected children today live longer and have a better quality of life due to new treatments that improve muscle and joint function, slow muscle deterioration, and keep kids comfortable, active, and independent for a longer period of time.
A team of medical specialists will work with the family of an affected child, including a neurologist, orthopedist, pulmonologist, physical and occupational therapist, nurse practitioner, and a social worker.
Different treatments are used to care for children at different stages of the disease. A combination of physical therapy, joint bracing, and prednisone treat children in the early stage, whereas assistive technology may be used in later stages.
Physical therapy and braces The primary treatment for early MD is passive muscle stretching to maintain muscle tone and joint movement to reduce contractures. Leg braces also can help prevent contractures and enable children to stand and walk using weakened muscles and joints more effectively. By providing extra support in just the right places, bracing lets children do more things independently for a longer period of time.
Prednisone This steroid medication has been shown to slow the rate of muscle deterioration in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which allows children to walk longer and live more active lives. In some cases, children with Duchenne are still walking in late junior high school, when in the past they would have been in a wheelchair.
Experts do not agree about the best time to begin treating children with prednisone, but most doctors prescribe it when children are five or six or when they show a significant decline in strength. Unfortunately, prednisone commonly causes weight gain, which may strain already weak muscles. It also can cause a loss of bone density that could lead to fractures.
For unknown reasons, sometimes prednisone does not slow the rate of muscle deterioration. For this reason, doctors closely monitor a child's weight and blood pressure, trying to improve muscle strength without causing excessive weight gain.
Surgery If joints become contracted, orthopedic surgery can help improve function.
Spinal fusion Most children with Duchenne and Becker dystrophy develop a severe curvature of the spine because the back muscles are too weak to hold the spine straight. Some children may undergo spinal fusion to place a pair of metal rods down the length of the spine so that they can sit upright in a chair and be more comfortable. Usually, a child with muscular dystrophy is a candidate for spinal fusion when there is a 25-degree spinal curvature.
Respiratory care Many children with muscular dystrophy develop weakened heart and respiratory muscles and sometimes develop serious respiratory infections because they cannot cough out mucus easily. Good general health care and regular vaccinations are especially important for children with muscular dystrophy to prevent these infections.
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Madhubani Paintings
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Madhubani Paintings
Madhubani Painting
Madhubani painting or Mithila art is a 2500-year-old Indian art form having its origin in the Mithila region of Bihar and Nepal.
Madhubani paintings are said to have their origins during the period of Ramayana. It is believed that King Janaka had once expressed his desire to get Princess Sita’s wedding captured in the form of a painting. The result was what we call Madhubani painting today. This art form was practiced in the mud walls and floors of the homes in Bihar.
A massive earthquake hit Bihar in 1934, thus leading to the discovery of this art form. British Colonial officer William G. Archer happened to run into one of these paintings while he was looking into the damage caused by the earthquake in the interior walls of homes in Bihar.
How are Madhubani paintings made?
Artists use bright colours extracted from natural dyes in these paintings. They are created using fingers, twigs, matchsticks and even pen nibs in modern times. It is difficult to spot any blank space in these paintings. Rice paste is used to make outlines of the framework. The border is usually enhanced with geometric and floral patterns.
Popular Themes and Designs
The figures depicted through these paintings have protruding fish-like eyes and pointed noses. Themes revolve around Hindu deities and natural elements such as bamboo tree, parrot, turtle, fish sun, moon, and lotus. Artists also draw complex geometric patterns to delineate love, devotion, and prosperity. These paintings depict ritual content for special occasions, ceremonies and festivals from mythology like Ramayana.
Present Scenario
Women like Mahalaxmi, Dulari and Karpuri Devi (sister-in-law of known artist Mahasundari Devi) from Ranti village of Bihar have kept this traditional art form alive in more ways than one. They have not only taught other women about this alluring art form but also created awareness on how to take the legacy forward. At present, the Mithila museum of Japan showcases their splendid work of art.
Available at Delhi :
Ambapalu Bihar Emporioum, Dilli Haat, Sutasta, State Emporiums CP
Madhubani Paintings
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Five Basic Rules for Memory
All computers possess the ability to store information in its memory, also called Random Access Memory, or RAM. Some computers can hold small amounts of stored data in the memory and others have the ability to store massive amounts of information. Whether looking at memory for your next computer or trying to improve the memory on an existing computer, there are five basic rules for memory.
Knowing about RAM is the first rule for computer memory. Random access memory is a type of computer storage that allows files and information to be used. This process allows quick access to data that programs use. Most computer users have a version of Windows, such as Windows 95 or Windows XP as their operating system. Those who have Mac programs use another operating system. When looking at RAM for your computer, it is important to look at the size. Most computers users need a minimum of 128 MB. However, the larger the MB size, the better the computer will operate.
New computers with newer versions of Windows will need a higher RAM to run smoothly while an older version of Windows will require less RAM. Also, while a minimum amount of RAM will allow the system to operate, it may not perform at as well as it should.
Another rule to remember when thinking about computer memory will be to become familiar with cache and how cache works. Cache, pronounced “cash”, is a special type of high-speed memory. The cache is a buffer between the processor and the main memory. It will send data into the processes. This allows the computer to do the same functions over and over again. When the computer is called on to retrieve data, it will search the internal cache first. If the information is not found in the cache, it will search in the external cache chips next and then in the RAM last.
A cache holds all redundant information to save memory space and help the computer increase the speed. When the computer becomes slow, it is often recommended to clean the cache files and cookies that have been stored. By clearing space from these places, it allows the computer to process information faster. When it cannot locate the information in the cache, it will look in external cache chips and in the RAM. An example of how cache works is when a page on the Internet has been stored into the computer. This allows the user to go back to the last page or forward to the next.
Knowing what makes a computer work fast is another good rule for computer memory. Megahertz (MHz) is the speed measuring how fast a computer can think. Computers come in a wide variety of megahertz. This measurement of chip performance is expressed as millions of cycles per second. The higher MHz a computer has, the faster it will run. This directly affects how fast the computer can operate computers and commands. Some speeds on computers are measured in gigahertz (GHz). Gigahertz is measured in billions of cycles per second. One GHz is the same as 1000MHz. Computers with GHz are often used with programs that use multimedia applications.
The last two rules of computer memory involve keeping the computer’s memory clean and free to store more information and updating memory. Computers take a lot of memory to keep going. Storing too much information on a system is the number one way to slow the computer down. Having too much stored in the memory bogs the computer down and will often cause computers to crash as well. When a computer becomes slow, it is often necessary to clean the computer’s memory by defragging the system or deleting unnecessary files and programs.
Computer users can find out how much memory their computers have by checking the system control panel in Windows. That information can be located in the About This Computer menu on a Mac. This can also tell the user how much RAM the computer can handle and what type of memory and the speed of the RAM. New memory for an older computer can be updated easily and inexpensively if more is needed.
Most computer technicians can install more memory into the computer with minimal cost. When looking to hire someone to install computer memory it is recommended to purchase upgraded RAM from a vendor that gives a good guarantee. Make sure to back up all files on a disk before having the memory upgraded.
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heavy element concentration, related to the occurrence of planets
In the absence of heavy elements, it appears impossible that planets or life can form (see planetary systems, formation). But more particularly it has turned out that of the host stars of known exoplanets, the great majority have an above-average heavy element content. Several, indeed, boast the highest known concentration of such elements in our region of the Galaxy, with up to three times the level found in the Sun. This bias has inspired theorists to examine the possible consequences for planet formation and for the frequency with which planets occur in the Galaxy.
Some astronomers, such as Guillermo Gonzalez and his colleagues, have suggested1 that there may be the equivalent of a habitable zone in the Galaxy, within which stars must lie in order to be able to acquire planetary systems. This narrow band, called the galactic habitable zone and located roughly halfway out in the galactic disk, would harbor material with sufficient heavy element content to enable the condensation of planets in circumstellar disks but not so high as to produce large amounts of debris which would shatter new-formed worlds or lead to planets being thrown around by mutual interactions. Other researchers, including Douglas Lin have argued that there is such a wide variation of heavy element concentration within our own solar system that minor variations in heavy element enrichment elsewhere may not be such an important factor in planet formation. Rather, according to this idea, the high level of these elements in stars known to have planets may be a consequence of one or two planets having fallen into their primaries and consequently enriched the star's surface layers. Stellar ingestion of large numbers of comets and asteroids could have the same effect.
1. Gonzalez, G. "Extrasolar Planets and ETI," Astronomy & Geophysics, 39, 68 (1998).
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Home » Blogs » The Emotionally Sensitive Person » Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
As a child, you learned the labels for what you were feeling from your caregivers. Is that tightness in your throat fear or excitement? Is the tension in our muscles anger or fear? Those around you gave you labels for what you were experiencing in your body with statements like, “You’re such a ball of nerves today,” “Stop crying, you’re just mad you didn’t get your way,” or “I’m guessing you’re pretty mad at your mom.”
Sometimes your caregivers may not have been accurate in giving you labels for what you were feeling. Perhaps they guessed wrong or made assumptions that weren’t accurate. Maybe those around you weren’t comfortable with happiness or anger or sadness and so they would tell you that you were feeling a different emotion. In these situations you may not have learned how to label your emotions accurately.
As a child, you didn’t know how to label what you felt, so you didn’t know if the label others gave you was accurate. Think about your experience. Is it possible that you label excitement as fear? Maybe you label excitement as happiness? Perhaps when you’re afraid you express anger and don’t recognize the fear? These are just a few ways that you may have learned inaccurate labels for your emotional experiences.
Caregivers and those around you also taught you how to think about emotions. If your family was uncomfortable with emotions, then you probably learned to avoid them as much as possible or to push them down. If your family was comfortable with anger but not with sadness, then you are likely to express anger easily and hide other emotions. What was the message you were given about emotions?
Part of coping effectively with emotions is accurately labeling your emotions. Just knowing what you are feeling acts like a brake on the emotion. It’s difficult to regulate emotions if you’re pushing them away most of the time. In fact, pushing emotions away and trying not to feel will make it more likely that you’ll act impulsively or experience depression or anxiety.
An important skill to help regulate emotions is to Observe and Describe Emotions. If you can observe and describe your emotions you will be better at regulating them. You’ll also learn that you are separate from your emotions. If you can observe what you are feeling, then you are separate from that emotion. When you are separate from your emotions, then you can make choices about whether to act on them or not.
You can also choose to be at one with your emotions. This means that you accept your emotions as part of you. When you are participating in pleasurable activities, this is important. You want to throw yourself into the activity and fully enjoy it.
You can learn to accurately observe and describe your emotions. Being able to observe and describe your emotions means to be able to describe all the components of emotions: the prompting event, any interpretations or judgements or assumptions that occur, the physiological changes in the body, your facial and body expressions of the emotion, the aftereffects of the emotion and the name of the emotion. If you have a secondary emotion, label that too.
Think of a time recently when you had a moderately strong emotion. Can you answer the following questions about that emotion?
1. What prompted the emotion?
2. What was your interpretation of the prompting event? Did you judge the prompting event? Did you make assumptions? Are the facts of the prompting event different from what you assumed or thought? How did that change your emotions?
3. How did your body feel when you experienced the emotion about the event?
What expression did you have on your face? What was your
body posture?
4. What were the after effects of the emotion? After you experienced the emotion, what happened? For example did you feel angry that you were scared? Did you have thoughts about the emotions you felt?
5. What action urge did you have when you experienced the emotion?
6. Did you have a secondary emotion?
Practice answering these questions about different emotions that you have experienced. The more you practice the more you’ll naturally observe and describe your emotions and improve your ability to cope with emotions.
Photos by Used with permission.
Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
Karyn Hall, PhD
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APA Reference
Hall, K. (2016). Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions. Psych Central. Retrieved on May 21, 2019, from
Last updated: 13 Sep 2016
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Definition of EAL Terms
English as an Additional Language
Acknowledges that there are pupils who regularly use one or more languages in addition to English.
Term is acceptable for people of African and Caribbean origin. Varies whether people find it acceptable however. ‘Black and Asian’ is a preferable term. (DEREC 2003)
Can be used but most prefer to be referenced to their specific country or religion. For example – Indian/ Bangladeshi or Hindu/ Sikh. Younger people who are born in Britain may prefer the terms British Asians or British.
Bilingual here is taken to mean all pupils who use or have access to more than one language at home or at school-pupils who are living in and learning in English or more other languages. It does not necessarily imply full fluency in both languages’ (Aiming High DfES 2003)
Ethnic Origin
Any cohort, who has an ethnic origin, has a cultural tradition and a shared history. Other characteristics may be common geographical origin, common language, common religion or being a minority in a dominant group in a large community.
Minority Ethnic (M.E.)
Term applies to all who have an ethnic identity. The concept of minority ethnic can apply to any groups –including indigenous, white minorities.
Minority Ethnic and Traveller Attainment Service
People of colour
Term common in the USA and gaining popularity in Britain. (DEREC 2003)
Someone who is forced to flee their own country, who escapes to another country and is given refugee status by the government there. To qualify for refugee status, the person has to prove that they cannot return home; owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationally, membership of a particular social group or political opinion’’ (1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees).
Asylum seeker
An asylum seeker is 'a person who has crossed an international border in search of safety; and refugee status, in another country'. (Rutter, 1998 Refugee council.)
In the UK, a refugee is when a person’s asylum claim has been accepted. While waiting for a decision, the person is termed an asylum seeker.
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Disease burden
From WikiMD free wellness and medical encyclopedia
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Disease burden is the impact of a health problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), both of which quantify the number of years lost due to disease. One DALY can be thought of as one year of healthy life lost, and the overall disease burden can be thought of as a measure of the gap between current health status and the ideal health status (where the individual lives to old age free from disease and disability).[1][2][3] The environmental burden of disease is defined as the number of DALYs that can be attributed to environmental factors.[3][4][5] These measures allow for comparison of disease burdens, and have also been used to forecast the possible impacts of health interventions.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has provided a set of detailed guidelines for measuring disease burden at the local or national level.[3] For example, years lost due to disability (YLD) (or years of potential life lost – YPLL) measures the years of what could have been a healthy life that were instead spent in states of less than full health. In 2004, the health issue leading to the highest YLD for both men and women was unipolar depression;[6] in 2010, it was lower back pain.[7]
In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 1.5 billion disability-adjusted life years were lost to disease and injury.[8][9]
Disease category Percent of all Template:Abbr, worldwide[9] Percent of all Template:Abbr, worldwide[8] Percent of all YPLLs, Europe[9] Percent of all DALYs, Europe[8] Percent of all YPLLs, US and Canada[9] Percent of all DALYs, US and Canada[8]
Neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression 2% 13% 3% 19% 5% 28%
Premature birth and other perinatal deaths (infant mortality) 11% 8% 4% 2% 3% 2%
The first study on the global burden of disease, conducted in 1990, quantified the health effects of more than 100 diseases and injuries for eight regions of the world, giving estimates of morbidity and mortality by age, sex, and region. It also introduced the DALY as a new metric to quantify the burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors.[3][10][11] In 2000–2002, the 1990 study was updated to include a more extensive analysis using a framework known as comparative risk factor assessment.[10]
Modifiable risk factors
In 2006, the WHO released a report which addressed the amount of global disease that could be prevented by reducing environmental risk factors.[4] The report found that approximately one fourth of the global disease burden, and more than one third of the burden among children, was due to modifiable environmental factors. The "environmentally-mediated" disease burden is much higher in developing countries, with the exception of certain non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers, where the per capita disease burden is larger in developed countries. Children have the highest death toll, with more than 4 million environmentally-caused deaths yearly, mostly in developing countries. The infant death rate attributed to environmental causes is also 12 times higher in developing countries. 85 out of the 102 major diseases and injuries classified by WHO were due to environmental factors.[4]
To measure the environmental health impact, environment was defined as "all the physical, chemical and biological factors external to a person, and all the related behaviours".[12] The definition of modifiable environment included:
Certain environmental factors were excluded from this definition:
The WHO developed a methodology to quantify the health of a population using summary measures, which combine information on mortality and non-fatal health outcomes. The measures quantify either health gaps or health expectancies; the most commonly used health summary measure is the DALY.[2][11][13]
The exposure-based approach, which measures exposure via pollutant levels, is used to calculate the environmental burden of disease.[15] This approach requires knowledge of the outcomes associated with the relevant risk factor, exposure levels and distribution in the study population, and dose-response relationships of the pollutants.
A dose-response relationship is a function of the exposure parameter assessed for the study population.[2] Exposure distribution and dose-response relationships are combined to yield the study population's health impact distribution, usually expressed in terms of incidence. The health impact distribution can then be converted into health summary measures, such as DALYs. Exposure-response relationships for a given risk factor are commonly obtained from epidemiological studies.[2][3] For example, the disease burden of outdoor air pollution for Santiago, Chile was calculated by measuring the concentration of atmospheric particulate matter (PM10), estimating the susceptible population, and combining these data with relevant dose-response relationships. A reduction of particulate matter levels in the air to recommended standards would cause a reduction of about 5,200 deaths, 4,700 respiratory hospital admissions, and 13,500,000 days of restricted activity per year, for a total population of 4.7 million.[2]
In 2002, the WHO estimated the global environmental burden of disease by using risk assessment data to develop environmentally attributable fractions (EAFs) of mortality and morbidity for 85 categories of disease.[2][3][16] In 2007, they released the first country-by-country analysis of the impact environmental factors had on health for its then 192 member states. These country estimates were the first step to assist governments in carrying out preventive action. The country estimates were divided into three parts:
Environmental burden of disease for selected risk factors
This presents the yearly burden, expressed in deaths and DALYs, attributable to: indoor air pollution from solid fuel use; outdoor air pollution; and unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene. Results are calculated using the exposure-based approach.
Total environmental burden of disease for the relevant country
The total number of deaths, DALYs per capita, and the percentage of the national burden of disease attributable to the environment represent the disease burden that could be avoided by modifying the environment as a whole.
Environmental burden by disease category
Each country summary was broken down by the disease group, where the annual number of DALYs per capita attributable to environmental factors were calculated for each group.[3]
Implementation and interpretation
The public health impacts of air pollution (annual means of PM10 and ozone), noise pollution, and radiation (radon and UV), can be quantified using DALYs. For each disease, a DALY is calculated as:
DALYs = number of people with the disease × duration of the disease (or loss of life expectancy in the case of mortality) × severity (varying from 0 for perfect health to 1 for death)
Necessary data include prevalence data, exposure-response relationships, and weighting factors that give an indication of the severity of a certain disorder. When information is missing or vague, experts will be consulted in order to decide which alternative data sources to use. An uncertainty analysis is carried out so as to analyze the effects of different assumptions.[15]
When estimating the environmental burden of disease, a number of potential sources of error may arise in the measure of exposure and exposure-risk relationship, assumptions made in applying the exposure or exposure-risk relationship to the relevant country, health statistics, and, if used, expert opinions.
Generally, it is not possible to estimate a formal confidence interval, but it is possible to estimate a range of possible values the environmental disease burden may take based on different input parameters and assumptions.[2][3][4] When more than one definition has to be made about a certain element in the assessment, multiple analyses can be run, using different sets of definitions. Sensitivity and decision analyses can help determine which sources of uncertainty affect the final results the most.[4]
Representative examples
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, air pollution is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and exposure to certain forms of radiation can lead to the development of cancer. Quantification of the health impact of the environment was done by calculating DALYs for air pollution, noise, radon, UV, and indoor dampness for the period 1980 to 2020. In the Netherlands, 2–5% of the total disease burden in 2000 could be attributed to the effects of (short-term) exposure to air pollution, noise, radon, natural UV radiation, and dampness in houses. The percentage can increase to up to 13% due to uncertainty, assuming no threshold.
Among the investigated factors, long-term PM10 exposure have the greatest impact on public health. As levels of PM10 decrease, related disease burden is also expected to decrease. Noise exposure and its associated disease burden is likely to increase to a level where the disease burden is similar to that of traffic accidents. The rough estimates do not provide a complete picture of the environmental health burden, because data are uncertain, not all environmental-health relationships are known, not all environmental factors have been included, and it was not possible to assess all potential health effects. The effects of a number of these assumptions were evaluated in an uncertainty analysis.[15]
Exposure to environmental hazards may cause chronic diseases, so the magnitude of their contribution to the Canada's total disease burden is not well-understood. In order to give an initial estimate of the environmental burden of disease for four major categories of disease, the Template:Abbr developed by the WHO, EAFs developed by other researchers, and data from Canadian public health institutions were used.[17] Results showed a total of 10,000–25,000 deaths, with 78,000–194,000 hospitalizations; 600,000–1.5 million days spent in hospital; 1.1–1.8 million restricted activity days for sufferers of asthma; 8000–24,000 new cases of cancer; 500–2,500 babies with low birth weights; and C$3.6–9.1 billion in costs each year due to respiratory disease, cardiovascular illness, cancer, and congenital affliction associated with adverse environmental exposures.[17]
DALYs are a simplification of a complex reality, and therefore only give a crude indication of environmental health impact. Relying on DALYs may make donors take a narrow approach to health care programs. Foreign aid is most often directed at diseases with the highest DALYs, ignoring the fact that other diseases, despite having lower DALYs, are still major contributors to disease burden. Less-publicized diseases thus have little or no funding for health efforts. For example, maternal death (one of the top three killers in most poor countries) and pediatric respiratory and intestinal infections maintain a high disease burden, and safe pregnancy and the prevention of coughs in infants do not receive adequate funding.[18]
Disease burden methodologies such as DALYs also do not capture other aspects of disease and illness, such as pain and suffering, deterioration in quality of life, and emotional and physical impacts on families.[19]
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Two of a Kind
In Black Holes by Brian Koberlein0 Comments
A new paper in Nature has announced the discovery of a close binary of supermassive black holes. Known as J1502SE and J1502SW, the two black holes are estimated to have a mass of about 100 million solar masses each, and they are separated by only 450 light years. This means they orbit each other once every 4 million years. For supermassive black holes in the center of a galaxy, this is actually pretty close. So close that initially it was thought to be a single quasar. It was only through observations by the VLBI radio telescope array that the binary nature was revealed.
Radio image of the binary pair. Credit: R.P. Deane et al.
The black holes are close enough that their jets spiral in a helix pattern. One of the black holes is active, and this spiral effect is observed in its jet. This phenomenon has been seen with binary solar mass black holes, but the fact that it can occur with supermassive black holes provides another method for their detection. For galaxies where the core is too obscured with dust, a helical jet could reveal a binary core.
Part of the reason there is an interest in such close binary systems is that they are formed by galactic mergers. By better understanding supermassive binaries, we can gain insight into the frequency and nature of galactic mergers. Close binaries could also serve as a test for general relativity due to their high mass and close proximity.
Paper: R. P. Deane, et al. A close-pair binary in a distant triple supermassive black hole system. Nature, 2014; DOI: 10.1038/nature13454
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{
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"url": "https://archive.briankoberlein.com/2014/06/26/two-kind/index.html"
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