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Unit 14: Chemical Equilibrium
• To understand the nature of equilibrium and the difference between chemical and physical equilibrium.
• To define the equilibrium comstant in terms of the law of mass action.
• To write equilibrium constant expressions for both homogeneous and heterogeneous equilibria (different phases) and how to express equilibrium constants for multiple equilibria.
• To explain the relationships between the rate constant and the equilibrium constant for a reaction. Why is the equilibrium constant a constant, and why does it vary with temperature?
• To explain how knowing the equilibrium constant enables us to predict the direction of a net reaction towards equilibrium and to calculate equilibrium concentrations.
• To explain the 4 factors that may affect the position of equilibrium: concentration, volume/pressure, temperature, catalyst.
• To use LeChatelier's principle to predict the changes.
Course Goals and Essential Questions
• How can we learn about things that are to small to see?
• What relationships can I construct among basic concepts, skills, and understandings?
• How can I best assess my own learning and progress?
• How can I better use technology in my learning?
• How can I become a better digital citizen?
• How can I think more divergently, create, innovate?
• How can I use my experience in chemistry to learn to think and communicate clearly, logically, and critically in preparation for college and a career?
Prior Knowledge and skills
• Writing and balancing equations
• Using reaction stoichiometry
• Using molarity in calculations
• Calculation of reaction rates and rate constants
Learning Targets Ch. 14.1 The Concept of Equilibrium; the Equilibrium Constant Q&P 14.1-14.1
Students will know and be able to.....
1. Describe chemical equilibrium using the terms forward and reverse reactions and dynamic process.
2. Write the equilibrium constant in terms of the equilibrium concentration of products and reactants and their respective stoichiometric coefficients for both homogenous and heterogeneous equilibria.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.2 Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions Q&P 14.5-14.32
Students will know and be able to.....
1. Express the relationship between Kp and Kc.
2. Determine equilibrium constant given equilibrium concentration data.
3. Demonstrate that if a reaction can be expressed as the sum of two or more reactions, the equilibrium constant for the overall reaction is given by the product of the equilibrium constants of the individual reactions.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.3 The Relationship Between Chemical Kinetics and Chemical Equilibrium Q&P 14.33-14.36
Students will know and be able to...
1. Relate equilibrium constants to rate constants from chemical kinetics.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.4 What does the Equilibrium Constant Tell Us? Q&P 14.37-14.48
Students will know and be able to....
1. Describe the relationship between reaction quotient and equilibrium constant and predict the direction a reaction will proceed to reach equilibrium.
2. Use the concepts of equilibrium to determine concentration of all species in a solution.
Learning Targets Ch. 14.5 Factors that Affect Chemical Equilibrium Q&P 14.49-14.62
Students will know and be able to....
1. Use Le Chátelier’s principle to describe how changing concentration, volume, pressure, or temperature will shift the reaction so that equilibrium will be maintained.
2. Describe the effect of a catalyst has on equilibrium concentrations.
Links and Resources
Creative Commons License
This work by Luann Christensen Lee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Copyright 1989-2016 L.C.Lee, www.chemistar.com.
Back to AP Chemistry page
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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 25/July 1884/Adaptation to Climate
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ANIMALS and plants are fitted by their organization to adapt themselves to many changes of place and vicissitudes of climate. Most of the domestic plants that are cultivated in the north originated in southern regions. The trees of the orange family were not cultivated in Italy in Pliny's time. The citron was not raised there with success till the third century; and lemons and oranges, which now grow in Southern Tyrol, not till later. The mulberry, which has now made its way to Norway, likewise did not flourish in Italy when Pliny wrote. Juicy peaches were not grown in Greece in the time of Aristotle, and even in Rhodes the blossoms only developed into a thin, woody fruit; but the peach-tree, bearing choice fruit, is now common through all France, and in the gardens of Central Germany. Chestnuts, originally at home only in warmer Asia, are now equally so in Italy and Western Germany. Some plants, notably the cereals, have enjoyed a very extensive diffusion in the course of centuries, and are now cultivated in nearly every part of the habitable earth. Our domestic animals, which mostly came from Asia, have gone with man to all the quarters of the world; and it is worthy of note that it is just those cereals and domestic animals that have proved themselves most useful to man, and are essential to civilized life, that preeminently possess the faculty of adapting themselves to all climates, and of producing the most diversified varieties.
The power of adaptation to climates appears to be most highly developed in man. He is less than any other being bound to any particular zone, and is further suited to the widest diffusion, because, confined to no especial food, he is, in the fullest sense of the word, omnivorous. He is, not only by the organization of his body, but especially by his mental power and his energetic will, fitted above all other creatures to accommodate himself to the most various influences that can affect him from without, and by continuous habitude to endure or make bearable the strangest conditions. He can live at the extreme limits at which organic life can exist, and can sustain a degree of cold at which quicksilver freezes. Thus, three Russians lived for seven years in Spitzbergen without suffering in health. Admiral Wrangell, while in the Chuckchee country in 1820, experienced a cold of nearly 50° below zero, while his men were as lively and happy as if it had been summer; and Parry and Franklin withstood a still greater cold. Man can also sustain an almost incredible degree of heat. The celebrated physician, Boerhaave, believed that no being breathing with lungs could live in an atmosphere having as high a temperature as that of the blood. According to this dictum, one ought to die at a temperature of 100°, but Banks enjoyed good health on the Senegal when the thermometer rose in his cabin to above 120° and 130°. Men live on the southwest coasts of Africa, and in other hot regions, where the heat of the sand under their feet reaches 140° or 150°. Men in deep mining-shafts and under diving-bells are able to support an atmospheric pressure of 30,000 kilogrammes as well as a pressure of only 8,000 kilogrammes on the highest mountains. Cassini thought that no animal could live at a greater height than 4,700 metres, or 15,000 feet; but there are several inhabited places situated at a still greater height, as, for instance, Gartok, in the Himalayas. Alexander von Humboldt ascended Chimborazo to a height of nearly 6,000 metres, or 19,286 feet, without suffering any harm. The pressure of the atmosphere is so light at such elevations that, as Humboldt was assured, wild animals when driven up to them bleed at the mouth and nose. Only the dog is able to follow man as far and as high as he can go; but this animal, too, loses his acute smell in Congo and Syria, and the power of barking in Surinam and at great heights; and the finer breeds of dogs can not long endure the conditions of a height of more than 3,760 metres, or 12,500 feet, while there are towns in the Andes at as great a height as 13,500 or 14,000 feet.
But there are regions in which even man perishes, to whatever race he may belong, and however well prepared he may be to resist their deadly influence. Among such regions is the Gaboon valley, in which even the negro is disabled. The inhabitants of that district are decidedly weaker in constitution, and have greatly diminished reproductive powers, and the women are considerably in excess. There are similar regions nearer the centers of civilization. The Tuscan Maremma is famous for its deadly air, and the swamps of Corsica are of like character. In France the ponds of the Dombes and the mouth-country of the Charente were, till recently, no less dangerous. Life in great cities also seems to exercise a special influence on reproduction. Boudin could not find any pure Parisians who could trace the residence of their ancestors in the city back for more than three generations. In Besançon the "old families" generally die out in not quite a hundred years, and are replaced by families from the country; and the same is, to a greater or less extent, the case in London, Berlin, and other large cities.
Has it been proved that on ships, where men are crowded together for months under conditions incompatible with health, particular disorders are developed, to which sailors may, indeed, gradually accustom themselves, but which are apt to mature into fatal maladies among people hitherto in perfect health? Can we, as Darwin suggests, ascribe to such circumstances the fearful mortality and the diminishing fruitfulness of the Polynesian races? Does the consumption which has become epidemic and hereditary in those islands belong to the diseases that have insinuated themselves there by the aid of European sailors? Neither the land nor the sky has changed since the Polynesian archipelagoes were discovered; yet the aboriginal population is diminishing at a really frightful rate, while its bastard offspring and the pure Europeans are increasing rapidly.
To what extent the more or less pronounced dangerousness of a locality is affected by normal conditions or by casual injurious influences is not always easy to estimate. The character of the soil, a higher or lower temperature, dryness, and moisture, are not all that determine the character of a country. We have evidence of this in the fact that the process of acclimatization is not equally easy in both hemispheres. The white races fare much better in the hot countries of the southern hemisphere than in the corresponding latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Between the thirtieth and thirty-fifth parallels of latitude lie Algiers and a part of the United States—regions in which the acclimatizing of Europeans is attended with great difficulties. In the southern hemisphere, the southern part of the Cape Colony and New South Wales lie between the same parallels, and in those countries white men thrive. French and English troops exhibit a rate of mortality eleven times as great in the northern as in the southern hemisphere—a striking difference, which appears to depend upon the greater frequency and intensity of miasmatic fevers. North of the equator these fevers reach in Europe to the fifty-ninth degree of latitude, while south of the equator they seldom extend beyond the tropic and usually do not reach it. Tahiti lies under the eighteenth degree of south latitude, and is free from fevers. French and English troops stationed in the southern hemisphere afford a mean of 1·6 per thousand sick with fever annually, while among those stationed in the northern hemisphere the proportion of fever-sick is 224 per thousand. Thus miasmatic fevers are two hundred times more frequent north of the equator than south of it, notwithstanding that there are extensive regions in South America and Australia covered with standing water and exposed to a burning sun. To this may be added that attacks of fever are much less severe in the southern hemisphere. Only light fevers prevail in the great lagoons of Corrientes; how much more dangerous are the fevers of the Pontine marshes, which are, nevertheless, very far from the equator! A European can live with much greater security against the contingency of fevers on the banks of the Parana, in South America, than on the banks of the Garigliano, in Italy.
There has been no lack of attempts and theories to explain these differences in localities that seem otherwise generally to stand under the same physical relations, but none of them have been successful. Yet it appears to be established that the greatest difficulties in the way of Europeans becoming acclimated in places where their business leads them to settle are due to the presence of swamp miasms. We know that a variety of conditions must combine to produce such miasms, and we know also that man is able to contend against them. It is possible for man to open a campaign against Nature wherever he goes, and to introduce conditions more favorable to his becoming acclimated. But he has so far not been able to bring a whole country immediately into a healthy condition; only time seems to be competent to bring such a work to completion, and, waiting its course, numerous victims have to be offered up.
The cultivation of the eucalyptus, a tree of remarkably quick growth, appears to be one of the most effective means now available for improving the condition of unhealthy localities. There are frequently tracts of limited extent in the most sickly regions where the process of acclimatization is relatively easy and secure. Such points should always be chosen by new settlers. The contrary has generally been the case. The beauty and fertility of the alluviums at the mouths of rivers, with the conveniences they offer to trade, have generally been tempting enough to determine the location of the settlement, regardless of its qualities with reference to health; and towns have been planted in such places in consideration of the apparent value of the money-investment, but in complete forgetfulness of the immense capital in human lives they are destined to swallow.—Translated for the Popular Science Monthly from Das Ausland.
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Hives Q & A
What is urticaria?
Urticaria is another word for hives, raised patches of skin that develop as a result of an allergic reaction in the skin. Hives develop when the immune system overreacts or reacts abnormally to a trigger, resulting in an allergic reaction that causes hives to form. Hives can occur singly, but most often they occur in groups called plaques. Often, hives are accompanied by itching or sometimes stinging sensations.
What is angioedema?
Angioedema is a term used to describe hives that form under the skin, causing swelling which can often be significant. Angioedema can occur in many areas, including the eyes, mouth, throat and groin. When angioedema occurs in the eyes, the lids may become swollen shut, interfering with the ability to see. When it occurs in the throat and mouth, angioedema can interfere with swallowing and even breathing. People with angioedema often carry autoinjector pens so they can self-administer epinephrine to reduce swelling and prevent potentially life-threatening reactions.
How are hives and angioedema treated?
Both urticaria and angioedema can be treated with oral antihistamines to help reduce inflammation, swelling and itching. Topical medications may also be used, especially with hives, to help reduce swelling and itching. When hives are mild, applying cool compresses to the affected area can also help reduce itching. In most cases, hives will disappear within several hours as long as the allergen that caused the reaction is avoided. Sometimes, though, hives or angioedema can last much longer.
How can I tell if my hives need medical attention?
Although mild hives often can be managed at home, any type of hives – even mild cases – should be evaluated by a doctor to help identify the cause. Some hives can be caused by serious underlying diseases, and in some cases, mild cases of hives can quickly become much more serious, even causing swelling to occur in the throat and mouth.
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Southern Asia 1920: Treaty of Sèvres
The seizure of Arab Syria cemented France’s claim to the region just in time for the Treaty of Sèvres the following month. Here much of the Ottoman Empire was partitioned among the British, French, Greeks, and Armenians. However in reality the Treaty was essentially worthless as it was the Turkish Nationalists, not the Ottomans, who now ruled Turkey.
Changes to the map 25 July 1920–10 August 1920
Treaty of Sevres: The Treaty sees the Greek border shifted east to include the region around Smyrna and eastern Thrace. The British claims to Palestine and Mesopotamia, including Mosul, have been confirmed. The French have their position in Syria and Cilicia recognized. The Armenians have been granted large tracts in eastern Anatolia, including Erzurum and Trabzon. Furthermore the remaining Ottoman rump state is subjected to the demilitarization of the Straits, an Italian zone of influence in the southwest, and British and French zones of influence in the southeast. However, due to the Turkish Nationalist rejection of the Treaty, these claims and zones are only effective where the Allies have military forces.
Syria and the Levant: The French have consolidated their hold over the Syrian interior. However in the south - which was agreed to be British according to the Sykes-Picot Agreement - Jordanian sheikdoms maintain their independence.
Arabia: The Kingdom of Hejaz has been recognized by the Treaty of Sevres. The Ikhwan of Mutayr have turned to raiding Kuwait after ibn Saud bypassed their lucrative overland routes by building ports to the south. Upper Asir has been annexed by Nejd (although some sources say it has become a protectorate of Hejaz).
British Protectorates in the Persian Gulf
Indian Empire
Main Events
10 Aug 1920 Treaty of Sèvres
The Treaty of Sèvres was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan, and a number of minor Allied Powers including Greece and Armenia in Sèvres, France. The Treaty ceded large parts of the Ottoman Empire to Britain, France, Greece, and Armenia, and established European spheres of influence in the remaining wikipedia
10 Aug 1920 Wilsonian Armenia
The Treaty of Sèvres extends the western boundary of the Republic of Armenia to include the Ottoman vilayets of Erzurum, Bitlis, and Van - regions which had significant Armenian populations before 1914 - as well as the Black Sea port of Trabzon. However despite US President Woodrow Wilson’s backing of the proposal, the United States Senate rejects both the Treaty of the Sèvres and the mandate for wikipedia
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Industrial production of biodiesel feasible within 15 years
Within 10 to 15 years, it will be technically possible to produce sustainable and economically viable biodiesel from micro-algae on a large scale. Technological innovations during this period should extend the scale of production by a factor of three, while at the same time reducing production costs by 90%. Two researchers from Wageningen UR (University & Research Centre) believe this to be possible. In their article in Science (published 13 August), they provide a detailed explanation of the route that needs to be taken.
By producing microscopically small algae in bulk in large-scale installations, Europe should be able to become independent of fossil fuels in a sustainable way. Algae could even contribute to the sustainable production of food. To cultivate algae on a large scale, fertilisers (nitrogen and phosphates) could be extracted from manure surpluses and wastewater, with CO2 coming from industrial residues. The energy source for algae is sunlight. Biodiesel and an almost unlimited quantity of protein and oxygen are the sustainable products of this process. The amount of fresh water consumed in algal cultivation is minimal because seawater can be used.
In a nutshell, that is the idea put forward by Professor René Wijffels and Dr Maria Barbosa of Wageningen UR in their perspective article An Outlook on Microalgal Biofuels in Science.
Sunlight and wastewater
Both authors demonstrate in their article that, according to calculations on energy consumption in transport in Europe, almost 0.4 billion m3 biodiesel would be needed to replace all transport fuels. The cultivation of micro-algae requires 9.25 million hectares of land - equal to the surface area of Portugal - assuming a yield of 40,000 litres of per hectare, to supply the European market.
Algae produce the maximum quantity of oily substances when growing under stress. Such conditions can for instance be induced by a shortage of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate.
Algae are much more efficient at converting sunlight and fertilisers into usable oily substances than agricultural crops such as oilseed rape. It is not even necessary to have full sunshine for algal cultivation, which is why it is possible to design reactors that look like vertical plates, on to which the light shines from one side. In this way, it is possible to produce 20-80,000 litres of oil per hectare. In comparison, one hectare of oilseed rape or oil palm yields only 1500 or 6000 litres, respectively.
Financial aspects
The 5000 tonnes of algae (dry matter) now produced annually in the whole world has a value of €250/kg. The price is so high because algae can make rare (and therefore expensive) substances like carotenoids and omega 3 fatty acids that are converted into high-quality products such as food supplements. That is extremely expensive when compared with the palm oil (cost price €0.50 /kg) used as a fuel. However, palm oil and other fuel crops are controversial. To investigate whether the use of algae as biofuels is feasible, a feasibility study was carried out on scale enhancement in algal cultivation. This showed that presently the cost price could be reduced to €4/kg. By making use of residues such as wastewater and CO2 from exhaust gases, by improving the technology and by shifting production to sunnier countries, it would even be possible to reduce the price to one-tenth of that level, namely, €0.40 /kg.
Even then, however, the production of bioenergy from algae would not be financially viable. To achieve that goal, the whole algal biomass would have to be utilised. This consists of roughly 50% oil (40 cents/kg, thus), 40% proteins (yielding 120 cents/kg) and 10% sugars (100 cents/kg). This causes the value to rise to €1.65/kg which is enough to run production on a large scale.
Algal proteins offer interesting possibilities. If all transport fuels were to be replaced by algal oil on a European scale, 0.3 billion tonnes of protein would become available as well. That is 40 times more than the amount of protein in the soya that Europe imports each year. Thus, algae would allow us to produce food and feed proteins as well as sufficient quantities of biofuel.
In order to manufacture biofuels from agricultural crops such as oilseed rape, 10,000 litres of fresh water are required to produce each litre of fuel. This is an incredibly large volume. By cultivating algae in seawater, it is possible to achieve the same result with just 1.5 litres of fresh water/kg of product.
With the aid of sunlight, algal growth requires 1.3 billion tonnes of CO2 (Europe produces 4 billion tonnes/year, mainly from fossil fuels) and 25 million tonnes of nitrogen (wastewater and fertilisers contain 8 million). In other words, algal cultivation would not normally compete with food production.
A sustainable pilot-study facility AlgaePARC (Algae Production and Research Centre) will soon be starting up in Wageningen. Here it will be possible to study the scaling up of algal production and to compare various technologies, taking into account energy costs for building, production and logistics during the production of biofuels from algae.
Algae need to be interesting as a food source for fish and shellfish farming within five years. Five years after that, it should be possible to achieve applications such as providing protein sources in foods as well as basic chemicals for the manufacturing industries. Then, in 10-15 years’ time, biofuels should be available.
Explore further
US military to make jet fuel from algae
Provided by Wageningen UR
Citation: Industrial production of biodiesel feasible within 15 years (2010, August 13) retrieved 21 April 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2010-08-industrial-production-biodiesel-feasible-years.html
Feedback to editors
User comments
Aug 13, 2010
This will never happen. Scaling these 'in principle' ideas to such massive scales required to replace existing and rising energy requirements is fraught with enormous practical problems and will never happen, especially in a marine environment.
Aug 13, 2010
?????? is this process more efficient than current solar cells. What is the energy conversion efficiency of algae? This all seems quite polly-annish.
Aug 14, 2010
This a typical example, where people claim to save then world (or in this case Europe) with one (simple) idea. You find the same estimations for biogas from grass or for biofuels from wood material.... Only to name two example from many. It will never work in the claimed way.
Aug 14, 2010
DamienS and michaeltb: Why will it never happen ?
Do you have any knowledge of micro algae since you are so certain ?
Aug 14, 2010
I alluded to the reason - it's just too massive a scale to be managed effectively and the marine environment is particularly unforgiving. Many similar schemes have been touted before, but when it comes to upscaling small pilot plants, all sorts of problems crop up which makes it either physically infeasible and/or uneconomic.
Aug 14, 2010
This is an exciting area of research, and it will become even more attractive as costs decline and fossil fuels become more expensive. Diesel-from-algae production is probably more practical in the southern U.S. than in Europe, where sunshine and cheap land are more plentiful. Production from marine bases hold vast potential in the equatorial zones, but there are so many scientific and commercial problems that need to be resolved first by land-based diesel-from-algae.
Aug 14, 2010
There was an article on here not long ago about using genetically modified algae that exude the oil on their own, and thus do not need all of the processing proposed here. I think we should be looking further into that, since processing costs can be significant.
I agree that the southern US is an ideal place for algae farming, and American industrial-style farming is some of the best in the world, so large scale production seems more likely here.
As for conventional solar, I doubt very much that in the next 10-20 years, we will have solved solar's crippling problems: the need to use very expensive and relatively inefficient panels made of rare materials, the lack of suitable energy storage technologies, and highly weather-dependent energy production.
Aug 17, 2010
I see one reason why this idea will not progress very far.
Aug 18, 2010
Too massive a scale to be managed effectively? So I guess that would apply to existing oil companies production as well? Or is that easier to manage?
And who said it had to be in a marine environment? All they said was sea water could be used. Ever hear of something called a pump?
Why do people insist that any solution MUST be a 100% replacement for the status quo? Couldn't this be a good, solid solution for replacing 10% of transportation fuel needs? Combine that with greater engine efficiency, some electrification, more mass transit, and you've cut your CO2 output by 75%. No that's no good it can't replace EVERY DROP OF OIL.
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Niacin Deficiency
Niacin deficiency is a condition that occurs when a person doesn't get enough or can't absorb niacin or its amino acid precursor, tryptophan. In the United States, niacin deficiency is exceedingly rare. However, there have been outbreaks of niacin deficiency in areas of the world where food is scarce.
Also known as vitamin B3 or nicotinic acid, niacin is one of eight B vitamins. Like all B vitamins, niacin plays a role in converting carbohydrates into glucose, metabolizing fats and proteins, and keeping the nervous system working properly. Niacin also helps the body make sex- and stress-related hormones and improves circulation and cholesterol levels.
Niacin Deficiency Symptoms
Symptoms of mild niacin deficiency include:
Severe deficiency, called pellagra, can cause symptoms related to the skin, digestive system, and nervous system. They include:
Niacin Deficiency Causes
In the 1800s, pellagra was common among poor Americans whose diets consisted mostly of corn, molasses, and salt pork -- all poor sources of niacin. Today, most people in the developed world get plenty of niacin in their diets. Niacin deficiency is more likely to be caused by problems that affect absorption of niacin or tryptophan. The most common cause is alcoholism. Other possible causes include disorders of the digestive system and prolonged treatment with the tuberculosis drug isoniazid (Laniazid, Nydrazid).
Niacin Deficiency Treatments
If you don't eat a lot of niacin-rich foods or if you have a medical condition that affects the absorption of niacin or tryptophan, speak to your doctor. Niacin supplements or multivitamin/mineral supplements, which usually contain at least 20 milligrams of niacin, can help prevent niacin deficiency.
MedlinePlus: "Pellagra."
University of Maryland Medical Center: "Vitamin B3 (Niacin)."
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Extension: "Facts about Niacin."Oregon State University Linus Pauling Institute: "Niacin."
MedlinePlus: "Niacin (vitamin B3, nicotinic acid), Niacinamide."
Merck Manual: "Niacin"
© 2017 WebMD, LLC. All rights reserved.
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Basics / Sport-scientific Scripts
Dominant Abilities / Coordination / Strength / Speed / Endurance / Technique / What happens to the body when it gets in motion / Conditioning for Rowing / Anaerobic Threshold / Heart-rate Training -zones / Phases of Adaptation / Supercompensation / Annual Programming / Variety / Training for Young Athletes / Advice for young rowers click on the titlebar
to switch the language
Dominant Abilities 優越的能力
Identification of your sport's profile and its requirements is crucial for the planning and programming of a detailed training program. All sports are described by their relation to four major characteristics:
Coordination / 調和 Strength /力氣 Speed / 速度 Endurance / 耐力
It is essential to know how your particular sport relates to four major abilities and what form they take during performance in order to make proper decisions about training. Most sports dominant function is a combination of two, three or all four of these abilities. For example, sprints or jumps are power sports, which combine maximum strength and maximum speed.
Rowing and kayaking, on the other hand, are muscular endurance sports, where endurance and strength combined are the dominant abilities.
Many athletes and coaches treat these combinations as one characteristic and try to develop them together. A more effective way of training, which will lead to higher results is achieved if the components are first developed separately and then converted to needed combinations for the sport. For example, if the sport requires power development for the improvement of performance, during your annual cycle the strength aspect of it is initially developed starting with general and then maximum strength development, and then this strength is transformed to power.
There are sports, where coordination and technique are not dominant and the final result depends on the development of speed, endurance, strength or combination of those three. A good example of this is cyclic sports like running, cycling, rowing, where endurance and speed are dominant abilities to achieve the necessary velocity, with strength playing a supportive role. Coordination is based on precise, efficient technique to be as fast as possible. There are some cyclic sports where complex coordination is not a dominant ability and technique will not win the competition, however, to possess an effective level of technique one must learn it as a kid.
Table 3: Simplified examples of sports dominant abilities
For the better understanding of these aspects of different abilities let's take a simplified look at the basics of coordination, strength, speed and endurance. To precisely describe and categorize the concept of each individual characteristic is well beyond the frame of this script. However, this short outline should help you better understand the basic aspects of each ability. It should also help to shed light on your sport's categorization.
Dominant Ability
Achieve perfect form of complex skills
Perfect coordination with highest level of precision with relatively high level of strength and speed
Figure skating
Achieve the highest velocity
Precise coordination executed as fast as possible with speed and endurance
Achieve the highest velocity
Endurance, speed are dominant with strength as an influential factor, coordination based on precise as fast as
Possible execution of X-C skiing
Skills with intensities reaching limits
Speed skating
Achieve the highest level of strength and speed (power)
Strength and speed
Weight lifting
Achieve the highest average speed
Endurance and speed
Games (soccer, basketball, football, a.s.o.
Achieve the highest ability to execute complex skills in changing environment and in presence of opponent
Coordination, speed, endurance and strength
Fight sport (martial arts, wrestling, a.s.o. Tennis
Achieve highest level of concentration under high level of stress with very low physical engagement
Combined sports (decathlon, biathlon, heptathlon, modern)
Excel in all sports included
Complex mixture of most abilities
1999 Sport is Life
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Microsoft Office Tutorials and References
In Depth Information
Entering Formulas
A formula in a cell that contains a reference back to itself is called a circular reference .
Excel often warns you when you create a circular reference. In almost all cases, circular
references are the result of an incorrect formula. A circular reference can be direct
or indirect. For example, placing the formula =A1 in cell A1 results in a direct circular
reference. An indirect circular reference occurs when a formula in a cell refers to another
cell or cells that include a formula that refers back to the original cell.
Employ the Excel built-in functions whenever possible.
Every time you enter
a value into a cell in
the worksheet, Excel
automatically recalculates
all formulas. You can
change to manual
recalculation by clicking
the Calculation Options
button (Formulas tab |
Calculation group) and
then clicking Manual.
In manual calculation
mode, pressing the F9
key instructs Excel to
recalculate all formulas.
Excel includes prewritten formulas
called functions to help you compute a range of values and statistics. A function takes a
value or values, performs an operation, and returns a result to the cell. The values that
you use with a function are called arguments . All functions begin with an equal sign
and include the arguments in parentheses after the function name. For example, in the
function =AVERAGE(C4:C12), the function name is AVERAGE, and the argument is the
range C4:C12. Become familiar with the extensive number of built-in functions. When
you have the choice, always use built-in functions instead of writing and typing a formula
version of your mathematical expression. Such a practice reduces the possibility of errors
and simplii es the formula used in a cell, resulting in improved readability.
To Enter a Formula Using the Keyboard
The formulas needed in the worksheet are noted in the requirements document as follows:
1. Gross Pay (column F) = Hours Worked × Hourly Pay Rate
2. Federal Tax (column G) = 0.22 × (Gross Pay – Dependents × 24.32)
3. State Tax (column H) = 0.04 × Gross Pay
4. Net Pay (column I) = Gross Pay – (Federal Tax + State Tax)
5. Tax% (column J) = (Federal Tax + State Tax) / Gross Pay
The gross pay for each employee, which appears in column F, is equal to hours worked in column D times
hourly pay rate in column E. Thus, the gross pay for Emily Charvat in cell F4 is obtained by multiplying 65.25
(cell D4) by 20.50 (cell E4) or =D4*E4. The following steps enter the initial gross pay formula in cell F4 using
the keyboard.
With cell F4 selected, type
in the cell to display the formula in
the formula bar and in the current
cell and to display colored borders
around the cells referenced in the
formula (Figure 2 – 5).
formula begins
with equal sign
What occurs on the worksheet as I
enter the formula?
The equal sign ( = ) preceding d4*e4
alerts Excel that you are entering
a formula or function and not
text. Because the most common
error when entering a formula is
to reference the wrong cell in a
formula mistakenly, Excel colors
the borders of the cells referenced
in the formula. The coloring helps
in the reviewing process to ensure
the cell references are correct.
The asterisk ( * ) following d4 is the
arithmetic operator that directs Excel to perform the multiplication operation.
as formula is typed, it
appears in formula bar
and in active cell F4
colored cell borders
indicate cells included
in formula in active cell
Figure 2–5
Search JabSto ::
Custom Search
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Genetic history of North Africa
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
The genetic history of North Africa has been heavily influenced by geography. The Sahara desert to the south and the Mediterranean Sea to the North were important barriers to gene flow in prehistoric times. However, Africa is connected to Western Asia via the Isthmus of Suez, while at the Straits of Gibraltar North Africa and Europe are separated by only 15 km (9 mi).
Although North Africa has experienced gene flows from the surrounding regions, it has also experienced long periods of genetic isolation, allowing a distinctive genetic "Berber marker" to evolve in the native Berber people. Today, this genetic "Berber marker" is consistently found in the regions and populations that still predominantly speak the Berber languages, as well as in the Canary Islands which was inhabited by native Berbers and by their descendents to this day. A recent genetic study showed that North Africans are genetically similar to Paleolithic North Africans.[1]
Current scientific debate is concerned with determining the relative contributions of different periods of gene flow to the current gene pool of North Africans. Anatomically modern humans are known to have been present in North Africa during the Middle Paleolithic (300,000 years ago), as attested by the by Jebel Irhoud 1.[2] Without morphological discontinuity, the Aterian was succeeded by the Iberomaurusian industry, whose lithic assemblages bore relations with the Cro-Magnon cultures.[3] The Iberomaurusian industry was succeeded by the Capsian industry in the eastern part of North Africa.
In the 7th century A.D., part of the Berber countries was invaded by Muslim Umayyad Arabs. Under the relatively brief Arab-Umayyad occupation and the later arrival of some bedouin Arabs and Syriacs from the Near East in Asia and the arrival of some Jews and Muslims fleeing the Spanish Catholic Reconquista, a partial population mix or fusion might have taken place and might have resulted in some genetic diversity among some North Africans.[4] However, this partial fusion of Berbers and foreigners is mostly limited in terms of geographical distribution to the main Berber urban areas and some coastal plains of North Africa because migrants and refugees tend to gravitate towards major cities since ancient times and they tend to avoid the heartland. The Berber ethnic and genetic nature of North Africa (west of Egypt) is still dominant, either prominently (as in language or ethnic identity) or subtly (as in culture and genetic heritage).
Haplogroup E is the most common paternal haplogroup among Berbers. It represents up to 100 percent of Y-chromosomes among some Berber populations. Haplogroup E is thought to have emerged in prehistoric North Africa or East Africa,[5] and would have later dispersed into West Asia. The major subclades of haplogroup E found amongst Berbers belong to E-Z827, which is believed to have emerged in North Africa. Common subclades include E1b1b1a, E1b1b1b and E1b1b1*. E1b1b1b is distributed along a west-to-east cline with frequencies that can reach as high as 100 percent in Northwest Africa. E1b1b1a has been observed at low to moderate frequencies among Berber populations with significantly higher frequencies observed in Northeast Africa relative to Northwest Africa.[6][7][8]
West Eurasian haplogroups, such as Haplogroup J and Haplogroup R1, have also been observed at moderate frequencies. A thorough study by Arredi et al. (2004), which analyzed populations from Algeria, concludes that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation (including both J1 and E1b1b main haplogroups) is largely of Neolithic origin, which suggests that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Berber–speaking pastoralists from the Middle East[6][9] However, Loosdrecht et al. 2018 demonstrated that E1b1b is most likely indigenous to North Africa and migrated from North Africa to the Near East during the Paleolithic.[1]
E1b1b1b (E-M81) is the most common Y chromosome haplogroup in North Africa, dominated by its sub-clade E-M183. It is thought to have originated in North Africa 5,600 years ago. The parent clade, E1b1b, originated in East Africa.[5][10] Colloquially referred to as the Berber marker or Maghrebi marker for its prevalence among Mozabite, Middle Atlas, and other Berber-speaking groups, E-M81 is also quite common among North African groups. It reaches frequencies of up to 90 percent in some parts of the Maghreb. This includes the Saharawish for whose men Bosch et al. (2001) reports that approximately 76 percent are M81+.
This haplogroup is also found at high levels in Canary islands and parts of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal) as well as much lower levels in Italy and France. In Iberia, it is generally more common than E1b1b1a (E-M78),[11] unlike the rest of Europe, and as a result E-M81 is found throughout Latin America[12] and among Hispanic men in USA.[13] As an exceptional case in Europe, this sub-clade of E1b1b1 has also been observed at 40 percent the Pasiegos from Cantabria.[5]
Sub clades of E1b1b1b (E-M81):
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Mozabite man, c. 1889
Kabyle women and baby.
Individuals receive mtDNA only from their mothers. According to Macaulay et al. 1999, "one-third (33%) of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa less than 50,000 years ago, and one-eighth (12.5%) have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East".[15] Maca-Meyer et al. 2003 analyze the "autochthonous North African lineage U6" in mtDNA, and conclude that:
The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity. Subgroup U6a reflects the first North African expansion from the Maghreb returning to the east in Paleolithic times. Derivative clade U6a1 signals a posterior movement from Northeast Africa back to the Maghreb and the Near East. This migration coincides with a possible
Afroasiatic linguistic expansion.
Haplotype V, have its highest concentration among the Saami people of northern Scandinavia (approximately 59%). It has been found at approximately 10% among the Mari people of the Volga-Ural region, leading to the suggestion that this region might be the source of the V among the Saami.
Additionally, recent studies have discovered a close mitochondrial link between Berbers and the Saami of Scandinavia, which confirms that Southwestern Europe and North Africa was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated Northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum and reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers.[19][22] With regard to Mozabite Berbers, one-third (33%) of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa ∼50,000 years ago, and one-eighth (12.5%) have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest (54.5%) having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East."[23]
• Total West Eurasian lineages (H, HV, R0, J, M, T, U, K, N1, N2, X) : 80 percent
• Total African lineages (L0, L1, L2, L3, L4, L5) : 20 percent
Some papers suggest that the distribution of the main L haplogroups in North Africa was mainly due to trans-Saharan slave trade.[25] However, in September 2010, a thorough study of Berber mtDNA by Frigi et al. concluded that most of L haplogroups were much older and introduced by an ancient African gene flow around 20,000 years ago.[26]
Autosomal DNA[edit]
Map of North and Sub-Saharan African admixture in European populations
According to a paper published in 2017 most of the genetic studies in North African populations agree with a limited correlation between genetics and geography, and show a high population heterogeneity in the region. North African populations have been described as a mosaic of North African, Middle Eastern, European and sub-Saharan ancestries. This explains the current genetic structure in North Africa, characterized by diverse and heterogeneous populations, and why nearby populations inhabiting the same location might be genetically more distant than groups of people in geographically distant populations.[29]
Genetic influence[edit]
Y-chromosome DNA[edit]
The general parent Y-chromosome Haplogroup E1b1b (formerly known as E3b), which might have originated in the Horn of Africa or the Near East[6] is by far the most common clade in North and Northeast Africa and found in select populations in Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and South Eastern Europe. E1b1b reaches in Europe Greece and the Balkan region but, is not as high there as it is among African populations.[ name=pmid15069642/>
The general parent Y-chromosome Haplogroup E1b1b (formerly known as E3b), which might have originated in North Africa, the Horn of Africa or the Near East[6] is by far the most common clade in North and Northeast Africa and found in select populations in Europe, particularly in the Mediterranean and South Eastern Europe. E1b1b reaches in Europe Greece and the Balkan region but, is not as high there as it is among African populations.[2].[6]
Mitochondrial DNA[edit]
Genetic influences on Latin America[edit]
As a consequence of Spanish and Portuguese colonization of Latin America, E-M81 is also found throughout Latin America[42][43][44] and among Hispanic men in USA.[45]
Ancient DNA[edit]
The E1b1b-M81 (~44%), R-M269 (~44%), and E-M132/E1a (~6%) paternal haplogroups have been found in ancient Guanche (Bimbapes) fossils excavated in Punta Azul, El Hierro, Canary Islands, which are dated to the 10th century. Maternally, the specimens all belong to the H1 clade. These locally born individuals carried the H1-16260 haplotype, which is exclusive to the Canary Islands and Algeria. Analysis of their autosomal STRs indicates that they were most closely related to Moroccan Berbers.[49]
In 2018, DNA analysis of Later Stone Age individuals from the site of Taforalt (Iberomaurusian, 15 000 BP) and Early Neolithic Moroccans from the site of Ifri N' Ammar (7 000 BP) revealed that they were related to the modern North Africans and carried Y-DNA E-M35, EM-215*, E-L19*, and E-M78*. These studies confirmed a long-term genetic continuity in the region showing that Mesolithic Moroccans are similar to Later Stone Age individuals from the same region and possess an endemic component retained in present-day Maghrebi populations (representing 20% to 70% of their total ancestry).[1][50]
See also[edit]
1. ^ a b c Loosdrecht, Marieke van de; Bouzouggar, Abdeljalil; Humphrey, Louise; Posth, Cosimo; Barton, Nick; Aximu-Petri, Ayinuer; Nickel, Birgit; Nagel, Sarah; Talbi, El Hassan (2018-03-15). "Pleistocene North African genomes link Near Eastern and sub-Saharan African human populations". Science. 360 (6388): 548–552. doi:10.1126/science.aar8380. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 29545507.
2. ^ Callaway, Ewen (2017-06-07). "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114. ISSN 1476-4687.
3. ^ Hublin, Jean-Jacques; McPherron, Shannon (2012-03-31). Modern Origins: A North African Perspective. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 180. ISBN 9789400729285.
4. ^ Rando (1998), "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Northwest African populations reveals genetic exchanges with European, Near-Eastern, and sub-Saharan populations" (PDF), Annals of Human Genetics, 62 (6): 531–50, doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.1998.6260531.x, PMID 10363131
7. ^ Kujanová, M.; Pereira, L. S.; Fernandes, V. N.; Pereira, J. B.; čErný, V. (2009). "Near Eastern Neolithic genetic input in a small oasis of the Egyptian Western Desert". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 140 (2): 336–346. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21078. PMID 19425100.
10. ^ Arredi et al. (2004)
11. ^ See for example Flores et al. (2004).
14. ^ Y-DNA Haplogroup E and its Subclades - 2008
15. ^
16. ^ Fadhlaoui-Zid, K.; Plaza, S.; Calafell, F.; Ben Amor, M.; Comas, D.; Bennamar, A.; Gaaied, E. (2004). "Mitochondrial DNA Heterogeneity in Tunisian Berbers". Annals of Human Genetics. 68 (3): 222–33. doi:10.1046/j.1529-8817.2004.00096.x. PMID 15180702.
29. ^ Arauna, Lara R and Comas, David (September 2017) Genetic Heterogeneity between Berbers and Arabs. In: eLS. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd: Chichester. DOI: 10.1002/9780470015902.a0027485 .
30. ^ "Cruciani et al., 2004, Phylogeography of the Y-Chromosome Haplogroup E3b" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-06-26. Retrieved 2011-02-28.
31. ^ Reduced Genetic Structure for Iberian Peninsula: implications for population demography. (2004) Archived 2008-04-06 at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Lacan et al. (2011)
34. ^ "Molecular genetic investigation of the Neolithic population history in the western Carpathian Basin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-07-21. Retrieved 2015-10-08.
37. ^ "The study shows that religious conversions and the subsequent marriages between people of different lineage had in fact a minor impact on modern populations both in Spain, and in Portugal", The religious conversions of Jews and Muslims have affected the population of the Iberian Peninsula Archived 2009-05-21 at the Wayback Machine, Elena Bosch, 2008
45. ^ Coco, C.; Magistrelli, P.; Granone, P.; Roncolini, G.; Picciocchi, A. (1992). "Conservative surgery for early cancer of the distal rectum". Diseases of the Colon & Rectum. 35 (2): 131–136. doi:10.1007/BF02050667.
46. ^ Rabab Khairat; Markus Ball; Chun-Chi Hsieh Chang; Raffaella Bianucci; Andreas G. Nerlich; Martin Trautmann; Somaia Ismail; et al. (4 April 2013). "First insights into the metagenome of Egyptian mummies using next-generation sequencing". Journal of Applied Genetics. 54 (3): 309–325. doi:10.1007/s13353-013-0145-1. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
47. ^ Kefi R, Bouzaid E, Stevanovitch A, Beraud-Colomb E. "MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND PHYLOGENETIC ANALYSIS OF PREHISTORIC NORTH AFRICAN POPULATIONS" (PDF). ISABS. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016.
48. ^ Bernard Secher; Rosa Fregel; José M Larruga; Vicente M Cabrera; Phillip Endicott; José J Pestano; Ana M González (2014). "The history of the North African mitochondrial DNA haplogroup U6 gene flow into the African, Eurasian and American continents". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 14: 109. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-14-109.
49. ^ Ordóñez, A. C., Fregel, R., Trujillo-Mederos, A., Hervella, M., de-la-Rúa, C., & Arnay-de-la-Rosa, M. (2017). "Genetic studies on the prehispanic population buried in Punta Azul cave (El Hierro, Canary Islands)". Journal of Archaeological Science. 78: 20–28. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2016.11.004. Retrieved 21 April 2017.CS1 maint: Uses authors parameter (link)
50. ^ Fregel et al.2018, Ancient genomes from North Africa evidence prehistoric migrations to the Maghreb from both the Levant and Europe, PNAS June 12, 2018. 201800851; published ahead of print June 12, 2018.
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More Health and Nutrition Bites
Coffee consumption linked with reduced inflammation 03/20/19
Drinking milk and risk of hip fractures 02/20/19
All Health and Nutrition Bites
Fast food linked to depression in kids
Kids also eat more while watching TV
Kids who cook
Health & Nutrition Bites
Healthy snacking habits and skills start early
a group of adolescents having lunch together around a table in a school lunchroom
But how strong are those early habits, really? It might be surprising to you (it was to me), but there does seem to be some question among researchers regarding whether adolescent behaviors around food rise to the level of habit, as defined by the researchers in today's article: "Habits are formed when people repeatedly engage in the same behavior in the same context" (Appetite 2015;95:182-187).
The distinction here is between simply doing something on a regular basis: "she had a habit of eating popcorn at the movies," and a true habit: "it just wasn't going to the movies without popcorn." Adults know that habits like these can be hard to break, even if they don't involve harmful or physically addictive activities like, say, smoking.
Snacking - what one snacks on and when - often rises to the level of true habit in adults. In today's study the authors noted that an historical rise in the frequency and calorie count of snacking among kids 10-17 is due to an increase in choosing unhealthy snacks like sweets (candy) or savory snacks (potato chips). At that age, are those choices truly habits, with the associated difficulty of breaking those habits?
A survey of over 11,000 students at 121 schools in 9 European countries asked the students how often and on what they snacked and included a previously-established questionnaire regarding the formation of habits. For example, students were asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 5 being "strongly agree") whether "unhealthy snacking is something I do frequently" and "unhealthy snacking is something I do without thinking."
Other sections of the survey asked about self-regulation strategies the students might use with respect to eating, ranging from "controlling the food environment directly" (not walking past the vending machine, for example), "changing the meaning of the food environment" (distracting oneself or ignoring the smell of popcorn at a movie theatre) or "addressing the goal to eat healthily" (reminding oneself of the reason to eat more healthfully, such as weight loss or fewer cavities).
Somewhat unsurprisingly, the authors found that choosing unhealthy snacks had already risen to the level of true habit, although the strength of that habit was termed "moderate," on average. On the other hand, the strength of that habit did increase with the students' age. The good news, however, is that the students reported "sometimes" using self-regulation strategies to manage their snacking. Those with a high habit strength who used "controlling the food environment strategies" or "changing the meaning of the food environment" strategies more frequently ate 1 fewer unhealthy snack per day than those with a high habit strength who used the same strategies less often.
What this means for you
Teaching your child good dietary habits isn't just about feeding them healthy meals - it's also about helping them gain the skills to make the right choices even in the face of temptation. These skills aren't limited to food-related issues, however - they're critical to academic and interpersonal success, as well. Talk to your child's pediatrician about resources for helping your child learn self-regulation skills.
First posted: August 19, 2015
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Tiny Isn’t Tiny
Saddle up
Watch: Anna - episode 5: New Shoes
Anna finds out that the horse she will ride is named “Tiny.” But it turns out that might not be the best name for this particular horse. Watch the video to see what happens when Anna meets her horse. And should she think about changing that horse’s name?!
Barn talk
How big do you think horses are? How big do you think they are compared to you? Do you think the size of horses is scary… or fun?
Take a ride
Anna was surprised at how big Tiny was! And horses are big. How do you think they compare to you in size?
You’ll need
1. Pencil, paper and scissors.
2. A blackboard, whiteboard or wall to mark children’s and horse’s height (but no horse required!).
1. Explain to children that horse height is measured in units called hands (and that this is funny because our height is measured in feet!). A hand is about four inches.
2. Have the children trace their hands on the paper and cut out their hand measurements (their hands will be smaller than 4 inches, but that’s OK).
3. Demonstrate how to use the hand as a way to measure (moving it one on top of another until you get to the top of the thing you’re measuring).
4. Have the children work in teams to use their hands to measure each other. Have them write down how many hands tall each of them is and if possible, mark their heights on the board or wall.
5. Explain that a horse is at least 15 hands high from its feet to its withers (which are like its shoulders). Have the teams mark off 15 hands high on the board or wall.
6. Have the children compare the horse’s height to their own height. Remind them that the horse also has a very long neck and a huge head on top of those 15 hands!
7. If you have a place where it’s possible, have children draw the rest of the horse, as best they can, to scale (with the 15 hands height as their guide).
Horses and standards
Common Core Standards for Math – Measurement and Data (Grade 2). Measure lengths indirectly and by iterating length units.
Download PDF printable version of lesson plan (122KB)
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Emily Willoughby
Paleoart and bird illustration
The Terrible Claw
Diagnostic anatomical reconstruction of Deinonychus antirrhopus, intended loosely for Wikipedia but also as an experimental piece to show pretty much exactly how I believe this animal looked in life.
This was largely inspired by an interesting Facebook discussion with paleoartist Julius Csotonyi about arm-folding in paravian dinosaurs. It occurred to me that people seldom reconstruct paravians, particularly dromaeosaurs, with their arms folded in a reasonable and accurate way. Julius made the fair the point that these animals probably didn't carry their arms out in front of the body, as is so often depicted (in skeletals and otherwise — it makes sense in skeletals, to adequately show the hand and arm anatomy), because such an awkward orientation would leave the hand and arm feathers open to damage and breakage. But they also can't fold them tightly against the breast or back like birds do, because they lack the mobility to do so.
So how did Deinonychus normally carry its arms? Senter's 2006 paper on forelimb function in Deinonychus and Bambiraptor shows that the humerus couldn't rotate much past the horizontal with respect to the scapula. In addition, Sullivan et al. 2010 — winningly translated to layman coherency by Matt Martyniuk — shows that wrist mobility in many paravians is much less than you might expect, given their similarity to birds. The wrist of Deinonychus antirrhopus specifically would not have allowed it to bend its hands even 90° with respect to the arm!
Given these limitations, most of the flexion would have to occur at the elbow, but a fully flexed elbow would mean that the hands would be hanging below the body, not held sleek and secure alongside the body. The arm orientation in my illustration above is based on what I think is probably the perfect configuration for carrying the arms: a fully-flexed shoulder, a fully-flexed wrist, and a nearly fully-extended elbow. A few other people have drawn their dromaeosaurs with the same arm configuration, like Smnt2000 and Pilsator, so kudos to them.
Illustration based on the papers linked above as well as Scott Hartman's beautiful skeletal. Gouache on 12" x 20" hot-pressed illustration board.
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Strayer Chapter 9 Vocab
Terms in this set (...)
China's capital during the Song dynasty, with a populapopulation oof more than a million people.
Japan's second capital city(now known as kyoto) modeled after Chinese capital of Chang'an
A nomadic people who established a state that included parts of northern China.(1115-1234)
Sacred spirits of Japan whether ancestors or natural phenomena their worship much later came to be called shinto.
A nomadic people who established a state that included parts of northern China.(907-1125)
Korean dynasty (918-1392)
The capital of Korea in the medieval Era modeled on the Chinese capital of Chang'an.
Murasaki Shikibu
Perhaps japan's greatest author a woman active at the heian court who is best known for The Tale of Genji which she wrote around 1000 C.E.
Japan's first capital city modeled on the Chinese capital of Chang'an.
Neo- Confucianism
A philoopy that emerged in song dynasty China it revived confucian thinking wile adding in Buddhist and Daoist elements.
Pure Land Buddhism
A school of buddhism that proved to be immenimmensely popular in China emphasized salvation by the faith in the Amitabha Buddha.
Members of Japan's warrior classwhich developed as political power increasingly decentralized.
Shotoku Taishi
Japanese statesman (572-622) who launched the drive to make Japan into a centralized bureacratic state modeled on China he is best known for the Seventeen Article Constitution which lays oUT the principles of this reform.
Silla dynasty
The first ruling dynasty to bring a measure of political unity to the Korean peninsula.(688-900)
Song dynasty economic revolution
A major economic quickening that toil place in China under the song dynasy. Marked by rapid population, growth, urbanization, economic specialization, the development of an immense network of internal waterways and a great increase in industrial production and innovation.
Sui dynasty
Ruling dynasty of China (581-618) that effectively reunited the country after several centuries of political fragmentation.
Tang dynasty
Ruling dynasty of China from 618 to 907 noted for its openess to foreign cultural influences.
Highly stylized form of Japanese poetry that has been a favored mears of expression for centuries.
Tribute system
Chinese method of dealing with foreign lands and peoples that assumed the subordination of all non Chinese authorities and required the payment of tribute produce of value from their countried to the Chinese emperor.
Trung sisters
Two Vietnamese sisters who launched a major revolt against the Chinese presence in Vietnam in 39 C.E the rebellion was crushed and the sisters committed suicide but they remained symbols of Vietnamese resistance to China for centuries.
Turkish empire of the steppes flourished in the 8th century C.E.
Wendi, Emperor
Sui emperor particularly patronized Buddhism.
Major nomadic confederacy that was established ca. 200 B.C.E. and eventually reached from Manchuria to Central Asia.
Kore an dynasty (1392-1910)
An Lushan
Foreign born general wwho led a major revolt against the Tang dynasty in 755-763 perhaps provoking China's turn to xenophobia.
The way of the warrior referring to the military virtues of the Japanese samurai including bravery, loyalty, and emphas is on death over surrender.
Chinese buddhism
Buddhism was china's only large scale cultural borrowing before the 20th century buddhism entered China from India in the first and second centuries C.E. but only became popular in 300-800 C.E through a series of cultural accommodations. At first supported by the state buddhism suffered persecution during the 9th century but continued to play a role in Chinese society
Chu nom
A variation of Chinese writing developed in Vietnam that became the basis for an independent national literature.southern script.
Foot binding
Chinese practice of tight wrapping girls' feet to keep small begun in tang dynasty an emphasis on small size and delicacy was central to views of female beauty.
A phonetic alphabet developed in Korea in the fifteenth century.
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Thursday, January 15, 2015
Math Lesson - Math Fact Mastery
Math Facts can be tricky for some students to master, especially when they are not motivated to put in the practice required to master them. I have developed a fun, motivating way to get your students to WANT to practice their math facts. It is called Kicking It Math.
I have used key elements of brain research as I developed the program:
* Did you know that students can hold only 2-3 new pieces of information in their working memory at one time? That is why each new practice session only includes 2 to 3 new facts and their opposites. Instead of having students focus on threes or fives, they learn just a few new facts at a time.
*Learners learn 90% of what they SAY and DO (Bloom, 1987). This program incorporates both oral and written practice.
* Students can remember things more easily when they connect new information with something they already know (Woolfolk, 1998). All new practice sheets include previously learned facts along with the new facts. This isn't simply learning their 1s, then their 2s, etc. because that doesn't work.
* In this program, some of the harder facts (such as 9X6 are taught in the middle rather than the end so the student really has more time to work on it).
* Another way to increase student memory is through verbal rehearsal. When a student practices (at home or at school with a partner) and makes a mistake, they repeat the correct problem and answer three times to cement it in their brain. They are presented the same problem three tries later to work through it again.
* Memory increases when dopamine is involved - basically if it is fun, kids will remember more!
So enough of the research and on to the fun! In this program, students earn "belts" as they progress levels. So motivating!
Students start with oral practice of their math facts:
Then they take a timed test.
We keep track of our results individually and as a class.
Some of the feedback I have received:
You can buy these products at my Teachers Pay Teachers Store.
or you can save a little money and get the bundles:
Thank you!
1 comment:
1. Kelly,
This is sooo cute... I just bought it and can't wait to use it with my third grade students!
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The Discovery of the Electron
• Kerry KuehnEmail author
According to the ancient doctrines of Democritus and Epicurus, atoms are tiny indivisible masses rattling about through the vacuum of space. This atomic hypothesis was preserved—in one form or another—for over 2000 years. Yet by the close of the nineteenth century it was still not universally accepted. The most convincing evidence for atomism was rather indirect, having come out of (i) the study of chemical reactions, (ii) the kinetic theory of gases and (iii) Boltzmann’s probabilistic interpretation of entropy. Even among the atomists there was considerable disagreement regarding the nature and structure of the atom itself. For example, the followers of Roger Boscovich believed atoms to be little more than point-like mathematical centers of force. Boscovich’s atoms possessed an unchangeable mass, they could move through the vacuum of space, and they were endowed with an irreducible power to attract or repel other atoms. A very different view of the atom was maintained byWilliam Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Inspired by the earlier work of Hermann von Helmholtz, Kelvin imagined atoms to be like minuscule smoke-rings traveling through an all-pervasive frictionless fluid medium—the æther. These so-called vortex ring atoms were indivisible local excitations which could emit light by vibrating like the rim of a tiny ringing bell. In this way, the vortex ring model of the atom offered the possibility of explaining the complicated emission spectra of atomic gasses.
Kelvin’s vortex theory of the atom aroused the interest of another Thomson, J.J., who published his Treatise on the motion of vortex rings in 1883 while studying at the University of Cambridge. A few years later, J.J. Thomson would propose the existence of subatomic particles which weighed considerably less than the smallest known atom. In the reading selection below, Thomson describes his famous 1897 discovery of subatomic electrically charged particles. It is taken from the first chapter of his 1907 book on The Corpuscular Theory of Matter.
Magnetic Force Vortex Ring Lorentz Force Helmholtz Coil Upward Force
Copyright information
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016
Authors and Affiliations
1. 1.Wisconsin Lutheran CollegeMilwaukeeUSA
Personalised recommendations
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IGCSE Online Tutorial - Jesmul Sir's Portal
IGCSE Online Tutorial - Jesmul Sir's Portal
Physics GCSE: Radioactivity
Revision Summary
Atoms are made up of:
· protons;
· electrons;
· neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus and the electrons orbit the nucleus. Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge and neutrons have no charge. The shape of the atom was discovered using the alpha-scattering experiment. This showed the original plum-pudding model to be wrong!
Atomic notation is used to describe atoms. The top number is the mass or nucleon number. It tells us how many protons and neutrons there are in the nucleus. The bottom number is the proton or atomic number, which tells us how many protons are in the nucleus. During reactions the total number of protons and neutrons must stay the same.
Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in the nucleus. It is this different number of neutrons that makes some isotopes unstable and radioactive. These isotopes are called radioisotopes.
Ionisation is where an electron is removed from a neutral atom, leaving the atom with a positive charge.
Radiation causes ionisation. This can be used to detect radiation, as the amount of ionisation can be measured with a Geiger-Muller tube.
Ionisation can damage or kill living cells, this can cause cancer to develop.
Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma waves are the three main types of radiation emitted during radioactive decay. All three types of radiation are emitted from the nucleus of the atom.
When radiation is emitted the unstable atom loses energy to become more stable. If alpha or beta particles are emitted, new elements are formed because of the change in the number of protons in the nucleus.
Alpha, beta and gamma radiation all behave slightly differently due to the way they are made up. Alpha ionises the most over a small distance but is not very penetrating. Gamma is the most penetrating but ionises less over the same distance.
Decay equations can be used to work out what new daughter element will be produced when radioactive decay takes place.
Safety precautions must be taken when handling radioactive substances. These include, using long handled tongs, pointing sources away from people, wearing lead lined clothing, not inhaling or eating sources.
The half-life of a substance is the time it takes for half of the original parent atoms to decay. It is also the time it takes for the count rate of a substance to fall to half the original value.
Radiation is used in medicine to cure cancer, in industry to detect the thickness of materials and in dating.
Background radiation is radiation that is produced around us all of the time. Sources include certain rocks, cosmic radiation, radon gas in the air, nuclear waste and experiments, medical uses and some foods. The background radiation needs to be subtracted from experiment results on radioactivity.
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Web Results
History >> Biographies >> Middle Ages for Kids. Occupation: King of England Born: 1028 in Normandy, France Died: 1087 in Normandy, France Reign: 1066 - 1087 Best known for: Leading the Norman Conquest of England Biography: Early Life William was born in 1028 in the city of Falaise which was part of the Duchy of Normandy.
William the Conqueror. Interesting Facts and information about William the Conqueror in the Medieval era of the Middle Ages; Short Biography, Facts and History about the life of William the Conqueror
William the Conqueror: King from 1066-1087. I. On the death of Edward the Confessor the throne of England was claimed by William, Duke of Normandy. When Edward took refuge in Normandy after the Danes conquered England, he stayed at the palace of William.
William I of England, better known as William the Conqueror, overcame a difficult childhood to become one of the most influential kings in British history. Here are 10 facts about the man and his rise to power. 1. He was also known as William the Bastard
William I, byname William the Conqueror or William the Bastard or William of Normandy, French Guillaume le Conquérant or Guillaume le Bâtard or Guillaume de Normandie, (born c. 1028, Falaise, Normandy [France]—died September 9, 1087, Rouen), duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035 and king of England (as William I) from 1066, one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages.
W illiam the Conqueror, the Norman invader, defeated the last Anglo-Saxon King of England, Harold II Godwinson, in the famous Battle of Hastings, in 1066.He was sometimes known as William the Bastard and previous to his victory in Hastings, William Duke of Normandy.. A charismatic and ruthless leader, William the Conqueror believed he had a legitimate claim to the English throne.
William I or William the Conqueror became the first reigning Norman King of England in 1066. He ruled until his death 21 years later. William was a direct descendant of the Viking warrior Rollo. He served as the Duke of Normandy from 1035. By 1060, he began a conquest of England. In the autumn of ...
William the Conqueror was a Norman duke when he won the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066 — a victory that would ultimately lead to him taking the English crown. Although William’s army won the battle decisively, it was hard-fought on both sides and unusually long by medieval standards. Both William and his opponent, Harold II, King of ...
William I (c. 1028 – 9 September 1087), usually known as William the Conqueror and sometimes William the Bastard, was the first Norman King of England, reigning from 1066 until his death in 1087. A descendant of Rollo, he was Duke of Normandy from 1035 onward.
One of the earliest and most significant victories for knights in the Middle Ages was the Norman conquest of England, and a lot of what we know about that fight comes from William of Poitiers (c ...
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When raindrops first form and drop out of clouds, they are very large -- sometimes as
big as baseballs. They are also nicely spherical due to the surface tension inherent in
But as raindrops fall, air resistance drags on the drops and distorts them. We typically
represent that distortion as a teardrop because that's the shape they make when
they're hanging off something here on the ground. But in the air, raindrops actually
take on other shapes that are more like pancakes, parachutes, or broken grocery
Each raindrop, still falling, reaches a point where the air resistance is so great that the
drop flattens out and then bursts. What hits the earth, then, are the fragments of
larger raindrops that have exploded on the way down.
Very small droplets, those with a radius of 0.014 cm, remain spherical the whole way
There's another fact about raindrops that may also be related to the way they break
up on the way down. You would think that larger raindrops fall faster than smaller
raindrops; i.e., the force of gravity acting on an object with more mass would give it
greater acceleration than a smaller object. However, two researchers from Michigan
Tech University discovered that some smaller raindrops actually fall faster than larger
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Elementary Math
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Geometric Shapes: Circle
We’ve already seen some of the main geometric shapes in earlier posts. In this post, we’re going to look more in depth at the circle.
The circle is a geometrical shape that is made by drawing a curve that always has the same distance from the point that we refer to as the center.
In just a little bit, we’re going to learn about the different parts of the circle.
The “length” of the circle is called the circumference.
The only difference between the circumference of the circle and the circle is that the circumference is a numerical value (sometimes with units), and the circle the actual figure that the circumference is measuring.
The center of the circle is the point from which all points on the circle are the same distance.
A radius is a segment drawn from the center of the circle to any point on the circle.
A chord is a segment drawn from one point on the circle to another point on the circle.
A diameter is a chord that passes through the center of the circle. The diameter of a circle is the length of a diameter of the circle. The diameter is twice as long as the radius.
Was this post on the circle helpful for you? If so, share it so that your friends can know more about this geometric shape, too. We’ll keep looking at geometric shapes in future posts.
If you want to learn about geometry, don’t think twice about creating an account at Smartick!
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初三英语阅读理解训练题及答案一 初三英语阅读理解训练题及答案一 （一） Little Tom down the street calls our dog "The keep dog".Zip is a sheep dog. But when Tom tries to say" Seep", it comes out "keep". And in a way Tom is right. Zip is always bringing things hoem for us to keep! I'll tell you about some of them. Zip's first present was a shoe. It was made of green silk. We didn't know how Zip found the shoe. But after a moment Mary, my big sister, told me the shoe had a strange smell. I nodded(点头)and held my nose. "What do you think it is?" "It smells like something for cleaning. I think someone tried to clean a spot (污点) off the shoe. Then he put it at the door to dry." "Along came Zip. And good-bye shoe!" I said."We should take it back." "We can't ".said my sistter. "Maybe little Tom is right," Mary said. "Maybe Zip is a keep dog!"
2.Tom calls Zip "the keep dog"because . A.the dog likes keeping things B.the dog likes playing with shoes C.he doesn't know the dog's name D.he can't pronounce the word "sheep"well
3.What made the shoe strange was .
A.its colour B.its smell C.its size D.that it was a silk one
5.We can know from the reading that the dog . A. likes to give presents to people B.has been kept in at the writer's home C.has brought some trouble D.likes to be called "the keep dog" Key:
5.C （二） An old lady in a plane had a blanket 毯子） （ over her head and she did not want to take it off . The air hostess spoke to her, but the old lady said, “I have never been in a plane before , and I am frightened. I am going to keep this blanket over my head until we are back on the ground again !” Then the captain came. He said, “Madam, I am the captain of this plane. The weather is fine, there are no clouds in the sky, and everything is going very well. ”But she continued to hide. So the captain turned and started to go back. Then the old lady looked out from under the blanket with one eye and said, “I am sorry, young man, but I don’t like planes and I am never going to fly again. But I’ll say one thing, ”She continued kindly, “You and your wife keep your plane very clean!”
1. An old lady had .
3. spoke to her . A. The air hostess B. The man next to her C. her husband D. one of her friends
5. The woman didn’t like planes and she was never going . A. to fly again B. to travel C. to go abroad D. to go home Key:
1. Dick flew to New York because . A. he went there for a holiday B. he had work there C. he went there for sightseeing (观光) D. his home was there
4. Who would send him the name and address of his hotel? A. The manager (经理) of his hotel. B. The police office. C. The taxi driver. D. His wife.
B. Dick didn't work on the first night of his arrival. C. Dick forgot to send his wife a telegram. D. Dick wanted to go back to his hotel in a taxi. Key: 1-5 B A B D C （ 四）
Two farmers were on their way home one evening after a hard day's work. Both were tired. They happened to look up at the sky and saw a black cloud overhead.
"Ah!" said one farmer, "tomorrow we shall have rain and the rice will grow well." The second answered, "Nonsense (胡说), the rain will only kill the crops (庄稼)."
So they began to quarrel (争吵). Just then a third farmer came along and asked them why they were quarreling. Both farmers explained about the black cloud.
"What cloud?" asked the third farmer. They all looked at the sky. The cloud was no longer there.
Choose the right answer
1. The two farmers were .
A. going home
B. going to the field
C. going to work
D. going to see their friend
2. The two farmers on that day.
A. had a holiday
B. didn't work
C. worked hard
D. wanted to quarrel with each other
3. When there are black block clouds in the sky, .
A. it will rain soon
B. it will be fine
C. it will get hot
D. the sun is shining brightly
4. The two farmers fought in words because .
A. they were hungry
B. it rained
C. one said the rain would do good to the crops and the other didn't think so
D. they both hoped for rain
5. The third farmer came with and said to the other two. He .
A. wanted to make friends with them
B. joined them in the quarrel
C. wanted to know why they were quarreling
D. had nothings to do
6. How many farmers said that the rain would be helpful? .
A. None B. One C. Two D. Three
2011 考研英语阅读新题型 选 5)模拟 考研英语阅读新题型(7 模拟 题及解析 Directions:You are going to read a list of headings and a text about preparing in the academic community. Choose the most suitable heading from the list A-G for each numbered paragraph (41-45). The first an ...
京翰教育中心 http://www.zgjhjy.com 泰兴市第三高级中学 №103054 高一年级 英语数科 阅读理解练习（7） 高一（ ）班 姓名 备课组长 宋德生 期中复习 A “How can I learn English well?” This is a question many students ask. In my opinion, the most effective way is to learn lessons by heart. If you can recite ...
大学英语四级阅读理解试题及答案（一） 一 There are three kinds of goals: short-term,medium-range and long-term goals. Short-range goals are those that usually deal with current activities,which we can apply on a daily basis.Such goals can be achieved in a week or less ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 19 来源：考试大 2010/4/28 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T 【阅读练习】 阅读练习】 Americans are proud of their variety and individualty, yet they love and respect few things more than a uniform. Why are uniforms so __1__ in the United States? Am ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 17 来源：考试大 2010/2/2 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T It’s never easy to admit you are in the wrong. Being human, we all need to know the art of apologizing. Look back with honesty and think how often you’ve judged roughly, said __ ...
英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 18 来源：考试大 2010/2/3 【考试大：中国教育考试第一门户】 模拟考场 视频课程 字号:T T Many a young person tells me he wants to be a writer. I always __1__ such people, but I also explain that there’sa big difference between "being a writer" and writing. ...
2011 年英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 9 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题， 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题，如需完整题库请登录 http://news.bangkaow.com 英语四级考试免费练习题 Cancer is feared by everyone. And this fear is reaching epidemic（流行性） proportions. Not the disease itself ? there is no such thing as ...
2011 年英语四级阅读理解模拟试题及答案详解 8 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题， 温馨提示:帮考网英语四级考试免费练习题，如需完整题库请登录 http://news.bangkaow.com 英语四级考试免费练习题 Until the 1980s， the American homeless population comprised mainly older males. Today， homelessness strikes much younger part of socie ...
09 年 MBA 英语阅读理解（精读精解）13 英语阅读理解（ 精读精解） [日期：2008-10-09] 来源：太奇 MBA 网 作者： [字体：大 中 小] 背景： As a track star in high school, Sallie Krawcheck ranked amon g her state's best at the high jump. But she hasn't jumped for a nyone since, and her unshakable indep ...
高考英语写作 基础部分 写作的潜规则： 写作的潜规则： 用简洁地道的语言把意思表达 清楚 用自己最高的语言水平把要求 的要点写清楚 句子好，才是真的好 句子好， 一个没有亮点的文章比一个有小错误 一个没有亮点的文章比一个有小错误 没有亮点的文章比一个有 的文章更可怕。。。 的文章更可怕。。。 打造完美的首句： 打造完美的首句： 不能低于12个单词 不能低于12个单词 不能出现低级词汇 不能出现并列的短句 用词要有难度?? 用词要有难度 尽量使用我们在高中阶段学的词汇 some/many??v ...
软件测试常用英语词汇 1．静态测试：Non-Execution-Based Testing 或 Static testing 代码走查：Walkthrough 代码审查：Code Inspection 技术评审：Review 2．动态测试：Execution-Based Testing 3．白盒测试：White-Box Testing 4．黑盒测试：Black-Box Testing 5． 灰盒测试：Gray-Box Testing 6． 软件质量保证 SQA：Software Qualit ...
文章源于科技论文发表网：www.59168.net QQ:1003 59168 英语教学类论文:自我决定动机理论在高职英语教学 英语教学类论文 自我决定动机理论在高职英语教学 中的应用 摘要： 学习动机在英语教学活动中起着重要的作用。本文以自我决 定动机理论为依据，结合高职生英语学习的特点和多年英语教学实 践， 探讨了如何激发和培养学生英语学习动机的策略，进而提高英 语课堂教学效果。 关键词： 自我决定动机理论 高职 英语教学 一、引言。 高职学生英语基础较差，上课听不懂，学习困难，无法与老 ...
学习自考《高级英语》 学习自考《高级英语》完全指导 高级英语是英语本科的一门必考课程，要占 12 学分，但实际上并没有那么可怕。但这门 课有一个显著的特点就是通过考试容易，考高分难。 （推荐辅导书）： 推荐辅导书）： 东方出版社的同步辅导与同步训练 该书主要用于全文翻译，课后练习的答案。 北大燕园的模拟试题 考前冲刺强化训练用。 吉林大学出版社的题典 平时经常练习用。 （推荐助学）： 推荐助学）： 黄浦夜大史志康所教授的高级英语，分为一年慢班和半年快班两种。「我上课的地方， 自考外语出名的好 ...
四级英语词组 LIST 1 be（not）in the mood(for sth./to do sth) stir up solution to the problem under no circumstances in/under the circumstance at the core of in one’s presence presence of mind derive from in proportion to result in result from as a result o ...
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Microbes (bacteria, viruses and parasites)
Public summary:
Learn about the fascinating world of microbes with our fun cuddly toy bacteria, viruses and parasites, plus awesome slides and pictures.
Three boxes of kit to explain microbiology
Useful information
Kit List:
Three small grey boxes, one for each of bacteria, viruses and parasites. Details of what is in each box are given in the explanation below.
Packing Away:
Please make sure that we have all the cuddly microbes, and that they go back in the right box.
Frequency of use:
We’ve put together three boxes to talk about microbes. This can be combined into one big experiment, or split into three separate ones. Please try to keep each type of microbe in its rightful box.
Bacteria box
In the box:
• 9 x cuddly bacteria
• 1 x cuddly penicillin bug (to talk about antibiotics)
• 1 x cuddly yeast (to say that not all microbes are bacteria)
• 1 x plate of plastic bacteria (E.coli)
• 2 x bacteria viewers (look a bit like small microscopes)
• 3 x slides sets for bacteria viewers
• 1 x flask for growing bacteria
• Packets of tools for growing bacteria
• Laminated fact sheets for cuddly bacteria
• Laminated instructions sheets for hand washing activity
• UV hand wash cream (this is £15 per bottle, so use only minimum amount per group)
• UV light for hand wash activity
If you want to do the hand wash activity you'll need a soap, warm water and bowl and some paper towels to dry hands on.
There are several things to do: lots of cuddly bacteria to talk about (everyone loves these), UV hand-washing experiment (good for younger kids) and bacteria viewers and lab props (better for older kids).
Stories you could tell:
- How some bacteria are really good for us and others are bad (with the cuddly bacteria)
- How you can pass on bacteria (good and bad) on your skin- see hand wash activity notes (good for younger kids)
- How to grow bacteria in the lab (with lab props and slide viewers)
Element One: Cuddly Microbes
The following explanations are also found on laminated sheets in the box, and there is some additional information on labels attached to the cuddly bacteria:
1) E. coli (Escherichia coli): Gram negative, rod shaped
*SLIDE in microscope box*
Found in the intestines of most mammals- it’s there inside you only hours after you’re born! There are lots of bacteria in our digestive system that are harmless to us – in fact they stop harmful bacteria from living and growing there instead. Sometimes E.coli can make us ill; some unusual strains produce toxins which can give us food poisoning. Biologists like E. coli: It’s very easy to grow in the lab and can make lots of proteins and DNA very quickly.
2 ) Salmonella (Salmonella enterica): Gram negative, rod shaped
*SLIDE in microscope box*
Can infect humans and animals, so sometimes infects people of food isn’t cooked properly (particularly chicken or eggs). Causes gastroenteritis (diarrhoea and vomiting…) The bacterium itself can actually live inside certain types of white blood cell, which is a very effective way of hiding from the cells of the immune system that circulate in the blood.
3 ) Typhoid Fever (Salmonella typhimurium): Gram negative, rod shaped
Very closely related to the Salmonella bacteria that cause food poisoning. Typhoid fever is a lot worse than food poisoning however: its symptoms include a high fever, abdominal pain, a skin rash and headaches. Some people can be infected without having symptoms, but can still pass it to other people making them carriers of the disease. 'Typhoid Mary' (Mary Mallon) was the first recognised asymptomatic carrier and spread typhoid around New York in the early 1900s in her work as a cook, over 50 have fatalities have been linked to her. It is spread by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the bacterium. Typhoid fever is most common in India and its spread can be prevented by good hygiene.
4 ) Diarrhoea (Campylobacter jejuni): Gram negative, spiral shaped
Most common cause of food poisoning in the UK, linked to handling raw chicken. It produces a toxin that kills certain human cells, which helps the bacteria to survive, without being attacked by the immune system.
5 ) TB (Mycobacterium tuberculosis): ‘Acid fast’ will not gram stain
Infects the lungs when the bacterium is breathed in. Here it gets contained by the immune system in a tough shell. Only about 1 in 10 people who have the bacterium get ill: this usually happens when the immune system is weak and cannot contain the bacterium. The disease can cause damage to the lungs and in really bad cases it can spread to other parts of the body.
6 ) Cholera (Vibrio cholerae): Gram negative, comma shaped
Usually spread when water is contaminated by the bacterium. Produces a toxin that stops you absorbing water through your intestines. This causes really bad diarrhoea, which can be fatal as you lose too much water and salt from your body.
7 ) Listeria (Listeria monocytogenes): Gram positive, rod shaped
Causes fever and muscle pains. If the bacterium can get to the brain this can cause meningitis. Pregnant women are the most commonly infected – the mother usually gets a mild fever but the baby might be badly affected or born early. The source of the infection is often food – pasteurising dairy foods helps kill the bacteria and reduce the numbers of infections.
8 ) Stomach Ache (Shigella): Gram negative, rod shaped
Very closely related to E. coli. When the bacterium is ingested it can get inside the cells of your intestine. It produces some toxins that can also make you ill.
9 ) Yogurt (Lactobacillus bulgaricus): Gram positive, rod shaped
One of a number of species of bacteria that can be used to make yoghurt.
What Wikipedia has to say about the use of L. bulgaricus in the manufacture of yoghurt:
“Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is commonly used alongside Streptococcus thermophilus as a starter for making yoghurt. The two species work in synergy, with L. bulgaricus producing amino acids from milk proteins, which are then used by S. thermophilus. Both species produce lactic acid, which gives yoghurt its tart flavour and acts as a preservative. The resulting decrease in pH also partially coagulates the milk proteins, such as casein, resulting in yoghurt's thickness. While fermenting milk, L. bulgaricus produces acetaldehyde, one of the main yoghurt aroma components. Some strains of bulgaricus also produce bacteriocins which kill undesired bacteria. It is often helpful to sufferers of lactose intolerance, whose digestive systems lack the enzymes to break down lactose to simpler sugars.”
10) gonorea, syphilis, chalmydia
(Yes, we know that they're not bacteria, but we'd found that people ask about antibiotics, so we think that they're a nice bonus to have in the box)
Penicillin (Penicillium chrysogenum)
This is a fungus that makes penicillin, an antibiotic that kills some types of bacteria. It does this to kill off the bacteria that are competing for the food it needs for growth, but we have used penicillin from this fungus to treat bacterial infections in humans.
Yeast for bread and beer
Also a kind of fungus. It's one cell, just like the bacteria, though the cell is much bigger. In bread the yeast can use the sugars in the dough for its growth; it breaks them down in a reaction that produces the gas carbon dioxide, which make the bread rise. In beer the yeast converts the sugars to alcohols.
Element Two: Growing Bacteria in the Lab
The kit:
• 1 x plate of plastic bacteria (E. coli)
• 1 x flask for growing bacteria
• Packets of tools for growing bacteria
NB. The kit we have has not been used in a lab and the 'bacteria' on the plate are not real!
Under sterile (no other bacteria) conditions:
1) You can grow some types of bacteria in the lab. E. coli is happy to grow on agar plates, as long as it has all the nutrients it might need. The L-shaped spreader is used when you put the cells on the new plate, to make sure that the bacteria aren't too close together.
2) If you want more cells than this, get some bugs you're interested in with the green tool.
3) The plastic flask can be used to grow bacteria in a growth medium/ broth. (Extra detail: For E. coli you'd usually use Luria-Bertani medium (LB) at 37 degrees C to provide the necessary nutrients. This contains 10g Tryptone (enzymatically digested milk protein casein - supplies amino acids), 5g of Yeast Extract (supplies lots of nutrients), 1g glucose, 10g NaCl pH ~7.2, deionized, distilled water to 1 litre.)
Element three: bacteria viewers
The kit:
• 3 x slides sets for bacteria viewers
These are essentially a more durable version of a set of slides and a microscope. In the set of slides (which come with a booklet for information) you can see various different shapes of bacteria - just like in the cuddly bugs:
1) Round (1= "coccus", 2+ = "cocci")
2) Rod (1= "baccilus", 2+ = "baccili")
3) Spiral
These shapes are determined by the cell wall (the tough outer layer) and the cytoskeleton (internal "scaffolding"). They matter because they affect how the cells can absorb nutrients from its environment, how they can attach to surfaces and how they're able to move.
Element four: Handwashing Activity
Why should we bother washing our hands? This activity uses glow in the dark stuff to show how easy it is to miss the bits of your hands where bacteria are...
The kit:
• Laminated instructions sheets for hand washing activity
• UV light for hand wash activity
*Also needs a bowl and paper towels that are not supplied in the box*
There is a set of laminated instructor notes in the box, taken from the Wellcome Trust. A full version can be viewed online here: http://www.yourgenome.org/downloads/pdf/teachers/handshake/handshake_tno...
• No hand washing: Form a ‘line’ around your group of children. Squirt UV cream on the first child’s hand and get them to rub their hands together, then shake the hand of the next person in the group, then they shake the next person’s hand... Shine the UV torch onto each of the kids’ hands to show up the ‘bacteria’. All should now wash their hands thoroughly.
• Compare the results with hand washing: Repeat the procedure but get each person to wash their hands in the bowl after the UV cream has been rubbed in but before they shake the hand of the next person.
• If the group activity isn’t suitable, you could always compare before and after hand washing on the same child.
• This should show that washing hands helps to remove microbes – and washing with soap does this better than with just water as the soap breaks down some of the natural oils on your hands that help the bacteria to stick. Look at where the bacteria were found – it’s easier for bacteria to stay between our fingers and under our nails – and that’s why it’s important to wash your hands properly!
Viruses box
In this box:
• 12 x cuddly viruses
• 1 x plastic model HIV virus (in box)
• microbiology text book
VIRUSES: Can be as simple as DNA or RNA in a protein coat. They use the cells of
their host to make lots of new viruses. Often these new viruses get released by
causing the cell to burst. Viruses can’t survive for very long outside of cells so new
viruses quickly find a new cell to infect.
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus): Retrovirus (RNA genome copies itself into DNA, using viral reverse transcriptase. The DNA integrates into the host chromosome and new viral genomes are produced by host transcription/translation machinery)
Can be spread via some bodily fluids and blood. Lives in white blood cells (CD4+ helper T cells) and eventually kills them, which means the immune system cannot function properly. People where HIV has killed too many white blood cells have AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), and this means that they can become very ill or even die from diseases that would not harm a healthy person (opportunistic infections – a big killer is tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis – cuddly bug in the bacteria box).
Common Cold (Rhinovirus): positive sense RNA
Spreads easily from infected people when they sneeze or contaminate surfaces. The virus is very happy at the temperature and conditions in the human nose which is where they initially infect. There are lots of different types of rhinovirus whose protein coats all look different to the immune system, which is why we don’t get become immune to the common cold.
Measles (Morbillivirus): negative sense RNA virus
Usually spread by breathing in virus from droplets in the atmosphere. Causes a fever, rash and red eyes. Most people will have been vaccinated against this with the MMR jab, which mostly eradicated measles from the UK. However since the scare about the MMR jab (spuriously linked to autism), the disease has been cropping up in affluent areas of London! (Vaccine scares can destroy herd immunity, the protection the population has when enough people are vaccinated and the virus cannot find enough hosts to spread to.)
Kissing Disease (Epstein-Barr Virus): DNA virus
Most of you will have this virus right now. It is usually spread via saliva, causing a mild fever in the majority of the population in early childhood. (Lots of people have asked me why this is and the answer is we don’t really know – scientists think it might be something to do with how the immune response develops over childhood.) However some people who don’t get the virus in early life might get it when they come into contact with other people’s saliva in their teenage years - they then get Glandular Fever. An interesting thing about the virus is that you never really get rid of it; some of its DNA forms little circles in the nucleus of the white blood cells it infects, and it can remain dormant (latent infection) for a long time (occasionally getting out into saliva but not making you ill). The virus that causes chicken pox can do this in nerve cells.
Influenza: Negative sense RNA virus
Infects almost all mammals (eg. swine flu, bird flu), aquatic birds are primary host. Common problem in humans - see most in winter when low air humidity allows the visus to spread more effectively. Spread by breathing in virus particles (Respiratory tract). Causes symptoms including fever, headache, cough, muscle aches and less commonly vomiting and diarrhoea. It can be vaccinated against, however it is able to change its structure (by mutating its genome which is a random process) so it can evade the immune system. This means flu vaccines keep having to be updated to protect people against the new variations of the virus. This, and the fact that influenza virus also infects birds, is the reason why it would not be possible to eradicate influenza. Could compare this to viruses like smallpox and polio which have or have nearly been eradicated because they have more stable genomes and no animal reservoir.
Rabies: Negative sense RNA virus
Enters via skin and exits via saliva - spread through being bitten by an infected animal (usually dog). Results in death by killing brain cells in the cerebellum. The virus travels to the brain from the bite site up the nerves and it progresses slowly, so it is possible to stop the progression of the disease by vaccinating after being bitten.
Ebola: Negative sense RNA virus
Spreads by direct contact. This virus has a high fatality rate of up to 90% (but closer to 40% in the most recent outbreak). It causes symptoms including fever, muscle aches, skin rash, vomiting + diarrhoea, weakness, bleeding from nose, mouth etc. The virus can infect many cell types and it spreads within the body through the circulatory system. It causes such severe disease because it causes clotting within the blood vessels, bleeding inside the body (haemorrhage) leading to a drop in blood pressure and multi-organ failure. It is also so severe because it originated in a different animal to humans - the fruit bat - and transmitted to humans relatively recently. This is in contrast to viruses such as the common cold which have been in human populations for a long period of our evolution meaning we have adapted to survive it.
Winter Vomiting Disease (Norovirus): Positive sense RNA virus
Very common in the UK and very contagious. Causes vomiting and diarrhoea. Spread can be prevented by washing hands regularly.
Polio: Positive sense RNA virus
See "Polio, vaccination and disease eradication" experiment
Chicken Pox: Double stranded DNA virus
Otherwise known as Varicella-Zoster virus, a member of the herpesvirus family. Highly contagious; Spread through direct contact, coughing and sneezing, and causes red spots on the skin all over the body. Causes mild symptoms if caught when young, but causes Shingles in adults which is more serious. After initial infection, the virus goes dormant (latent) in the nervous system, and later in life it might reactivate to cause shingles.
T4 (T4-Bacteriophage):
Bacteriophage are viruses but they do not infect humans – they infect bacteria. One day this might be useful to us for treating bacterial infections (‘phage therapy’) where you can infect specific bacterial cells with genes that kill them/stop them reproducing.
HPV, here's, cancer (not virus)
Parasites Box
• 6 x cuddly parasites (4x protozoa, 2x insects)
• 2 x cuddly mosquitos (parasite "vectors")
• laminated fact sheets
• laminated parasite matching game
• microbiology text book
What is a parasite?
- Being a parasite is essentially free-loading off the host that it feeds on.
- Some parasites live on the surface of their hosts, these are ectoparasites (e.g. some mites/lice, ticks).
- Some types parasites live inside their "prey", these are endoparasites. Some of these live in gaps between the host tissues (eg trypansomes, tapeworms) while others live inside the host cells (eg malaria parasites)
- Most parasites live in more than one species at some point in their lifecycle (see individual descriptions).
- The parasites that you're most likely to hear about are single-celled Protozoa (including the parasites that cause malaria and trypanosomiasis), and parasitic worms (such as tapeworms).
- There is constant conflict between parasite and host: the host’s immune system is trying to kill the parasite, and the parasite is trying to hide from the immune system. Co-evolution of the parasite with the host has led to them becoming well adapted to each other – a good parasite is one that manipulates the host so it can reproduce maximally but doesn’t kill the host because it needs somewhere to live!
- Parasitic diseases are a massive problem for global health. Malaria kills nearly 1 million people per year, most African children under 5 years old. Parasitic worms might reduce your quality of life so much that you can’t care for your family, leading to a wider impact (eg elephantiasis). In many regions where parasitic diseases are a problem there is very basic healthcare, making treatment more difficult to access.
- Also a big problem in animals - cost to pet owners of preventative treatment (to avoid illness), most farm animals have a significant parasite burden (gives economic costs of reduced production, greater food intake required, medications etc.
Some examples of parasites
PROTOZOA: Single-celled eukaryotes
1) Malaria (Plasmodium falciparum):
4 parasites cause malaria: Plasmodium falciparum (the most common and most deadly), Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium ovale. These are carried by Anopheles mosquitoes, the vector, which are active and hence bite people at night. When they bite an infected person they take up the parasite into their digestive system (parasite stage = sporozoite), and then secrete it into the next person they bite in saliva (used to inject anticoagulants to keep the person bleeding so the mosquito can get its blood meal). The parasite then travels in the bloodstream to the liver where cells are infected (parasite stage = merozoite). Parasites are released and enter red blood cells in the circulation, where they multiply and burst the red blood cell, causing the symptoms of malaria. Inside some red blood cells the parasites become gametocytes which are taken up by another mosquito if it bites the person.
Symptoms at first include fever, chills, headache and vomiting. In some cases this can rapidly progress to severe anaemia, respiratory distress or cerebral malaria - and can be fatal. However if you live in a malarial area (and get infected often) you may develop partial resistance to malaria and be infected without symptoms (asymptomatic infection). When you travel to a malarial area (Asia, South America, Africa - but the range is spreading) you use chemoprophylaxis (drugs to stop an infection becoming established), in combination with avoiding being bitten (mosquito nets, DEET mosquito repellent) - and there are also drugs available to treat malarial infections.
2) African Sleeping Sickness (Trypanosoma brucei):
Parasites are injected into you by the bite of a tsetse fly in Africa (tsetse fly = the vector), or they can cross the placenta to infect a fetus. Trypanosomes don’t live inside cells like malaria but they live in the blood stream – this means they have to do clever things to hide from the immune system, such as constantly changing their protein coat so that the immune system can't recognise them as a parasite. 2 different trypanosome subspecies cause sleeping sickness: T. brucei rhodesiense gives a rapidly-progressing disease (death in weeks to months) whereas causes a slowly-progressing disease (you might not have any symptoms for years!). Sleeping sickness occurs when the trypanosomes enter the brain and start to destroy the areas that control sleep and wakefulness, leading to blurred sleep/wake transitions and falling asleep at inappropriate times, progressing to coma and death! Trypanosomiasis (disease caused by trypanosomes) is treatable - but it's much easier at the early stage (drugs: pentamidine/suramine) than once the parasites enter the brain (drugs: melarsoprol - which comes from arsenic and has nasty side effects that can be fatal themselves!).
African trypanosomes also infect cattle, making agriculture in areas with tsetse flies really unproductive - cattle become really thin and so can't work (pulling ploughs etc) and aren't useful as food for people either!
3) Chagas disease/ American trypanosomiasis (Trypanosoma cruzi)
Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, is caused by the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi). 10 million people in the world are infected, mainly in South America. The vector transmitting the trypanosomes to humans is the triatomine bug ('kissing bugs'). These live on the walls of houses and are nocturnal, biting people on their exposed faces when they are asleep at night. Unlike the African trypanosomes, South American trypanosomes aren't injected with the bug's saliva but the bug defecates next to the bite and it's the faeces that contain the parasites. They get into the person's bloodstream when they rub their face and smear the faeces into the bite!
The first sign of infection is often a large swelling of the eyelid on the side of the face that was bitten. Parasites can then enter the heart (30% cases) causing problems with the heartbeat, and maybe sudden death. Digestive problems can also occur (10% cases) when there is enlargement of the oesophagus as food can't enter the stomach - the food that gets trapped can start rotting which is pretty disgusting! Chagas disease is highly treatable though, with nearly 100% of people cured if treated early (benznidazole or nifurtimox).
4) Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii)
Toxoplasma gondii is a species of parasitic protozoa.The definitive host (where the sexual stage of the life cycle occurs) is the cat - gametes are formed in the digestive tract and exit in the faeces. Then they enter another host (intermediate host) when they eat or drink contaminated food or water. So far every warm-blooded animal tested can act as a host - including humans. Here the parasite can enter any nucleated cell and replicates to form a tissue cyst. This can be passed on to another intermediate host or a cat by carnivory.
Usually toxoplasmosis has very mild symptoms (there might be some fever) and in France up to 90% of adults are infected (due to the French love of rare meat)! However serious disease can be caused in immunocompromised people (AIDS sufferers or post-transplant patients on immunosuppressive drugs) and pregnant women (increasing the risk of spontaneous abortion and birth defects). This is why pregnant women are advised not to touch cat litter! (also explains why pregnant women are advised to clean fruit/veg thoroughly as gametes can contaminate them, and women become infected this way)
T.gondii infection of the brain can lead to changes in behaviour by changing the amounts of chemicals in the brain (dopamine). Rats and mice lose their fear response to the scent of cats (tested using cat urine) and are more curious - very important effect, as means rats are more likely to be caught and eaten by cats giving greater rate of infection of cats (completing the parasites life cycle). Studies in humans have linked toxoplasmosis to schizophrenia (including hallucinations and reckless behaviour), slower reaction times and greater chance of causing traffic accidents.
(There's some slides for these in "Microscopes & Cells" which can be borrowed - same for some preserved specimens in "Horrible Housemates".)
Flukes (Trematodes): Adult flukes are leaf-shaped flatworms. Prominent suckers at the mouth and on the stomach help maintain position. Flukes are hermaphroditic (both male and female) except for blood flukes (schistosomes), which are bisexual. The life-cycle includes a snail intermediate host.
Tapeworms (Cestodes): Adult tapeworms are elongated, segmented, hermaphroditic flatworms that inhabit the intestinal lumen. You can eat the cysts in undercooked animal tissues (pork is probably the greatest risk if undercooked), and then they develop in your intestines. They eat your food from your intestine – instead of you getting the nutrients. They attach to the intestinal wall using suckers in the head. Problematic in the developing world where there is already malnutrition. People used to use tapeworms as a slimming aid… They can grow up to 15 metres long and live for 20 years! Larval forms live in extraintestinal tissues.
Roundworms (Nematodes): Adult and larval roundworms are bisexual, cylindrical worms. They inhabit intestinal and extraintestinal sites.
1) Schistosomiasis (caused by a fluke/ trematode)
• Schistosomiasis is a chronic, parasitic disease caused by blood flukes (schistosomes)
• At least 230 million people require treatment every year – praziquantel
• Infection from larval forms released from freshwater snails in contaminated water
• Penetrate the skin and live in circulation where females release eggs
• Cause damage because of the host immune response to the parasites
2) Liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) (caused by a fluke)
• Freshwater snail intermediate host, where reproduction occurs, then they are released as cercariae and swim through water to be ingested by ruminants normally, or sometimes humans eating uncooked foods like watercress
• Adult lives in the liver where they feed on the lining of bile ducts – makes cheese-like holes in the liver
• Produce eggs – up to 25000 a day per female
3) Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease, caused by a nematode)
• Dracunculiasis (caused by Dracunculus medinensis, a long thread-like worm) is a parasitic disease on the verge of eradication
• Exclusively transmitted by drinking water contaminated with parasite-infected fleas such as rural isolated ponds
• Takes 10-14 months for worm to mature in the body
4) Hookworm (Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus, kinds of nematodes)
• Soil-transmitted helminths (parasitic worms)
• Major burden of disease worldwide - estimated 576-740 million people infected with hookworm
• Hookworms live in the small intestine, eggs are passed in faeces of infected person – this is a problem in the developing world where people may defecate outside (near bushes, in a garden, or field) of if the faeces of an infected person are used as fertilizer, eggs are deposited on soil.
• Eggs then mature and hatch, releasing larvae (immature worms).
• The larvae mature into a form that can penetrate the skin of humans, and infection is mainly acquired by walking barefoot on contaminated
• Infection is treatable – anthelminthic medications eg. albenadazole
(There are two cuddly toys for this, so you can show a second uninfected mosquito feeding off a human host)
Mosquito (Culex pipiens):
• Most mosquitoes are harmless but some can transmit disease
• Viral diseases, such as yellow fever, dengue fever and Chikungunya, transmitted mostly by Aedes aegypti
• Parasitic disease malaria, carried by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles
• Lymphatic filariasis (the main cause of elephantiasis – worms block lymphatics impairing lymph drainage causing swelling of the limbs)
• We have cuddly toys of mosquitoes – in the parasites box
(There's some cuddly toys and slides for these, and hopefully some preserved samples borrowed from the "Horrible Housemates" experiment)
1) Head louse (Pediculus humanus capitis)
• Lice are wingless biting or sucking insects. Lice infestation of any part of the body is called pediculosis!
• Live on your head (an ectoparasite) - has a single strong claw on each leg that can grab onto 6 hairs so they can move rapidly (may be on several heads in one day). But their short stumpy legs mean they can’t jump or walk well on flat surfaces.
• Your head provides a source of food - blood
• Eggs are called nits and the female attaches the eggs close to the scalp with a transparent quick-setting glue
• The time taken to hatch depends upon temperature
• Head lice have no lungs! They take in air by muscle contraction of the abdomen (via spiracles)
• Head lice have been recovered from prehistoric mummies!
2) Bed bug (Cimex lectularius)
• Ectoparasites that feed on human blood (haematophagous)
• Live in houses and especially beds – most active at night so they can feed on the host without being noticed
• Adults can survive more than a year without feeding
• They don’t usually spread disease but they can cause allergic skin reactions
• Light brown flattened oval-shaped body, vestigial front wings, microscopic hairs on abdomen that give a banded appearance
Risk Assessment
Date risk assesment last checked:
Sun, 20/01/2019
Risk assesment checked by:
Matt Worssam
Date risk assesment double checked:
Wed, 23/01/2019
Risk assesment double-checked by:
Risk Assessment:
Hazard Risk Likelihood Severity Overall Mitigation Likelihood Severity Overall
Microbe toys and accessories Trip hazard if dropped on the floor. 3 2 6 Keep all props in contained area and pick up any fallen toys as soon as is safe. Call first aider in case of injury. 2 2 4
UV cream UV cream in eyes. 2 3 6 When giving UV cream to children, tell them not to put their fingers near their eyes and ensure they rinse it off.
Call first aider in case of injury. If washing up liquid gets into an eye, demonstrator must call a first aider and may perform an eye wash if trained and confident to do so.
1 3 3
UV cream Slip hazard if spilled. 1 2 2 All spills should be cleared up immediately. Call first aider in case of injury. 1 1 1
UV cream Possible allergic reaction to cream? (Widely used in teaching, so severe reaction is likely to be rare). 1 3 3 Suggest that volunteer from group isn't one who is known to have sensitive skin.
Call first aider in case of allergic reaction, then seek further medical advice where appropriate.
1 3 3
Sensitive Topics We have a cancer cell and some things here which can cause cancer which effects lots of people, there are also several other potentially fatal diseases. 4 2 8 Deal with topic respectfully, move on if it seems distressing. Move to different experiment if required. 3 0 0
Publicity photo:
Experiment photos:
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4,
"fasttext_score": 0.14100909233093262,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.923892617225647,
"url": "http://chaosscience.org.uk/node/686"
}
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Why Purple?
US Purple Heart
Why Purple?
The Purple Heart is the oldest known United States military decoration still in use. The Purple Heart formally known as the Badge of Military Merit was created by then General George Washington in 1782. Here is what he wrote:
General Washington understood two things. First, in order for the Continental Army to be successful against the British forces every soldier had to be dedicated to and understand the mission. Second, in order to keep the morale of the soldiers they had to be rewarded for exemplary service. It is assumed that General Washington chose Purple because it was associated with royalty, courage, rank, creativity, and nobility.
General Washington has taught us that leaders must reward exemplary service if they want it repeated. Leaders focus their teams on the mission and reward them for their accomplishments.
Let us help you focus your team on what’s really important…The Mission.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.40825408697128296,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9720553755760193,
"url": "http://kareemslater.com/why-purple/"
}
|
Answered By: Thomas King
Last Updated: Nov 29, 2018 Views: 1
FAIR stands for 'Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable'. To summarise briefly, 'Findable' means the data should have rich metadata and a persistent identifier, such as a DOI, to ensure it can be found using search engines or repository search functions; 'Accessible' means the data should have an explicit indication of its conditions of reuse, ideally (though not always) through the use of an open licence, and that when possible the format the data is made available in is accessible without expensive proprietary software; 'Interoperable' means the data should be described with community-agreed standards, such as the use of controlled vocabularies; and 'Reusable' means the chosen licence should be machine-readable, allowing for search engines to find it easily, and accompanied by sufficient information that the origin and purpose of the data is understandable.
Many universities, academic professional bodies and funders are developing their own guidelines for FAIR open data. If you would like to read further, we advise you begin with the Force11 statement on the FAIR principles.
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.765625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06901973485946655,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9185411930084229,
"url": "http://libanswers.lib.uct.ac.za/faq/242758"
}
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Is the Earth round?
The Earth is an irregularly shaped ellipsoid.
Earth from space
While the Earth appears to be round when viewed from the vantage point of space, it is actually closer to an ellipsoid. However, even an ellipsoid does not adequately describe the Earth’s unique and ever-changing shape.
Additionally, the shape of the Earth is always changing. Sometimes this change is periodic, as is the case with daily tides that affect both the ocean and the crust; sometimes the change is slow and steady, as with the drift of tectonic plates or the rebound of the crust after a heavy sheet of ice has melted; and sometimes the shape of the planet changes in violent, episodic ways during events such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or meteor strikes.
The National Geodetic Survey measures and monitors our ever-changing planet. Geodesy is the science of measuring and monitoring the size and shape of the Earth, including its gravity field, and determining the location of points on the Earth’s surface.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 4.0625,
"fasttext_score": 0.9640913009643555,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9148249626159668,
"url": "https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/earth-round.html"
}
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Soviet October in the Yankee Imagination
A century after the seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Ilyich Lenin and Leon Trotsky, the current validity of the ideas of the Russian Revolution of October 1917 can be seen in the orientation of the struggles waged by the peoples of the whole against capitalist exploitation.
October cleared the roads to human liberation that Marxism had identified and discovered in other new ways. It led the nation to achieve great successes in economic, politics, culture, social justice and defense, to make backward Russia a world power in a short time.
October allowed the efforts and sacrifices of the peoples of the Soviet Union to reach the level of economic, military and scientific development that brought about a bipolarity of the world in which the nations of the planet could rest their hopes of progress. The United States was no exception.
In January 1919, Lenin invited the left wing of the Socialist Party of America (SPA) to join the newly-created Communist International in Moscow. In the spring of that year this wing took control of the whole party displacing its previous leadership, which was smaller and of social-democratic orientation.
From its origins, the SPA suffered attacks from several state governments and from the US federal government itself. It feared a repeat of the revolts that were taking place on European soil. In the United States, between the end of 1919 and January 1920, the “red terror” led the United States Attorney General to order the arrest of thousands of communists, with the Sedition Act of 1918 as a legal basis.
During the Great Depression of 1929, the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA) multiplied its pacts with small union groups. The election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as president also meant the renewal of the unions and increased in them the influence of the CPUSA.
During this period, the CPUSA was distinguished by its defense of the Second Spanish Republic, a victim of the Francoist uprising that led to the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Leftists from all over the world joined to defend the Republic, providing funds for medical care and in many cases volunteering in the International Brigades. The CPUSA provided the first members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, which, in addition to supporting the Republican government of Spain, was the first military force made of US-made military force in which blacks and whites were integrated in the same ranks, with the same rights and obligations.
When the United States Communist Party (CPUSA) was formed in 1919, the Washington government had long suppressed the Socialists because they had opposed American intervention in World War I and made a campaign against military service. As of January 1920, the new target of persecution was the communists who began to be massively imprisoned. The CPUSA was forced into hiding and had to change its name several times to avoid arrest of its cadres and militants.
In the 1930s, the FBI persecuted Nazis and Communists under suspicion that they intended to launch an armed revolt against the federal government. In 1940, laws that made it illegal to hold a favorable opinion to overthrow the government came into force.
In 1941, when the United States was about to enter the world war in Europe and Japan, the Roosevelt government accused 29 members of the Socialist Workers’ Party (SWP), then political allied with the Fourth International, of sedition and conspiracy to overthrow the government. The FBI raided the offices of the SWP and formed a grand jury for the trial. The accused used the process to proclaim their socialist principles from the dock, rejected the imperialist war and refuted the presentation of the socialist revolution as a conspiracy or coup.
The United States’ entry into World War II in December 1941 forced an alliance with the Soviet Union that enabled the recruitment of communist militants into the US military. At the end of the Second World War, in 1945, and the beginning of the Cold War against the USSR, the official US “truce” with the CPUSA ended and an anti-communist psychosis was exacerbated by the alleged discovery of “Soviet espionage networks” and the denunciation of a growing power of the communists in the industrial trade union sector. Then came the McCarthy or witch-hunt period, one of the most shameful episodes in the legal history of the United States, which included the political murder of the couple Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, of sedition and conspiracy to overthrow the government a hate crime that still cries out for justice.
A CubaNews translation by Walter Lippmann.
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.06417679786682129,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.911487340927124,
"url": "https://www.counterpunch.org/2017/09/08/soviet-october-in-the-yankee-imagination/"
}
|
Table of Contents
Big O notation
Class Notation Description
Constant complexity O(1) Most instructions are executed once
Logarithmic complexity O(log N) Program becomes gradually slower with more input data
Linear complexity O(N) Runtime increases linearly with input data
Linear-logarithmic complexity O(N log N) Runtime is a bit more than doubled for doubled input (in devide and conquer algorithms)
Quadratic complexity O(N2) Quadrupled runtime for doubled input
Exponential complexity O(2N) Runtime grows expontentially for increased input.
The performance of a system is not only dependent upon the theoretical complexity of the algorithms. It also depends upon its environment, e.g. the operating system, the compiler, runtime environment and the hardware. As all this factors cannot be reliably derived from theory an emperical analysis is necessary as well.
Scientific method
• How much faster?
• What tried out with which effects?
• Make experiments reproducible
The purpose of optimization is to find a better approximation to the ideal runtime and resource consumption. The optimization process is a variant of the scientific method. It should be applied incrementally.
1. Start with the simplest possible solution for the required functionality
2. Analyze the performance and resource usage of the system
3. Identify the bottleneck
4. Define a testing scenario for the bottleneck (with best, average and worst case input data)
5. Apply the SCAMPER checklist to every instruction to find out a possibly better solution
6. Implement the improved solution
7. Rerun the testing scenario and compare the mutation with previous versions of the algorithm
8. Go back to step (5) until solution is good enough
9. Go back to step (2) until termination
Algorithm engineering
Books on this subject
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"edu_score": 3.734375,
"fasttext_score": 0.7003291249275208,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.8445322513580322,
"url": "http://notes.experimental-software.com/SoftwareEngineering/Programming/Performance.html"
}
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Open main menu
Japanese print from 1854 describing Commodore Matthew Perry's "Black Ships".
The Black Ships (in Japanese: 黒船, kurofune, Edo period term) was the name given to Western vessels arriving in Japan in the 16th and 19th centuries.
In 1543 Portuguese initiated the first contacts, establishing a trade route linking Goa to Nagasaki. The large carracks engaged in this trade had the hull painted black with pitch, and the term came to represent all western vessels. In 1639, after suppressing a rebellion blamed on the Christian influence, the ruling Tokugawa shogunate retreated into an isolationist policy, the Sakoku. During this "locked state", contact with Japan by Westerners was restricted to Dejima island at Nagasaki.
In 1844, William II of the Netherlands urged Japan to open, but was rejected. On July 8, 1853, the U.S. Navy steamed four warships into the bay at Edo and threatened to attack if Japan did not begin trade with the West. Their arrival marked the reopening of the country to political dialogue after more than two hundred years of self-imposed isolation. Trade with Western nations would not come until the Treaty of Amity and Commerce more than five years later.
In particular, kurofune refers to Mississippi, Plymouth, Saratoga, and Susquehanna of the Perry Expedition for the opening of Japan, 1852–1854, that arrived on July 14, 1853, at Uraga Harbor (part of present-day Yokosuka) in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan under the command of United States Commodore Matthew Perry.[1] Black refers to the black color of the older sailing vessels, and the black smoke from the coal-fired steam engines of the American ships. In this sense, the kurofune became a symbol of the ending of isolation.
Brooklyn Museum – Commodore Matthew Perry's "Black Ship"
First kurofune ships: nau do tratoEdit
Portuguese black carrack in Nagasaki, in the early 17th century.
In 1543 Portuguese traders arrived in Japan initiating the first contacts with the West. Soon they established a trade route linking their headquarters in Goa, via Malacca to Nagasaki. Large carracks engaged in the flourishing "Nanban trade", introducing modern inventions from the European traders, such as refined sugar, optics, and firearms; it was the firearms, arquebuses, which became a major innovation of the Sengoku period—a time of intense internal warfare—when the matchlocks were replicated. Later, they engaged in triangular trade, exchanging silver from Japan with silk from China via Macau.[2]
Carracks of 1200 to 1600 tons,[3] named nau do trato ("treaty ship") or nau da China by the Portuguese,[4] engaged in this trade had the hull painted black with pitch, and the term[5] came to apply for all western vessels. The name was inscribed in the Nippo Jisho, the first western Japanese dictionary compiled in 1603.
The Tokugawa shogunate retreated back into a policy of isolationism identified as Sakoku (鎖国, "locked country"), forbidding contact with most outside countries. Only a limited-scale trade and diplomatic relations with China, Korea, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Netherlands was maintained.[6] The Sakoku policy remained in effect until 1853 with the arrival of Commodore Matthew Perry and the "opening" of Japan.
Gunboat diplomacyEdit
Commodore Perry's superior military force was the principal factor in negotiating a treaty allowing American trade with Japan, thus effectively ending the Sakoku period of more than 200 years in which trading with Japan had been permitted to the Dutch, Koreans, Chinese, and Ainu exclusively.
The sight of the four ships entering Edo Bay, roaring black smoke into the air and capable of moving under their own power, deeply frightened the Japanese.[7] Perry ignored the requests arriving from the shore that he should move to Nagasaki—the official port for trade with the outside—and threatened in turn to take his ships directly to Edo, and burn the city to the ground if he was not allowed to land. It was eventually agreed upon that he should land nearby at Kurihama, whereupon he delivered his letter and left.[8]
To command his fleet, Perry chose officers with whom he had served in the Mexican–American War. Commander Franklin Buchanan was captain of Susquehanna and Joel Abbot was captain of Macedonian. Commander Henry A. Adams became the Commodore's chief of staff with the title "Captain of the Fleet". Major Jacob Zeilin (future commandant of the United States Marine Corps) was the ranking Marine officer, and was stationed on Mississippi.[relevant? ]
The following year, at the Convention of Kanagawa, Perry returned with a fleet of eight of the fearsome Black Ships, to demonstrate the power of the United States navy, and to lend weight to his announcement that he would not leave again, until he had a treaty. In the interim following his previous visit, the Tokugawa shogunate had learned about the staggering destruction of the Chinese fleet by a handful of British warships in 1841 during the First Opium War, and about China's subsequent loss of Hong Kong to British sovereignty.[7] The shogunate realized that—if they wished for their country to avoid a similar fate—they would need to make peace with the west.
After a roughly a month of negotiations, the shōgun's officials presented Perry with the Treaty of Peace and Amity. Perry refused certain conditions of the treaty but agreed to defer their resolution to a later time, and finally establishing formal diplomatic relations between Japan and the United States. The eight ships departed, leaving behind a consul at Shimoda to negotiate a more permanent agreement. The Harris Treaty was signed with the United States on July 29, 1858, and within five years of the signing of the Treaty of Peace and Amity, Japan had moved to sign treaties with other western countries.[8]
Commodore Perry's fleet for his second visit to Japan in 1854.
泰平の Taihei no
眠りを覚ます Nemuri o samasu
上喜撰 Jōkisen
たった四杯で Tatta shihai de
夜も眠れず Yoru mo nemurezu
Awoken from sleep
of a peaceful quiet world
by Jokisen tea;
with only four cups of it
one can't sleep even at night.
There is an alternative translation, based on the pivot words. Taihei can refer to the "Pacific Ocean" (太平); jōkisen also means "steam-powered ships" (蒸気船); and shihai also means "four vessels". The poem, therefore, has a hidden meaning:
The steam-powered ships
break the halcyon slumber
of the Pacific;
a mere four boats are enough
to make us lose sleep at night.
Kurofune ("The Black Ships") is also the title of the first Japanese opera, composed by Kosaku Yamada, "based on the story of Tojin Okichi, a geisha caught up in the turmoil that swept Japan in the waning years of the Tokugawa shogunate",[9] which premiered in 1940.[10]
See alsoEdit
4. ^ Rodrigues, Helena. "Nau do trato". Cham. Cham. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
8. ^ a b Beasley, William G (1972). The Meiji Restoration. Stamford University Press. p. 89. ISBN 0804708150.
9. ^ "'Black Ships' opera". New National Theatre Tokyo.
10. ^ "Simon Holledge's interview with Hiroshi Oga citing the premiere of the 'Black Ships' opera". Archived from the original on 2010-05-31.
External linksEdit
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"fasttext_score": 0.046153903007507324,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9340119957923889,
"url": "https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Ships"
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The Facts: What is a Psychoeducational Evaluation and Why is it Valuable
November 7, 2013
A psychoeducational evaluation, sometimes referred to as a psych-ed eval or neuropsych eval, is an assessment of how a student learns. It measures different types of reasoning, memory, and working efficiency. This is in contrast to learned knowledge, like math facts or vocabulary definitions.
Pyschoeducational evaluations are most commonly recommended for students who are having difficulty in school. However, the information in a psychoeducational evaluation is great for every student.
Mindprint got started as result of the founders’ own frustration with the psychoeducational process. They wanted to help other families by offering a streamlined psychoeducational evaluation at a fraction of the time and cost.
psychoeducational evaluation
Click to watch our video of the psychoeducational evaluation process
In the following post, Princeton-based adolescent psychologist Dr. Carol Blum explains what a psychoeducational evaluation is, why it can require so much time and expense, and what to consider before paying for one.
Question 1: What is included in a psychoeducational evaluation?
Psychoeducational evaluations vary according to the age of the child and the goal. However, most psychoeducational evaluations will include six key components:
1. Background Review.
Evaluations always begin with an initial interview with parents and student and review of academic records. It often includes behavior checklists completed by the parents, teachers and student and a test of fine motor skills. Psychologists might start with a cognitive screener like Mindprint to focus their evaluation.
2. Evaluation of Cognitive Skills.
The goal is an overall view of a child’s strengths and weaknesses in reasoning, memory, working efficiency and executive functions. Among the more popular tests are the Wechsler IQ tests: WPPSI (preschool), WISC (ages 6-16), and WAIS (ages 16+) Alternatively, psychologists might start with the Woodcock-Johnson or other normed and validated tests of cognitive abilities. Your clinician might have a good justification for using one test over another, but you’ll want to ask which test they are choosing and why.
3. Academic Achievement Testing.
This testing covers reading, writing, spelling, math, listening, etc. This part of the testing can be similar to tests taken in school, and some clinicians might use school tests rather than their own. Psychologists will compare the achievement test results with cognitive tests to understand discrepancies between achievement and overall capabilities.
4. Additional supplemental tests as needed.
Specific tests can be added to fine-tune understanding of specific areas that might be causing difficulty such as attention, language, memory, and processing skills. Psychologists will often add on tests if they want to confirm a diagnosis or if they need to understand any inconsistencies.
5. Personality and emotional testing.
Called “projective” testing, these tests are selected according to the child’s age and emotional maturity. Personality testing may include drawing, storytelling, the Rorschach, the TAT, or sentence completion. The goal is to understand where the child is emotionally as well as cognitively, as differences in cognitive age and emotional age can impact behavior and academic performance.
6. Observations.
The psychologist will always use their own professional observations to verify a diagnosis. They might also reference teacher observations or visit the school to assess environmental or behavioral considerations.
Question 2: How much does a psychoeducational evaluation cost?
The cost varies widely by professional and geographic location, but a psychoeducational evaluation usually costs between $2,000 and $5,000 and the process can take anywhere from 2 weeks to several months depending on the tests administered and the number of observational visits necessary. Health insurance may cover part of the cost of an evaluation that diagnoses psychological disorders (anxiety, depression, and ADHD), but usually will not cover the cost if there is an educational or learning challenge.
Question 3: How is a private psychoeducational evaluation different from the school psychologist’s evaluation?
A private psychoeducational evaluation will most likely be comprehensive and include all of the above. Usually there must be a demonstrated need for the school to provide an evaluation. For example, the child might need to be more than a year or two academically behind peers on standardized tests before the school will provide an evaluation. Parents might not want to wait that long.
There are certain areas a school evaluation often does not cover, including emotional challenges or behavior. Keep in mind, that the school psychologist works for the school, not the family, so their time might be limited or focused on the concerns raised by the school, not the parents. If you are having a school evaluation you will want to confirm what areas they are evaluating and what they are not taking into consideration.
Question 4: When is it the right time to seek an outside evaluation and not rely on the school?
A private evaluation offers more privacy to the family. Parents might opt to not share their results with the school. On the other hand, a school-based evaluation is free and available to all children, even if they attend private school or are home schooled. A private evaluation might be the only option in cases where the parent has concerns but the child does not meet the school’s demonstrated need for a school evaluation.
Question 5: Are there any “in-between” alternatives?
An at-home cognitive screener can be a good, relatively affordable first step for parents who have concerns but the school says the child does not qualify for an evaluation. At-home screeners can help validate concerns and decide on the best potential course of action. It offers you the privacy of a private evaluation without the cost. Keep in mind, however, that a diagnosis will still require consultation with a psychologist. If your screener results suggest that there is a problem, you can bring those results to the school as further evidence of your child’s need, potentially avoiding the costs of a private evaluation.
Other Resources
Department of Education
National Center for Learning Disabilities
Wrights Law
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Types of Muscular Dystrophy
There are many types of muscular dystrophy; of these Duchenne is the most common and most severe.
Duchenne This type of MD occurs when muscle fibers develop with abnormal dystrophin. Duchenne affects about one out of every 3,300 boys, who usually begin to show symptoms between ages two and five, with rapid muscle weakness first affecting the pelvic muscles. Most children lose the ability to walk by age 12 and must use a wheelchair, eventually developing muscle weakness in shoulders, back, arms, and legs. Even tually the muscles involved in breathing weaken, which can be fatal. Typically, children with Duchenne MD live only to about age 20 years. Although most children have average intelligence, learning disabilities (especially those involving verbal learning and reading comprehension) are more common in boys with Duchenne than in other children.
Becker This type of MD is similar to Duchenne, but it progresses more slowly. Symptoms typically begin during adolescence, although they can first appear as early as age five or as late as age 25. Muscle weakness first occurs in the pelvic muscles, affecting the ability to walk. As the disease progresses, strength in the shoulders and back is also affected. Because Becker progresses so slowly, many children with Becker have a normal life span.
Myotonic This is the most common adult form of MD, although half of all cases are still diagnosed in patients younger than 20. Primary symptoms involve facial weakness, a very slow relaxation of muscles after contraction, and weak hand muscles. The disease may be mild or severe, but because the defective gene is dominant, even someone with mild symptoms can transmit a more serious case of it to offspring. A less common congenital form affects only a small number of infants born to mothers with myotonic dystrophy, but it has a worse prognosis.
Limb-girdle This type of MD begins between ages five and 30, first affecting either the pelvic muscles or the shoulder and back muscles; eventually both areas are affected. The severity of muscle weakness differs from person to person, as does the rate at which muscle weakness progresses. Some people develop only mild conditions, but many others develop severe disabilities by middle age.
Facioscapulohumeral This type of MD can begin at any age, although it typically first appears during adolescence. Because this form of muscular dystrophy tends to progress slowly, teens who are affected usually have a normal life span. Muscle weakness first develops in the face, making it hard for children to close their eyes, whistle, or puff out their cheeks. The shoulder and back muscles gradually weaken, until it is hard for patients to lift objects or raise their hands over their head. Over time, the legs and pelvic muscles also lose strength. Some people develop minor physical symptoms (such as not being able to close the eyes during sleep), while others have profound disabilities. Rarely, infants develop symptoms during the first year or two of life, resulting in expressionless faces and serious muscle weakness during early childhood.
Congenital This type of MD is actually a group of disorders with two unique characteristics: At birth, babies have weak muscles, often causing joint contractures and deformities, and muscle biopsies show nonspecific abnormalities. Joint contractures occur when muscles attached to a joint have unequal strength; the stronger muscle pulls and bends the joint into a locked and nonfunctional position. A combination of the facial, arm and leg, pelvic, respiratory, and shoulder muscles can be weak at birth, but this muscle weakness rarely gets worse.
Some types of congenital MD affect the brain, triggering seizures and gradual but constant deterioration.
Other There are several other types of rare muscular dystrophy, including distal, ocular, ocu-lopharyngeal, and Emery-Dreifuss.
Muscular dystrophy is a treatable but not curable disease, although affected children today live longer and have a better quality of life due to new treatments that improve muscle and joint function, slow muscle deterioration, and keep kids comfortable, active, and independent for a longer period of time.
A team of medical specialists will work with the family of an affected child, including a neurologist, orthopedist, pulmonologist, physical and occupational therapist, nurse practitioner, and a social worker.
Different treatments are used to care for children at different stages of the disease. A combination of physical therapy, joint bracing, and prednisone treat children in the early stage, whereas assistive technology may be used in later stages.
Physical therapy and braces The primary treatment for early MD is passive muscle stretching to maintain muscle tone and joint movement to reduce contractures. Leg braces also can help prevent contractures and enable children to stand and walk using weakened muscles and joints more effectively. By providing extra support in just the right places, bracing lets children do more things independently for a longer period of time.
Prednisone This steroid medication has been shown to slow the rate of muscle deterioration in children with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, which allows children to walk longer and live more active lives. In some cases, children with Duchenne are still walking in late junior high school, when in the past they would have been in a wheelchair.
Experts do not agree about the best time to begin treating children with prednisone, but most doctors prescribe it when children are five or six or when they show a significant decline in strength. Unfortunately, prednisone commonly causes weight gain, which may strain already weak muscles. It also can cause a loss of bone density that could lead to fractures.
For unknown reasons, sometimes prednisone does not slow the rate of muscle deterioration. For this reason, doctors closely monitor a child's weight and blood pressure, trying to improve muscle strength without causing excessive weight gain.
Surgery If joints become contracted, orthopedic surgery can help improve function.
Spinal fusion Most children with Duchenne and Becker dystrophy develop a severe curvature of the spine because the back muscles are too weak to hold the spine straight. Some children may undergo spinal fusion to place a pair of metal rods down the length of the spine so that they can sit upright in a chair and be more comfortable. Usually, a child with muscular dystrophy is a candidate for spinal fusion when there is a 25-degree spinal curvature.
Respiratory care Many children with muscular dystrophy develop weakened heart and respiratory muscles and sometimes develop serious respiratory infections because they cannot cough out mucus easily. Good general health care and regular vaccinations are especially important for children with muscular dystrophy to prevent these infections.
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Madhubani Paintings
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Madhubani Paintings
Madhubani Painting
Madhubani painting or Mithila art is a 2500-year-old Indian art form having its origin in the Mithila region of Bihar and Nepal.
Madhubani paintings are said to have their origins during the period of Ramayana. It is believed that King Janaka had once expressed his desire to get Princess Sita’s wedding captured in the form of a painting. The result was what we call Madhubani painting today. This art form was practiced in the mud walls and floors of the homes in Bihar.
A massive earthquake hit Bihar in 1934, thus leading to the discovery of this art form. British Colonial officer William G. Archer happened to run into one of these paintings while he was looking into the damage caused by the earthquake in the interior walls of homes in Bihar.
How are Madhubani paintings made?
Artists use bright colours extracted from natural dyes in these paintings. They are created using fingers, twigs, matchsticks and even pen nibs in modern times. It is difficult to spot any blank space in these paintings. Rice paste is used to make outlines of the framework. The border is usually enhanced with geometric and floral patterns.
Popular Themes and Designs
The figures depicted through these paintings have protruding fish-like eyes and pointed noses. Themes revolve around Hindu deities and natural elements such as bamboo tree, parrot, turtle, fish sun, moon, and lotus. Artists also draw complex geometric patterns to delineate love, devotion, and prosperity. These paintings depict ritual content for special occasions, ceremonies and festivals from mythology like Ramayana.
Present Scenario
Women like Mahalaxmi, Dulari and Karpuri Devi (sister-in-law of known artist Mahasundari Devi) from Ranti village of Bihar have kept this traditional art form alive in more ways than one. They have not only taught other women about this alluring art form but also created awareness on how to take the legacy forward. At present, the Mithila museum of Japan showcases their splendid work of art.
Available at Delhi :
Ambapalu Bihar Emporioum, Dilli Haat, Sutasta, State Emporiums CP
Madhubani Paintings
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Five Basic Rules for Memory
All computers possess the ability to store information in its memory, also called Random Access Memory, or RAM. Some computers can hold small amounts of stored data in the memory and others have the ability to store massive amounts of information. Whether looking at memory for your next computer or trying to improve the memory on an existing computer, there are five basic rules for memory.
Knowing about RAM is the first rule for computer memory. Random access memory is a type of computer storage that allows files and information to be used. This process allows quick access to data that programs use. Most computer users have a version of Windows, such as Windows 95 or Windows XP as their operating system. Those who have Mac programs use another operating system. When looking at RAM for your computer, it is important to look at the size. Most computers users need a minimum of 128 MB. However, the larger the MB size, the better the computer will operate.
New computers with newer versions of Windows will need a higher RAM to run smoothly while an older version of Windows will require less RAM. Also, while a minimum amount of RAM will allow the system to operate, it may not perform at as well as it should.
Another rule to remember when thinking about computer memory will be to become familiar with cache and how cache works. Cache, pronounced “cash”, is a special type of high-speed memory. The cache is a buffer between the processor and the main memory. It will send data into the processes. This allows the computer to do the same functions over and over again. When the computer is called on to retrieve data, it will search the internal cache first. If the information is not found in the cache, it will search in the external cache chips next and then in the RAM last.
A cache holds all redundant information to save memory space and help the computer increase the speed. When the computer becomes slow, it is often recommended to clean the cache files and cookies that have been stored. By clearing space from these places, it allows the computer to process information faster. When it cannot locate the information in the cache, it will look in external cache chips and in the RAM. An example of how cache works is when a page on the Internet has been stored into the computer. This allows the user to go back to the last page or forward to the next.
Knowing what makes a computer work fast is another good rule for computer memory. Megahertz (MHz) is the speed measuring how fast a computer can think. Computers come in a wide variety of megahertz. This measurement of chip performance is expressed as millions of cycles per second. The higher MHz a computer has, the faster it will run. This directly affects how fast the computer can operate computers and commands. Some speeds on computers are measured in gigahertz (GHz). Gigahertz is measured in billions of cycles per second. One GHz is the same as 1000MHz. Computers with GHz are often used with programs that use multimedia applications.
The last two rules of computer memory involve keeping the computer’s memory clean and free to store more information and updating memory. Computers take a lot of memory to keep going. Storing too much information on a system is the number one way to slow the computer down. Having too much stored in the memory bogs the computer down and will often cause computers to crash as well. When a computer becomes slow, it is often necessary to clean the computer’s memory by defragging the system or deleting unnecessary files and programs.
Computer users can find out how much memory their computers have by checking the system control panel in Windows. That information can be located in the About This Computer menu on a Mac. This can also tell the user how much RAM the computer can handle and what type of memory and the speed of the RAM. New memory for an older computer can be updated easily and inexpensively if more is needed.
Most computer technicians can install more memory into the computer with minimal cost. When looking to hire someone to install computer memory it is recommended to purchase upgraded RAM from a vendor that gives a good guarantee. Make sure to back up all files on a disk before having the memory upgraded.
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heavy element concentration, related to the occurrence of planets
In the absence of heavy elements, it appears impossible that planets or life can form (see planetary systems, formation). But more particularly it has turned out that of the host stars of known exoplanets, the great majority have an above-average heavy element content. Several, indeed, boast the highest known concentration of such elements in our region of the Galaxy, with up to three times the level found in the Sun. This bias has inspired theorists to examine the possible consequences for planet formation and for the frequency with which planets occur in the Galaxy.
Some astronomers, such as Guillermo Gonzalez and his colleagues, have suggested1 that there may be the equivalent of a habitable zone in the Galaxy, within which stars must lie in order to be able to acquire planetary systems. This narrow band, called the galactic habitable zone and located roughly halfway out in the galactic disk, would harbor material with sufficient heavy element content to enable the condensation of planets in circumstellar disks but not so high as to produce large amounts of debris which would shatter new-formed worlds or lead to planets being thrown around by mutual interactions. Other researchers, including Douglas Lin have argued that there is such a wide variation of heavy element concentration within our own solar system that minor variations in heavy element enrichment elsewhere may not be such an important factor in planet formation. Rather, according to this idea, the high level of these elements in stars known to have planets may be a consequence of one or two planets having fallen into their primaries and consequently enriched the star's surface layers. Stellar ingestion of large numbers of comets and asteroids could have the same effect.
1. Gonzalez, G. "Extrasolar Planets and ETI," Astronomy & Geophysics, 39, 68 (1998).
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Home » Blogs » The Emotionally Sensitive Person » Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
As a child, you learned the labels for what you were feeling from your caregivers. Is that tightness in your throat fear or excitement? Is the tension in our muscles anger or fear? Those around you gave you labels for what you were experiencing in your body with statements like, “You’re such a ball of nerves today,” “Stop crying, you’re just mad you didn’t get your way,” or “I’m guessing you’re pretty mad at your mom.”
Sometimes your caregivers may not have been accurate in giving you labels for what you were feeling. Perhaps they guessed wrong or made assumptions that weren’t accurate. Maybe those around you weren’t comfortable with happiness or anger or sadness and so they would tell you that you were feeling a different emotion. In these situations you may not have learned how to label your emotions accurately.
As a child, you didn’t know how to label what you felt, so you didn’t know if the label others gave you was accurate. Think about your experience. Is it possible that you label excitement as fear? Maybe you label excitement as happiness? Perhaps when you’re afraid you express anger and don’t recognize the fear? These are just a few ways that you may have learned inaccurate labels for your emotional experiences.
Caregivers and those around you also taught you how to think about emotions. If your family was uncomfortable with emotions, then you probably learned to avoid them as much as possible or to push them down. If your family was comfortable with anger but not with sadness, then you are likely to express anger easily and hide other emotions. What was the message you were given about emotions?
Part of coping effectively with emotions is accurately labeling your emotions. Just knowing what you are feeling acts like a brake on the emotion. It’s difficult to regulate emotions if you’re pushing them away most of the time. In fact, pushing emotions away and trying not to feel will make it more likely that you’ll act impulsively or experience depression or anxiety.
An important skill to help regulate emotions is to Observe and Describe Emotions. If you can observe and describe your emotions you will be better at regulating them. You’ll also learn that you are separate from your emotions. If you can observe what you are feeling, then you are separate from that emotion. When you are separate from your emotions, then you can make choices about whether to act on them or not.
You can also choose to be at one with your emotions. This means that you accept your emotions as part of you. When you are participating in pleasurable activities, this is important. You want to throw yourself into the activity and fully enjoy it.
You can learn to accurately observe and describe your emotions. Being able to observe and describe your emotions means to be able to describe all the components of emotions: the prompting event, any interpretations or judgements or assumptions that occur, the physiological changes in the body, your facial and body expressions of the emotion, the aftereffects of the emotion and the name of the emotion. If you have a secondary emotion, label that too.
Think of a time recently when you had a moderately strong emotion. Can you answer the following questions about that emotion?
1. What prompted the emotion?
2. What was your interpretation of the prompting event? Did you judge the prompting event? Did you make assumptions? Are the facts of the prompting event different from what you assumed or thought? How did that change your emotions?
3. How did your body feel when you experienced the emotion about the event?
What expression did you have on your face? What was your
body posture?
4. What were the after effects of the emotion? After you experienced the emotion, what happened? For example did you feel angry that you were scared? Did you have thoughts about the emotions you felt?
5. What action urge did you have when you experienced the emotion?
6. Did you have a secondary emotion?
Practice answering these questions about different emotions that you have experienced. The more you practice the more you’ll naturally observe and describe your emotions and improve your ability to cope with emotions.
Photos by Used with permission.
Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions
Karyn Hall, PhD
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APA Reference
Hall, K. (2016). Emotion Regulation: Observing and Describing Emotions. Psych Central. Retrieved on May 21, 2019, from
Last updated: 13 Sep 2016
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Definition of EAL Terms
English as an Additional Language
Acknowledges that there are pupils who regularly use one or more languages in addition to English.
Term is acceptable for people of African and Caribbean origin. Varies whether people find it acceptable however. ‘Black and Asian’ is a preferable term. (DEREC 2003)
Can be used but most prefer to be referenced to their specific country or religion. For example – Indian/ Bangladeshi or Hindu/ Sikh. Younger people who are born in Britain may prefer the terms British Asians or British.
Bilingual here is taken to mean all pupils who use or have access to more than one language at home or at school-pupils who are living in and learning in English or more other languages. It does not necessarily imply full fluency in both languages’ (Aiming High DfES 2003)
Ethnic Origin
Any cohort, who has an ethnic origin, has a cultural tradition and a shared history. Other characteristics may be common geographical origin, common language, common religion or being a minority in a dominant group in a large community.
Minority Ethnic (M.E.)
Term applies to all who have an ethnic identity. The concept of minority ethnic can apply to any groups –including indigenous, white minorities.
Minority Ethnic and Traveller Attainment Service
People of colour
Term common in the USA and gaining popularity in Britain. (DEREC 2003)
Someone who is forced to flee their own country, who escapes to another country and is given refugee status by the government there. To qualify for refugee status, the person has to prove that they cannot return home; owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationally, membership of a particular social group or political opinion’’ (1951 UN Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees).
Asylum seeker
An asylum seeker is 'a person who has crossed an international border in search of safety; and refugee status, in another country'. (Rutter, 1998 Refugee council.)
In the UK, a refugee is when a person’s asylum claim has been accepted. While waiting for a decision, the person is termed an asylum seeker.
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Disease burden
From WikiMD free wellness and medical encyclopedia
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Disease burden is the impact of a health problem as measured by financial cost, mortality, morbidity, or other indicators. It is often quantified in terms of quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) or disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), both of which quantify the number of years lost due to disease. One DALY can be thought of as one year of healthy life lost, and the overall disease burden can be thought of as a measure of the gap between current health status and the ideal health status (where the individual lives to old age free from disease and disability).[1][2][3] The environmental burden of disease is defined as the number of DALYs that can be attributed to environmental factors.[3][4][5] These measures allow for comparison of disease burdens, and have also been used to forecast the possible impacts of health interventions.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has provided a set of detailed guidelines for measuring disease burden at the local or national level.[3] For example, years lost due to disability (YLD) (or years of potential life lost – YPLL) measures the years of what could have been a healthy life that were instead spent in states of less than full health. In 2004, the health issue leading to the highest YLD for both men and women was unipolar depression;[6] in 2010, it was lower back pain.[7]
In 2004, the World Health Organization calculated that 1.5 billion disability-adjusted life years were lost to disease and injury.[8][9]
Disease category Percent of all Template:Abbr, worldwide[9] Percent of all Template:Abbr, worldwide[8] Percent of all YPLLs, Europe[9] Percent of all DALYs, Europe[8] Percent of all YPLLs, US and Canada[9] Percent of all DALYs, US and Canada[8]
Neuropsychiatric conditions, such as depression 2% 13% 3% 19% 5% 28%
Premature birth and other perinatal deaths (infant mortality) 11% 8% 4% 2% 3% 2%
The first study on the global burden of disease, conducted in 1990, quantified the health effects of more than 100 diseases and injuries for eight regions of the world, giving estimates of morbidity and mortality by age, sex, and region. It also introduced the DALY as a new metric to quantify the burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors.[3][10][11] In 2000–2002, the 1990 study was updated to include a more extensive analysis using a framework known as comparative risk factor assessment.[10]
Modifiable risk factors
In 2006, the WHO released a report which addressed the amount of global disease that could be prevented by reducing environmental risk factors.[4] The report found that approximately one fourth of the global disease burden, and more than one third of the burden among children, was due to modifiable environmental factors. The "environmentally-mediated" disease burden is much higher in developing countries, with the exception of certain non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers, where the per capita disease burden is larger in developed countries. Children have the highest death toll, with more than 4 million environmentally-caused deaths yearly, mostly in developing countries. The infant death rate attributed to environmental causes is also 12 times higher in developing countries. 85 out of the 102 major diseases and injuries classified by WHO were due to environmental factors.[4]
To measure the environmental health impact, environment was defined as "all the physical, chemical and biological factors external to a person, and all the related behaviours".[12] The definition of modifiable environment included:
Certain environmental factors were excluded from this definition:
The WHO developed a methodology to quantify the health of a population using summary measures, which combine information on mortality and non-fatal health outcomes. The measures quantify either health gaps or health expectancies; the most commonly used health summary measure is the DALY.[2][11][13]
The exposure-based approach, which measures exposure via pollutant levels, is used to calculate the environmental burden of disease.[15] This approach requires knowledge of the outcomes associated with the relevant risk factor, exposure levels and distribution in the study population, and dose-response relationships of the pollutants.
A dose-response relationship is a function of the exposure parameter assessed for the study population.[2] Exposure distribution and dose-response relationships are combined to yield the study population's health impact distribution, usually expressed in terms of incidence. The health impact distribution can then be converted into health summary measures, such as DALYs. Exposure-response relationships for a given risk factor are commonly obtained from epidemiological studies.[2][3] For example, the disease burden of outdoor air pollution for Santiago, Chile was calculated by measuring the concentration of atmospheric particulate matter (PM10), estimating the susceptible population, and combining these data with relevant dose-response relationships. A reduction of particulate matter levels in the air to recommended standards would cause a reduction of about 5,200 deaths, 4,700 respiratory hospital admissions, and 13,500,000 days of restricted activity per year, for a total population of 4.7 million.[2]
In 2002, the WHO estimated the global environmental burden of disease by using risk assessment data to develop environmentally attributable fractions (EAFs) of mortality and morbidity for 85 categories of disease.[2][3][16] In 2007, they released the first country-by-country analysis of the impact environmental factors had on health for its then 192 member states. These country estimates were the first step to assist governments in carrying out preventive action. The country estimates were divided into three parts:
Environmental burden of disease for selected risk factors
This presents the yearly burden, expressed in deaths and DALYs, attributable to: indoor air pollution from solid fuel use; outdoor air pollution; and unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene. Results are calculated using the exposure-based approach.
Total environmental burden of disease for the relevant country
The total number of deaths, DALYs per capita, and the percentage of the national burden of disease attributable to the environment represent the disease burden that could be avoided by modifying the environment as a whole.
Environmental burden by disease category
Each country summary was broken down by the disease group, where the annual number of DALYs per capita attributable to environmental factors were calculated for each group.[3]
Implementation and interpretation
The public health impacts of air pollution (annual means of PM10 and ozone), noise pollution, and radiation (radon and UV), can be quantified using DALYs. For each disease, a DALY is calculated as:
DALYs = number of people with the disease × duration of the disease (or loss of life expectancy in the case of mortality) × severity (varying from 0 for perfect health to 1 for death)
Necessary data include prevalence data, exposure-response relationships, and weighting factors that give an indication of the severity of a certain disorder. When information is missing or vague, experts will be consulted in order to decide which alternative data sources to use. An uncertainty analysis is carried out so as to analyze the effects of different assumptions.[15]
When estimating the environmental burden of disease, a number of potential sources of error may arise in the measure of exposure and exposure-risk relationship, assumptions made in applying the exposure or exposure-risk relationship to the relevant country, health statistics, and, if used, expert opinions.
Generally, it is not possible to estimate a formal confidence interval, but it is possible to estimate a range of possible values the environmental disease burden may take based on different input parameters and assumptions.[2][3][4] When more than one definition has to be made about a certain element in the assessment, multiple analyses can be run, using different sets of definitions. Sensitivity and decision analyses can help determine which sources of uncertainty affect the final results the most.[4]
Representative examples
The Netherlands
In the Netherlands, air pollution is associated with respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and exposure to certain forms of radiation can lead to the development of cancer. Quantification of the health impact of the environment was done by calculating DALYs for air pollution, noise, radon, UV, and indoor dampness for the period 1980 to 2020. In the Netherlands, 2–5% of the total disease burden in 2000 could be attributed to the effects of (short-term) exposure to air pollution, noise, radon, natural UV radiation, and dampness in houses. The percentage can increase to up to 13% due to uncertainty, assuming no threshold.
Among the investigated factors, long-term PM10 exposure have the greatest impact on public health. As levels of PM10 decrease, related disease burden is also expected to decrease. Noise exposure and its associated disease burden is likely to increase to a level where the disease burden is similar to that of traffic accidents. The rough estimates do not provide a complete picture of the environmental health burden, because data are uncertain, not all environmental-health relationships are known, not all environmental factors have been included, and it was not possible to assess all potential health effects. The effects of a number of these assumptions were evaluated in an uncertainty analysis.[15]
Exposure to environmental hazards may cause chronic diseases, so the magnitude of their contribution to the Canada's total disease burden is not well-understood. In order to give an initial estimate of the environmental burden of disease for four major categories of disease, the Template:Abbr developed by the WHO, EAFs developed by other researchers, and data from Canadian public health institutions were used.[17] Results showed a total of 10,000–25,000 deaths, with 78,000–194,000 hospitalizations; 600,000–1.5 million days spent in hospital; 1.1–1.8 million restricted activity days for sufferers of asthma; 8000–24,000 new cases of cancer; 500–2,500 babies with low birth weights; and C$3.6–9.1 billion in costs each year due to respiratory disease, cardiovascular illness, cancer, and congenital affliction associated with adverse environmental exposures.[17]
DALYs are a simplification of a complex reality, and therefore only give a crude indication of environmental health impact. Relying on DALYs may make donors take a narrow approach to health care programs. Foreign aid is most often directed at diseases with the highest DALYs, ignoring the fact that other diseases, despite having lower DALYs, are still major contributors to disease burden. Less-publicized diseases thus have little or no funding for health efforts. For example, maternal death (one of the top three killers in most poor countries) and pediatric respiratory and intestinal infections maintain a high disease burden, and safe pregnancy and the prevention of coughs in infants do not receive adequate funding.[18]
Disease burden methodologies such as DALYs also do not capture other aspects of disease and illness, such as pain and suffering, deterioration in quality of life, and emotional and physical impacts on families.[19]
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Two of a Kind
In Black Holes by Brian Koberlein0 Comments
A new paper in Nature has announced the discovery of a close binary of supermassive black holes. Known as J1502SE and J1502SW, the two black holes are estimated to have a mass of about 100 million solar masses each, and they are separated by only 450 light years. This means they orbit each other once every 4 million years. For supermassive black holes in the center of a galaxy, this is actually pretty close. So close that initially it was thought to be a single quasar. It was only through observations by the VLBI radio telescope array that the binary nature was revealed.
Radio image of the binary pair. Credit: R.P. Deane et al.
The black holes are close enough that their jets spiral in a helix pattern. One of the black holes is active, and this spiral effect is observed in its jet. This phenomenon has been seen with binary solar mass black holes, but the fact that it can occur with supermassive black holes provides another method for their detection. For galaxies where the core is too obscured with dust, a helical jet could reveal a binary core.
Part of the reason there is an interest in such close binary systems is that they are formed by galactic mergers. By better understanding supermassive binaries, we can gain insight into the frequency and nature of galactic mergers. Close binaries could also serve as a test for general relativity due to their high mass and close proximity.
Paper: R. P. Deane, et al. A close-pair binary in a distant triple supermassive black hole system. Nature, 2014; DOI: 10.1038/nature13454
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Cancer cells
The technique improved the survival time for patients with glioblastoma by 50 percent when tested in a , said Loic P. Deleyrolle, Ph.D., a research assistant professor of neurosurgery in the UF College of Medicine.
Researchers focused on disrupting the cell-to-cell communication that allows cancer stem cells to spread. To do that, they targeted a channel that use to transfer molecules. By cutting off their communications pathway, the deadly cells stay in check, Deleyrolle said.
The research focused on connexin 46, a protein that is an essential component of cancer . Connexin 46 is part of intercellular channels known as a gap junction. That intercellular channel, which allows cells to exchange molecules and ions, is crucial to the growth of a glioblastoma tumor, researchers found.
"When we shut down those channels in the , we can significantly reduce the tumor-forming abilities of the cells," Deleyrolle said.
"Any significant increase in survival time will be a meaningful improvement because the current treatments provide only weeks of efficacy" Deleyrolle said.
Because gap junction inhibitors have ubiquitous functions in many organs and tissues, one of the next research steps is to determine the inhibitors' most effective and tolerable concentrations. It is also necessary to understand more about the mechanisms that make the inhibitors work, Deleyrolle said. Still, could begin within a few years, he said.
"When it comes down to treating such a complex disease, there isn't one magic bullet. You have to come up with complex, multiple approaches, he said.
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Researchers identify protein pathway involved in brain tumor stem cell growth
Journal information: Cell Reports
Citation: In lab tests, new therapy slows spread of deadly brain tumor cells (2015, July 27) retrieved 20 May 2019 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2015-07-lab-therapy-deadly-brain-tumor.html
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The President of the United States has a big job, which is outlined in Article II of the U.S. Constitution. It makes sense that a few amendments would be needed over the years to clear up a few things. Here are four amendments that clarify the presidency.
Election Gridlock Gives Way to 12th Amendment
After the Founding Fathers wrote the U.S. Constitution in 1787, outlining the rules of the Electoral College to elect a president, the first two presidential elections went great—probably because George Washington was elected unanimously. It was the election of 1796 that showed cracks in the system. Then the 1800 election, which ended in a tie, sealed the deal—a constitutional amendment was clearly needed.
In the original system of electing a president, the electors of each state voted for two candidates. The top vote getter became president, while the person with the next highest total was appointed vice president. In 1796, John Adams received the most votes and finishing in second place was Thomas Jefferson. The problem with that outcome was that the two men were from different parties and found it hard to work together, especially on foreign affairs. At a time when the French Revolution was raging, President Adams was pro-British, while Vice President Jefferson favored the French.
Proposals were made to fix the rules, but no action was taken, which resulted in the election of 1800 ending in a tie between Vice President Jefferson and Aaron Burr. In incidents of a tie, the election of the president falls to the House of Representatives, which took 36 votes to break the election gridlock.
Ratified in 1804 (in time for that year’s presidential election), the 12th Amendment gave way to how the system works today where each party nominates their “team” for president and vice president. Instead of casting two votes for president, electors cast one vote for president and one vote for vice president (or their team). The amendment also stipulates that the vice president is subject to the same eligibility requirements of the president (natural born citizen, at least 35 years old and a resident of the U.S. for at least 14 years). Since the vice president is next in line for the presidency, it was thought that he or she should be constitutionally eligible for the office as well.
Quack, Quack—Avoiding a Lame Duck
With the ratification of the 20th Amendment in 1933, January 20th was officially designated as the day that the President would take the oath of office. Prior to the 20th Amendment, the President took office on March 4th, a date that was set in 1788. With Election Day held in November that created an almost four-month “lame duck” period of governance. The congressional term began in March as well. The 20th Amendment moved that date to January 3rd.
The March date may have been selected because 18th Century America functioned at a slower pace and elected officials probably needed the time to prepare and get their affairs in order. The trip to the capitol could also be a long journey for some, depending on what state they were from. With the modern age, however, that was no longer the case. The long lag time between the old and new administrations were particularly difficult after the elections of Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt. President Lincoln could not address the problem of the Southern secession until he became President and likewise, President Roosevelt needed to deal with the Great Depression, but couldn’t until he took the oath of office. The 74th Congress in 1935 was the first to begin on January 3rd and the first presidential term under the 20th Amendment was President Roosevelt’s second term, which began on January 20, 1937.
Seeking a Third Term
When the U.S. Constitution was being written, there was much debate over term limits for the President. Thomas Jefferson advocated for a seven-year term with no eligibility for re-election, others proposed a two-term limit with differing lengths of time in office. Alexander Hamilton and James Madison supported presidential lifetime appointments (keep in mind that a “lifetime” in 1787 was much shorter than it is now). Hamilton also didn’t want the president elected by the people, but selected by Congress. The concept of a lifetime appointment was not endorsed, failing six votes to four. One Virginia delegate compared the idea to having an “elective monarchy.”
Ultimately, the Framers settled on four-year presidential terms, but left no restrictions on how many times a president could be re-elected. President Washington, however, set a tradition with his presidency of only serving two terms. Thomas Jefferson carried on the tradition after his second term in office as well.
Three presidents—Ulysses S. Grant, Grover Cleveland and Woodrow Wilson—attempted and failed to gain a third term. Multiple presidential terms didn’t become a problem until 1940 when President Franklin D. Roosevelt ran and was elected to a third term. President Roosevelt was so popular in fact that he was elected to an unprecedented fourth term in office, though he only served three full terms. He died a few months into his fourth term on April 12, 1945, after serving as president for 4,422 days.
In response to President Roosevelt’s unprecedented elections, Congress proposed the 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which limits the President to two terms or a maximum of eight years in office. A person can actually serve 10 years as President under the amendment. If the Vice President finishes two years or less of a presidential term, he or she is still eligible to serve two terms of his or her own. If however, a Vice President serves out more than two years of a presidential term, he or she would only be eligible to serve one more term.
The 22nd Amendment was ratified by the states on February 27, 1951. Five years later, the first of 54 attempts to repeal the 22nd Amendment was undertaken in Congress. Several presidents over the years, including Presidents Harry Truman, Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton, have voiced their displeasure with the amendment. President Reagan called it “an infringement on the democratic rights of the people.” In a Rolling Stone interview, President Bill Clinton suggested altering the amendment to say “two consecutive terms,” allowing for re-election at a later date.
Who’s Up Next?
The 25th Amendment, ratified by the states on February 10, 1967, basically deals with the order of presidential succession and what happens if or when a president is unable to fulfill the duties of the office. The issue has been debated as far back as John Tyler in 1841 when he took over for President William Henry Harrison, who died of pneumonia just 32 days after taking office (the shortest presidency in American history). There was confusion at the time about whether Tyler was actually president or acting president.
Presidential succession acts in 1792, 1886 and 1947 attempted to clarify the issue but the 25th Amendment, ratified in 1967, made some things clearer and others a little murkier. The amendment contains four sections, with Sections 1 and 2 clarifying the role of the Vice President. Section 1 stipulates that upon removal of the president from office due to death or resignation, the Vice President becomes President, not just assuming the duties of the office but with all the power that the office holds. Section 2 of the amendment states that when there is a vacancy in the office of Vice President the President “shall nominate” a replacement who would need to be confirmed by a majority of both Houses of Congress. In the past when a VP had taken over for a president he had not bothered to appoint a replacement in the VP role.
Section 3 of the 25th Amendment allows the President to voluntarily and temporarily transfer the powers of the presidency to the Vice President. This has happened a few times when, for example, a President has undergone surgery. During the time the President is under anesthesia, the Vice President is in charge.
It is Section 4 of the 25th Amendment where things get a little dicey. While sections 1 through 3 have been invoked before, this section has never been tested. In 1963, when President John F. Kennedy was assassinated, members of Congress pondered what would have happened if the President had survived but was in a mentally diminished capacity. Despite the issues with the Tyler presidency and the fact that seven more presidents died in office after that, it was the assassination of President Kennedy that was the real motivation for the 25th Amendment. Section 4 of the amendment allows for the involuntary removal of a president and the process begins with the Vice President. If the VP and the majority of the President’s cabinet believe that the President is “unable to discharge the powers and duties of his office,” under Section 4, they can submit a written statement to that effect to Congress.
Where this section gets a little murky is that the President can submit “his written declaration that no inability exists” and resume the powers of the office. Presumably, the President would then fire his cabinet members (though not the Vice President because he is an elected official). Legal scholars argue that this could potentially lead to two cabinets and two Presidents (the VP acting as President as well as the President in question). Ultimately, Congress would have to vote on whether the President is fit to return to office. In order to remove a President from office, a two-thirds majority (called a super majority) in both chambers of Congress (Senate and the House) is required.
Senator Birch Bayh, who is credited with writing the 25th Amendment, said years later that “the determination of the president’s disability is really a political question” not a medical one. That is why there is no medical diagnosis required to invoke Section 4 of the amendment.
Discussion Questions
1. Why do you think the eligibility requirements of the president (natural born citizen, at least 35 years old and a resident of the U.S. for at least 14 years) are important.
2. What benefits or difficulties come with being a “lame duck” president?
3. Research the three presidents that attempted but failed to win a third term. What were the circumstances in each case? What was their motivation for breaking with convention to seek a third term?
4. Do you agree with the 22nd Amendment or do you think as President Reagan did that it infringes on the rights of the American people?
5. What problems do you think might occur if a President was allowed to be re-elected indefinitely?
6. What do you think of Section 4 of the 25th Amendment? Do you think a President’s VP and cabinet has the right to determine whether or not a President is fit to serve? Explain your reasoning.
Glossary Words:
lame duck:
an official who is in the final period of his or her term of office after a successor has been selected.
monarchy: the form of government with a monarch (king or queen) as the head.
ratify: to give formal consent to an agreement.
repeal: revoked.
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Unprecedented Arctic warmth in 2016 triggers massive decline in sea ice, snow
(map) Temperatures across the Arctic from October 2015-September 2016 compared to the 1981-2010 average. (graph) Yearly temperatures since 1900 compared to the 1981-2010 average for the Arctic (orange line) and the globe (gray). NOAA Climate.gov map based on NCEP reanalysis data from NOAA's Earth System Research Lab. Graph adapted from Figure 1.1 in the 2016 Arctic Report Card. Credit: NOAA Headquarters
A new NOAA-sponsored report shows that unprecedented warming air temperature in 2016 over the Arctic contributed to a record-breaking delay in the fall sea ice freeze-up, leading to extensive melting of Greenland ice sheet and land-based snow cover.
Now in its 11th year, the Arctic Report Card, released today at the annual American Geophysical Union fall meeting in San Francisco, is a peer-reviewed report that brings together the work of 61 scientists from 11 nations who report on air, ocean, land and ecosystem changes. It is a key tool used around the world to track changes in the Arctic and how those changes may affect communities, businesses and people.
"Rarely have we seen the Arctic show a clearer, stronger or more pronounced signal of persistent warming and its cascading effects on the environment than this year," said Jeremy Mathis, director of NOAA's Arctic Research Program. "While the science is becoming clearer, we need to improve and extend sustained observations of the Arctic that can inform sound decisions on environmental health and food security as well as emerging opportunities for commerce."
Credit: NOAA Headquarters
Major findings in this year's report include:
• Warmer : Average annual air temperature over land areas was the highest in the observational record, representing a 6.3 degree Fahrenheit (3.5 degree Celsius) increase since 1900. Arctic temperatures continue to increase at double the rate of the global temperature increase.
• Record low : Spring snow cover set a record low in the North American Arctic, where the May snow cover extent fell below 1.5 million square miles (4 million square kilometers) for the first time since satellite observations began in 1967.
• Smaller Greenland ice sheet: The Greenland ice sheet continued to lose mass in 2016, as it has since 2002 when satellite-based measurement began. The start of melting on the Greenland ice sheet was the second earliest in the 37-year record of observations, close to the record set in 2012.
• Record low sea ice: The Arctic sea ice minimum extent from mid-October 2016 to late November 2016 was the lowest since the satellite record began in 1979 and 28 percent less than the average for 1981-2010 in October. Arctic ice is thinning, with multi-year ice now comprising 22 percent of the ice cover as compared to 78 percent for the more fragile first-year ice. By comparison, multi-year ice made up 45 percent of ice cover in 1985.
• Above-average Arctic Ocean temperature: Sea surface temperature in August 2016 was 9 degrees Fahrenheit (5 degrees Celsius) above the average for 1982-2010 in the Barents and Chukchi seas and off the east and west coasts of Greenland.
• Arctic Ocean productivity: Springtime melting and retreating sea ice allowed for more sunlight to reach the upper layers of the ocean, stimulating widespread blooms of algae and other tiny marine plants which form the base of the marine food chain, another sign of the rapid changes occurring in a warming Arctic.
Monthly change in the total mass (in gigatonnes) of the Greenland Ice Sheet between April 2002 and April 2016, based on GRACE satellite data. The ice sheet lost an average of 268 gigatonnes per year from 2002 to 2016. Credit: NOAA Climate.gov graph adapted from Figure 3.4 in the 2016 Arctic Report Card. Background photo from NASA P3-Orion aircraft.
This year's report also includes scientific essays on carbon dioxide in the Arctic Ocean, on land and in the atmosphere, and changes among small mammals.
• Ocean acidification: More than other oceanic areas, the Arctic Ocean is more vulnerable to ocean acidification, a process driven by the ocean's uptake of increased human-caused carbon dioxide emissions. Ocean acidification is expected to intensify in the Arctic, adding new stress to marine fisheries, particularly those that need calcium carbonate to build shells. This change affects Arctic communities that depend on fish for food security, livelihoods and culture.
• Carbon cycle changing: Overall, the warming tundra is now releasing more carbon into the atmosphere than it is taking up. Twice as much organic carbon is locked in the northern permafrost as is currently in the Earth's atmosphere. If the permafrost melts and releases that carbon, it could have profound effects on weather and climate in the Arctic and the rest of the Earth.
• Small mammals: Recent shifts in the population of small mammals, such as shrews, may be the signs of broader consequences of environmental change.
This animation tracks the relative amount of ice of different ages from 1990 through early November 2016. Seasonal ice is darkest blue. Ice that is 9 or more years old is white. Credit: Video produced by the Climate.gov team, based on NOAA and NASA data provided by Mark Tschudi, University of Colorado-Boulder. Data processing by Hunter Allen. Editing by Bruce Sales. Narration by Deke Arndt, NCEI
• Unprecedented Arctic warmth in 2016 triggers massive decline in sea ice, snow
(map) Total chlorophyll concentration across the Artic in May 2016. The darker the green, the higher the chlorophyll concentration. The light gray indicates areas where there was no data due to clouds or ice. In some areas, chlorophyll concentrations averaged more than 14 milligrams per cubic meter higher than the 2003-2015 mean. (graph) Net primary productivity (the net carbon gain or loss by growing plants) in the Barents Sea for March-September 2003-2016. NOAA Climate.gov map derived from NASA/MODIS-Aqua data. Graph adapted from Figure 6.4 in the 2016 Arctic Report Card. Credit: NOAA Headquarters
(map) Stretching from Alaska to Scandinavia to Russia, and hundreds of feet deep in places, the Arctic's frozen soils--permafrost--contain twice as much carbon as what's already in the atmosphere. As the Arctic heats up, permafrost may become a major source of greenhouse gases, which would further accelerate global warming. (top middle) Permafrost is like a giant freezer for carbon: thousands of years worth of plant, animal, and microbe remains mixed with blocks of ice. Historically, only a shallow "active layer" thawed in the short summer. (top right) In today's warming Arctic, permafrost is thawing and the active layer is getting deeper. (bottom left) Warming in the growing season has increased plant growth and allowed plants to remove more carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air during photosynthesis, but it is also thawing the frozen soils and stimulating decomposition of organic matter by soil microbes. Microbial activity releases the greenhouse gases CO2 and methane (CH4). (bottom right) When winter comes, the uppermost soil layer re-freezes quickly as air temperatures drop. But deeper layers, insulated from the frigid air, re-freeze more slowly. In the past decade, the parts of the Arctic tundra that are routinely observed have become a net source of carbon-containing greenhouse gases because microbial activity is continuing well into winter after plants go dormant. Credit: NOAA Climate.gov drawing. Permafrost map from NSIDC
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Hottest Arctic on record triggers massive ice melt (Update)
Provided by NOAA Headquarters
Citation: Unprecedented Arctic warmth in 2016 triggers massive decline in sea ice, snow (2016, December 14) retrieved 20 May 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2016-12-unprecedented-arctic-warmth-triggers-massive.html
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Does it make a difference if a gene – or group of genes – is inherited from your mother or your father?
That’s the question behind the study of genomic imprinting, a phenomenon in which a small percent of genes are thought to be expressed differently depending on which parent they came from. In particular, animal research suggests imprinting may affect aspects of brain development. Researchers wonder if genomic imprinting might explain differences in brain anatomy seen between men and women, such as men’s larger brain volumes.
A new Stanford study, published today in the Journal of Neuroscience, adds to evidence that genomic imprinting is, in fact, happening in humans' brains. The finding comes from MRI brain scans performed on a group of young girls with Turner syndrome, a chromosomal disorder in which a girl or woman has one missing or malfunctioning X chromosome. Turner syndrome gives an unusual opportunity to study genetic imprinting, because it allows comparisons of individuals who received a single X from Mom to those who got a single X from Dad. (The typical two-X-chromosome female body expresses a mosaic of Mom’s X and Dad’s X, making it impossible to tease apart the effects of the two parents. Males invariably get their single X chromosome from their mothers, so their cells always express the maternal X.)
The Stanford team, led by Allan Reiss, MD, documented several distinctions between the brains of Turner syndrome girls who have only a maternal X, those with only a paternal X, and typical girls with two X chromosomes, such as differences in the thickness and volume of the cortex, and in the surface area of the brain. The work helps clarify murky results from earlier studies of adults with Turner syndrome, the researchers say, because many adult women with Turner syndrome take estrogen supplements, which may have their own effects on brain development. None of the girls in the new study had taken estrogen.
The most tantalizing part of the paper is the scientists’ comment on the implications of their work for our general understanding of genetic imprinting. In part, they say:
By far, the most consistent finding with regard to sex differences in brain anatomy is the larger brain volume found in males compared with females. Although our groups did not differ on most whole-brain measures, our analyses revealed the existence of significant trends on total brain volume, gray matter volume and surface area, where these variables increased linearly from the Xp [paternal X] group being smallest, to the Xm [maternal X] group being largest, with typically developing girls in between. Considering that typically developing males invariably inherit the maternal X chromosome, while typically developing females inherit both and randomly express one of them in each cell, a linear increase in brain volume as seen in the present study is in agreement with what would be expected if imprinted genes located on the X chromosome were involved in brain size determination.
In other words, men may have their mothers to thank for their larger brains.
Karyotype image from a Turner Syndrome patient by S Suttur M, R Mysore S, Krishnamurthy B, B Nallur R - Indian J Hum Genet (2009).
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What does democracy mean?
Democracy is a system of government where the citizens of a state exercise power to rule the state, either directly or through electing representatives.
Examples of democracy
Examples of democracy
“When it comes to countering terrorism, refusing to allow our democracy and liberty to be undermined is just as important as discussing the immediate security situation.”
Brendan O’Neill, “This Suspension of Democracy Is a Grave Error,” Spiked (May 24, 2017)
“These experts see significant warning signs for American democracy, especially involving political rhetoric and the capacity of political institutions to check the executive. On average they estimate an 11 percent chance of democratic breakdown within four years.”
Michael K. Miller, “A new expert survey finds warning signs for the state of American democracy,” The Washington Post (May 23, 2017)
“Democracy is real to the extent to which power is diffused among the people. Concentration of power is the negation of democracy.”
V. M. Tarkunde, Radical Humanism: The Philosophy of Freedom and Democracy (1983)
Where does democracy come from?
Democracy can refer to a system of government or to a particular state that employs this system. The word entered English around the 1570s, from the Middle French démocratie, but it originally comes, via Latin, from the ancient Greek demokratia, which literally means rule (“kratos”) by the people (“demos”). The Greek demokratia dates all the way back to the 5th century b.c., when it was used to describe the government in some city-states, notably Athens.
There are two kinds of democracy: direct and representative. Direct democracy is when the people are directly involved in governing the state. Representative democracy, which characterizes the US system, occurs when people elect representatives to ensure their interests in government. When we think of democracy today, we usually think of a representative one in which all or most people are able to participate. This concept didn’t originate until a very long time after democracy’s ancient roots.
In 507 b.c., Cleisthenes, the leader of Athens, introduced a series of reforms designed to allow the people to have a voice in ruling the city. It included three different political bodies: the governors, the council of representatives, and the courts. Only male citizens over the age of eighteen could vote, excluding those from outside the city, slaves, and all women. This system of government lasted until around the 400s b.c., when it began to waver, with conquests by neighbors gradually weakening it further. Athenian democracy was probably not the first example of democracy in the ancient world, but it is the best-known early version, and it is from here that we draw the word and its governmental philosophy.
Another well-known example of early democracy was the Roman Republic. Like Athens, it wasn’t what we would think of today as a full democracy. Again, only adult male citizens were eligible to participate. Italy continued the tradition in a few of its medieval city-based republics. Venice, and Florence particularly, had governmental systems that included political participation by the people, if in a limited way.
Democracy also found its way into monarchical European states through the concept of the parliament, which was a council that advised the monarch. For the most part, only those who already had power could participate in parliaments, though Sweden allowed peasants to participate in its council (the Riksdag) from the 15th century.
The Enlightenment in 17th and 18th centuries brought a greater questioning of established authority to mainstream philosophy and discourse. This trend had a strong impact on the fledgling United States, which, when it won its independence from Great Britain in 1781, set up a system of representative democracy to represent its people. France was also impacted by this model. The French Revolution in 1789 was an attempt to achieve democracy, though the country didn’t achieve it until the mid-1800s.
It was not until the 20th century that universal or broader suffrage, or the right to vote, was extended in most countries, and it was in the 20th century that democracy spread. By the beginning of the 21st century, almost half of the countries of the world had some variety of democratic or near-democratic system.
Types of democracies are classified according to various distinguishing features, including constitutional democracy, democratic socialism, Jeffersonian democracy, liberal democracy, parliamentary democracy, or presidential democracy, to name a few.
Democracy is also used for non-governmental organizational systems, such as a workplace democracy, which applies democratic principles in professional contexts. An advocate of democracy or democratic values is called a democrat, not to be confused with a member of the US Democratic party.
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Researchers have discovered that there are far more massive stars across the universe than previously thought, challenging current notions of how stars and galaxies evolved.
A team of astronomers at European Southern Observatory has looked into the rapid formation of new stars in galaxies dating as far back as 10 billion years ago. They have found that starburst galaxies harbor a lot more massive stars, and many of them are a lot heavier than scientists deemed possible before.
Starburst galaxies, which are characterized by quick bouts of star birth at the beginning, form new stars at a rate of 100 times faster than the Milky Way. Details of the new study, which are published in the journal Nature, show they also produce massive stars seven times more than typical galaxies.
To read more, click here.
Category: Science
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This assignment is about planning and designing practical experiment to carry out an investigation of how various antimicrobial agents' effect new strain of bacterium E.coli (Eschericia coli).
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BTEC National Diploma Applied Science UNIT TITLE: SCIENTIFIC METHODS UNIT NUMBER: 5 Assignment title- individual investigation (Antibiotics) This assignment is about planning and designing practical experiment to carry out an investigation of how various antimicrobial agents' effect new strain of bacterium E.coli (Eschericia coli). I chose antibiotics as antimicrobial agent to investigate the effects on new strain of E.coli, using clear zones. An antibiotic is any chemical compound used to kill or inhibit the growth of infectious organisms, particularly bacteria and fungi Aim The aim of this practical is, to investigate the action of selection of antibiotics on bacteria (E.coli). Hypothesis E.coli (bacterium) will be killed effectively, but this will depend on the type of antibiotic used, because there are 2 types of bacteria (Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria). E.coli is Gram-negative bacteria; this means it could be resistant or susceptible to some antibiotics. I think erythromycin, streptomycin, tetracycline and chloramphenicol will work well in this practical because they are all broad spectrum bacteria. Variable * E.coli was used for both dishes to keep the strain of bacteria same * Size of agar plates was also same to keep the size of clear zone to be measured the same. * 0.2cm3 of E.coli used for each plate * incubation temperature was constantly kept at 30oc * Sterilised syringes, forceps and loop are used for both dishes, so unwanted contamination is avoided. ...read more.
* By using match stick, the Bunsen burner was light and adjusted it to blue flame; this is the hottest and is done to make sure to avoid contaminations. Worked near Bunsen burner throughout the practical, again to avoid contamination. * A bottle containing E.coli was opened with little finger on other hand to avoid placing the lid on the bench * The bottle is then flamed at the neck for few seconds, by passing the opening through the Bunsen burner. This is done to produce an upward flow of air from the bottle so that any organism in the area will not fall into the bottle. * A sterilised syringe was used to transfer 0.2 cm3 of E.coli and placed in the centre of the agar plate. * A spreader that has been sterilised was used by dipping it in alcohol in a container and then the spreader was flamed over a Bunsen burner and allowed to burn and waited till it cooled down. * The sterilised spreader was used to spread the bacteria (E.coli) over the agar in the plate, until the bacteria was well spread over the agar * Forceps were sterilised by flaming it over Bunsen burner for few seconds * The sterilised forceps were used to place the antibiotic multi-test discs in the agar plate until flatly placed. ...read more.
May be if the concentration of E.coli increased and the whole practical is repeated again, the results may change and antibiotics such as chloramphenicol with average result of 2.85cm3 would kill bacteria better. In the experiment of some antibiotics overlapped, and because of this it was difficult to measure the area of no growth accurately and it could be measurements were done more than 24 hours. This can be avoided by placing each antibiotic disc on separate plate, so the overlapping of antibiotics will be well avoided. May be I didn't place the antibiotic multi-test disc in the agar plate flatly, and so the antibiotics didn't had good contact with the E.coli. Generally this practical can be improved with following extensions * One could have looked at different types of bacteria, for example one could have used gram-positive bacteria and used penicillin instead of gram-negative bacteria. * An effective antibiotic out of the eight antibiotics used in practical, could be used e.g. tetracycline which was most effective to the E.coli. * One can also use two different types of bacteria for example gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria and compare them to find out which one is resistant or susceptible to antibiotics. * Different antibiotics may work with different incubator temperature and may be if the temperature of the incubator is increased antibiotics such as chloremphenicol may work better with the E.coli. ...read more.
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The Problem
By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the earth’s population will reside in urban centers. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about 3 billion people during the interim. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% more land than is represented by the country of Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming practices continue as they are practiced today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use (sources: FAO and NASA). Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to avoid this impending disaster?
A potential solution:?Indoor farming
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What is a transistor?
A transistor is an electronic component known as a semiconductor. The first practical transistor was invented in 1947 and became an alternative to vacuum tubes (valves) and relays. Early transistors were made with germanium but silicon is used almost universally in semiconductor manufacturing. A single transistor is a few millimetres wide and tall and has three terminals. It works by transferring a high resistance input to a lower resistance output. The transfer of resistance gave rise to the name trans - istor. A transistor will generate a large change in current for a given input or a large change in voltage. There are numerous ways to use them and the applications and science of the transistor can fill many books - too complex to discuss in detail in this answer. Transistors are good amplifiers and are found in radios, music equipment, video systems in their role as an amplifier. They are also very efficient switches and because they will switch from low to high, are common in binary circuits. The transistor is the basis of all digital computers. A modern CPU chip in a computer is actually made of many billions of transistors inside the integrated circuit. A typical computer will have trillions of transistors in total. For further reading, take a look for basic electronics tutorials. All of them will have detailed descriptions of the way a transistor works and demonstrate the more common applications.
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Broomball is played on a hockey rink like the one pictured below.
(Image courtesy of http://www.polarnet.ca/kugluktuk/rechall/)
When one examines the hockey rink closer one discovers that the game is simply played on ice. Most people know that ice is slippery, but fewer know that the kinetic coefficient of friction between ice and ice .03. This simply means that the play surface is going to be slippery.
We know this because of Newton's first law. Simply put, the aspect of this law relevant to us states, a body in motion will remain in motion unless acted upon by outside forces. The major outside forces that usually allow us to stop is friction. On ice the friction coefficient is greatly reduced to what it is on a sidewalk. Therefore stopping is made much more difficult. This adds an element to the game play that is missing from most other sports. Understanding this concept can make one a better broomball player. However there are broomball shoes, which are discussed in the equipment section of this site.
To better understand the concept of ones movement on the ice the free body diagram of a moving person in relation to the ice is below. (Note: F sub you incorporates friction)
However it is also important to point out that because the ice is surrounded by a "wall" of wood and plastic panels, a player can use these to stop, go, or change direction quickly. The ball can also be played off of this barrier.
With the power of physics on can predict where the ball will land. We know that in elastic collisions momentum and kinetic energy is conserved. If we can guesstimate the angle of attack of the ball in relation to the wall we can figure out where it will land on the ice. Approximately anyway because we don't know the acceleration of the ball.
Some people find sliding to be a good solution to stopping without falling on your back. This works by spreading your force over a larger area thus increasing the surface area contact of your body in relation to the ice. However, sliding can take you out of the play because the ice makes it harder to get started running again, especially when you are laying down. This is because the static friction coefficient between ice and ice is 0.1.
Let us recall the concept of throwing your keys away from you while standing on a frictionless surface. One can't walk on a frictionless surface, so in order to move we must add a new element. If we throw our keys one way our mass will slide the opposite direction because there isn't friction.
This is perhaps the most important concept related to the playing surface in broomball. When one swings to hit the ball if his/her center of gravity is too high (they are standing fully erect) they are more likely to fall then if they lower their center of gravity by kneeling or bending over. The momentum of the stick (given by P=mv) is like throwing keys. Therefore, due to Newton's third law, there will be an equal yet opposite reaction, you falling.
As previously stated, the playing surface add a unique element to the game of broomball. If one understands the physics behind the playing surface and how to use it, one's game will be elevated to a new level.
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Round Character Examples
Round Character
A round character is a character that is well-developed in the story. The reader knows details about this character because they are important to the plot and to how this character's actions advance the plot. In other words, a round character is more complex, and like a real person, the character has depth and emotion.
A round character is the opposite of a flat character, which is not developed by the author. A round character can be static (remaining the same throughout the story) or dynamic (changes as a result of the story).
Examples of Round Character:
Examples of Round Characters from Literature:
In Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice, the main character Elizabeth Bennett is a round character. We learn much about Elizabeth's thoughts and feelings, and even how her pride stands in the way, initially, of her feelings for Mr. Darcy.
In S.E. Hinton's The Outsiders, Ponyboy is a round character. Ponyboy's thoughts and feelings paint him as not a "typical greaser," and the reader is able to better understand the prejudice and stereotyping between the greasers and the socs because of Ponyboy's complexity.
J.K. Rowling develops Harry Potter as a round character throughout the series. The reader learns much about Harry-his background, his feelings, and how the circumstances of his parents' deaths link him to Voldemort.
Scout in To Kill a Mockingbird is a round character. Through Scout's complex thoughts and feelings as a young girl navigating the Jim Crow South, the reader comes to understand the unfair nature of Tom Robinson's trial and the complexity of human nature and society.
In the Star Wars series, Anakin Skywalker (aka Darth Vader) is a round character. Throughout the series of movies, we see Anakin as a little boy and a young man overcome with fear of losing the love of his life. Because of the depth and complexity of Anakin, the viewer comes to understand his turn to the "dark side." We also see him reconcile with his son at the end of Return of the Jedi.
Related Links:
Literary Terms Examples
Educational Videos
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An Overview of The City
The City
Define the Term
When defining a city, there are many factors to consider. City status can differ by area (Bevan references UK ambiguity) (Bevan, 2014) or by time. Also, all cities are different, thus no one city definition can be applied to all. Therefore the Oxford English Dictionary definition of a “large town” (city, no date) is overly simplistic, not focusing on the concept of cities. It is obvious now that London is a city, with huge populous and immense geographical spread, however previously a city of this magnitude would be unimaginable. London still existed as a city, but not in a form recognisable as a city today. The definition of city can therefore only be expressed conceptually, and in the context of time.
Outline briefly the broad historical and social context from which the idea originally emerged
The first urbanised areas began emerging after the Agricultural Revolution, but these clusters of farmers and land workers were not cities. Agglomeration of populous could be first classed as cities with the emergence of writing, people organised into classes and when they were created by Kings, examples being seen in the 4th millennium BC and Mesopotamia (BBC, 2010) One city to emerge from this new breed of municipality was Athens, with a legacy that continues today. Athens was the first city conceptually similar to what we would deem a city today. Athenians were the first to come together “to form something great”, through the exchange of dramatic, artistic and the organisational ideas. (BBC, 2010) It was in Athens that Hippodamus’ wrote on urban planning. With his grid system helping to plan Miletus, Piraeus, and decades later Manhattan, Aristotle credited Hippodamus with the “invention of the art of planning cities”. (Boyd, no date)
Sociologically, while it is clear cities began the process of sharing ideas leading to collective human advancement, man’s social tendencies cannot be negated. (Reclus, 1895) As cities grew, their attractiveness, or need for resources, grew. Duranton cites the “magnetic theory of cities” as an explanatory model for the snowball-like growth of cities across time: people are magnetic particles, attracting each other. When they form clusters, the power of that attraction grows and, analogous with cities, there becomes a state of inertia. (Duranton, 1999) This explains the growth of cities once they form, but the reality is that the rationale behind the agglomeration of people into one group differs each time.
How has the idea shaped business and economic activity over the past few centuries?
A city, rather than shaping one business area, catalyses many. Trade is a key dimension. In the earliest cities, inhabitants needed to trade with those in agricultural villages around the locality, later with an empire, for agricultural goods. This created an economic relationship between those near to the city, and then on a grander scale. (BBC, 2010) New York is an example of this. Originally, mercantile sailors craved proximity to easily trade their products, and trade continued in the form of a port when the English took over. (Glaesar, 2012) This example is not atypical.
Geography played a role in the location of cities across the world, leading to a huge variety of localised trade. As time and globalisation progressed, cities have not declined. Glaesar refers to the “central paradox of the modern metropolis” being the era in which reducing transport costs, allow cities to thrive. (Glaesar, 2012). There are a number of aspects as to how cities can influence business and economic activity today. Forbes magazine ranked London as the world’s most influential city due to geography (convenient time zone for Asian business and Eurozone advantages), transport links (particularly air) and concentration of multinationals HQs. (Kotkin, 2014). Although only 3 advantages, they illustrate the utility of cities for business. Through proximity, cities can act as a catalyst for development. It is interesting while many companies and start-ups alike could function in any area of the globe, they chose land where fellow developers and entrepreneurs are only a short drive away, such as in Silicon Valley. (Holden, 2015)
The classic summarising example of proximal power in cites is Glaesar on the Florentine Renaissance; Brunelleschi realised the geometry of linear perspective, passed this to Donatello, and then onto Masaccio. The principle of urban organisation facilitating ideas continues to this day. (Glaesar, 2012)
What forces and influences do you think will shape the way it develops in the future?
Toffler, Negroponte and Pascal all believe that the agglomeration of people in cities will end, with Negroponte arguing that virtual reality will facilitate the evanescence of cities, as telecommunications technology evolves. (Toffler, 1999) (Negroponte, 1996) (Pascal, 1987)
However, others reach a more sociotechnical conclusion (Graham, 1997), that “as telecommunications improve, the demand for interactions of all varieties should rise” citing the example of Silicon Valley. (Gasper and Glaesar, 1998). It is apparent, after synthesising these views, that technology plays a supporting role in cities. Silicon Valley’s continuing growth (3 times faster than Californian average in 2014-2015) cannot be ignored, and Gasper and Glaesar were right to draw attention to this in their writings. (Massaro and Jennings, 2015) Therefore, the myth that technology and technology-based communication will facilitate the decline in the ingrained value of man to communicate in close proximity with others can be dispelled, and instead cities will continue to thrive.
Some see suburbanisation threatening future cities, as the number of people living an urban lifestyle must increase to maintain the community systems in place, through construction management, reconditioning of buildings and ethnic minority integration. (Power and Wilson, 2000) This shows that telecommunications is not the only “threat” facing cities, and that those with power in the city must continue to innovate, not remaining stagnant industrially.
Finally, Glaesar concocts an analogy of somewhat debatable accuracy to emphasise cities as a solution to environmental issues:
“if the environmental footprint of the average suburban home is a size 15 hiking boot […] a New York apartment is a stiletto-heel size 6 Jimmy Choo”(Glaesar, 2012)
Although no statistics are offered to corroborate this, the idea is interesting. Cities produce massive amount CO2 but averaged across the city populous, it is better than suburbia. Change is needed the world over, but an encouragement of city growth could have profound implications for the future.
What questions about business and organisations have emerged for you as a result of you studies for this individual assignment?
• Why is face-to-face networking more valuable than a virtual conference call, when one appears far easier?
• Who in an organisation decides between high-quality labour and proximity or cheaper labour and land?
The City – a history, part 1, In Our Time – BBC Radio 4 (2010) BBC, 25 March.
Bevan, R. (2014) What makes a city a city – and does it really matter anyway?. Available at: (Accessed: 12 October 2015).
No. 2542: Hippodamus of Miletus (no date) Engines of Our Ingenuity – University of Houston, .
Duranton, G. (1999) ‘Distance, Land, and Proximity, Economic analysis and the evolution of cities’, Research Papers in Environmental and Spatial Analysis, 53.
Gaspar, J. and Glaeser, E. L. (1998) ‘Information Technology and the Future of Cities’, Journal of Urban Economics, 43(1), pp. 136–156. doi: 10.1006/juec.1996.2031.
Glaeser, E. (2012) Triumph of the City: How Urban Spaces Make Us Human. London: Pan Books.
Graham, S. (1997) ‘Telecommunications and the future of cities: debunking the myths’, Cities, 14(1), pp. 21–29. doi: 10.1016/S0264-2751(37)00037-8.
Holden, J. (2015) ‘The networking in Silicon Valley is unparalleled’. Available at: (Accessed: 14 October 2015).
Kotkin, J. (2014) ‘The World’s Most Influential Cities’, Forbes (August), .
Massaro, R. and Jennings, J. (2015) Population Growth in Silicon Valley. Available at: (Accessed: 18 October 2015).
Negroponte, N. (1996) Being Digital. 1st edn. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Pascal, A. (1987) ‘The Vanishing City’, Urban Studies, 24, pp. 597–603. doi: 10.1080/00420988720080821.
Power, A. and Wilson, W. J. (2000) ‘Social Exclusion and the Future of Cities’, LSE STICERD Research Papers, No. CASE035.Reclus, E. (1895) ‘The Evolution of Cities’, Boletín CF+S, (45).
Toffler, A. (1999) The Third Wave: The Classic Study of Tomorrow. New York: Random House Publishing Group.
city (no date) in Oxford Dictionary. Available at: (Accessed: 12 October 2015).
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New Device Could Act as Gatekeeper of Light
Visualize an instrument that is transparent to different wavelengths of light for an instant and turns opaque the next, after a small alteration.
An illustration shows the experimental set-up used to confirm the existence of the Bloch wave resonance, which was first predicted theoretically. The device, called a hollow periodic waveguide, which consists of two corrugated metallic plates separated by a variable distance of about one inch, and the upper plate can slide with respect to the lower. (Image- Lab of Victor Pogrebnyak/UB)
An instrument like this would have unique and dominant abilities in various optical, electronic, and in other areas like those that depend on transistors or other machines that turn on and off.
Scientists at the University of Buffalo (UB) engineering have developed a new method, which has the potential to make this device a reality. The study has been published in the Physical Review Letters journal.
The discovery deals with periodic materials, meaning that they are made up of repeating parts or units. Crystals as well as certain parts of the butterflies wings, whose periodic structure gives them their color upon reflection of certain colors of light, fall under this category.
Since the 20th century, researchers have known that the periodic materials gain special properties when they come under light. These materials reflect light like butterfly wings, and by understanding the internal structure of a periodic material, Bragg’s law can be used to identify the wavelengths that would pass through and the ones that would be blocked due to reflection.
The current UB study indicates that for a predictable reflection to occur, an entire periodic material structure is not required.
When a non-periodic material is sandwiched a between two boundary layers of material with a periodic shape, similar effects can occur. This arrangement would be transparent to some and opaque to other wavelengths of light, allowing engineers to easily modify the wavelengths that will pass through by merely moving the periodic boundaries.
The effect applies not only to the light waves, but also to a large range of wave phenomena that cover the quantum on the continuum scale.
We have shown that Bragg’s law is a special case of a more generalized phenomenon that was discovered in this study and named as a Bloch wave resonance. This discovery opens up new opportunities in photonics, nanoelectronics, optics and acoustics and many other areas of science and technology that exploit band gap wave phenomena for practical use.
Victor A. Pogrebnyak, Adjunct Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering, UB
“Electrons behave as waves that can also exhibit a Bloch resonance, which can be used as a powerful method to control currents in nanoelectronic circuits,” explained Edward Furlani, Pogrebnyak’s co-author and a UB Professor from the Departments of Chemical and Biological Engineering and Electrical Engineering.
A major advantage of Bloch wave is that it blocks a higher range of wavelengths concurrently than the earlier known effects explained by Bragg’s law.
The latest fast-switching transistor and white light lasers are the applications that could exploit this broader “band gap” range.
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SKIN Whitening
Group VII
Skin Colour
The colour of human skin is influenced by both internal and external
factors but is primarily due to pigments, is melanin, produced by melanocytes of the basal layer of the dermis.
A secondary contributor to skin color is the hemoglobin located in the
blood capillaries of the dermis.
Skin and Melanin
Skin is made up of cells which all have the basic structure of a
nucleus, which contains the genes, surrounded by cytoplasm, which has a different composition depending on the cell type.
The skin pigment melanin is made in specialised cells called
melanocytes that remain at the base of the epidermis. Melanin is packaged into tiny bundles called melanosomes, which are transferred to adjacent skin cells, via the melanocytes arm-like projections.
Skin and Melanin
These melanosome particles become arranged like an umbrella over
the nucleus giving protection to the DNA against ultraviolet rays from the sun.
When epidermal cells travel towards the skins surface, they carry their
melanin with them, and it remains even after the nucleus is lost. It is this melanin which is mainly responsible for the colour of an individuals skin.
Two types of melanin are produced, namely eumelanin which is a dark
brown/black pigment and pheomelanin which is a lighter reddish/yellow pigment.
Changes in the amount of each pigment produced is also under
genetic control and the ratio of eu- to pheo-melanin is responsible for variations in both skin and hair colour.
Thus the melanocytes of pale-skinned redheads produce lots of
pheomelanin, whilst those of people with a range of skin colours from beige to black and with hair from blonde to brown to black produce more eumelanin than pheomelanin
Melanin protects the skin from the harmful rays of sunlight, which is
made up of visible and invisible light.
It is UVA and UVB that cause damage to the skin, but melanin protects
the skin from damage by reflecting and absorbing some of the UV energy.
In the absence of melanin, UV energy penetrates deep into the skin
where it can cause small amounts of damage to the DNA in the nucleus of the still living epidermal cells.
Skin Colour
In areas where UV radiation was highest, peoples skins were darkest
and vice versa.
UV exposure does not only induce skin cancer but has other
consequences which may have contributed to the development of skin colour variation over long periods of time.
UV rays are also known to break down folate (vitamin B6) in the blood
vessels just beneath the skin.
Skin Whitening
Skin-whitening products have been widely used in the cosmetic field
and clinic therapy
Whitening agents, such as hydroquinone, kojic acid, and ascorbic acid
derivatives have shown efficacy in a variety of hyperpigmentary disorders
The ideal depigmentating compound should have a potent, rapid, and
selective bleaching effect on hyperactivated melanocytes, carry no short- or long-term side effects, and lead to a permanent removal of undesired pigment
The transcription and activity of tyrosinase, TRP-1, TRP-2, and/or
The uptake and distribution of melanosomes in recipient keratinocytes Melanin and melanosome degradation and turnover of pigmented
Tyrosinase Inhibition
Tyrosinase is a copper enzyme, which catalysis both the hydroxylation
of monophneols to o-diphenols and the oxidation of o-diquinones to oquinones.
whitening agents act spesifically to reduce the function of this enzyme by means the following mechanisms : interference with this transcrription and/or glycosylation, inhibition by different modalities, reduction by products and post-transcriptional control
hydroquinone, kojic acid, azelaic acid, paper extract mulberry, arbutin, licorice extract, ellagic acid
Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)
with redox properties can have depigmenting effects by interacting with o-quinones, thus avoiding the oxidative polimerative of melanin intermediate or with copper at the active site. all ascorbic acid is oxidized
Product Reduction and
Therefore, that melanin cannot be formed by action of tyrosinase until
ascorbic acid, magnesium L-ascorbyl-2-Phosphate (VC-PMG), thioctic acid, alpha tocopherol
Inhibition of Melanosomes Transfer
The activation of protease-activated receptor-2 (PAR2), a seven
transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor, which is expressed in keratinocytes and not in melanocytes, was found to activate keratynocytes phagocytosis, enhancing melanosome transfer
Inhibition of Par-2 cleavage by serine protease inhibitor, such us RWJ50353, completely avoids the UVB-induced pigmentation of epidermal analogs
Ex : niacinamides, RWJ-50353, soybean tripsin inhibitor,
Skin Turnover Acceleration
The capacity of several compounds to disperse melanin pigment
and/or accelerate epidermal turnover can result in skin lightening
Topical apllication has beenshown to reduce the visibility of age spots
without reducing their size or number, and can be useful in the tretment of melasma
ex: alpha hydroxy acids, linoleic
Traditional Chinese Medicine
Cinnamic Acid A naturally occuring aromatic fatty acid of low toxicity, has a long history of
human exposure.
the cinnamic acid was found to induce cells differentiation as evidenced by
morphological changes and increased melanin production in melanoma cells
Sophocarpidine Sophocarpidine function as an uncompetitive inhibitor, compared to aloin
and cinnamic acid, which are mixed-typed inhibitor
Sophocarpidine, aloin, and cinnamic acid, can not only bind to the enzyme,
but also to the enzyme-subtrate complex as well
Hydroquinone inhibits the conversion of dopa to melanin by inhibiting
the tyrosinase enzyme.
Inhibition DNA and RNA synthesis, degradation of melanosomes, and
destruction of melanocytes.
Concentration 2%-10% Side effects : allergic contact dermatitis, irritant contact dermatitis, and
post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation and nail discoloration
Kojic Acid
A fungal metabolic product, is incresingly being used as a skinlightening agent in skincare products marketed in Japan since 1988
The mode of action of kojic acid is to suppres free tyrosinase, mainly attributable to chelation of its copper. Kaand its derivate have better inhibitory effect on tyrosinase than any other skin whitening agent It has been used alone in concentration 2-4% and it has also been combined with HQ 2% in an AHA gel base
Ascorbic Acid
Interferes with different steps of melanization, by interacting with
copper icons at the tyrosinase active site and reducing dopaquinone and DHICA oxidation. Melanin can be changed from jet black to light tan by the reduction of oxidized melanin
Quickly oxidised and decomposes in aqueous solution and is thus not
generally useful as a depigmenting agent
Magnesium-L-ascorby-2-phosphate (VC-PMG) is a vitamin C
derivative that is stable in water, especially in neutral or alkaline solution containing boric acid or it salt
Niacinamide has no effect on tyrosinase activity, melanin synthesis, or cell number in melanocyte monoculture system, and no effect on the proliferation of keratinocytes.
Niacinamide downregulated the amount of melanosomes transferred from melanocytes to surrounding keratinocytes in a coculture system by approximately 3568%. a niacinamide moisturizer was effective in reducing hyperpigmentation and in increasing lightness of basal skin color compared with control moisturizer.
The efficacy of topical niacinamide for decreasing facial hyperpigmentation and lightening skin color in vehicle-controlled protocols was evaluated.
Alpha Hydroxy Acid
In low concentrations, AHAs decreased corneocyte cohesion, leading
to sloughing of dead cells and stimulation of new cell growth in the basal layer. In higher concentrations, they cause epidermilysis.
AHAs have been reported to be effective in treating pigmentary lesions
such as melasma, solar lentigines, and post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.
The mechanism of this effect might be due to epidermal remodeling
and accelerated desquamation, which would result in quick pigment dispersion. GA and LA might work on pigmentary lesions not only by accelerating the turnover of the epidermis but also by directly inhibiting melanin formation by inhibiting tyrosinase in melanocytes.
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The Peterloo Massacre
60 second histories
by: Squaducation date: 16 Aug
The Peterloo Massacre
- 16th August 1819 -
The end of the Napoleonic War brought economic hardship to many in the UK. This was especially so in the North-West area of England, home to many of the cotton mills, weavers, spinners and the cloth industry. The weekly wages of weavers had dropped from 15 shillings to less than 5s. Along with the introduction of the first Corn Law in 1815, the combined effect led to famine, real poverty and unemployment. The Prime Minister, Lord Liverpool, who came to power after the assassination of Spencer Percival, was faced with major social, political and economic issues.
The Corn Laws were brought in to protect domestic markets from cheaper imports. The effect however was to drive up prices including bread that was very expensive. British corn was not only more expensive but of inferior quality. There was also unrest about the political system where the only people who could vote were adult males who owned freehold land which had a rental value of over 40 shillings a year. This was about 2% of the population. The distribution of MPs was also very antiquated. The large population areas of the North-West were represented only by two county MPs from Lancashire who neither knew, understood or really cared about what was going on in Manchester, Blackburn and such places.
With this background in place a group who became known as the ‘Blanketeers’ decided to march to London from Manchester to petition the Prince Regent for Parliamentary reform. The radical local newspaper in Manchester – the Manchester Observer - had encouraged them and they gathered in St. Peter’s Fields – a croft within the city, alongside Mount Street. However the Dragoon Guards were quickly mobilized and dispersed them.
By 1819 dissatisfaction reached new levels and another meeting was organised for the same place. The people of Manchester wanted to elect their own MP who understood their needs and issues. The meeting was set for August 2nd but this was postponed until the 9th to give time for the political leaders to think about the ideas put forward. Henry Hobhouse, on advice from the Attorney General, told the Manchester Magistrates that as the meeting was not to elect a new MP it was not illegal. The speaker, Henry Hunt, who was a radical and influential orator on working class reform, said that the purpose of the meeting was “To consider the propriety of adopting the most legal and effectual means of obtaining reform in the Common House of Parliament.” Not to be put off the magistrates banned the meeting anyway on August 4th. Hunt though was determined and set the meeting for August 16th at St Peter’s Fields.
On that day Thomas Worrell, the assistant surveyor of pavements, arrived at 9am to remove any obstacle that could be used as a weapon. The magistrates met for breakfast at the Star Inn to decide what to do. The meeting was still undecided at 10.30am so they moved to a position overlooking the south-east corner of St. Peter’s Fields. The crowds started to arrive around noon with Hunt not due to arrive until 1pm. It is said that 60,000 were present when he arrived to take his place on the platform, which was a simple cart. There were banners everywhere supporting universal suffrage, equal representation and for love. The poles on which these were written were topped with red flags standing for liberty.
The magistrates lost their nerve and read the ‘Riot Act’ to those present. The only problem was that no one could hear it. This act, brought into force in 1714, authorised the local authorities to declare any group of twelve or more unlawfully assembled and that they must disperse or face punitive action. It was not repealed until 1967. 600 Hussars, several hundred infantrymen and an artillery unit comprising of two six-pounder guns were waiting for the signal. As re-enforcements four hundred men of the Cheshire Cavalry and four hundred special constables were also ready. The local yeomanry, led by Major Thomas Trafford, was sent in to arrest the speakers. These men were, in effect, paramilitaries from the local mill and shop owners, and had grievances to settle. On horseback and with sabres and clubs they charged the crowd who linked arms to stop them and protect themselves. However they were cut down or struck. One yeoman was overheard to say, on spotting a radical reporter from the Manchester Observer that he should be ‘run through’. Some observers were to say later that they thought the Yeomen were drunk and had no control. In self-defense the crowd started attacking them and Lieutenant-Colonel Guy L’Estrange was ordered in with the Hussars.
Samuel Bamford was present and later wrote down his eyewitness account of the events. He was arrested after he massacre, and imprisoned for a year.
"In about half an hour after our arrival the sounds of music and reiterated shouts proclaimed the near approach of Mr Hunt and his party; and in a minute or two they were seen coming from Deansgate, preceded by a band of music and several flags.
Their approach was hailed by one universal shout from probably 80,000 persons. They threaded their way slowly past us and through the crowd, which Hunt eyed, I thought, with almost as much of astonishment as satisfaction. This spectacle could not be otherwise in his view than solemnly impressive.
Such a mass of human beings he had not beheld till then. His responsibility must weigh on his mind. The task was great, and not without its peril. The meeting was indeed a tremendous one.
Mr Hunt, stepping towards the front of the stage, took off his white hat, and addressed the people.
We had got to nearly the outside of the crowd, when a noise and strange murmur arose towards the church. Some persons said it was the Blackburn people coming, and I stood on tiptoe and looked in the direction whence the noise proceeded, and saw a party of cavalry in blue and white uniform come trotting, sword in hand, round the corner of a garden wall, and to the front of a row of new houses, where they reined up in a line.
"The soldiers are here," I said; "we must go back and see what this means." "Oh," someone made reply, "they are only come to be ready if there should be any disturbance in the meeting." "Well, let us go back," I said, and we forced our way towards the colours.
On the cavalry drawing up they were received with a shout of goodwill, as I understood it. They shouted again, waving their sabres over their heads; and then, slackening rein, and striking spur into their steeds, they dashed forward and began cutting the people..."
"Stand fast," I said, "they are riding upon us; stand fast".
The cavalry were in confusion: they evidently could not, with all the weight of man and horse, penetrate that compact mass of human beings and their sabres were plied to hew a way through naked held-up hands and defenceless heads; and then chopped limbs and wound-gaping skulls were seen; and groans and cries were mingled with the din of that horrid confusion.
Many females appeared as the crowd opened; and striplings or mere youths also were found. Their cries were piteous and heart-rending, and would, one might have supposed, have disarmed any human resentment: but here their appeals were in vain.
In ten minutes from the commencement of the havoc the field was an open and almost deserted space. The sun looked down through sultry and motionless air. The curtains and blinds of the windows within view were all closed.
*Source: Passages in the Life of a Radical, 1864
By 2pm it was all over. Journalists present were arrested and those who then reported it later were jailed. John Edward Taylor, born near Yeovil in Somerset, witnessed the massacre but was unimpressed with the tactics of the leaders. Along with other non-conformist businessmen, after the radical Manchester Observer was closed, he set up the Manchester Guardian in 1821 with the purpose to "zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty ... warmly advocate the cause of Reform ... endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and ... support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, all serviceable measures". This newspaper survives today under the simpler title of ‘The Guardian’.
The name ‘Peterloo’ is a term used to mock the soldiers who took part by drawing a less than favourable comparison with the soldiers who had fought at Waterloo four years earlier and were seen as genuine heroes. The event was to prove very influential in the rise of Chartism, the movement that emerged in the 1830s with the intention of gaining political rights and influence for the working classes and was based on a charter with six main aims. This in turn led to the establishment of the Trade Union movement. Other historians have also compared it to the demonstration at Tiananmen Square in China in 1989. Whatever your view this event set in motion, or accelerated, a chain of events that was to change the way this country was to represent people of all walks of life – and this was to spread around the world.
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Lecture Outline
Patterns of Reproduction in Plants
Lecture Outline
What are the general patterns of reproduction in plants?
Plants have two multicellular generations that alternate to create their life cycles.
In animals, the diploid phase of the life cycle is multicellular, and the haploid
phase of the life cycle is represented only by sperm and eggs
In plants, there is a cyclical alternation of generations: a diploid, multicellular
sporophyte generation utilizes meiosis to produce haploid spores, which
grow into a multicellular gametophyte generation that produces gametes,
which unite to form a diploid zygote, which matures into a sporophyte
Gametophytes are haploid and use mitosis to produce gametes in specialized
reproductive structures:
o Eggs are produced in female reproductive structures called archegonia
o Sperms are produced in male reproductive structures called antheridia
In nonvascular plants, and several phyla of vascular plants, spores are
produced in spore cases called sporangia
The haploid generation dominates in nonvascular plants, such as mosses,
whereas in vascular plants, such as ferns, conifers, and flowering plants, the
sporophyte generation dominates
In nonvascular plants, the gametophyte generation is dominant.
The nonvascular plants comprise three phyla: mosses, liverworts, and
Mosses
o In mosses (phylum Bryophyta), the gametophyte is a small green plant
with leaflike structures that grows in moist or boggy places
o A slender sporophyte grows out of the parent gametophyte
o Each sporophyte bears a sporangium, within which haploid spores are
produced by meiosis
o Ripe spores are released and fall to the soil, where they germinate and
grow into gametophytes
o Female gametophytes produce a small, flask-shaped archegonium at the
top of the plant, while male gametophytes produce antheridia at their tops
o Sperm are released following a rain, and they swim into the neck of an
archegonium, one sperm fertilizing one egg
o After fertilization, the diploid zygote develops into a young sporophyte
within the archegonium
o The cycle begins anew when the embryo grows out of the archegonium
and differentiates into a sporophyte
Liverworts and Hornworts
o Liverworts (phylum Hepatophyta) resemble the human liver, and their life
cycle is very similar to that of mosses
o Hornworts (phylum Anthocerophyta) has elongated sporophytes that
protrude like horns from the creeping gametophyte
In vascular plants, the sporophyte generation is dominant.
Whisk ferns, club mosses, horsetails, and ferns do not form seeds
o A mature fern plant produces spores by meiosis in clusters of brownish,
dot-like sporangia (called sori) under the leaves
o Ripe spores disperse when the sporangia burst and those that settle on
moist soil will germinate, or sprout, into haploid heart-shaped
gametophytes (each one called a prothallus)
o Antheridia and archegonia develop on the underside of the gametophyte,
and eggs and sperm are produced
o Because eggs and sperm ripen at different times on the same gametophyte,
sperm from one plant usually swim to and fertilize eggs on an adjacent
gametophyte, producing a diploid zygote
o The zygote develops into an embryo, and then matures into the large fern
plant with which you are familiar
Conifers, cycads, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes form naked seeds
o The most familiar representative of this group of plants, called
gymnosperms, is the pine tree
o The pine tree, the diploid sporophyte generation, bears specialized
sporangia called cones
o Male cones produce microsporocytes, which undergo meiosis to form
haploid pollen grains, each of which is a male gametophyte
o Female cones produce megasporocytes, which undergo meiosis to form the
haploid female gametophytes, each of which contains an egg
o Air-borne pollen grains get stuck in the sticky sap produced by the female
cones, and when the pollen grain comes in contact with the female
gametophyte (called an ovule), it produces a pollen tube that slowly grows
into the ovule – to the egg
o Sperm produced within the pollen tube fertilize the egg, and the zygote
grows into an embryo
o During this time, the female ovule enlarges, and grows into the familiar
pine seed, which falls from the cone when it dries up and the scales open
o The seed germinates, and the embryo continues to grow and eventually
becomes a new pine tree
Angiosperms form protected seeds
o Angiosperms are flowering plants
o The conspicuous flowering plant is the diploid sporophyte generation
o The flower contains male stamens and one or more female pistils
o Meiosis produces haploid microspores within the anther of each stamen
o Microspores develop into haploid pollen grains, which are the male
o At the base of the pistil is the ovary, which holds the ovule
o Each ovule contains a single megaspore which produces the female
gametophyte, which, when mature, is called the embryo sac
o Eight cells develop within the embryo sac, one of which is the egg
o After a pollen grain lands on the pistil (either wind-borne or carried there
by an insect or bird), the pollen grain produces a long tube that grows
down the style of the pistil
o The pollen tube penetrates the ovule, and one sperm produced within the
tube fertilizes the egg nucleus, producing a diploid zygote, which
undergoes mitosis and develops into an embryo plant
o Another sperm nucleus from the pollen tube combines with two nuclei in
the embryo sac to produce a triploid endosperm nucleus, which develops
into nutritive tissue to feed the embryo
o The embryo is surrounded by nutritive tissue and the rest of the ovule,
which constitutes a seed
o The ovary ripens into a fruit, which attracts animals, which play a role in
dispersal of the seeds
o When the seed reaches favorable conditions, it germinates, and the
enclosed embryo will grow into a new plant
How does pollination take place?
Animals and wind help pollinate plants.
The two primary means for accomplishing pollination involves the wind and
insects, but birds, such as hummingbirds, and mammals in the form of tropical
bats are also effective pollinators
Flowers have evolved showy colors and fragrant nectars that attract
pollinators in search of food
While feeding on the nectar of one flower, pollen adheres to the insect’s body,
and is transported to the next flower visited
How do seeds develop, become dispersed and germinate?
Seeds develop from ovules, and fruits develop from ovary walls.
The seed consists of the embryo plant, the nutritive tissue surrounding the
embryo, and the outer covering of the ovule, which hardens into the seed coat
While in the seed, the embryo develops embryonic leaves, called cotyledons
Monocots, such as corn and wheat, develop a single cotyledon, while dicots,
such as beans and peanuts, develop two cotyledons
A fruit is a mature ovary of an angiosperm, consisting of the seeds, the tissues
connected with them, and their coverings
Animals, wind and water help in seed dispersal.
Many fruits are edible, and attract animals that consume them and scatter the
seeds in their fecal droppings
Some fruits have sticky surfaces, and stick to an animals body, to be deposited
somewhere later
Some fruits, such as those of dandelions and maple trees, are blown away by
the wind
Some fruits, such as coconuts, are carried away by the ocean
Germination begins when the seed takes up water and begins to sprout.
The first step in seed germination occurs when it absorbs water, which helps to
break open the seed coat and also stimulates metabolism in the embryo
Usually the first portion of the embryo to emerge from the germinating seed is
the radicle (young root)
Next, the epicotyl, the portion of the shoot above the cotyledons, undergoes
rapid elongation
In grasses, the first leaves are protected by a sheath called a coleoptile
The hypocotyl, the shoot below the cotyledons, next begins elongation
Multiplication of the cells (by mitosis) in the tips of the stem and roots
continues growth of the young seedling
What are types of vegetative propagation in plants?
Underground runners and stems are two types of vegetative propagation.
Vegetative propagation is an asexual reproductive process in which a new
plant develops from a portion of a parent plant
Some plants, such as irises and grasses, use underground stems, called
Other plants, such as strawberries, have horizontal stems that grow above the
Underground tubers, such as potatoes, can grow a new plant from each of it
“eyes,” which are lateral buds
In some plants, such as African violets, new plants may arise from portions of
a leaf
Using cell culture techniques, scientists can grow plants from individual cells.
Scientists are able to take individual cells or groups of cells from a plant and
use them to grow a new plant on a petri dish
Related flashcards
Plant morphology
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Significance of Tirtha Yathra or Pilgrimages
Tirtha, Holy Place or Pilgrim Site
by Jayaram V
Suumary: This essay is about the meaning, concept and significance of Tirth Yathra or Pilgrimages in Hinduism.
Pilgrimages have been an important part of the Hindu ritual and spiritual practices since Vedic times. In many respects they contributed to the growth of Indian civilization and the emergence of numerous sacred cities and urban centers. In the process, they contributed to the preservation of Hinduism, elevating the character and consciousness of its people, uniting them into one nation despite their regional and cultural diversity, and creating feelings of belongingness and brotherhood.
The pilgrim places of India stand testimony to its ancient past and spiritual distinction. They also stand witness to the living presence of God in numerous forms and guises all over the Indian subcontinent. Pilgrim sites and pilgrimages played an important role in unifying the country, despite its geographical and cultural diversity and preservation of its chief faiths.
If Hinduism survived in India despite intense social and political pressures, the credit goes in no small measure to the importance of pilgrimages in Hindu spiritual and religious practice. The earliest reference to them can be found in the Rigveda itself. For generations, Hindu spiritual teachers and gurus made them the focal point of their activities and teachings.
Nowadays it is easier to go on pilgrimages, but there was a time when going on pilgrimage meant risking a near certain death. They tested the strength of one’s faith and devotion, since most pilgrim sites used to be in remote and inaccessible places, and to reach them one had to pass through difficult terrains and dense forests, risking their lives.
Pilgrimages are beneficial both mentally and spiritually. They are an important part of Hindu ritual and devotional worship. Devotees go on pilgrimages to fulfill their vows or perform their obligatory duties such as marriage, initiation or tonsure ceremony. Some pilgrimages are undertaken to atone for past sins or express gratitude. People also go on pilgrimages to holy sites to mix the ashes of their deceased relations to help them obtain a good birth in next life or ensure their safe journey to the next world.
Water plays an important role in all pilgrimages. Most Hindu pilgrim places are located on the banks of rivers or near water tanks. Most temples also contain sacred ponds (kovela) where pilgrims can take a dip before entering the temples and seeing their favorite deity. The association with water is not by accident. It seems to be ancient tradition, dating back to even Indus Valley civilization. The Indus cities contained large water tanks, which historians believe were used for ritual purposes. Pilgrimages are meant for spiritual cleansing, and water is an important cleanser.
One may also see the connection between the two in the very meaning and purpose of Hindu pilgrimages. In Hinduism, pilgrimages are historically and etymologically associated with water bodies, rivers and lakes, or with paths or steps that lead to them. This is evident from the fact that in Sanskrit a pilgrim place is known as a Tirtha (tīrtha or theertha, तीर्थ), which is reference to a holy site or a pilgrim place.
Tirtha means a passage, a roadway, a fjord, a staircase or a descent into a river. Customarily and traditionally these attributes are associated with pilgrim places which happen to be upon the banks or near rivers and water bodies or on the top of a hill or a mountain.
In ritual worship, tirtham refers to sacred water, which is collected from a river, a coconut or a sacred pond and ritually sanctified for worship and cleansing. The word also has other connotations. In general usage, it refers to an eminent teacher or philosopher, ascetic, saint or sacred preceptor. It is also often used as a title or an epithet to refer to divine beings or pious people, as in case of a Thirthankara or the purest beings. While all places are knowns as Tirthas, the holiest among them is called Tirtharaj, mening the king among the Tirthas. The epithet is historically given to Prayag, which is located on the banks of the River Ganga, and considered one of the four must see holy sites.
In a wider context, pilgrimages serve as a reminder of our essential nature and our highest purpose upon earth. The symbolize the life of mortal beings as pilgrims who are caught in the web of life. We all are on a spiritual journey in search of liberation. Our final destination is the immortal heaven, upon reaching which no one returns. In Hinduism, pilgrimages remind us of this singular truth. We may undertake them for a number of purposes, but as the scriptures say the best ones are those which are undertaken to express love and devotion to God rather than for selfish motives
Pilgrimages benefit not only those who undertake them but also the holy places and the divinities who resided there. According to our beliefs, the images which we worship in temples and at holy places are not lifeless images. They embody the power of the deity. Hence, they are considered living incarnations (arcas), whose power increases in proportion to the attention and offerings they receive. It means our gods grow in strength and power and contribute to the welfare of the world if a large number of devotees keep visiting the holy sites and worship them with ritual offerings.
From the above, one can see that thirthas or pilgrim places in Hinduism have ritual and spiritual significance. They are essentially holy places, which are sanctified by the presence of God and which symbolize purity and divinity, in an otherwise impure world. They also play an important role in the preservation and continuation of our faith, as they draw worldly people and strengthen their devotional fervor and religiosity.
Thus, pilgrimages serve an important purpose in our lives, by helping us practice Dharma and keep our gods happy and nourished through offerings and sacrifices. By that, they contribute to the preservation and continuation of our Dharma. Because of their beneficial effect, we should not look down upon them as mere acts of superstition. India is considered a sacred land because it is home to numerous deities, saints and seers. They are spread all over the country. Each year, millions of people go on pilgrimages to visit them and seek their blessings. In the process, everyone is benefited.
However, one should not expect too much from pilgrimages or solely rely upon them for their spiritual wellbeing. Although they have a symbolic parallel with the spiritual journey of individual souls upon earth, they form a part of the Hindu ritual worship. Hence, it is still a part of the lower knowledge, which is helpful to gain a good birth in next life, but not very helpful to achieve liberation or escape from suffering in the mortal world. For that you have to practice virtues, detachment, renunciation, sameness, etc. You have to cultivate purity and become pure to achieve oneness with the Supreme Self.
Popular Hindu pilgrim places
Since, India has numerous pilgrim places it is difficult to list them all. The most important and popular Hindu pilgrim sites are listed below. Most of them have a long history, and date back to Pre-Mauryan and Pre-Buddhist era. For example, places such as Kashi, Mathura and Gaya were already famous religious centers by the time of Mahavira and the Buddha. Both of them, frequented the pilgrim places to spread their teachings and attract followers.
1. Char Dham: The name refers to any four holy sites or abodes namely. Currently we have two lists. One consists of Puri Jagannath, Badrinath, Dwaraka, and the other, Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotr.
2. Panchadham: The name refers to a group of five sacred places. There are many panchdhams such as Pancha Badris, Pancha Kedars, Pancha Prayags, Pancha Gokarnanaths, Pancha Kesavas, Pancha Kashis, Pancha Naths, Pancha Tirthas, Pancha Bhutalingas, Pancha Sarovars, Pancha Puras, etc.
3. The site where Kumbh Mela is held. It is the holiest of Hindu festival, held every three years on a rotation basis at one of the four locations namely Praya, Haridwar, Nashik and Ujjain.
4. Ancient holy cities: We have many ancient pilgrim sites. The holiest among them are Kashi (Varanasi). Prayag, Haridwar, Rishikesh, Mathura, Vrindavan, Rameswaram, Madurai, etc.
5. Ancient holy temples: We have numerous Hindu temples, some of whihc over 1500 years old. Prominent among them are at Kashi, Ujjain, Vaishnava Devi, Kedarnath, Tirupathi, Sri Rangam, Tanjore, Sabarimalai, Thiruvananthapuram, Pandharpur, Sri Sailam, etc.
6. Popular modern Hindu temples: These are not very ancient, but attract a large number of devotees such as Hare Krishna temples at various locations, Birla Mandirs, Radhaswami temples, Kali temples in West Bengal, etc.
7. Shakti Peethas: These are associated with Devi or the Goddess. There are numerous Shakti Pithas in India. Of them, 12 are the most prominent such as the Kamakshi temple at Kanchi, Chamundi temple near Mysore, Jogulamba temple at Alampur, Bhramaramba temple at Sri Sailam, Mahalakshmi temple at Kolhapure, and so on. In addition, there are seveal prominent temples and pilgrim sites for each of the numerous manifestations of the Goddess such as Mahalakshmi, Saraswathi, Durga, Bhavani, Kali, Brahmi, Varahi, etc.
8. Vishnu temples: They include all the temples and holy places which are associated with Vishnu and his partial and complete incarnations and manifestations. Prominent among them are the Vshnu temples located at Dwaraka. Srirangam, Venkarachalam, Salagramam, Thothadri, Pushkar. We also come across the list of 108 Vishnu temples, known as holy places (divya desas). Devotees also go on pilgrimage to several popular temples of Vishnu's incarnations such as Krishna, Rama and Narasimha temples in various parts of the country. The five Dwaraka temples known as Pancha Dwarak also attracted many pilgrims.
9. Divya Desam: Another important set of pilgrimages are known as the "Divya Desams." They are the holy places, sanctified by divinities, where Lord Vishnu is worshipped. According to tradition there are 108 Divya Desams. Tirumala Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati is one among them.
10. Shiva temples: Perhaps more temples and holy places are associated with Shiva and his numerous manifestations than any other god. They are grouped under different names such Trilingas, Pancharamams, Panchabhuta lingas, Ashta lingas and Dwadasa (12) Jyotirlingas. Of them the 12 Jyotirlingas are the most prominent. They are located at Somnath, Ujjain (Mahakaleswar), Omkareshwar, Vaidyanath (Devgadh/Parle), Bhimshankar, Rameshwar, Nageshwar (Dwaraka), Vishveshwar (Kashi), Trayambakeshwar (Nashik), Kedareshwar (Kedarnath), and Grishneshwar (Verul, near Ellora).
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Suggestions for Further Reading
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A confounder (or 'confounding factor') is something, other than the thing being studied, that could be causing the results seen in a study.
It can be very difficult to account for every possible confounder when doing research with people, but researchers must try to account for anything that could influence their results when planning their research and analysing their data. confounders have the potential to change the results of research because they can influence the outcomes that the researchers are measuring.
Research that concludes that there is an association or a ‘correlation’ between a factor and an outcome (for example high alcohol consumption and liver disease) should also consider whether there might be any confounding factors. If researchers do not consider confounders, the results of their research might not be valid.
Example: Confounders
A group of researchers decide to study the causes of heart disease by carrying out an observational study. The researchers find that the people in their study who ate lots of red meat also developed heart disease. They believe they have found a link (or ‘correlation’) between eating red meat and developing heart disease, and they (or those reading their research) might be tempted to conclude that eating lots of red meat is a cause of heart disease. However, before making a conclusion like this, the researchers must think about confounding factors.
In this example, the researchers are measuring red meat consumption and incidence of heart disease. However, it might be the case that everyone in the study who ate a lot of red meat may also have smoked cigarettes regularly or been overweight. In this case, one or both of those other factors could have influenced whether the participants developed heart disease or not. In other words, smoking and being overweight are possible confounders in this study.
Accounting for confounders is particularly important when undertaking surveys or observational research because it is harder for researchers to control variables in the same way as they can in randomised controlled trials, so these types of research are more vulnerable to confounders. In trials, researchers are able to create more controlled settings where outside factors can be limited. In surveys and observation research, outside factors can easily enter the research environment, which could potentially harm their research.
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"url": "https://www.understandinghealthresearch.org/useful-information/confounders-17"
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Advice 1: How to find kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the energy of the mechanical system, which depends on the speed of movement of each of its points. In other words, the kinetic energy represents the difference between the total energy and the rest energy of the system, that part of the total energy of the system, which is caused by movement. Kinetic energy divided by the energy of translational and rotational motion. The unit of measurement of kinetic energy in SI system is Joule.
How to find kinetic energy
In the case of translational motion all points of the system (body) have the same speed, which is equal to the velocity of the center of mass of a body. While the kinetic energy of the system Tpost equal to:
Tpost = ? (mk Vс2)/2,
where mk is the body mass, VC is the speed of the center of mass.Thus, when the forward movement of the body kinetic energy is equal to the product of body weight to the square of the velocity of the center of mass, divided by two. The value of the kinetic energy does not depend on the direction of movement.
In rotational motion, when the body rotates around any axis Oz, the speed of any point determines the equation: Vk = ?hk, where hk is the distance of this point to the axis of rotation ? - the angular velocity of the body. If we substitute the equation that determines the velocity of a point at the expression and make the overall multipliers of the bracket, we will obtain the equation of the kinetic energy of the system while the rotational motion: TVR = ? (mk ?2 hk2)/2 = ? (mk hk2) ?2/2Выражение made in brackets represents the moment of inertia of the body about the axis around which the rotation of the body. Here you will receive: TVR = (Iz ?2)/2, where Iz is the moment of inertia of the body. Thus, when the rotational motion of the body, its kinetic energy is equal to the product of the moment of inertia of the body about the rotation axis to the square of its angular velocity divided in half. The direction of rotation of the body does not affect the value of its kinetic energy.
In the case of a perfectly rigid body is full of kinetic energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic energies of translational and rotational motion:T = (mk Vc2)/2 + (Iz ?2)/2
Kinetic energy is always positive quantity.
Advice 2 : How to calculate the amperage
Current, voltage, power and resistance are linked by defined relations. Any of these four quantities can be calculated if you know at least two others. When the other three known variables, the information becomes redundant.
How to calculate the amperage
Before performing any calculations, be sure to move all the existing condition of the problem data to the SI system. The voltage must be expressed in volts, current in amperes, resistance in ohms, power in watts. Most often these values are used the prefixes "micro" (one millionth, sokraschenno - MK), "Milli" (one thousandth, abbreviated m), "kilo" (one thousand, abbreviated K), mega (million, abbreviated as - M) and "Giga" (one billion, short - G).
To find the force of the current at a known voltage and resistance, use Ohm's law to the partial circuit by the calculation according to this formula:I=U/R where I - current, U - voltage, R - resistance.
If you know power and resistance, use the following ratio:U=RI, P=UI, hence P=R(I^2)Hence, I^2=P/R and so I=sqrt(P/R), where I - current, P - power, R is the resistance.
At a known voltage and power calculations spend so:P=UI, hence I=P/U where I - current, P - power, U - voltage.
After the calculation is finished, set the result of SI in the units in which it is required to Express the conditions of the problem (often it is milliamperes, or microamperes).
If the calculations are made in the report for the laboratory work, the result of their if necessary, check on a real laboratory plant, because the voltage and force current can be changed easily, respectively, by a voltmeter and ammeter. If used with high voltage measurement be made with caution. Measure resistance by ohmmeter when the power is off installation. As for allocated load heat output, then its measure is not so easy, because it requires a calorimeter.
If you are studying in high school or in higher education, the teacher may require you in the design of the problem solution to calculate the error of measurements and calculations the conventional manner.
Advice 3 : How to calculate reactive power
Reactive power current can be obtained only in circuits with alternating current, in which there are inductors, capacitors, or both. The vast majority of cases, the reactive power does not perform useful work, and is spent on generation of electromagnetic fields. Many devices specify the power factor, which is denoted Cos(φ). It is easy to calculate the reactive power consumed by the device knowing power. If such a coefficient, it can be calculated independently.
How to calculate reactive power
You will need
• - power factor;
• tester.
Calculate the reactance for this:
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In May 2019
Answer to Question #28121 in C++ for ba
Question #28121
5. A library function, islower(), takes a single character (a letter) as an argument and returns a
nonzero integer if the letter is lowercase, or zero if it is uppercase. This function requires the header
file CTYPE.H. Write a program that allows the user to enter a letter, and then displays either zero or
nonzero, depending on whether a lowercase or uppercase letter was entered. (See the SQRT
program for clues.)
Expert's answer
using namespace std;
int main()
char letter;
cout<<"Enter letter : ";
if(islower(letter) == 0)
& cout<<"letter is uppercase\n";
& cout<<"letter is lowercase\n";
return 0;
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Guillain-Barré Syndrome
What is Guillain-Barré syndrome?
Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a disease that affects nerves throughout the body and limbs. It is usually triggered by an infection. It is named after Dr Guillain and Dr Barré who were two of the doctors who first described this syndrome early in the last century.
Who gets Guillain-Barré syndrome?
GBS is rare but may affect anyone. It occurs more commonly in early adulthood and the elderly. It is also more common in women immediately after they have given birth.
Every year about 1,500 people develop GBS in the UK.
What causes Guillain-Barré syndrome?
Most cases of GBS start within three weeks of an infection. Some of the infections that are known to be related to GBS include Campylobacter jejuni (which can cause bowel infection and diarrhoea), Epstein Barr virus (which causes glandular fever – also called infectious mononucleosis), cytomegalovirus (usually causes no symptoms) and Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection (a bacterial infection that can cause a cough, cold or pneumonia) – but there are probably others. For example, HIV and influenza A virus are also possible infections that have been linked to GBS. (Note: the vast majority of people who get these infections do not develop GBS.) Rarely, GBS has been reported after certain vaccinations.
GBS is an autoimmune disease. The immune system normally makes antibodies (small proteins) to attack bacteria, viruses, and other germs. In autoimmune diseases, the immune system makes antibodies that can attack tissues of the body and cause damage to them. In GBS, the preceding (earlier) infection stimulates the body to produce antibodies to attack the infecting germ. But, it is thought that a tiny part of the infecting germ and tiny parts of nerves in the body have similar structures. In some people, the antibodies that attack the germ also mistake the nerves as germs. So, the antibodies also attach to, and damage, the nerves, causing inflammation of the nerves and leading to GBS. If a nerve is damaged, then the muscles which the nerve supplies stop working.
Note: there are various other autoimmune diseases. Most tend to run a chronic (persistent) course once the immune system is triggered. For example, rheumatoid arthritis. However, GBS is different in that the disease activity seems to be time-limited. That is, the immune system reacts to a recent infection which can cause nerve damage, but then settles down again. This is why most people with GBS fully recover.
What are the symptoms of Guillain-Barré syndrome?
• Pain. About 1 in 2 people with GBS develops either nerve pain or deep aching muscle pain. This tends to be worse with movement and at night.
• Autonomic symptoms. The autonomic nervous system is responsible for body functions like sweating, breathing, heart beating and digestion. In GBS, nerves within this system may be affected, causing problems with blood pressure, pulse, vision and lack of sweating.
How does the disease progress?
Usually, the weakness and sensory symptoms gradually become worse and spread up the body. Symptoms typically peak in severity 1-4 weeks after first starting. The severity of symptoms and when they peak can vary from person to person, but often symptoms can be severe. In many cases, both arms and legs become so weak that they cannot be used at all. In addition, in about 1 in 4 cases, the muscles of the chest become so weak that breathing is affected. If this occurs, you will need support to breathe with a ventilator (a breathing machine) in an intensive care unit. Swallowing may be affected and you may need to be fed via a tube passed into your stomach.
Once symptoms peak, they tend to remain in a stable plateau phase for a while. Typically, this is for several days. Then the symptoms gradually start to ease off as the damaged nerves begin to heal. The time it takes to recover varies greatly from person to person, but it is often several months.
How is Guillain-Barré syndrome diagnosed?
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) sample. This is the fluid that surrounds your spinal cord and brain. A sample of this is collected through a needle in your back and will usually show a high amount of protein and not very many white blood cells (blood cells that increase in infection) if you have GBS.
Other tests including blood tests, spirometry (a test to show how well you breathe in and out) and an electrocardiogram (ECG – records the electrical activity of your heart) may also be suggested. These can help to check for complications of GBS and to monitor progress.
What is the treatment for Guillain-Barré syndrome?
Some specific treatments that may be given include one or more of the following.
Plasma exchange
However, plasma exchange is done less commonly these days since treatment with immunoglobulin has been shown to be probably just as effective, is easier to give, and seems to cause fewer side-effects.
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) prevention
Pain relief
This may be with particular drugs that work well for nerve-related pain, such as gabapentin and carbamazepine.
Physiotherapy and occupational therapy
These may also be helpful treatments for GBS. Physiotherapy may help with pain relief and may also help to prevent or treat muscle stiffness that may develop. Occupational therapists help people achieve as much as they can for themselves. For example, they may help someone recovering from GBS to walk by themselves again with the aid of a walking stick.
Support and counselling
Low mood can be a problem for many people with GBS. You may find it helpful to talk through some of your feelings with a counsellor and to get support from them. The Guillain-Barré Syndrome Support Group (contact details below) provides information and support to those affected by GBS.
A note about steroids
In general, steroids are not thought to help much in the treatment of GBS and so are not routinely used. However, there is some research that suggests that steroids given intravenously (into a vein) at the same time as immunoglobulin treatment may help to speed up recovery. More research is needed about this.
What is the outlook (prognosis) for Guillain-Barré syndrome?
It is rare to have GBS a second time.
Further help and information
Guillain-Barré Syndrome Support Group
Ground Floor, Woodholme house, Heckington Business Park, Station Road, Heckington, Sleaford NG34 9JH
Helpline: 0800 374803 Web: www.gbs.org.uk
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Science Questions with Surprising Answers
Answers provided by
Dr. Christopher S. Baird
Why is propane stored in household tanks but natural gas is not?
Category: Chemistry Published: May 2, 2013
propane tank
Public Domain Image, source: Christopher S. Baird.
In order to get a useful amount of gaseous fuel into a reasonably-sized tank, you have to liquify it. Some fuels are easier to liquify than others. According to the textbook Organic Chemistry by Joseph M. Hornback, propane has a boiling point of -44° F (-42° C) at atmospheric pressure, but methane (natural gas), has a boiling point of -260° F (-162° C) at atmospheric pressure. This means that methane has to be cooled to a much lower temperature than propane in order to be turned to a liquid that can be stored in a tank. Propane molecules consist of three carbon atoms bonded in a chain with eight hydrogen atoms bonded to these carbon atoms. In contrast, a methane molecule is just one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms. Methane molecules have a high degree of symmetry. As a result, they do not have a permanent electric dipole. Bonding between permanent dipoles is the dominant bonding mechanism between molecules as they liquify for many substances such as water. Methane's symmetry, and therefore lack of a permanent electric dipole, means that its molecules can only bond through a much weaker effect known as the London dispersion force or the van der Waals force. In this effect, molecules induce temporary dipoles in each other, and these dipoles then bond. Because this bonding mechanism is so weak, the methane molecules have to be cooled to a low temperature until they are still enough to bond and form a liquid. In contrast, propane does not require as low a temperature to liquify.
But household propane is not usually kept in a liquid state by a low temperature. Instead, high pressure is used. In order to keep propane a liquid at room temperature (70° F or 21° C), it has to be held in a tank at a pressure of about 850 kPa. This can be accomplished with a strong metal tank. In contrast, to keep methane a liquid at room temperature requires a tank that can maintain a pressure of about 32,000 kPa. Household metal tanks cannot withstand this pressure. In short, methane is not stored in household tanks because the symmetry of its molecule makes it hard to liquify. You could in principle store methane in a tank in the gas state, but methane has such low density in the gas state that you could not store a usable amount. Instead, natural gas is processed and stored at refinery plants and then pumped to households in the gas state through pipes. The properties of different basic fuels are summarized below, showing nicely the trend in room temperature liquid pressures. Note that the pressures are approximate.
Fuel Boiling Point (°C) Vapor Pressure at 21°C (kPa)
-162 32000
-89 3800
-42 850
0 230
36 60
69 17
98 5
126 1
Topics: fuel, liquid, methane, natural gas, phase, phase diagram, pressure, propane, propane storage, propane tanks, vapor pressure
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Latest updates
1. The Cuban Revolution and rule of Castro22 April 2019
Here are some different activities that you can do for this first part of Section 14. The activities on the Cuban revolution should be done alongside activities that can also be found under the wars topic... more
Leaders and nations: Essay writing exercises and essay frames21 April 2019
Leaders and nations: essay writing exercises and essay plansStudents will be choosing their own examples on which leaders and nations to include in their essays, and so essay frames here provide a general... more
1. Impact of leaders on the Cold War21 April 2019
Below are some different activities that you can do for this theme - using your knowledge of events post 1945 to compare the impact of different leaders on the course and development of the Cold War. more
2. Theme 2 - Leaders and Nations (ATL)free21 April 2019
This theme covers the following prescribed content:Students can use their knowledge of what they have covered under Theme 1 of this topic to help them analyse the impact of the different leaders (see... more
4. The Great Depression in Canada20 April 2019
The Depression that started in the US spread to many countries; Canada – with its strong economic ties to the US suffered particularly badly. Between 1929 and 1939, the Gross Domestic Product fell 40%... more
3. Political, economic and social impact of the Depression18 April 2019
The Depression had profound political, economic and social consequences for the US. This page examines the impact of the economic crisis on society, and the legacy of the New Deal on the political and... more
Case Study Topic 10: Mao (ATL)free17 April 2019
Case Study: Mao ZedongThe ATL on this page are for students to investigate the key themes connected with Mao's rise and consolidation of power and the nature of his rule.The key details of Mao's rule... more
1. Mao's consolidation of power and rule (1949 - 1976) (ATL)17 April 2019
After defeating the GMD, Mao still had to consolidate his power and to create a communist state in a country that was devastated from years of civil war and from fighting the Japanese; central government... more
2. Arab-Israeli conflicts, 1956 to 197315 April 2019
This page examines the causes and consequences of the military conflicts that took place between Israel and the Arab states in 1956, 1967 and 1973.Guiding questions:What were the causes and consequences... more
3. Theme 3 - Cold War Crises (ATL)14 April 2019
Theme 3: Cold War crisesThis theme involves studying Cold War crises. A crisis is considered to be an event when there was a clear escalation of tension between the superpowersStudents need to be able... more
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We have been covering air and weather in science and to wrap up our unit we been discussing the moon. After discussion about how the moon moves around the earth and the earth and moon move around the sun, we began to talk about the moon phases. Moon phases can be a bit complicated for first grade. To help illustrate what we had been studying, the class used Oreos to make the moon phases. This was such a fun lesson! Not only did it reinforce moon phases and the earth’s position to the sun, it also illustrates how that affects the moon. The kids really had to work hard to make sure their moon was in the correct position; either waxing or waning or if the half moon was facing the sun or facing earth. They had to listen very closely and had to pay close attention to what I was demonstrating. Although I think they enjoyed building and creating the moon phases, eating the moons when we were finished was by far the favorite part!
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4 (1).JPG
For Valentine’s Day the children decorated their bags a little differently. To help encourage spreading love and kindness to others, the children took turns writing compliments on one another’s bags. Before I let them begin writing the complements we had a mini lesson on being specific, intentional, and positive. I really encouraged the children to think of comments for their friends that would lift them up and show love. This is a tradition I will keep for Valentine’s Day, as there’s no better way to celebrate the day of love than to give your classmates an uplifting messages to take with them.
1 (1).JPG
2 (1).JPG
Susannah Joyce
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Terri Ann Science Center
Did you know that plants 'sweat?' Transpiration is both an important and costly process for plants, and it requires that a delicate balance between it and other necessary cellular processes be maintained.
Definition of Transpiration
Imagine yourself on a hot summer day. When you get thirsty, you drink water to rehydrate. But where does this water go? Some of it goes to bodily processes, but, on a hot day, you are likely sweating. Sweating, or evaporative cooling, is how your body prevents overheating. Water comes out through sweat glands and evaporates as it hits the air, leaving your skin feeling cooler.
Plants also 'sweat,' but this process is called transpiration. Plants use their roots in the ground to draw up water and nutrients. Plants also use much of this water for cellular processes, but some of it leaves the plant and goes into the air.
Transpiration Process
Similar to the sweat glands on your skin, plants have openings on their leaves that allow water to escape, called stomata (singular: stoma). Stomata are usually found on the underside of a leaf to reduce excess water loss, and they're surrounded by guard cells that open and close the pores.
Though stomata release water, their main purpose is to exchange gases. Plants need to 'breathe' carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to photosynthesize, or change sunlight into usable chemical energy. They also need to release oxygen back into the atmosphere as a waste product of cellular processes. This gas exchange occurs through the stomata, and, while this happens, some water is lost from the plant.
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"url": "http://zunal.com/introduction.php?w=358368"
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The MESSENGER spacecraft spent four years orbiting Mercury, gathering valuable information and sending it back to Earth. But even in its final moments, as it crashed towards the surface of the planet, the spacecraft still did its job – it reported that Mercury has a magnetic field, likely millions of years old.
MASCS/MDIS color mosaics of Mercury. Image credit: NASA / Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory / Carnegie Institution of Washington.
Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar system, and it’s also the closest to the Sun. It has no atmosphere, and as a result, experiences dramatic temperature shifts, from −173 °C (−280 °F) at night, as it’s facing away from the Sun, to 427 °C (800 °F) during the day. The MESSENGER shuttle was sent to study the planet; launched in 2004, it orbited Mercury from 2011 to 2015, before performing a planned crash onto the surface.
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Scientists have suspected for quite a while that Mercury has a significant magnetic field, and MESSENGER confirmed it. Besides Earth, Mercury is the only rocky planet in the inner solar system to have such a large magnetic field. While today it is nowhere near as strong as that of our own planet, it is believed that at one point in the past, Mercury’s magnetic field was 100 times stronger than that of the Earth. We still don’t know for sure why this field exists, but it’s likely that it is due to a liquid core. Another observation which seems to confirm this theory is the fact that the planet’s crust seems to be thicker towards the equator and thinner at the pole. The core accounts for more than 85% of the radius of the planet.
Unfortunately, Mercury’s magnetic field was to small to properly analyze, and MESSENGER had little time to conduct measurements as it was crashing, Mercury’s proximity to the Sun only accounts for about a third of the magnetic influence the planet exerts, so astronomers are still not entirely clear what to make of things, but it seems clear that even after four years of close studies, Mercury still has its secrets.
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Mabo home
The Australian Aborigines League
The Australian Aborigines League, 1933-1938
In Victoria, New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia, Aboriginal people were increasingly bold, in the 1930s, speaking out against the insecurity of their reserves and the denial of their civil rights. The Australian Aborigines League, established in the mid-1930s and led by Melbourne-based William Cooper, issued a nine point program some time between 1934 and 1936:
* Control over Aborigines to be transferred from the states to the Commonwealth
* The implementation of a positive national policy of uplift
* Increased funding
* The ending of discrimination between Aborigines of full and part descent, and between Aborigines and Europeans
* The granting of full citizenship rights to 'civilised' Aborigines
* Recognition by the legal system of tribal laws in appropriate circumstances
* Full access to reserves and the granting of land
* The opening of educational opportunities at the highest level
* The granting of parliamentary representation on the New Zealand model
The League combined with the Aborigines' Progressive Association of New South Wales (formed in 1937) to publicise these demands at such events as the 'Day of Mourning' - the Aborigines' counterpoint, in January 1938, to the colonists' celebration of 150 years of white settlement.
From 1933 to 1938, Cooper and others circulated a petition to King George VI in which some 2000 Indigenous signatories complained that those who settled Australia had disobeyed the British government's 'strict injunction' against expropriating Indigenous land. The Australian Government refused to pass the petition on to the King.
Keywords: activism, Australian Aboriginal Progressive Association, Australian Aborigines League, coexistence, Cooper, William, Day of Mourning (1938), New South Wales, reserves, South Australia, Victoria, 1933-1938
Still: William Cooper. Courtesy of AIATSIS.
Author: Rowse, Tim and Graham, Trevor
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amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation
Amazon rainforest biodiversity: Conservation project gap years
The Amazon is the largest rainforest in the world. As well as the largest, it’s also home to an incredibly diverse range of animals and plants. As a result, the Amazon is integral to the ecosystem of the entire planet. Furthermore, the threat of global warming and deforestation mean that it is more important than ever to protect the rainforest. Thankfully, many people are eager to do their bit to save the jungle. Now, it’s become a popular choice for high school students to take a year out before university to volunteer on Amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation projects. Often, these projects are an incredible way to learn, share experiences, and help conserve this precious environment. Here, we share some Amazon facts, describe a typical day on a conservation project, and cover whether or not volunteering is right for you.
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A few Amazon rainforest facts
amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation
The Amazon rainforest covers approximately 5.5 million square kilometers of South America. For scale, the United Kingdom and Ireland could fit into it 17 times. Furthermore, it’s the most species-rich ecosystem on the planet. Scientists are unsure as to the exact numbers, but it’s estimately the Amazon is home to 40,000 plant species, 3,000 fish, 1,300 types of birds, 430 mammal species and a mind-boggling 2.5 million types of insect. However, it isn’t just animals that make the Amazon such a fascinating place; the jungle is also very culturally rich. As it stands, anthropologists estimate there are at least 50 remote tribes that have almost no contact with the modern world.
Sadly, the Amazon is under threat. Every second, 1.5 acres of the jungle is cut down – which is sobering statistic. Even more tragically, scientists estimate that 137 plant and animal species become extinct every day. However, threats to the Amazon aren’t just local – they affect the entire world. Now, deforestation is responsible for 30% of global carbon emissions. This is why it’s incredibly important that people begin to do their bit to reduce their carbon footprint.
A typical day on a conservation project
amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation
Therefore, Amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation is an extremely pressing issue. If you’re interesting in science, the environment, and animal protection, then a gap year volunteering in the Amazon could be an amazing way to give back. There are many companies that organize trips, including Projects Abroad and Gap Year. Every project’s aims and objectives are different, but most encompass:
• Data collection on flora and fauna for biodiversity studies
• Assistance with animal rescue, care and release programs
• Insect studies, like endangered butterfly breeding projects
• Pilot farming, where groups work on sustainable ways to farm crops like avocados, bananas, and chillies
• Raising awareness about sustainability
Most projects ask for around four to six hours of your time on weekdays. Volunteers start work from around 8am before it gets too hot. The team with then take a long break during the heat of the day, then finish off in the afternoon. Weekends are free, where you can explore stunning surroundings.
Is volunteering on a Amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation project right for me?
amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation
Volunteering on an Amazon rainforest biodiversity conservation project is a fantastic gap year for intrepid explorers. If you love nature, animals, and the great outdoors, a gap year in the Amazon is a once in a lifetime experience. On top of doing your bit to save this precious place, volunteers can gain lots of practical experience – especially if your university course is in the sciences. However, you’ll need to be happy to get your hands dirty and forego some mod cons! That said, these are small sacrifices to make for an unforgettable experience.
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<< Chapter < Page Chapter >> Page >
• Discuss trophic levels and how ecological pyramids are used to model them
All living things require energy in one form or another. Energy is required by most complex metabolic pathways (often in the form of adenosine triphosphate, ATP), especially those responsible for building large molecules from smaller compounds, and life itself is an energy-driven process. Living organisms would not be able to assemble macromolecules (proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and complex carbohydrates) from their monomeric subunits without a constant energy input.
It is important to understand how organisms acquire energy and how that energy is passed from one organism to another through food webs and their constituent food chains. Food webs illustrate how energy flows directionally through ecosystems, including how efficiently organisms acquire it, use it, and how much remains for use by other organisms of the food web.
How organisms acquire energy in a food web
Energy is acquired by living things in three ways: photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, and the consumption and digestion of other living or previously living organisms by heterotrophs.
Photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms are both grouped into a category known as autotrophs: organisms capable of synthesizing their own food (more specifically, capable of using inorganic carbon as a carbon source). Photosynthetic autotrophs (photoautotrophs) use sunlight as an energy source, whereas chemosynthetic autotrophs (chemoautotrophs) use inorganic molecules as an energy source. Autotrophs are critical for all ecosystems. Without these organisms, energy would not be available to other living organisms and life itself would not be possible.
Photoautotrophs, such as plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria, serve as the energy source for a majority of the world’s ecosystems. These ecosystems are often described by grazing food webs. Photoautotrophs harness the solar energy of the sun by converting it to chemical energy in the form of ATP (and NADP). The energy stored in ATP is used to synthesize complex organic molecules, such as glucose.
Chemoautotrophs are primarily bacteria that are found in rare ecosystems where sunlight is not available, such as in those associated with dark caves or hydrothermal vents at the bottom of the ocean ( [link] ). Many chemoautotrophs in hydrothermal vents use hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), which is released from the vents as a source of chemical energy. This allows chemoautotrophs to synthesize complex organic molecules, such as glucose, for their own energy and in turn supplies energy to the rest of the ecosystem.
Photo shows shrimp, lobster, and white crabs crawling on a rocky ocean floor littered with mussels.
Swimming shrimp, a few squat lobsters, and hundreds of vent mussels are seen at a hydrothermal vent at the bottom of the ocean. As no sunlight penetrates to this depth, the ecosystem is supported by chemoautotrophic bacteria and organic material that sinks from the ocean’s surface. This picture was taken in 2006 at the submerged NW Eifuku volcano off the coast of Japan by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The summit of this highly active volcano lies 1535 m below the surface.
Questions & Answers
What is Staining?
Fazal Reply
what is biology
Biology is the study of life
what is biology
Ysabella Reply
biology is a study of living things
What happen when inhibit the transcription?
what is the effect of not doing sexual intercourse
what is the mechanism of cellular respiration
Rita Reply
what is enzyme
garry Reply
meaning they speed up reaction
what is a cell
Praize Reply
Basic Functional Unit of Life
what is biology
Mordi Reply
Bangha Reply
What is microfilaments
KHalid Reply
What is multicellular organisms
Ovie Reply
these are organisms with more than two cells
Ahrebe Reply
YXNG Reply
name the components of faeces
undigested carbohydrate, fibre
what are unicellular organisms..?
they have only one cell
unicellular organisms are the ones with only single cell.
thanks for your answers guys.
what is class bryophyta
Emefa Reply
how many stages do we have in glycolysis?
10 stages
the presence of a membrane enclosed nuclosed is a characteristics of what
Addai Reply
eukaryotic cell
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What are Direct Expenses?
Definition: Direct expenses are costs that can be traced back to a specific department, often called an object, and are incurred only to benefit that department. In other words, direct expenses sole purpose is to benefit one department. Take receiving department worker’s salary for example. His services only benefit the receiving department. Thus, his salary is a direct expense to that department.
What Does Direct Expense Mean?
Some companies report their activities by department throughout the year. For instance, each department makes a set of financial statements for the board of directors to base their decisions on. In this case, the accountants have to divide up the expenses into direct and indirect and allocate them to specific departments.
Indirect expenses are slightly more difficult to divide and allocate because they are not readily traceable back to a single department and often benefit several different departments. Think of factory overhead for example. The building insurance and utilities benefit every department using the building. These can’t be attributed to only one department.
Since most expenses incurred during the year benefit multiple departments, there are usually more indirect expenses than direct. This means the indirect costs will need to be allocated logically to each department. The building insurance, for example, could be allocated based on how much square footage each department uses.
You might ask what’s the difference between a direct cost and a direct expense. Well, it’s all in the semantics. They could mean the same thing; however, direct costs are usually associated with a manufacturer and some type of production or product. Also, direct costs can benefit more than one department.
Direct expenses, on the other hand, can be traced back to a single department and only benefit that department. Direct expenses is typically used to categorize and allocate expenses between departments; where as, direct costs more broadly allocates expenses to cost objects.
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Exploit Writing Series Tutorial 1: Buffer Overflow on Linux
Hey folks,
i have been thinking for so long to start a noob friendly series on exploit writing but never got that much time. Anyways, let's talk about exploit writing-
So, what is an exploit?
an exploit is a piece of code that takes the advantage of a vulnerable system.
However, keeping this a noob friendly tutorial let's make some things very clear. Firstly, an exploit may or may not work on two different application versions, may not work on two different operating systems.
Secondly, if you think you already know basics, you can leave the website immediately.
Well, Throughout this series we will start from the very basic (I Mean it :P) this means we will take up things as soon as they appear. So, you don't have to worry about ASM, Comp. Architecture etc.
i already mentioned that we will take up things as soon as they appear. However, for this tutorial you should have a lil knowledge about C Programming.
So, let's take up the most basic "Stack based Buffer Overflows" at the very first stage-
Now, what is a stack?
we can see in the above picture that we organized every book one above the other. However, we can collectively say that this is a stack of books. Now, to build this stack, we placed the first book, then the other on top of it and so on until we run out of books.
Exactly, what follows in Computer systems. We can put operands and operators one above the other to form a stack. This is called the "Push" operation. This also means that the first book is now at the bottom and the last one is at the top. This is why stack is called Last-in-First-Out. So, when we need to remove a book, we first need to remove the book at the top, this is called the "Pop" operation.
So, What is Buffer Overflow?
A buffer is a region which stores data temporarily and when more data than its capacity is supplied, it gets overflowed.
Let's see an example-
void noexec()
printf("this never executes");
void main(int argc, char** argv)
char buffer[50];
In the above program, we have two different functions- main and noexec. When we run this program, it simply receives the command line argument, copies it into the buffer variable and simply prints it. Now, you might ask, why do we have noexec() function if we are not calling it any where in the program? this is because in order to work out the simplest buffer overflow, we will try to execute this function by exploiting it.
Let's compile this program using the following command-
#gcc -ggdb -o rofl -fno-stack-protector expl1.c -mpreferred-stack-boundary=2
To compile a C program in linux, we use gcc, -ggdb option allows the code to be executed and listed in debugger by supplying enough information to the debugger, about the program, -fno-stack-protector option turns off stack protection mechanisms in Linux while compiling the program and -mpreferred-stack-boundary=2 option aligns the stack on a 4-byte boundary and will be susceptible to crash as well. However, by default it's on 16-byte boundary.
(You can Skip the above paragraph, for now we just need to focus on compiling the application program)
Let's execute the program, and supply 50 A's, we can see that it gets printed, Let's try with 51 A's, 52 A's and 53 A's. We can see that program exited normally after outputting the supplied input. However, as soon as we provide 54 A's we get Segmentation Fault which denotes crashing of the program or we can say the buffer just overflowed. You might ask, we had the buffer for 50 characters but it still got executed at 51,52,53. This is because the input didn't overwrote the EIP initially and may have overwrote other registers which didn't affected the program's execution.
What is EIP?
A register which stores the address of the next instruction. Therefore, if we overwrite this EIP register with the address of our choice, our choice will be the next instruction to be executed by the program. This potentially means that we can redirect the flow of a program to anywhere we want.
Let's open this program in GDB-
GDB is a debugger which can allow us to view the state of the registers, stack, memory locations etc throughout the execution of a program(I Know this is the most basic tutorial and introducing GDB may not be the correct idea right now, but for the sake of running the noexec function we need its memory address).
#gdb ./rofl
the above command will run the program in GDB. To find the starting address of the noexec() function we need to input a simple command which is "disassemble" followed by the name of the function
(gdb) disas noexec
this command will output the following-
Don't get scared! for Now, we only need the address of the first instruction which is 0x0804847c.
Next, we simply need to input this address after 54 A characters and this will overwrite the current address in EIP resulting in altering the flow of the program according to our needs.
Let's test it out-
Keeping it simple, we will supply 54 A's and the address in Little endian format which is to reverse the bytes(ex- split the bytes 08 04 84 7c to 7c 84 04 08.
We can see that after outputting the input, noexec function runs thus outputting "This Function Does Not Execute".
This tutorial is purely for the newbies in exploit writing. If You liked this tutorial, comment your feedback and suggestions.
For exploiting the same on x64 based architecture, refer to Adhokshaj Mishra's Website.
See you Next week.
1. awesome !!!!! . looking forward for more .
2. Thank you for giving this type of nice article.I am very glad to inform you that it is very understand everything that you said.Really i wish to thank you.It is about Exploit Writing Series Tutorial 1: Buffer Overflow on Linux and you cover everything that related information.It is nice post with understanding a lot.Custom essay writing service is the better service that provides detailed and effective information related to educational basis.The service is very good service for most students and students can improve their academic score by receiving proper information regarding their paper.
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coherence, coherence writing, how to write coherence, guide, tips coherence writing
coherence, coherence writing, how to write book review, coherence, guide, tips Online Practice Reading Writing Speaking Listening Grammar
Vocabulary Pronunciation Dictionary
(English Online) coherence writing Number of Visitors: Site Map
coherence writing
Online Practice
coherence writing
The meaning of coherence is to stick things together. The elements of coherent writing, the words and the information they convey, are related to one another so that readers can follow the flow of thought easily from sentence to sentence, paragraph to paragraph. The problem with the term coherence is that it sounds static, as if coherent writing just sits there sticking together. Coherence in writing actually has a dynamic quality, because it has to do with movement: movement of information and ideas, movement of the reader's changing perceptions and knowledge.
Paragraph Coherence
The coherence is the element of a good paragraph. In order to have coherence in writing, the sentences must hold together i.e. the movement from one sentence to the next must be logical and smooth. There must be no sudden jumps. The following are four ways that you can establish coherence in your writing:
1. Repeating Nouns
One of the best ways to achieve coherence is to repeat key nouns frequently in your paragraph. This is an important thing to do as it helps the reader follow what you are saying.
2. Use of Consistent Pronouns
Pronoun use is important in your paragraph because it helps you to avoid repeating the same noun over and over again in your writing. However when you use pronouns instead of key nouns remember to use the same person and number throughout the paragraph. Do not change from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number).
3. Transition Signals
Transition signals are words such as first, second, next, finally, therefore and however or phrases such as in conclusion, on the other hand and as a result. It is a good idea to think of transition signals as traffic signs that tell your reader when to go forward, turn, slow down and stop. In other words, they tell the reader when you are giving a similar idea (similarly, moreover, furthermore, in addition), an opposite idea (on the other hand, however, in contrast), an example (for example), a result (as a result), or a conclusion (in conclusion). Using transition words as a guide makes it easier for your reader to follow your ideas. Transition words give your paragraph coherence.
4. Logical Order
Logical order is an important element of paragraph writing. Of course which type of logical order you choose depends on your topic and your writing purpose. The important point to remember is to arrange your ideas in some kind of order that is logical to a reader familiar to the English way of writing. Some examples of logical order in English include chronological order, logical division of ideas and comparison/contrast. In some types of essay writing it is possible to combine many forms of logical order.
Sentence Coherence
To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, keep the following techniques in your mind:
1. Repetition: In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence A.
2. Synonymy: If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'
3. Antonymy: Using the "opposite" word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might imagine.
4. Pro-forms: Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back to a form mentioned earlier.
5. Collocation: Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one sentence to another.
6. Enumeration: Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas. This system has many advantages:
1) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely unconnected.
2) it looks formal and distinctive.
3) it promotes a second method of sentence cohesion.
7. Parallelism: Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion.
8. Transitions: Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular logical relationships.
1) Identity: Indicates sameness. "that is, that is to say, in other words, ..."
2) Opposition: Indicates a contrast. "but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast, rather, ..."
3) Addition: Indicates continuation. "and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ... "
4) Cause and effect: "therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows that, because, since, for, ..."
5) Indefinites: Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. "in fact, indeed, now, ..."
6) Concession: Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. "admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would say, ..."
7) Exemplification: Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific or concrete idea. "for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ..."
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(English Online) coherence writing (c) EduSoftMax -
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Doctor, Specialist
Doctor Specialist 3871
Photo by: CandyBox Images
A medical specialist focuses on diagnosis and treatment of a particular organ or body system, a specific patient population, or a particular procedure. Medical care of humans is a complicated task due to the many different organ systems that comprise the human body. Each stage of life presents a variety of health issues that need to be addressed as well. Moreover, males and females also have very different medical needs through puberty and adulthood. This complexity of life necessitates a high degree of specialization in the physicians that care for people's medical needs. There are many types of medical specialties.
General Educational Requirements for Medical Specialists
All physicians, regardless of their ultimate specialization, must obtain a bachelor's degree from an undergraduate college and graduate from medical school (four years). During the last two years of medical school, students perform clinical rotations in which they are exposed to a wide variety of medical specialties. This provides broad training for all medical professionals, as well as gives the students an opportunity to choose a specialty.
After medical school, all physicians are required to do a residency. The purpose of the residency is to provide specific, detailed training in the chosen specialty. The length of the residency is determined by the specialty. The tables on page 231 include the average residency length for each of the specialties listed. Oftentimes, physicians will have a particular expertise within their specialized area. For example, most surgeons are subspecialized in the organ system on which they operate (neurosurgeons, cardiac surgeons, and orthopedic surgeons are examples). These subspecialties are obtained during a fellowship period that lasts one to two years after the residency is completed. It is not uncommon for a highly specialized doctor (such as a pediatric neurosurgeon) to invest ten years or more in his or her medical education after graduating from college.
Job Duties and Educational Requirements for Sample Specialties
Cardiologist. A cardiologist is a physician who cares for people with heart disease. Cardiologists treat conditions such as myocardial infarction (heart attack) and angina (chest pain). They use diagnostic tools such as an electrocardiogram (EKG) and ultrasound to visualize the electrical and structural functioning of the heart. Cardiologists are employed by hospitals but also work in private practice. Since cardiology is considered a subspecialty of internal medicine, cardiologists must first complete a residency in internal medicine that lasts about three years after medical school. Cardiologists then complete a subspecialty residency in cardiology (another three years).
Neurologist. A neurologist is a physician who treats patients with neurological disorders (involving the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system). Conditions that would necessitate treatment by a neurologist include, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Alzheimer's
A surgeon reviewing CAT scans.
A surgeon reviewing CAT scans.
disease, traumatic brain or spinal cord injury, epilepsy, or stroke. Diagnostic techniques used by neurologists to detect these disorders include (but are not limited to) sensory and motor skills assessments, memory tests, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, and positron emission tomography (PET). To treat these types of disorders, neurologists may prescribe medication, physical therapy, occupational therapy, or surgery. There are several new and very effective surgical treatments for diseases such as Parkinson's disease. Neurologists must complete at least four years of residency in an accredited neurology program before being eligible for certification by the American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology.
Obstetrician/Gynecologist (OB/GYN). An OB/GYN specializes in the care of women from puberty through pregnancy and menopause. An obstetrician focuses on the care of pregnant women and the delivery of babies. Although some doctors choose to specialize in either obstetrics or gynecology, it is very common for a physician to specialize in both since the two fields are so closely linked. In addition to delivering babies, OB/GYNs perform diagnostic tests such as pelvic exams (to look for ovarian cysts and other abnormalities), pap smears (to screen for cervical cancer), and obstetrical ultrasound (to assess the development of a fetus). After medical school, OB/GYNs must complete a four-year residency. Many OB/GYNs practice their specialty in private practices that are closely affiliated with hospitals in which they deliver babies. However, most hospitals employ OB/GYNs directly as well.
Oncologist. An oncologist cares for patients with cancer. Cancer is a very complex disease that demands very specialized attention and intensive treatment. It is common for an oncologist to specialize in a particular type of cancer, such as lung or colon cancer. Oncologists may work in private practices that are closely affiliated with a particular hospital or may be directly employed by a hospital. Like cardiology, oncology is considered a subspecialty of internal medicine. Oncologists must first complete a residency in internal medicine that lasts about three years after medical school. They then must complete a subspecialty residency in oncology (another three years).
Doctor, Specialist
Doctors who have expertise in a particular disease/condition
Specialist Oncologist Emergency physician Allergist
Area of expertise Cancer Urgent and crisis medical needs Allergies
Sample disease/disorders treated AIDS-related lymphoma, leukemia, Hodgkin's disease, lung cancer, breast cancer, skin cancer, colon cancer, etc. Traumatic brain injury, emergency births, cardiac arrest, gunshot wounds, poisoning, etc. Asthma, hay fever, contact eczema, etc.
Average # of years of residency 6 years (3 years-internal medicine; 3-years oncology) 3 years 5-6 years (3 years in internal medicine or pediatrics and 2-3 years in allergy, asthma, and immunology)
Pediatrician. Infants and children have very specialized medical needs due to their rapidly changing and maturing bodies. Pediatricians are experts in the developmental stages of children and medical treatments of childhood diseases. In addition to treating childhood illnesses such as ear infections, jaundice, and respiratory infections, pediatricians also perform periodic exams of healthy children to ensure their proper development, administer immunizations to prevent disease, and advise parents on the proper care for each developmental stage. Pediatricians commonly work in private practice, but many are employed by children's hospitals as well. They are required to complete three years of residency before they are eligible for certification by the American Board of Pediatrics.
Radiologist. The ability to visualize internal organs revolutionized twentieth-century medicine. A radiologist is a doctor who has expertise in a variety of diagnostic imaging technologies. These technologies include
Doctor, Specialist
Doctors who have expertise in a particular organ system
Specialist Cardiologist Neurologist Dermatologist Ophthalmologist Podiatrist ENT Orthopedist Endocrinologist Urologist Gastroenterologist
Area of expertise Heart Brain (nervous system) Skin Eyes Feet Ear, nose, throat Bones Hormone imbalances Urinary tract, kidneys Digestive system
Sample disease/disorders treated Angina, atrial fibrillation, congestive heart failure, heart attack, high cholesterol, etc. Stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer disease Bell's palsy, epilepsy, fibromyalgia, migraine, Lou Gehrig's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, vertigo, etc. Acne, birthmarks, eczema, fungal infections, moles, psoriasis, skin cancer, etc. Glaucoma, cataracts, etc. Achilles tendonitis, athlete's foot, bunions, corns, gout, heel pain, rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, etc. Middle ear infections, sinus infections, allergies, balance disorders, strep throat, etc. Broken bones, bone malformations, joint problems Thyroid disorders, infertility, diabetes, hypoglycemia Bladder control problems, erectile disfunction, incontinence, kidney stones, Peyronie's disease, urinary tract infections, etc. Peptic and duodenal ulcers, acid reflux, impacted bowels, colon cancer, etc.
Average # of years of residency 6 years (3 years-Internal medicine; 3 years-cardiology) 4 years 4 years 3 years 2-4 years 5 years 5-6 years 5 years 4-6 years 5 years
x ray, ultrasound, and MRI. All of these procedures produce a picture of the internal organs. Radiologists often serve as consultants to other specialists who need to visualize a specific organ in a patient that they are treating. However, radiologists do participate in treatments such as unblocking arteries in the legs and trunk that eliminate the need for more invasive procedures like surgery. Although most radiologists work within hospitals, they are rarely employed by the hospital itself. Instead, they are employed by private practices and contract with the hospital to provide services. Radiologists must complete a residency of at least four years, and oftentimes they complete additional years of a fellowship to become an expert in a particular type of imaging technique.
SEE ALSO Cardiovascular Diseases ; Doctor, Family Practice ; Imaging in Medicine ; Neurologic Diseases ; Nurse Practitioners ; Reproductive Technology ; Transplant Medicine
Susan T. Rouse
American Board of Medical Specialties. <> .
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i want to have another child will i b able to without any tubes. i hav every thing esle.
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hi follow me on instagram @bradsoul_04 and ill follow back
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Ancient extinct cave bear DNA found in modern bears
Credit: CC0 Public Domain
An international team of researchers has found evidence of extinct cave bear DNA in modern bears. In their paper published in the journal Nature Ecology & Evolution, the group describes their genetic analysis of modern brown and polar bears and how they compared with extinct cave bears.
Cave bears were a type of bear that lived in Asia and Europe. They were slightly larger than today's brown bears, but fed on vegetation instead of meat. They went extinct approximately 24,000 years ago (during the Last Glacial Maximum) for unknown reasons. In this new effort, the research team was focused on learning why the bears went extinct. To that end, they conducted a DNA analysis on samples taken from four bear's remains from approximately 35,000 years ago. Their goal was to study how the population of changed in size over long time periods. As an aside, they decided to compare the DNA from the extinct cave bears with modern bears.
The researchers report that their comparison revealed that modern brown and both have cave bear DNA—on average 0.9 to 2.4 percent of their genome is cave bear DNA. They noted that the two types of modern bears are more genetically alike than they are to the cave bears. But they found that either was capable of mating with a cave bear, and that their offspring could breed with any of the three types, as well. They point out that their results are not surprising—the similarities between the bears, the overlapping time period in which they lived, and their habitat proximity made interbreeding a near-certainty. The finding of extinct cave bear DNA in modern bears is the first example of DNA from an ancient extinct species found in a modern species other than humans—we have remnants of Neanderthal DNA in our genomes.
Ancient extinct cave bear DNA found in modern bears
Cave bear skull. Cave bears were giant bears, much bigger than living brown bears Credit: Andrei Posmoșanu
The researchers suggest that future research could explore what it means for a species to go extinct—if their DNA lives on in other species, are they really, truly gone? They note that their study reaffirms the fact that animal species interbreed, some regularly. That might have been the case with modern bears and cave bears—the ancient cave bears also had modern bear DNA in their gene pools.
Ancient extinct cave bear DNA found in modern bears
Ice age cave bear bones found in their former hibernation cave Credit: Marius Robu
Explore further
Extinct vegetarian cave bear diet mystery unravelled
More information: Axel Barlow et al. Partial genomic survival of cave bears in living brown bears, Nature Ecology & Evolution (2018). DOI: 10.1038/s41559-018-0654-8
Although many large mammal species went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene epoch, their DNA may persist due to past episodes of interspecies admixture. However, direct empirical evidence of the persistence of ancient alleles remains scarce. Here, we present multifold coverage genomic data from four Late Pleistocene cave bears (Ursus spelaeus complex) and show that cave bears hybridized with brown bears (Ursus arctos) during the Pleistocene. We develop an approach to assess both the directionality and relative timing of gene flow. We find that segments of cave bear DNA still persist in the genomes of living brown bears, with cave bears contributing 0.9 to 2.4% of the genomes of all brown bears investigated. Our results show that even though extinction is typically considered as absolute, following admixture, fragments of the gene pool of extinct species can survive for tens of thousands of years in the genomes of extant recipient species.
Journal information: Nature Ecology & Evolution
© 2018 Phys.org
Citation: Ancient extinct cave bear DNA found in modern bears (2018, August 29) retrieved 23 April 2019 from https://phys.org/news/2018-08-ancient-extinct-cave-dna-modern.html
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User comments
Aug 29, 2018
Neanderthal genome is 99.84% similar to us. Remnants?
Aug 30, 2018
Neanderthal genome is 99.84% similar to us. Remnants?
More like 99 % I think, outside of Africa most people have 1-5 % Neanderthal alleles. Those differing alleles are the remnants, alleles they evolved after we split and before we interbred. The latest estimates is that these remnants can be pieced together to make 50 % of a Neanderthal (i.e. their differing alleles).
Similarly modern humans evolved differences in those genes we see allele differences in. The divergence is twice the number of Neanderthal alleles. (Not counting the number of alleles per gene, which would have been more in the human population at the time, considering their 10 times larger population. Not counting the Denisovans, and other fossil alleles we see with reference independent methods, either.)
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Call Us : +91-9711586419
Sickle-Cell Anaemia
The sickle-cell disease also known as sickle-cell anemia is a hereditary blood disorder caused by an abnormality in the oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin found in red blood cells. Sickle-Cell disease leads to a propensity for the cells to assume an abnormal, rigid, sickle-like shape under certain circumstances. This disease is associated with some acute and chronic health problems, such as severe infections, attacks of severe pain (sickle-cell crisis), stroke, and an increased risk of death.
Sickle-cell disease occurs when a person inherits two abnormal copies of the hemoglobin gene, one from each parent. Several subtypes exist, depending on the exact mutation in each hemoglobin gene. A person with a single abnormal copy does not experience symptoms but still have sickle-cell trait. Such people also referred to as carriers.
The complications of the sickle-cell disease prevented to a large extent with vaccination, preventive antibiotics, blood transfusion, and the drug hydroxyurea/hydroxycarbamide. A small proportion of patients also requires a transplant of bone marrow cells.
Sickle cell anemia facts
• Sickle cell anemia is an inherited disorder of the hemoglobin in the blood.
• It requires the inheritance of two sickle cell genes.
• Almost all of the significant signs of sickle cell anemia results directly from the abnormally formed sickled red blood cells blocking the blood flow.
• The current treatment of sickle cell anemia directed primarily toward managing the individual features of the illness as they occur.
What is Sickle Cell Trait?
Sickle Cell trait is an inherited condition. In this, both hemoglobin A and S produced in the red blood cells. In which A is more than S always. Sickle cell trait is not a type of sickle cell disease. People with sickle cell trait are healthy also.
Sickle cell conditions mainly inherited from parents. In the same way as texture and color of hair, blood type, the color of eye and other physical traits. The types of hemoglobin a person makes in the red blood cells depend upon what hemoglobin genes the person inherits from the parents. Like most genes, hemoglobin genes inherited in two sets one from each parent.
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Japanese prime minister requests a summit meeting with FDR
On this day in 1941, Prince Fumimaro Konoye, prime minister of Japan, announces that he would like to enter into direct negotiations with President Roosevelt in order to prevent the Japanese conflict with China from expanding into world war.
Konoye, a lawyer by training and well studied in Western philosophy, literature, and economics, entered the Japanese Parliament’s upper house by virtue of his princely status and immediately pursued a program of reform. High on his agenda was a reform of the army general staff in order to prevent its direct interference in foreign policy decisions. He also sought an increase in parliamentary power. An antifascist, Konoye championed an end to the militarism of Japanese political structures, especially in light of the war in Manchuria, which began in 1931.
Appointed prime minister in 1933, Konoye’s first cabinet fell apart after full-blown war broke out between Japan and China. In 1940, Konoye was asked to form a second cabinet. But as he sought to contain the war with China, relations with the United States deteriorated, to the point where Japan was virtually surrounded by a U.S. military presence and threats of sanctions. On August 27, 1941, Konoye requested a summit with President Roosevelt in order to diminish heightening tensions. Envoys were exchanged, but no direct meeting with the president took place.In October, Konoye resigned because of increasing tension with his army minister, Tojo Hideki, who would succeed him as prime minister. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, Konoye was put under military surveillance, his political career all but over until 1945, when the emperor considered sending him to Moscow to negotiate peace terms. That meeting never came off either.
The grand irony of Prince Konoye’s career came at the war’s conclusion, when he was served with an arrest warrant by the U.S. occupying force for suspicion of war crimes. Rather than submit to arrest, he committed suicide by drinking poison.
Mountbatten killed by IRA
The Battle of Brooklyn
During the American Revolution, British forces under General William Howe defeat Patriot forces under General George Washington at the Battle of Brooklyn in New York. On August 22, Howe’s large army landed on Long Island, hoping to capture New York City and gain control of the more
Krakatau explodes
Romania enters World War I
On this day in 1916, after Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, formally entering World War I, Romanian troops cross the border of the Austro-Hungarian Empire into the much-contested province of Transylvania. By the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914, Romania had long been at more
Agnew meets with President Thieu in Saigon
Vice President Spiro Agnew meets with South Vietnamese president Nguyen Van Thieu in Saigon. In a speech at Ton Son Nhut air base, Agnew praised the South Vietnamese people for suffering “so much in freedom’s cause” and promised that “there will no lessening of U.S. support.” more
Henderson steals his way to a record
Oakland Athletics outfielder Rickey Henderson steals his 119th base of the year, breaking Hall of Famer Lou Brock’s 1979 record for stolen bases in a season. Rickey Henley Henderson was born on Christmas Day, 1958. When he was seven years old, his family moved to Oakland, where more
LBJ is born
On this day in 1908, future President Lyndon Baines Johnson is born on a farm near Stonewall, Texas. The brash, outspoken Johnson grew up in an impoverished rural area and worked his way through a teachers’ training college before entering politics. In 1937, Johnson won a seat in more
Tycoon William Ralston drowns
Hours after being asked to resign as president of the Bank of California, the powerful western capitalist William Ralston is found drowned in San Francisco Bay. One of the first men to build a major financial empire in the Far West, Ralston was born in Ohio in 1826. In 1854, he more
Krakatoa erupts
The volcanic island of Krakatoa near Indonesia erupts on this day in 1883, killing thousands in one of the worst geologic disasters of modern times. The beginning of the amazing events at Krakatoa in 1883 date to May 20 when there were initial rumblings and venting from the more
Red Scare dominates American politics
As the presidential election of 1952 begins to heat up, so do accusations and counteraccusations concerning communism in America. The “Red Scare”—the widespread belief that international communism was operating in the United States—came to dominate much of the debate between more
The attack on Cape Hatteras begins
Union ships sail into North Carolina’s Hatteras Inlet, beginning a two-day operation that secures the area for the Federals and denies the Confederates an important outlet to the Atlantic. The Outer Banks is a series of long, narrow islands that separate Pamlico Sound from the more
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Thyroid gland is the largest endocrine organ its function is to secrete thyroxin (T4) & triiodothyronine (T3).
The isthmus of the thyroid gland is located midway between apex of thyroid cartilage & suprasternal notch.
• Wt: 10-20 gm in adulthood
• Width: 1.5-2 cm
• Length: 2.4-4 cm
• Thickness: 1-1.5 cm
Thyroid gland has a rich blood supply & the blood flow to thyroid gland is about 5ml/gm/min so it’s very high blood supply.
The thyroid gland is palpable in about 50% of women and 30% of men. It is located in the neck, inferior to the larynx and cricoid cartilage. It has two lobes, each about 5 cm long and joined by a narrow isthmus. The lobes lie either side of the trachea and oesophagus, and the isthmus crosses the trachea anteriorly, usually over the second and third tracheal cartilages.
The thyroid gland is surrounded by a fibrous capsule derived from the pretracheal layer of the deep cervical fascia. Extensions of this capsule into the body of the thyroid create septae, which divide the gland into lobules. This connective tissue firmly connects the thyroid to the larynx and explains why the thyroid moves on swallowing.
The thyroid is highly vascular, and a bruit (the sound of turbulent blood flow) is sometimes heard in overactive glands. It is supplied by two arteries that anastomose (join) within the gland: the inferior and superior thyroid arteries. The inferior thyroid artery is a branch of the thyrocervical trunk that arises from the subclavian arteries. It ascends behind the carotid sheath to enter the thyroid posteriorly. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve is intimately related to this artery near the inferior pole of the thyroid gland. Surgery to the thyroid gland can damage this nerve, causing temporary difficulty with speaking. To minimize the risk to this nerve, the artery is ligated far away from the thyroid gland during thyroidectomy.
Interesting Questions about Thyroid:
What About Nodules?
What are hot and cold nodules?
Thyroid nodules do not function like normal thyroid tissue. A thyroid image (scan) done with a radioactive chemical shows the size, shape, and function of the gland and of thyroid nodules. A nodule that takes up more of the radioactive material than the rest of the gland is called a hot nodule.
A nodule that takes up less radioactive material is a cold nodule. Hot nodules are seldom cancerous, but less than 10% of all nodules are hot. Cold nodules may or may not be cancerous. All lumps should be checked by your doctor.
How do doctors test nodules for cancer?
Your doctor can use several tests to find out whether or not a thyroid lump is cancerous.
• A thyroid image or scan shows the size, shape, and function of the gland. It uses a tiny amount of a radioactive chemical, usually iodine or technetium, which the thyroid absorbs from the blood. A special camera then creates a picture, showing how much iodine was absorbed by each part of the gland.
• In needle aspiration biopsy, a small needle is inserted into the nodule in an effort to suck out (aspirate) cells. If the nodule is a fluid-filled cyst, the aspiration often removes some or all of the fluid. If the nodule is solid, several small samples are removed for examination under the microscope. In over 90% of all cases, this testing tells the doctor whether the lump is benign or malignant.
• Ultrasound uses high-pitch sound waves to find out whether a nodule is solid or filled with fluid. About 10% of lumps are fluid-filled cysts, and they are usually not cancerous. Ultrasound may also detect other nodules that are not easily felt by the doctor. The presence of multiple nodules reduces the likelihood of cancer.
How are nodules treated?
Nodules that are thought to be benign are usually observed at regular intervals. Some patients may be advised to take thyroid hormone pills. In certain instances, the nodule may be surgically removed because of continuing growth, pressure symptoms in the neck, or for cosmetic reasons.
Fluid-filled cysts that come back after several aspirations may need to be removed.
If the testing shows a nodule that is, or might be, malignant (cancerous), your doctor will recommend surgery. (You should discuss special situations, such as pregnancy, with your doctor.) The goal of surgery is to remove as much of the cancerous tissue as possible. If the cancer is found in the early stages when it is still confined to the thyroid gland, the surgery is almost always successful. With papillary cancer, patients usually do well after treatment, even if the cancer has spread to the lymph nodes in the neck.
The surgeon starts by removing one lobe of the thyroid. This specimen is tested during surgery (frozen section) to tell the surgeon whether it is benign or malignant. If it is malignant, most or all of the thyroid is removed. If the cancer has spread, lymph nodes in the neck may also have to be removed. In addition, in patients with either papillary or follicular cancer, radioactive iodine therapy may be needed six weeks after surgery to destroy any remaining cancerous tissue.
What happens after surgery?
After surgery, patients must stay in the hospital for one to three days. They may also need to take some time off from work (one to two weeks for a desk job; three to four weeks for physical labor). Most patients do not have any trouble speaking or swallowing, and they report minimal pain after the surgery. In patients with thyroid cancer, a scan may be done approximately six weeks after surgery to detect any residual thyroid tissue that needs to be treated with radioactive iodine.
Patients with thyroid cancer will need to take thyroid hormone their entire lives. Some patients who have had a noncancerous nodule removed will also be advised to take thyroid hormone pills. These may prevent new nodules from forming in the remaining portion of the thyroid gland.
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Pregnancy & Thyroid Disease
Why are women more likely to get thyroid disease?
In general, women are much more likely than men to become hyperthyroid or hypothyroid and to get Hashimoto’s thyroiditis. The reason for this is uncertain.
Women are also more vulnerable to autoimmune diseases. Two of the most common thyroid diseases, Hashimoto’s thyroiditis and Graves’ disease, are caused by problems with the body’s immune system. Normally, the immune system defends the body against germs and viruses. In autoimmune diseases, the system attacks the body’s own tissues. Diseases of the immune system tend to run in families.
What about thyroid disease and pregnancy?
Hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism can affect a woman’s ability to become pregnant. They may also cause a miscarriage if they are not quickly recognized and properly treated.
Women who become pregnant may not notice signs of thyroid disease because similar symptoms can occur in a normal pregnancy. For example, patients may feel warm, tired, nervous, or shaky. In addition, enlargement of the thyroid (goiter) commonly occurs during pregnancy.
A pregnant woman is treated differently than is a non-pregnant woman or a man. For example, radioactive materials commonly used in diagnosing and treating many thyroid diseases are never used in pregnant women. The timing of a biopsy or surgery for a thyroid nodule and the choice of drugs for hyperthyroidism may be different in a pregnant woman. These issues require careful consultation with your doctor.
What is postpartum thyroiditis?
Postpartum thyroiditis is a temporary form of thyroiditis. It occurs in 5%-9% of women soon after giving birth (postpartum period). The effects are usually mild. However, the disease may recur with future pregnancies.
The symptoms usually last for six to nine months. First, the damaged thyroid gland may release its stored thyroid hormones into the blood, causing hyperthyroidism. During this time, you can develop a goiter, have a fast heart rate, and feel warm or anxious. Then, a few months later, you will either return to normal or become hypothyroid. Hypothyroidism occurs because the thyroid has been damaged and its hormone reserves used up. If this happens, you may feel tired, weak, or cold. The hypothyroidism usually lasts a few months until the thyroid gland completely recovers. Occasionally, the hypothyroidism may be permanent.
How do doctors test for thyroid disease during pregnancy?
As with any disease, it is important that you watch for the early warning signs of thyroid disease. However, only your doctor can tell for sure whether or not you have the disease. Your doctor may examine:
• your history and physical appearance
• the amount of thyroid hormones, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and thyroid antibodies in your blood.
How is thyroid disease treated during pregnancy?
Pregnancy places some limits on the treatments which you can receive, because your doctor must also look out for the safety of your child. A common treatment for hyperthyroidism is radioactive iodine, but it must be avoided by women who are pregnant or nursing a baby. Surgery to remove a goiter or cancer may also be delayed until after the pregnancy. However, needle aspiration biopsy of a thyroid nodule may be safely done during pregnancy.
Treatments which may be used for thyroid disease during pregnancy include:
• antithyroid drugs, which block the production of thyroid hormone
• thyroid hormone pills, which provide the body with the right amount of thyroid hormone when the gland is not able to produce enough by itself.
Postpartum thyroiditis may or may not be treated during the hyperthyroid stage, depending upon its severity. If the patient later becomes hypothyroid, her doctor may prescribe thyroid hormone pills.
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What About My Child?
If you or a blood relative has Hashimoto’s thyroiditis or Graves’ disease, there is a chance that your children will inherit the problem. These diseases are also linked to other autoimmune conditions, such as premature gray hair, diabetes mellitus, arthritis, and patchy loss of skin pigment (vitiligo). You should tell your child’s doctor, so that the appropriate examinations can be performed.
Also, one out of every 4,000 infants is born without a working thyroid gland. If the problem is not corrected, the child will become mentally and physically retarded. Therefore, all newborns in the United States are tested for the disease. Once the problem is discovered and corrected, the child can grow up normally.
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The superior thyroid artery is usually the first branch of the external carotid artery. The external laryngeal nerve is related to this artery, but it is at less risk than the recurrent laryngeal during thyroid surgery. The superior thyroid artery is ligated close to the thyroid gland to reduce this risk. A third artery, called the thyroid ima artery, is present in 10% of people. It supplies the isthmus and it arises near the aortic arch, although the exact origin varies.
The thyroid gland is drained by three veins:
• Superior thyroid vein.
• Middle thyroid vein.
• Inferior thyroid vein.
The first two veins drain into the internal jugular, whereas the inferior vein drains into the brachio-cephalic veins.
Thyroid lymphatics drain into four groups of nodes:
• Prelaryngeal lymph nodes.
• Pretracheal lymph nodes.
• Paratracheal lymph nodes.
• Deep cervical lymph nodes.
The thyroid is composed of about one million spherical follicles or acini. Each follicle is lined by a single layer of secretory epithelial cells (follicular cells) around a colloid-filled space. These cells secrete thyroglobulin into the lumen of the follicle, and thyroid hormones are synthesized from thyroglobulin at the cell–colloid boundary. When the thyroid gland is not actively secreting hormones, the size of the colloid store and the follicle itself increase in diameter. When the follicular cells enter an active secretory phase, microvilli form on their inner surface and thyroglobulin is absorbed. The colloid store shrinks as a result. The absorbed thyroglobulin is broken down to release thyroid hormon. Another type of secretory cell is found between the follicles. These parafollicular cells (C cells) synthesize and secrete calcitonin.
Thyroid FAQ & Links to Related Articles
Thyroid Hair Loss
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Video Library
How Does the Ear Work?
The ear basically has three parts; the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. The outer ear begins with your ear lobe. The purpose of the ear lobe is to collect sound, and funnel it down your ear canal to the ear drum. Scientifically know as the tympanic membrane. Sound energy strikes the tympanic membrane, and behind the tympanic membrane is the middle ear space. Within the middle ear there are three little bones of hearing; the malleus bone, the incus bone, and the stapes bone. And these bones take the sound energy that is impacting the ear drum, and concentrate it at the bottom of the last little bone, which is called the stapes, and present this sound energy to the inner ear. The inner ear has two parts. The organ of hearing, which is curled up like a snail and called the cochlea. And the organ of balance, which is called the labyrinth, or the vestibular system. When the stapes bone shakes, the last little bone of hearing, mechanical energy is presented to the inner ear. And within the inner ear are little cells that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. And this electrical energy then goes up the nerve, into the brain, and we hear.
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Manual on guidelines to measure greenhouse gas emissions in smallholder systems
When undertaking experiments to quantify the emissions from farm land, many factors can influence the results. Researchers from CIMMYT and the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) have developed a set of protocols for these experiments.
Agriculture is a victim of climate change. Rising temperatures, erratic rainfall and extreme weather events can lower productivity, destroy harvests and threaten food security and livelihoods.
But this is only half the story. Agriculture also contributes to climate change. Even by modest estimates, it is responsible for nearly 14 percent of greenhouse emissions – primarily through nitrous oxide, methane and carbon dioxide. When land conversion and deforestation are taken into account, the figure is closer to 30 percent.
The good news is that agriculture is also capable of sequestering carbon and storing it in the soil, thereby reducing emissions into the atmosphere. Adaptive and productive practices that are inherently low-carbon is one way to ensure that, while farmers are protected from the impacts of climate change and continue to produce food sustainably, they are not simultaneously adding to the crisis. Continue reading.
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University of Houston Cullen College of Engineering
Professor Develops Stronger Material for Spacecraft Construction
Elena Watts
Image courtesy of NASA
In the absence of materials that could withstand extreme heat generated by high speeds upon reentry to Earth’s atmosphere, engineers have designed blunt-edged spacecraft to slow their speeds and to thermally protect their structures as they returned from space.
With part of a $1.7 million grant from the U.S. Air Force, Ken White, UH professor of mechanical engineering, has developed a new ceramic refractory material, a diboride-tungsten carbide solid solution alloy, to replace zirconium diboride in aircraft and spacecraft construction. The superior material will enable engineers to design aerodynamic new-generation reentry spacecraft and hypersonic aircraft that will withstand extremely high temperatures under load with improved maneuverability.
Before White and his students could begin their research, they had to invent the experimental methods necessary to study creep, or deformation of material under load at high temperatures.
“It was a unique experiment that no one had ever done before, so we had to come up with all the ways to do it,” White said.
With image analysis software, White observed and tracked zirconium diboride grains under load at 1800 degrees Celsius in a specially equipped furnace, which provided the vacuum environment necessary to avoid corrosion that would otherwise eat away the surface of the material. He observed that the shapes and sizes of the grains were relatively unchanged but that the grains slid across each other without creating cavities. White attributed the majority of the creep to this movement.
While the core of the grains remained rigid, he discovered a mechanism present in the narrow perimeter, or mantle, of the individual grains that was responsible for unlocking the grain-sliding deformation. He removed silicon carbide from the zirconium lattice and added tungsten, another heavy refractory element, to make deformation more difficult in the mantle. As a result, the mantles became more rigid, and the creep slowed 100 times the original rate of creep. White and his students are in the process of laying groundwork, such as additional creep modeling and development of the appropriate phase diagram that maps tungsten solid solution’s microstructure.
“Determining the mechanism that causes creep was our most important accomplishment,” White said. “No one understood what allowed the material to deform.”
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Ghasemi and Vekilov in the Spotlight
Two Cullen College of Engineering faculty won the University of Houston’s Awards for Excellence in Research, Scholarship and Creative Activity for the 2018-19 academic year. Hadi Ghasemi was recognized in the “Assistant Professor” category and Peter Vekilov was honored in the “Professor” category.
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Upcoming Events / Seminars
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Did You Know Every Parent is Bilingual?
“Don’t talk to me like a baby!” You might be familiar with this phrase if you have an older child or have gotten into a spat with a partner or colleague. While baby talk can be construed as condescending when directed at an older individual, it is actually critical to the cognitive development and language learning of infants and toddlers. Linguists and child psychologists refer to baby talk more often as child-directed speech. Many aspects of child-directed speech allow it to facilitate language learning, such as the following:
High-pitch and tone variation
These qualities characteristic of child-directed speech make it more stimulating, effectively causing the words spoken to be more memorable.
Children’s first words are often the ones they hear the most often. This is because repetition is a key component that drives memorization. Thus, the repetition common in child-directed speech helps children learn the language.
When using child-directed speech, parents often say expressions like “woof woof” and “beep beep.” This specific type of repetition, called reduplication, also helps with memorization and language learning.
Sentences and phrases formed when using child-directed speech tend to include the most important word at the end. For example, parents might say “oh look at the cute little doggy” instead of “there is a cute dog right over there.” This isolation of the word dog helps children learn the word, because they can separate the noises associated with saying the word from the rest of the phrase.
When children imitate child-directed speech, they are actually imitating and learning proper grammar.
One theory about language acquisition is that much of children’s knowledge is innate. Specifically, some linguists have asserted that children are born with knowledge of syntactic structures and then utilize imitation to learn words to fit into those structures. Complete foreknowledge of grammatical structure prior to birth seems unlikely, especially given this structure is unique to every language. In fact, a closer look at child-directed speech reveals that it is far more properly structured than casual, fragmented conversation between adults. When children imitate child-directed speech, they are actually imitating and learning proper grammar. While children’s capacity to learn may be innate, their language learning is in many ways an imitation game.
Each and every parent around the world is fluent in both his or her native tongue and child-directed speech.
Child-directed speech doesn’t just exist here in the United States and with English, but in a plethora of cultures and with a multitude of languages. Each and every parent around the world is fluent in both his or her native tongue and child-directed speech. This form of bilingualism is pertinent to infants’ and toddlers’ first language acquisition and cognitive development.
Just like child-directed speech improves cognitive development in infants and toddlers, so does learning a foreign language.
While parents adopt this child-directed speech with ease, infants and toddlers could also adopt another language with ease. Children can learn more than one language at a time without conflating the two or hindering their progress towards fluency in their native language. In fact, children are noted to become more native-like speakers in a foreign language if they learn the language at a very young age. Just like child-directed speech improves cognitive development in infants and toddlers, so does learning a foreign language. As it happens, children who learn another language at a young age are said to be able to concentrate better in spite of outside stimulus, an important skill in an age when technology, among other things, has become a huge distraction.
While all parents are fluent in their native tongue and child-directed speech, not all parents are fluent in other foreign languages… cue Little Pim.
In conclusion, while many people may not appreciate when you speak to them like a baby, your infant or toddler loves it. Your child’s engagement with child-directed speech makes it a useful tool to teach words and proper grammatical structures. Via aiding in first language acquisition, child-directed speech improves a child’s cognitive development, just as learning a foreign language can. While all parents are fluent in their native tongue and child-directed speech, not all parents are fluent in other foreign languages… cue Little Pim. Let us join you and your child on a path towards intellectual growth.
Works Cited:
Musical Spanish Immersion Class in NYC
We're excited to launch our partnership with The Pineapple Explorers Club (based in NYC) for their Musical Spanish Immersion Class using our Entertainment Immersion Method® and language learning materials. If you're located near New York City, see below for more details or visit their website linked above:
Classes begin MONDAY JUNE 26th at 10 AM in Marcus Garvey Park (upper west corner below playground) & WEDNESDAY JUNE 28th at 10 AM in Central Park (Enter at 79th and walk South, group will meet on the left just before the playground).
Cost: $15 a child (cash or Venmo) or find them on KidPass!
Bilingual Baby: When is the Best Time to Start?
The benefits of introducing your baby to another language are well documented. In our rapidly globalizing society, knowing a second (or third) language provides an obvious edge over the competition in the job market.
But, what about its impact on childhood development? While some would suggest that over-exposure to foreign language may cause delay in speaking, this assumption is both unproven and outweighed by the benefits dual-language babies experience as they grow.
We know the many benefits, so the question soon becomes: “When do we start?”
The answer is surprising. According to an article by the Intercultural Development Research Association, it may be most beneficial to begin second language exposure before six months of age. In a study by psychologist Janet Werker, infants as young as four months of age successfully discriminated syllables spoken by adults in two different languages. Dr. Werker’s work also determined a possible decline in foreign language acquisition after 10 months of age. To give your child their best start, you must begin early.
How is this so? The answer can be found in the complex world of the human brain. Our brains react uniquely to language learning at any age, even growing when stimulated by another language. While mankind can acquire a language at mostly any stage, it is exceptionally difficult to do so outside of childhood. From infancy to age five, the brain is capable of rapid language acquisition. Even so, there are varying degrees of acquisition, even for children. After six months of age, infants begin distinguishing the differing sounds of their native tongue and others. Beyond six months, exposing your little one to a brand new language will pose a challenge.
That is not to say that teaching your two year-old French is a bad idea! It is merely to say that the earlier you begin teaching your child, the better.
Though most babies wont utter their first words before eleven months of age, they develop complex mental vocabularies through the piecing together of “sound maps.” As they gather from what they are exposed to, an infant who hasn’t been immersed in another language during this delicate stage will not piece together adequate sound maps to differentiate another language.
The reason for this is rooted in the brain at birth. Children are born with 100 billion brain cells and the branching dendrites that connect them. The locations that these cells connect are called synapses; critical components in the development of the human brain. These synapses are thought to “fire” information from one cell to another in certain patterns that lead to information becoming “hardwired” in the brain. The synapses transmit information from the external senses to the brain via these patterns, thus causing the brain to interpret them, develop, and learn from them. From birth to age three, these complex synapses cause infants to develop 700 neural connections per second.
These synapses are critical in sound mapping, and at the age of six months, the infant brain has already begun to “lock in” these new patterns and has difficulty recognizing brand new ones. This is because although your baby is born with all of the neurons they’ll ever need, that doesn’t mean that they’ll “need” all 100 billion. Infancy to the age of three is filled not only with rapid neural expansion, but also with neural “pruning;” a process in which unnecessary connections are nixed and others are strengthened.
Exactly which connections are pruned and which are cultivated is partially influenced by a child’s environment. Synapses are cultivated or pruned in order of importance to ensure the easiest, most successful outcome possible for a functioning human being. If a function is not fostered during this stage, it is likely that the neural connections associated with it will fade. For the brain to see a skill as important, you must make it important.
To put it plainly, if you only speak to your child in English, the infant brain sees no reason to retain a neural pathway regarding the little Mandarin it has heard. Babies learn about their environment at every age and are internally motivated from birth to do so. Your baby wants to learn and does so by exploring and mimicking the world around them. They’re entirely capable of building a complex knowledge of Mandarin, Arabic, or Italian. So, why not feed their mind and start now?
Easy Ways to Introduce a New Language
You might find yourself overwhelmed by all the information and advice on how to introduce a new language to your child. There are many products out there, but your child’s best teacher is You! These tips will help you get comfortable introducing the new language:
Keep it simple One of the best ways to integrate a new language is by using it during your simple daily tasks. Babies and toddlers are constantly learning about the world around them. Using a second language during your bed or bath time routines is a perfect way to ease into your new bilingual journey.
Have the whole family join in The more you use the preferred second language, the faster your child will pick it up. Encourage others in your family, adults and older children, to use the language too. Use holiday and family dinners as a platform to keep introducing the second language.
Repeat, repeat, repeat Learning a new language is all about repetition. You might start feeling like a parrot but it will pay off! As your child gets older, they might choose to only speak in English, no worries, just make sure that you repeat back what they said in the language you are trying to introduce. Repetition in your daily life is a great tool that will have great results.
Make it fun Raising bilingual children should be fun. Play games, sing songs and embrace the silliness of it all. Keeping it fun is very important because making mistakes is a part of learning and you want your child to not feel discouraged. You can get more specific and learn traditional games and songs.
Little Pim offers great easy-to-use language learning products that you can integrate into your family life. Your child can start watching our award-winning series today! Get started on a fun, life-long journey!
Bonding With Your Child Through Your Native Language
Creating bonds is a very important part of raising children. It allows them to feel nurtured and loved. Sharing your native language with your child is a great bonding experience that can have a life-long impact.
Family ties
Many parents that are raising bilingual children have ties to the language through family. The technology that we have today makes it so easy to communicate with family that is far away. Your child will have the great advantage of communicating and forming bonds with the extended family. Being able to communicate not only broadens social skills, it definitely expands the family tree.
For a fun craft, build a family tree with your little ones when they are old enough to recognize names and photos of relatives. Talk about the relationships between each family member and go over relevant vocabulary in your native language, i.e. words for mother, father, brother, sister, aunt, uncle, grandma, grandpa, etc.
Cultural traditions
Languages are more than just words. There is a lot of tradition within them. Through the words of your native language, your child will learn about food and traditional dishes, they will learn about music and instruments. They will hear stories that have been told through generations and pick up books of great writers. They will be able to have an understanding and participate in these traditions. The bond between you, your child and family will have stronger roots.
The gift that keeps on giving
Sharing your native language with your child really is a gift. It will not only set up great advantages when he/she is an adult venturing out in the world, but it will instill a strong sense of self and an emotional connection to others. One day, your child will be in the position to pass down all of the great treasures that are wrapped inside the words of that second language.
Need some help introducing your child to a second language? Little Pim makes it fun and easy to learn a new language with resources your child will love! Comment below if you have any questions!
Your Baby CAN be Bilingual
Experts around the globe agree that language learning begins at a young age. Adults that attempt to learn a new language often struggle, whereas small children have the unique ability to latch on to multiple languages at a time. However, many parents face a dilemma when it comes to the decision of exactly when a child's exposure to another language should begin. It's a topic that poses many valid questions among parents and educators: "When should I begin teaching my child a second (or third) language?"
"Should I wait until they can talk?"
"Should I wait until they've mastered English?"
"Will exposing them to too many languages at once cause communication difficulties later on?"
Science has shown us the answer, and it's groundbreaking. Babies can learn multiple languages at a time and have no delay in language development as a result. In fact, beginning multilingual exposure in infancy may give your child an edge over their peers later on. Oral vocabulary is critical for children as they achieve literacy in any language, which doubles when a child is fluent in more than one language.
A University of Washington study determined that children exposed to other languages during the first year of life fared better in preschool due in part to the fact that their vocabularies were greatly increased. The bilingual children in the study were shown to understand written language at an earlier age than their peers.
Children should be exposed to multilingualism as early as possible. 6-month-old babies can understand spoken language with great clarity. Infants as young as 7 months can understand and keep their languages separate. As children reach a verbal age, they commonly mix languages together, but this is not at all a bad thing. It is a common occurrence in young and old bilinguals alike, called "code switching." Code switching is an almost universal step for children as they learn to verbalize multiple languages correctly. Children that mix their languages do so only temporarily, whereas adults that learn later in life commonly struggle with it.
You can teach your child several languages at once without "damaging" them in any way. Considering that over 60% of the world population is multilingual in some way, it's easy to see that human beings are hardwired to know more than one from the start.
Learn more about the benefits and how to raise your children to be bilingual at Mom Loves Best.
Read the full Mom Loves Best blog post on “How Your Child Can Benefit From Being Bilingual” by Jenny Silverstone for more helpful tips and information.
Here at Little Pim, we have many products that encourage language immersion from an early age. Do you have any little polygots running around? If so, let us know in the comments below!
Outstanding Information on Teaching Your Child Another Language
Teaching your child a second, or even third language, is exciting, stimulating, and fun, not to mention an experience that will bring you and your child closer. Moreover, the best part is you will be doing a great service for your child. Approximately, two-thirds of the world is bilingual and in the United States alone, the number of children who speak a language other than English has increased to 21 percent. The benefits of learning another language are well documented; a few of the benefits include:
• - Increased intelligence
• - More fluent verbal skills
• - Greater memory ability
• - Problem-solving savvy
• - Improved cognitive skills
• - Better reading/writing skills
• - Larger worldview
As a parent, you may have a lot of questions about how, where, or when to begin the journey of introducing your child to a new language. Let’s look at a few of the questions parents have.
When is the best time to teach my child?
Research shows that babies and toddlers are prime age for teaching a second language. As astonishing as it sounds, the brain of the baby is wired for learning a language. The sounds of the language are as a pattern to the brain, which acts in ways similar to a computer – coding and decoding the symbols of sound and storing it into the memory. Before the age of six years old is ideal.
How can I possibly teach my child another language when I don’t know the language?
This is probably the biggest concern and hold back for a lot of parents, but with immersion-style videos, books, and entertaining material, your baby can begin learning the language whether you know it or not. Actually, you will learn right along with your child. Engaging videos are a must to attract the attention of the small child. Our Entertainment Immersion Method® engages a child’s natural love of play and learning through repetition. Colorful books to touch, upbeat music, and flashcards all work to reinforce the language.
Where can I find a program that will effectively teach my child another language?
At Little Pim, we have developed a highly-visual, language-learning program that children fall in love with. One reason our program is effective is children can relate to their “teacher,” which happens to be the delightful, animated Little Pim panda bear. The books and videos host the adorable panda so children come to know and love the little bear. They will look forward to learning. One child’s parent is quoted as saying her son “loves the animations of Little Pim and often asks to watch them over and over again. He loves to yell the words he knows…”
Teaching your child a second language has never been more fun. Choose from our 12 language sets to watch a free preview of Little Pim today!
Pokémon Go Guide for Parents with Young Kids
pokémon go for kids
Everyone is going Pokémon crazy with the release of Nintendo's new app, Pokémon Go. As a parent of little ones, it's important to learn about the pros and cons of this app before letting your kids dive in on the fun. We've been playing for almost a week - for research purposes only, we promise ;) - and have seen the big phenomenon hit the streets of Manhattan and across the country. You've probably heard the news regarding the potential dangers of playing the game or perhaps you've downloaded the app yourself and can't get enough. We've compiled some great tips about how to make Pokémon Go a fun, safe, and educational game to play with your little ones.
Protect Your iTunes or Google Play Password from Your Kids
Pokémon Go is free to download, but there are in-app purchases to buy PokéCoins for different items in the "Shop." These purchases require you to login to your iTunes or Google Play account, so be sure your kids are not able to do so by disabling in-app purchases or keeping your password safe to avoid getting a huge bill at the end of the month. You and your family can still have all the fun for free as long as you play wisely to collect more items from PokéStops.
This app requires cellular data
Photo courtesy of J House Vlogs on YouTube
Photo courtesy of J House Vlogs on YouTube
Like many mobile apps, playing Pokémon Go will require use of your cell phone's data, so hopefully you have an unlimited data plan or else you'll probably start receiving texts from your carrier warning you that you've used a majority of your data this month. If you're hitting the max data allowed per month, you may need to have your data turned off until the cycle restarts. Also, this app will do a number on your battery life. Make sure you're fully charged before you head out the door or carry a charger with you.
Make it Fun AND Educational
Playing the app can be rather simple once you understand what to do. You're playing as the Pokémon trainer who collects Pokémon (cute, little "pocket monsters" with unique traits and skills) outside. The app connects to your GPS to show you your location and the whereabouts of Pokémon in the wild, nearby PokéStops, and gyms where you can virtually battle other players. At the end of the day, you and your kids could be walking miles on this virtual scavenger hunt while discovering local landmarks and small businesses that you'd normally never visit. This provides a great opportunity for kids to get outside and explore, with your supervision of course.
When you get to a PokéStop and it's a historical landmark, spend time with your little ones to read about the landmark and start discussions about the history. Playing Pokémon Go during summer vacation can be a fun way to teach your kids about your local surroundings and to provide incentives to take trips to the library or museum for more typical summer learning. You can even use family trips to a local gym or PokéStop as an incentive for finishing a desired task or summer reading.
Always Be Aware of Your Surroundings
According the the AppStore and Google Play store, the recommended age to play is 9+ years due to a warning for "Infrequent/Mild Cartoon or Fantasy Violence." Our biggest concern is having little kids roaming the streets while looking down at their device ("distracted walking") or being "lured" into a dangerous area, which is why we recommend that a parent or guardian is always present to supervise your children, especially your young ones when playing this app. Recent reports mentioned that players are using the "lures" (a feature used to lure more Pokémon to a location) to plan a robbery or to lure children. Always look up when walking and hold onto your kids when crossing a street or intersection. We recommend playing this game at your local park or an area where there is little traffic.
Another part of the game involves eggs that hatch into new Pokémon. When you collect an egg, you can incubate it by walking a certain distance (2 km, 5km, 10km) to make it hatch. We love that this feature gets you and your whole family outdoors walking instead of indoors on the couch. Different types of locations have different varieties of Pokémon, so you will have plenty of opportunities to explore fun spots with your kids, for example, when you visit a body of water such as a lake or river, you will see more water Pokémon.
It's a Great Way to Make new Friends
Parents playing the app with their little ones will quickly notice they aren't the only ones. When walking to a PokéStop or local museum or library that put out a lure to gather people for an event, you will most likely make a connection with another family. Since school is out, now's the perfect time to get out there and meet other parents and children who have similar interests. It's also a great opportunity to connect with your local area's small business owners and support them by buying the family ice cream or a delicious pizza pie!
Due to the game's diverse players, you're probably going to meet a bunch of families who are also raising bilingual children. This gives your kids a great opportunity to practice speaking in their second language with other children their age.
Language Learning with Pokémon Go
Here at Little Pim, we're all about making language learning fun, easy, and effective for young children. We thought of ways to tie in language learning into the game to keep their brains active all summer long.
You can have your kids count the number of steps to catch the Pokémon in the foreign language they are learning. If the Pokémon is further away, help them out with the bigger numbers and eventually they will learn all the numbers in the new language.
This app also forces you to learn the metric system as the distance to walk to hatch your eggs is in kilometers you can convert them to miles. A recent article by MentalFloss pointed out that according to Google Trends, searches for “how far is 2 km” and “how far is 5 km” spiked after July 6.
Create your own flashcard set with a Pokémon Go theme. Choose vocabulary words that you encounter while playing the game, i.e. street, library, tree, ball, catch, throw, as well as all the related animal names you can think of. If you're child is learning Japanese with Little Pim, teach them the 1st Generation Japanese and English Names:
[iframe id="" align="center" autoplay="no"]
Explore New Cultures
NYC Cultures
Here in New York City, we have an extraordinary mix of different cultures present within walking distance. For example, you can take a family trip over to Koreatown with your little language learns to get a glimpse of the Korean culture and enjoy the delicious cuisine at an authentic restaurant. Perhaps you'll run into a nice family of native Korean speakers that are also playing the game to spark up a conversation so your child can practice speaking in Korean.
Head over to Little Italy to catch some Pokémon and practice your Italian by pronouncing the various food and restaurant names. Enjoy some delicious Italian cuisine when in the area.
Learn more about NYC's ethnic neighborhoods from BusinessInsider to begin exploring this summer whether you're a local or just visiting.
Have Fun and Be Safe
Outdoor play and social interactions for kids is great, but can also present risks. As a parent of little ones, we recommend you supervise your child's cellphone use and play this fun game by their side. Make it a family activity and take the opportunity to teach your kids about "stranger danger" and the risks of "distracted walking." We hope you enjoyed reading this guide and wish you the best of luck in "catching them all!"
If you have any other tips for parents playing Pokémon Go with their kids, please comment below. Don't forget that you can also take Little Pim with you during summer vacation with our digital downloads available in 12 languages. Your kids will be speaking a new language in no time with our unique approach. Learn more on our website or contact us during business hours. Enjoy the rest of your summer and stay safe!
A Simple Guide: Which language is best for my child to learn?
Choice is an incredible gift. For parents, however, it is also paralyzing. When our choice regards our children's education, we catalog every possible option, outcome, success, and worst-case result, don't we? Little Pim applauds such parents who want desperately to choose what's best for their child. We recognize how this deliberation is firmly rooted in love, so we not only gift you with choices, we also equip you with helpful tools to choose. Seeing as multicultural awareness and the growing necessity for well-rounded children has never been as strong, we're thankful for your interest in at least one of the 12 language programs we offer. You've likely had the thought: Which language is best for my child to learn? The following guide should help you confidently navigate your choice, as well as this important note.
Children aged 0-6 have brains best for learning up to three languages at once! If you can't choose one, why not consider two or more? Your child will soon thank you for this choice between multiple languages learned. What a unique potential to influence our world!
Little Pim's Twelve Language Programs:
As the 2nd most common language in the United states, Spanish is one of the simplest languages for English-speaking children to learn and one of the most useful languages in the world for travel. There are over 414 million Spanish-speaking people in the world. Spanish lends well to learning other Latin-based languages in the future such as French and Italian. These languages all have Indo-European roots and share some characteristics that are present in Spanish but not English. Knowing Spanish can open up many job opportunities for your little ones, especially in the United States in healthcare or education industry.
Check out LeapFrog's blog to learn about 10 benefits of teaching your child Spanish.
Did you know that French is the most widely studied language in the world? As the official language of over 29 countries, French is highly utilized in the world of higher learning, literature, culinary arts, and fashion. It is also recognized as an official language of the United Nations. There are also many words in the English language that have French origins, such as "rendezvous" or "cinema."
French is also one of the foreign languages our founder, Julia Pimsleur, chose for her two boys, Emmett and Adrian. Adrian speaks fluent French and Emmett speaks some Spanish, French and Hebrew.
Mandarin Chinese
It's the most widely spoken language in the world! An increasing demand for Mandarin-speaking employees is just one reason to start your child early! Spoken by over 1 billion people worldwide, Mandarin is an official language of the United Nations. Mandarin Chinese is tonal, which means that pitch is used to distinguish its lexical or grammatical meanings. The earlier a child begins to learn this language, the easier it is for them to pick up on the differences in tone and begin employing them correctly.
The latest trends we’ve seen at Little Pim are new parents choosing to teach their child Mandarin alongside romance languages like Spanish and/or French.
As the official language of the former Soviet Union, Russian is still spoken in 15 European and Asian countries. Russian is spoken by almost 280 million people worldwide, and is an official language of the United Nations. It is the fifth most frequently spoken language in the world. International political developments and growing business opportunities with multinational companies have led to increased demand and opportunities for Russian speakers.
The Russian alphabet is easy to learn and only has 33 letters. It is a Cyrillic script, which is a writing system used for alphabets across Eastern Europe, as well as North and Central Asia. The Russian alphabet is wonderfully phonetic, making it even easier than English as the letters have a consistent pronunciation.
Italian remains one of the top 5 languages studied in US colleges. Over 7,500 businesses correspond with Italy hosting over 1,000 US firms. If you're child is a musician or music lover, he or she will love learning Italian. Did you know that Italian is the language with the highest number of words for naming food, restaurants, dishes, and produce? For more reasons to learn Italian, check out The Italian Academy's article on the "Top 10 Reasons to Learn Italian."
As the 10th most spoken language in the world, this language has English roots. Phew! There are thousands of words that are closely related known as "cognates." Why not try this language long-associated with academia and science. Knowing German also increases business opportunities as Germany is the #1 export nation in the world.
Almost every nation in the world includes some aspect of Japanese culture and commerce. Tourists flock to Japan annually, supping from its offerings and influence. Japanese is the 9th most spoken language in the world, with 128 million speakers. Japan has the 2nd largest economy in the world, which leads to increased demand for Japanese speaking experts. Learning Japanese may also inspire your child to learn the other Asian languages we offer such as Korean or Mandarin Chinese.
As an official language of the United Nations, Arabic is the most widely spoken Semitic language. Arabic is spoken by roughly 300 million people. Many English words have Arabic roots; words like 'candy,' and 'spinach.' Yum! According to, "In the last 15 years, U.S. government agencies have expressed a much greater need for Arabic speakers to address the complex political, military, and economic questions surrounding U.S. engagement in the Middle East and North Africa."
Over 10 million people speak Hebrew daily. Worldwide, millions more study Hebrew for both religious and cultural reasons. If you or your little ones plan to travel to Israel, learning Hebrew will definitely come in handy as it's the national language. Israel is also one of one fastest-growing high-tech economies in the world. Learning Hebrew can be easy and fun, especially with Little Pim by your side.
hebrew for young children
Welcome to the language of the Southern Hemisphere! Because this language is rarely studied, speaking it is an incredibly marketable skill. Did you know that Portuguese is the 6th most spoken language in the world, with 215 million native speakers?
By learning Portuguese, your kids will have a much easier time picking up any of the other romance languages like Spanish, French, or Italian since they all have Latin roots.
Korean is currently growing in popularity due to South Korea's powerful economy, geopolitical importance, art and culture. There are over 80 million Korean speakers in the world and the Korean culture is like no other. Many people choose to study Korean because they fell in love with the culture. Korea is famous for K-pop music and Korean dramas. For more reasons, check out our blog post on why your child should learn Korean.
Little Pim's most popular language program outside the United States in our English/ESL program. After Chinese and Spanish, English is the world's most spoken language with over 335 million speakers worldwide.
Learning a second language can be fun, easy, and effective with Little Pim. Language learning should always be a positive experience and cannot be rushed. Remember to praise your little ones for speaking in the second language. Teaching your child a foreign language can be a great way to give your child a head start and prepare him or her for the global economy.
For more extensive explanations, you can read further here. And of course, please do not hesitate to comment below contact us with any questions.
Why Bilingualism is Crucial to Your Child's Future
The world is getting smaller and smaller. Jet liners, bullet trains, the internet and new international markets are blurring the lines on our old maps. Our future is changing. The world that our children grow into isn't going to be the one of ours or our parents. That's why it's time to take the future seriously. Parents, grandparents and teachers need to put on their "game faces" and have a serious talk about bilingualism.
When a child is bilingual, their mind opens up to an entirely new world. We know that in this ever-changing global economy, those fluent in more than one language have better odds at a brighter future. The United States has seen a rapid change in language and culture over the last century that has facilitated the growth of professional bilingualism in the public and private sectors.
To put it into layman's terms: bilingualism = jobs.
Translators have always been an important component at every level of government and business. But translating isn't the only profession that requires the mastery of another language. Today, educators and medical professionals often find themselves in situations that require the use of a language other than their native tongue.
Complex global affairs have caused leaders to identify a need for bilingual talent within the government. Corporate outsourcing has increased the amount of multilingual interactions in the business world. Many nations around the world are rising as economic superpowers - such as Russia, China, and India - and to learn the languages of such nations increases the desirability of any potential hire.
You must be are these things relevant to my child now?
Foreign language careers are on the rise. When your bright-eyed three-year old graduates from college, she'll enter into a job market in which multilingualism is a highly sought after skill. Research done by Korn/Ferry International stated that over 66% of North American recruiters felt that being bilingual would become extremely important over the next 10 years. Today, many HR departments require eligible candidates to be bilingual. If you look on any job posting website, you will likely see hundreds of jobs - even part-time work - that require bilingual candidates.
Language learning should start young. Adults can learn languages, but as our brains mature they tend to over-analyze. This makes it incredibly difficult for many adults to pick up a second language. Young children don't have this problem. According to a study at MIT, children go through a "sensitive period" for language learning that lasts until puberty. Between birth and five years of age, the human brain is hard-wired for learning multiple languages*. After age five, this critical window begins to close and it gets much harder to acquire a new language and a good accent.*
Language learning is proven to "feed the mind." Learning another language gives kids an educational edge over monolingual peers. Longitudinal studies at Harvard suggested that language learning "increases critical thinking skills, creativity, and flexibility in children." Speaking more than one language can help kids with planning and problem solving. It also helps children with attention and cognition. According to Psychology Today, children in bilingual environments perform better on standardized tests and have better academic performance in general.
To give your kids a leg up in a competitive educational environment as well as the job market, it's imperative that language immersion starts now.
Getting your child started in language learning can give them the skills they need for a secure future. At Little Pim, we're here to help you through that journey by giving you the tools that you need. If you have questions about how Little Pim could benefit your child, or about the benefits of language learning, don't hesitate to contact us or comment below today.
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American Labor Movement and Unions
Jesse Tway
John D. Rockefeller
Rockefeller was born 1839 and died 1937. John Rockefeller was involved in the oil industry. When he started out Rockefeller bought into a oil refinery in 1863. This oil refinery was out of Cleveland Ohio. The out come of Rockefeller oil refinery was standard oil. Rockefeller standard oil is still used today. By being the first person to come up with this oil Rockefeller made a lot of money. Before he got out of the oil business Rockefeller owned 90% of the whole oil business. The oil company company was gaining a monopoly. But by 1882 the oil company was put into one trust. In the 1890 the congress passed the Sherman Antitrust act. This didn't allow trust in the oil business. Rockefeller sold out of the oil refinery in the 1900's.
Knights of Labor
The Knights of Labor was first a secret group. They came out of the shadow to help improve working conditions. Knights of Labor wanted to get the people that were working more pay better working conditions. When the company would make a trade the Knights of labor made it so the workers got so much of the trade to make the workers more money. This group also help so black people could get more jobs too. Knights of Labor also supported the Chinese Excul
Pullman Rail Road Strike
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Algebraic Expressions
You may be asked to solve some simple algebraic equations, mostly with ratios and proportions, and to convert between various units. Recall from Section 1: Ratios and Proportions, that a fraction is one way to write a ratio.
Let’s say that there is a ratio that is expressed as a fraction, and you would like to know what that same ratio would be with a different denominator. This will be useful for comparing different ratios with one another and for presenting ratios in an easily understood manner.
Here is an example:
We’ll start with a ratio of 2.1:10
This can be written 2.1/10
Now, for the moment, let’s assume that this represents the number of disease cases in a population of 10 people. It can be awkward to think of fractions of people. You would never walk into a room and see 2.1 people standing there talking about the weather. For this reason, in Epidemiology, it is conventional to avoid fractions of people. To do this, you just increase the population size under consideration (the denominator). This is very easy to do if you increase the denominator size by a factor of ten. In that case, all you need to do is move the decimal one place to the right in both the numerator and the denominator (multiply the fraction by 10/10).
Like this:
2.1/10 = 21/100
You could keep going, if you wanted to,
2.1/10 = 21/100 = 210/1000 = 2100/10,000 = 21,000/100,000
Similarly, if you wanted to decrease the size of the denominator by a factor of ten for some reason, you would just move the decimal one place to the left in both the numerator and the denominator (multiply the fraction by 0.1/0.1).
Like this:
21/100 = 2.1/10 = 0.21/1 = 0.21
What if the ratio does not have a factor of ten as its denominator? For example, let’s say we have a ratio of 8:20,000 and you need to know how many that is per 100,000.
8/20,000 = x/100,000
Here, we can’t just move the decimal around. Happily, there is a simple method we can use to convert this fraction, and solve for x. Some people call it the ‘flying x’ method, or ‘cross multiplication’, because you multiply across the ‘equals’ sign in an ‘x’ pattern. To do this, first multiply the numerator of one fraction by the denominator of the other. This number goes on one side of the ‘equals’ sign.
Like this:
8/20,000 = x/100,000
8 * 100,000 = ?
800,000 = ?
Then, you do the same thing again with the remaining numerator and denominator. This number goes on the other side of the ‘equals’ sign.
Like this:
8/20,000 = x/100,000
8 * 100,000 = 20,000x
800,000 = 20,000x
All that is left to do is solve for ‘x’. To do this in our example, we divide both sides by 20,000. So, we get
8/20,000 = x/100,000
8 * 100,000 = 20,000x
800,000 = 20,000x
x = 800,000/20,000
x = 40
8/20,000 = 40/100,000
Let’s look at two more examples:
8/21,463 = x/100,000
8 * 100,000 = 21,463x
21,463x = 800,000
x = 37.27
8/21,463 = 37.27/100,000
Remember, if this were something like case/population size, we would want to avoid fractions of people, so we might write it like this:
Here’s the second example:
0.53/73 = x/100,000
73x = 0.53 * 100,000
73x = 53,000
x = 726
0.53/73 = 726/100,000
This method works just as well if you want a different denominator. Here’s an example:
1/8 = x/60
8x = 60
x = 7.5
1/8 = 7.5/60
Video Tutorials
Interactive Quiz
Frequently, you will have to consider units of measurement (like centimeters, people, or bushels) in your calculations. Sometimes, it will be important to have all parts of an equation in the same units. To do this, you may have to convert between units. For example, you may need to convert part of your equation from ounces to grams.
The easiest way to do this is to multiply the part of the equation that you need to convert by a fraction that is equal to one. Recall that a number divided by itself is equal to one, like 7/7, 21/21, or 50,000/50,000. Recall also that multiplying any part of an equation by one does not change its value at all.
What does all that mean for us here?
Just this:
If there are 5 ships in a flotilla, then
5 ships/1 flotilla = 1,and
1 flotilla/5 ships = 1
Here’s a real example:
There are 0.035 ounces in a gram., so 1 g = 0.035 oz and…
1 g/0.035 oz = 1 = 0.035 oz/1 g
You can treat units like numbers. They can be multiplied or divided. This means they can also be cancelled. If you multiply two fractions, and they both contain the same units, except that one fraction has the unit in the denominator and the other in the numerator, they cancel each other out.
Like this:
oz/person * g/oz = g/person
The ounces cancel each other out.
So, let’s say each person in a group got 8 ounces of steak, and we need to know how many grams each person got.
8 oz/1 person * 1g/0.035 oz = 8 g/0.035 people
This is a very awkward fraction, so we change the size of the denominator:
8/0.035 = x/1
0.035x = 8
x = 228.6
so…each person got 228.6 g of steak.
Let’s try another example.
60 inches/1 measuring stick = x cm/measuring stick
We know from a table that 1 inch = 2.54 cm. So…
60 in/1 stick * 2.54 cm/1 in = 152.4 cm/1 stick = 152.4 cm/stick
This works just as well for denominators greater than 1, or for when you need to convert the denominator.
Here’s an example with a denominator greater than 1:
1 forest = 40 trees
20 forest/45 glade = x trees/45 glade
20 forest/45 glade * 40 trees/1 forest = 800 trees/45 glade, and if you want…
800 trees/45 glade = 17.8 trees/glade or 178 trees/10 glade
Remember how to get that?
An example converting the units of the denominator:
40 dots/1 inch = x dots/cm
40 dots/1 inch * 1 inch/2.54 cm = 40 dots/2.54 cm = 15.75 dots/cm
This method of unit conversion is very helpful when setting up equations. If you do it this way, you can check to see if your equation is set up correctly by looking to see if you end up with the units you want.
Here is an example using made-up money conversions:
Let’s say 2 pounds = 1 dollar, and 1 pound = 150 yen, but you need to know how much 20 dollars is in yen.
You could blithely start out with this equation:
20 dollars * 1 dollar/2 pounds * 1 pound/150 yen = x
Is this the right equation?
Let’s check the units…
dollars * dollars/pounds * pounds/yen = dollars2/yen
We get ‘dollars squared over yen’, not plain old yen. So, it can’t be right. Let’s try again using our cancellation method.
We want to go from dollars to yen via pounds. So, we start with dollars and convert to pounds.
dollars * pounds/dollars = pounds
Then we convert pounds to yen.
pounds * yen/pounds = yen
When we put this together, we get
dollars * pounds/dollars * yen/pounds = yen
This is what we want, so we just plug in the numbers and multiply it out.
20 dollars * 2 pounds/1 dollars * 150 yen/1 pound = 6000 yen/1 = 6000 yen
Video Tutorial
Interactive Quiz
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Next Content
Previous Content
Chapter 0: Instructor's Guide to Integrating Concepts in Biology
How does this book help your students achieve their learning potential?
How do people learn? What is the best way to retain information? A study led by Daniel Udovic at the University of Oregon13 compared two introductory biology courses: one was an active-learning course where students constructed their own knowledge, and the other was a traditionally taught lecture course. Udovic and his colleagues measured the mean percentage change in a pretest versus a posttest for each of the two courses (Figure 1). The test covered basic concepts in evolution, natural selection, ecosystems, communities, and populations. Changes in individual performances between pretest and posttest are plotted on the y-axis. Purple bars are means for the active-learning course, and teal bars are means for the traditional course. Class sizes were 61 for the active learning course and 62 for the traditional course.
Figure 1 Average change in test scores organized by type of question. Changes are the difference in individual performances between pretest and posttest. Purple bars are averages for the active-learning course, and teal bars are averages for the lecture course (+ 1 SE). * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; *** = p < 0.001; p > 0.05. Figure 1 from Udovic et al., 2002, by permission of Oxford University Press and AIBS.)
These results are supported by other studies, as well as a meta-analysis of active learning studies.11,12 Years of research has shown how people learn best: 1) people learn best if they are actively engaged in constructing their own knowledge, 2) people retain information better when new material is directly related to information they already know through previous study or their world experience, and 3) comprehension is greater when people are interested in the material.15 These insights and findings are not new; thousands of years ago, a ancient Chinese Confucian philosopher is credited with this educational advice: “Tell me and I'll forget. Show me and I'll remember. Involve me and I'll understand.” Active learning allows students to construct their own knowledge, which enhances acquisition and retention of information and concepts. Prior knowledge and interest are leveraged through Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications readings in each chapter. ICB enables your students to achieve their full learning potential by helping them to control their own education and encouraging them to “discover” content and concepts for themselves by analyzing real data in the context of thought-provoking research questions.
ICB encourages your students to construct their own knowledge using published figures and tables. The data are from peer-reviewed scientific research as they appeared in the original publications. In traditional textbooks, the words are presented as fact, and figures are used merely to illustrate the words. ICB uses figures to supply the facts while words help your students extract the essential elements from the experimental data. In short, your students will construct their own knowledge so that they can learn and retain the information. As they gain knowledge in biology, your students will find that they can learn more and retain new information more easily.
ICB uses case studies as context to help your students connect to the new information. You can reinforce major concepts by covering fewer examples in more depth so that your students can spend more time learning and less time memorizing. The text will guide you and your students in interpretation and analysis, and will help them contextualize their new knowledge into a framework that we call the five Big Ideas. The ready-to-use PowerPoint files make it easy for you to implement this approach to learning in your everyday classroom sessions.
Publishing Information
Citation: Paradise, C. (2015). How does this book help your students achieve their learning potential?. Retrieved from
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Harris's Sparrow
Zonotrichia querula
Photo of an immature harris's sparrow
Immature Harris's sparrows resemble the winter adults but have less black on chest and crown. There is a black stripe on each side of the white throat.
MDC Staff
Emberizidae (sparrows, longspurs, buntings) in the order Passeriformes
Adult upperparts are buffy brown with reddish brown and black streaks. There are two white wing bars. The head is yellowish tan, with a black crown and pink bill. Underparts are white with streaked flanks, with a black throat and upper breast. The amount of black on the underparts varies greatly with age, with more black on older birds. The bill is pink. In winter, the black crown and bib is mixed with gray and tan, which gives it a patchy appearance. In early spring, adults molt into a breeding plumage which is much more handsome: less buffy, with gray sides to the head. Immature birds have much less black, and their white throat is bordered on each side by a black malar line. The song consists of long, clear, quavering whistles, frequently changing pitch. The call is a tseet or a sharp, alarmed weenk or cheenk.
Similar species: Harris's sparrow is one of our largest sparrows and might be confused with a male house sparrow. A Harris's sparrow's black bib, face, and crown contrast sharply with its gray cheeks, white belly, and pink beak. A male house sparrow has a chestnut brown nape, gray cap, gray, unstreaked belly, and gray, black, or yellowish beak (not pink).
Length: 7½ inches (tip of bill to tip of tail).
Harris's Sparrow
Photo of an immature harris's sparrow
Audio of Harris's sparrow in the wild.
Harris's Sparrow
A small brown bird with a white front sits on a tree branch in winter.
Harris's sparrow in Buchanan County
Habitat and conservation
In western Missouri, this species commonly winters in brushy fields and open woods. Harris's sparrow is in the same genus as the white-throated and white-crowned sparrows; they are all relatively large sparrows and in winter typically form flocks in thickety places.
Forages for seeds in brushy woodland edges, weedy fields, and thickets. Usually feeds on the ground, and sometimes visits bird feeders.
image of Harris's Sparrow distribution map
Distribution in Missouri
Statewide; more common in the western half.
As a migrant, common in western Missouri; rare in the eastern half. As a winter resident, uncommon in western Missouri and rare in the east. John James Audubon named this species, as well as the Harris's hawk, to honor his traveling companion Edward Harris.
Life cycle
Harris's sparrows are present in Missouri October through April; they breed in stunted boreal forests along the tundra of northern Canada. They are the only bird species known to nest entirely within the borders of Canada, and nowhere else. Their grass- and hair-lined cup nests are built into the ground in a base of mosses, leaves, and weed stems. A clutch comprises 3–5 eggs. The wintering territory is a fairly narrow band in the US heartland, from South Dakota to the southern tip of Texas. A Harris's sparrow can live to be at least 11 years old.
Human connections
Because of its remote breeding grounds, it was a long time before scientists ever saw a Harris's sparrow nest. In 1931, George M. Sutton found a nest with eggs near Churchill, Manitoba. Before that, in 1907, a nest with near-fledgling young had been found by Ernest Thompson Seton, on an island in the Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Seton was a founder of the Boy Scouts of America. He incorporated into the organization many popular aspects inspired by Native American cultures, especially woodcraft, camping, conservation, and nature education.
Ecosystem connections
The size of black bibs in male Harris's sparrows corresponds with their age and social dominance status: the older, more dominant males have larger black bibs, and they get the best selection of food and resting places. Interestingly, it is the same case with the black bibs of male house sparrows, which are in a different family of birds.
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Elementary Algebra
Published by Cengage Learning
ISBN 10: 1285194055
ISBN 13: 978-1-28519-405-9
Work Step by Step
In order to add or subtract fractions, we start by making a common denominator (bottom of the fraction). Thus, we multiply 2/1 (which is the same as 2) by 6/6 to obtain: $-\frac{12}{6}$-($\frac{5}{6}$)=-$\frac{17}{6}$.
Update this answer!
Update this answer
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Wool and the Wool Trade
During the Middle Ages monastic orders ran large tracts of land in the Lake counties. They kept sheep for their wool, which was a major commodity. This must have meant they also used horses and ponies to market the resulting wool crop each year. grey Heltondale ponies
<< Left: Photo of grey Heltondale mares: courtesy of Barbara Müller
It is likely that the monks' ponies were of varying types. It is also possible there may have been an Irish Connemara influence in the area. Norsemen, who had settled in Ireland, later migrated to Northern England, and could have brought their own type of pony with them. Cistercian abbeys in particular are said to have been fond of keeping grey animals, the colour being recognised as a badge of their ownership (Richardson).
Travel was possible at all times of the year, even through winter, as shown by the itineraries of various Kings from John onwards. Hindle says: "the baggage train, comprising from ten to twenty carts and wagons, containing everything from the treasury to the king's wardrobe, had to move about with the king and must have required adequate roads. The kings were almost constantly on the move, and there are few recorded complaints about the condition of the roads." He also notes that "after the Black Death had reduced the population, there was a shortage of labour and people started to move to find better paid work."
Whatever their colour, large numbers of ponies must have been in use to carry wool from the monastic lands to the ports. "There are ... records of Newcastle merchants buying Cumbrian wool for export in 1397 and again in 1423, 1427 and 1444." (Postan, cited in Williams) "Similarly there is evidence that ... Bristol merchants were shipping Kendal cloth to Spain ... Southampton Brokerage books referred to Kendal traders by name in the autumn of 1442, and record that between November 1492 and March 1493, eleven Kendal traders made a total of 14 journeys to Southampton, carrying packs of cloth."
Working for the monasteries
11th and 12th century monastic work for ponies could include pack work carrying wool, woollen goods, and local metal ores; shepherding; and wolf hunting by professional "wolvers" whose job was to protect the sheep on the "sheepwalks". Pack ponies were called "capuls".
Kirkstall Abbey had horse breeding "ranches" in the Slaidburn (Lancashire) area up until the dissolution. A local farmer has deeds for his farm that actually mention that horses were kept rather than sheep or cattle as they were able to escape the predations of wolves. (D Higham of Slaidburn, in an email to author 2002).
Some of the pack bridges and great lengths of wall on the fells are believed have been built by monastic landowners. These boundaries, and years of energetic shepherding on a daily basis, have laid the foundations of the "heafed" or "hefted" flocks which still pass on the knowledge of their traditional territory from mother to lamb each year.
Grey colour, monastic owners: cause OR effect?
It has been asserted by various authors that the Cistercian order - the "White Friars" - used white or grey horses and ponies. This is possible; it would be rather like a company owning a fleet of cars such as Fords or Vauxhalls, a sign of corporate ownership, but not an exclusive one. It would be an easy objective to achieve because grey horses were common at that time, but it does not mean, of course, that there were no grey horses or ponies outside of monastic ownership.
That the colour grey was common in the general equine population of Northern England in the early 16th century, can be shown by studying a list of 252 horses that were returned to Northern soldiers in 1513 after the Battle of Flodden, 95 were grey. It was easily the most frequent colour of all, and it did not include "white". (Dent) These horses were not from monastic stock; they belonged to the farmer-soldiers who were being "demobbed" after Henry VIII's Scottish campaign.
The Dissolution of the monasteries did not take place until 1540, a generation later, so we cannot maintain the idea that the monks had cornered the market until, suddenly, at the Dissolution, all the greys came back into general ownership. There clearly were lots of greys that were in secular ownership before then so the claim does not make sense chronologically.
If the monks bred horses and ponies, they would find it easy to breed greys if much of their stock was grey; to breed a grey foal you have to use a grey mare or stallion. But greys were common elsewhere too and if a secular owner bred a grey he might sell to a neighbour just as easily as to a Cistercian friary.
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10 Environmental Impact Facts That Make Solar Energy The Positive Choice For Everyone:
1. Solar energy is energy produced by the sun. The sun belongs to all of us: it always has and it always will.
2. Solar energy is abundant. In fact, the earth will never run out of it. Even in the winter months most parts of the earth receive sufficient light from the sun’s rays.
3. The sun’s energy is clean: unlike fossil fuels and nuclear power, solar power does not cause harm to humans or animals. It does not leave a “carbon footprint.”
4. Solar energy is quiet. That means solar panels do not create noise pollution.
5. Solar electric use does not contribute to the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is a problem caused by non-renewable fossil fuels that contribute to climate change.
6. An advantage of home solar power is that it allows users to begin lessening the amount of “carbon footprint” immediately. And if a home owner does not want to generate 100% of energy from solar power right away, that person can begin smaller with a partial solar system that generates some energy. Solar energy allows a user to make a positive environmental impact in stages.
7. The homeowner who moves to home solar begins using a self-sustaining solar system to generate his or her own home power. That homeowner begins to realize there are additional self-sustaining uses for solar energy. The electricity a home solar system creates for a household can also be used for an ELECTRIC CAR. These are transportation sources that further lessen the amount of nonrenewable, polluting fuels generated by fossil fuels for personal vehicles.
8. Solar energy is entirely renewable.
9. The realities of solar panels for home use mean the once remote location of some small (or large) vacation house is no longer remote in any disadvantageous way. Anyone who has ever considered owning a place, say, in the mountains, but worried about the additional environmental strain caused because such a “remote” location places an additional strain on the energy grid no longer need be concerned. The realities of solar energy make that “remote” location no longer remote in terms of energy availability. And an electric vehicle, powered by solar electricity generated with solar panels, is an environmentally friendly, non-polluting transportation source that takes a person there cleanly in the most environmentally friendly manner possible.
10. Solar power is flexible. That flexibility of solar panels installation gets the solar user thinking in an entirely more environmentally creative way about this clean electric power source. That leads to an environmental solutions perspective, rather than the conventional way of looking at things that needlessly wastes the earth’s decreasing resources and adds to the fossil fuel problem. Instead, the solar user will now be part of the renewable energy solution.
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Hamlet Revenge Essay Essay Research Paper Hamlet
Hamlet Revenge Essay Essay, Research Paper
Hamlet Revenge Essay
Revenge causes one to act blindly through anger, rather than through reason. It is based on the principle of an eye for an eye, but this principle is not always an intelligent theory to live by. In William Shakespeare s Hamlet, Young Fortinbras, Laertes, and Hamlet were all looking to avenge the deaths of their fathers. They all acted on emotion, but the way the characters went about it was very different. Because of this, it led to the downfall of two, and the rise of one. The heads of the three major families were each murdered, the eldest sons of these families swore vengeance, and two of the three sons died while exacting their acts of vengeance, while the third rose to power.
All of the three eldest sons had one thing in common. All three of the murders affected the sons of the deceased in the same way; it enraged them. For people during this time, revenging the murder of one s father was part of one’s honor and had to be done. All three of the sons swore vengeance and then acted towards getting revenge for the deaths of their fathers. Because of all of this, revenge is a major theme in Shakespeare s Hamlet. Fortinbras took his revenge out in a proper way and rose to power in the end. Both Laertes and Hamlet, however, used force to accomplish their revenge. The lack of thought used in exacting their revenge led to the deaths of both Laertes and Hamlet.
When Laertes found out about his father’s death, he immediately returned home and confronted the king with accusations of the murder of his father. When Claudius tells Laertes that Hamlet was responsible for his father’s death, he decides to kill Hamlet to avenge the death of his father. He and King Claudius concoct a plot to kill Hamlet by having Laertes duel with Hamlet and using a poisoned sword. However, they had not thought that something could have gone desperately wrong with their plan. What if Hamlet was by far the better swordsman, or what if Hamlet managed to get the sword away from Laertes without it being used against him first? With Laertes believing the King’s accusations that Hamlet had murdered his father on purpose, he was in a blind rage and would not listen to Hamlet’s explanation and apology. He fights Hamlet and wounds him once with the poisoned tipped sword; but unfortunately, their swords are switched, and Hamlet also wounds Laertes with the sword. Because Laertes did not think clearly when fashioning his plan with Claudius, it brought about his downfall and death.
Hamlet was deeply sorrowed by his father’s death. He spoke to the ghost of King Hamlet and this ghost stated that his father’s death was a murder by the hand of his uncle, who was now his stepfather, King Claudius. Hamlet was astonished, and after using the play to find out if the ghost was telling the truth or not, swore vengeance for his father’s death. Hamlet could have killed King Claudius while he had his back to him in the chapel, but he thought that he shouldn t because he didn t know if Claudius was asking for forgiveness and renouncing the dastardly action of murdering his brother, and Hamlet s father, King Hamlet. He chose to wait until Claudius was purged of all goodness and prayer, and then strike him down into a world of eternal damnation. Hamlet waits until he can kill his uncle while he is performing a sin. Unfortunately for Hamlet, the sin is Claudius plan with Laertes to poison his own son-in-law, Hamlet! Although some could make an argument that the reason that Hamlet did not kill Claudius earlier was because he was being intelligent and did not want him to have a chance to go to heaven, this theory cannot be totally true. If Hamlet was indeed a thinking man as so many critics have called him, then he did not use that powerful brain of his in this situation. Hamlet would know Claudius personality. He would know that all that Claudius was after is land, money, and power, and that he would never try to take back his actions. He would realize that even if the king tried to be forgiven for the murder of his brother, his thoughts of power and greed would never let him have a chance to go to heaven. This situation in the chapel shows how revenge causes Hamlet to experience a lack of intelligence, if only for a short time. Because he did not think clearly about how and when to kill Claudius, Hamlet is eventually killed.
Because of the vengeance that both Laertes and Hamlet take, revenge is a major theme in Hamlet. It seems ironic that the three characters who were involved with all of the revenge (Claudius, Laertes, and Hamlet) all died from the same sword. Revenge was the driving force behind both Laertes and Hamlet, but both of them also approached their downfall because of it. Their lack of thought behind their plans not only eventually killed them, but Laertes lack of thought also killed his partner in the conspiracy to kill Hamlet, King Claudius, which realized Hamlet s revenge. All in all, many critics believe that the tragedy of Hamlet is when Shakespeare really developed the thinking man in the form of the character of Hamlet. However, neither Hamlet, nor Laertes for that matter, thought clearly or intelligently when plotting their revenge, and this led to their deaths.
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Background historyEdit
Animation of a schematic Newcomen steam engine.
– Steam is shown pink and water is blue.
The atmospheric engine invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, often referred to simply as a Newcomen engine, was the first practical device to harness the power of steam to produce mechanical work.[1] Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump water out of mines, starting in the early 18th century. James Watt's later Watt steam engine was an improved version of the Newcomen engine. As a result, Watt is today better known than Newcomen in relation to the origin of the steam engine.
In industry, crushers are machines which use a metal surface to break or compress materials into small fractional chunks or denser masses. Throughout most of industrial history, the greater part of crushing and mining part of the process occurred under muscle power as the application of force concentrated in the tip of the miners pick or sledge hammer driven drill bit. Before explosives came into widespread use in bulk mining in the mid-nineteenth century, most initial ore crushing and sizing was by hand and hammers at the mine or by water powered trip hammers in the small charcoal fired smithies and iron works typical of the Renaissance through the early-to-middle industrial revolution. It was only after explosives, and later early powerful steam shovels produced large chunks of materials, chunks originally reduced by hammering in the mine before being loaded into sacks for a trip to the surface, chunks that were eventually also to lead to rails and mine railways transporting bulk aggregations that post-mine face crushing became widely necessary. The earliest of these were in the foundries, but as coal took hold the larger operations became the coal breakers that fueled industrial growth from the first decade of the 1600s to the replacement of breakers in the 1970s through the fuel needs of the present day. The gradual coming of that era and displacement of the cottage industry based economies was itself accelerated first by the utility of wrought and cast iron as a desired materials giving impetus to larger operations, then in the late-sixteenth century by the increasing scarcity of wood lands for charcoal production to make the newfangled window glass[2] material that had become—along with the chimney— 'all the rage' among the growing middle-class and affluence of the sixteenth-and-seventeenth centuries;and as always, the charcoal needed to smelt metals, especially to produce ever larger amounts of brass and bronze,[3] pig iron, cast iron and wrought iron demanded by the new consumer classes. Other metallurgical developments such as silver and gold mining mirrored the practices and developments of the bulk material handling methods and technologies feeding the burgeoning appetite for more and more iron and glass, both of which were rare in personal possessions until the 1700s.
Things only became worse when the English figured out how to cast the more economical iron cannons (1547), following on their feat of becoming the armorers of the European continent's powers by having been leading producers brass and bronze guns,[3] and eventually by various acts of Parliament, gradually banned or restricted the further cutting of trees for charcoal in larger and larger regions in the United Kingdom.[2] In 1611, a consortium led by courtier Edward Zouch was granted a patent for the reverberatory furnace, a furnace using coal, not precious national timber reserves,[4] which was immediately employed in glass making. An early politically connected and wealthy Robber Baron figure Sir Robert Mansell bought his way into the fledgling furnace company wrested control of it, and by 1615 managed to have James I issued a proclamation forbidding the use of wood to produce glass,[4] giving his families extensive coal holdings a monopoly on both source and means of production for nearly half-a-century. Abraham Darby a century later relocated to Bristol where he had established a building brass and bronze industry by importing Dutch workers and using them to raid Dutch techniques. Both materials were considered superior to iron for cannon, and machines as they were better understood. But Darby would change the world in several key ways.
Where the Dutch had failed in casting iron, one of Darby's apprentices, John Thomas succeeded in 1707[5] and as Burke put it: "had given England the key to the Industrial Revolution"[5]. At the time, mines and foundries were virtually all small enterprises except for the tin mines (driven by the price and utility of brass) and materials came out of the mines already hammered small by legions of miners who had to stuff their work into carry sacks for pack animal slinging. Concurrently, mines needed drained resulting in Savery and Newcomen's early steam driven pumping systems. The deeper the mines went, the larger the demand became for better pumps, the greater the demand for iron, the greater the need for coal, the greater the demand for each. Seeing ahead clearly, Darby, sold off his brass business interests and relocated to Coalbrookdale with its plentiful coal mines, water power and nearby ore supplies. Over that decade his foundries developed iron casting technologies and began to supplant other metals in many applications. He adapted Coking of his fuel by copying Brewers practices.[5] In 1822 the pumping industries needs for larger cylinders met up with Darby's ability to melt sufficient quantities of pig iron to cast large inexpensive iron cylinders instead of costly brass ones,[5] reducing the cost of cylinders by nine-tenths.[6]
With gunpowder being increasingly applied to mining, rock chunks from a mining face became much larger, and the blast dependent mining itself had become dependent upon an organized group, not just an individual swinging a pick. Economies of scale gradually infused industrial enterprises, while transport became a key bottleneck as the volume of moved materials continued to increase following demand. This spurred numerous canal projects, inspired laying first wooden, then iron protected rails using draft animals to pull loads in the emerging bulk goods transportation dependent economy. In the coal industry, which grew up hand in hand as the preferred fuel for smelting ores, crushing and preparation (cleaning) was performed for over a hundred years in coal breakers, massive noisy buildings full of conveyors, belt-powered trip-hammer crushing stages and giant metal grading/sorting grates. Like mine pumps, the internal conveyors and trip-hammers contained within these 7—11 story buildings.
Industrial useEdit
In operation, the raw material (of various sizes) is usually delivered to the primary crusher's hopper by dump trucks, excavators or wheeled front-end loaders. A feeder device such as an apron feeder, conveyor or vibrating grid controls the rate at which this material enters the crusher, and often contains a preliminary screening device which allows smaller material to bypass the crusher itself, thus improving efficiency. Primary crushing reduces the large pieces to a size which can be handled by the downstream machinery.
Types of crushersEdit
Portable Close Circuit Cone Crushing Plant
The following table describes typical uses of commonly used crushers:
Type Hardness Abrasion limit Moisture content Reduction ratio Main use
Jaw crushers Soft to very hard No limit Dry to slightly wet, not sticky 3/1 to 5/1 Heavy mining, Quarried materials, sand & gravel, recycling
Gyratory crushers Soft to very hard Abrasive Dry to slightly wet, not sticky 4/1 to 7/1 Heavy mining, Quarried materials
Compound crusher Medium hard to very hard Abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky 3/1 to 5/1 Mine, Building Materials
Horizontal shaft impactors Soft to medium hard Slightly abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky 10/1 to 25/1 Quarried materials, sand & gravel, recycling
Vertical shaft impactors (shoe and anvil) Medium hard to very hard Slightly abrasive Dry or wet, not sticky 6/1 to 8/1 Sand & gravel, recycling
Vertical shaft impactors (autogenous) Soft to very hard No limit Dry or wet, not sticky 2/1 to 5/1 Quarried materials, sand & gravel
Crusher buckets Soft to very hard No limit Dry or wet and sticky 3/1 to 5/1 Heavy mining, Quarried materials, sand & gravel, recycling
Jaw crusherEdit
Operation of a dodge type jaw crusher
Dodge type jaw crusher
Gyratory crusherEdit
Ruffner Red Ore Mine gyratory crusher
Cone crusherEdit
Compound cone crusherEdit
Compound cone crusher (VSC series cone crusher) can crush materials of over medium hardness. It is mainly used in mining, chemical industry, road and bridge construction, building, etc. As for VSC series cone crusher, there are four crushing cavities (coarse, medium, fine and superfine) to choose. Compared with the same type, VSC series cone crusher, whose combination of crushing frequency and eccentricity is the best, can make materials have higher comminution degree and higher yield. In addition, VSC series cone crusher’s enhanced laminating crushing effect on material particles makes the cubic shape of crushed materials better, which increases the selling point.
Symons cone crusherEdit
Symons cone crusher (spring cone crusher) can crush materials of above medium hardness. And it is widely used in metallurgy, building, hydropower, transportation, chemical industry, etc. When used with jaw crusher, it can be used as secondary, tertiary or quaternary crushing. Generally speaking, the standard type of Symons cone crusher is applied to medium crushing. The medium type is applied to fine crushing. The short head type is applied to coarse fine crushing. As casting steel technique is adopted, the machine has good rigidity and large high strength.
Single cylinder hydraulic cone crusherEdit
Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusherEdit
Multi-cylinder hydraulic cone crusher is mainly composed of main frame, eccentric shaft, crushing cone, mantle, bowl liner, adjusting device, dust ring, transmission device, bowl-shaped bearing, adjusting sleeve, hydraulic control system, hydraulic safety system, etc. The electric motor of the cone crusher drives the eccentric shaft to make periodic swing movement under the shaft axis, and consequently surface of mantle approaches and leaves the surface of bowl liner now and then, so that the material is crushed due to squeezing and grinding inside the crushing chamber. The safety cylinder of the machine can ensure safety as well as lift supporting sleeve and static cone by a hydraulic system and automatically remove the blocks in the crushing chamber when the machine is suddenly stuffy. Thus the maintenance rate is greatly reduced and production efficiency is greatly improved as it can remove blocks without disassembling the machine.
Impact crusherEdit
Horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) / HammermillEdit
The HSI crushers break rock by impacting the rock with hammers that are fixed upon the outer edge of a spinning rotor. HSI machines are sold in stationary, trailer mounted and crawler mounted configurations. HSI's are used in recycling, hard rock and soft materials. In earlier years the practical use of HSI crushers is limited to soft materials and non abrasive materials, such as limestone, phosphate, gypsum, weathered shales, however improvements in metallurgy have changed the application of these machines.
Vertical shaft impactor (VSI)Edit
Scheme of a VSI crusher with air-cushion support
VSI crusher
VSI crushers use a different approach involving a high speed rotor with wear resistant tips and a crushing chamber designed to 'throw' the rock against. The VSI crushers utilize velocity rather than surface force as the predominant force to break rock. In its natural state, rock has a jagged and uneven surface. Applying surface force (pressure) results in unpredictable and typically non-cubical resulting particles. Utilizing velocity rather than surface force allows the breaking force to be applied evenly both across the surface of the rock as well as through the mass of the rock. Rock, regardless of size, has natural fissures (faults) throughout its structure. As rock is 'thrown' by a VSI Rotor against a solid anvil, it fractures and breaks along these fissures. Final particle size can be controlled by 1) the velocity at which the rock is thrown against the anvil and 2) the distance between the end of the rotor and the impact point on the anvil. The product resulting from VSI Crushing is generally of a consistent cubical shape such as that required by modern SUPERPAVE highway asphalt applications. Using this method also allows materials with much higher abrasiveness to be crushed than is capable with an HSI and most other crushing methods.
Mineral sizersEdit
The three-stage breaking action: initially, the material is gripped by the leading faces of opposed rotor teeth. These subject the rock to multiple point loading, inducing stress into the material to exploit any natural weaknesses. At the second stage, material is broken in tension by being subjected to a three-point loading, applied between the front tooth faces on one rotor, and rear tooth faces on the other rotor. Any lumps of material that still remain oversize, are broken as the rotors chop through the fixed teeth of the breaker bar, thereby achieving a three dimensional controlled product size.
The rotating screen effect: The interlaced toothed rotor design allows free flowing undersize material to pass through the continuously changing gaps generated by the relatively slow moving shafts.
The deep scroll tooth pattern: The deep scroll conveys the larger material to one end of the machine and helps to spread the feed across the full length of the rotors. This feature can also be used to reject oversize material from the machine.[7]
Crusher BucketEdit
A crusher bucket is an attachment for hydraulic excavators. Its way of working consists on a bucket with two crushing jaws inside, one of them is fixed and the other one moves back and forth relative to it, as in a jaw crusher. They are manufactured with a high inertia power train, circular jaw movement and an antiestagnation plate, which prevents large shredding pieces from getting stuck in the bucket's mouth, not allowing them to enter the crushing jaws. They have also the crushing jaws placed in a cross position. This position together with its circular motion gives these crusher buckets the faculty of grinding wet material.
This is the crushing jaws movement in a Xcentric Crusher bucket, with a patented technology.
For the most part advances in crusher design have moved slowly. Jaw crushers have remained virtually unchanged for sixty years. More reliability and higher production have been added to basic cone crusher designs that have also remained largely unchanged. Increases in rotating speed have provided the largest variation. For instance, a 48-inch (120 cm) cone crusher manufactured in 1960 may be able to produce 170 tons/h of crushed rock, whereas the same size crusher manufactured today may produce 300 tons/h. These production improvements come from speed increases and better crushing chamber designs.
See alsoEdit
1. ^ "Science Museum - Home - Atmospheric engine by Francis Thompson, 1791". Retrieved 2009-07-06.
2. ^ a b James, Burke (1978). "Chapter 6. Fuel to the Flame". Connections, UK ed. "Connections: Alternative History of Technology" (Time Warner International/Macmillan 1978) (ninth, pbk ed.). Little, Brown and Company (North America) / Macmillan, London. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-316-11681-7. by 1600, England was facing an acute timber crises, thanks largely to the increase in glass production
3. ^ a b Burke, James, "Connections", page 167
4. ^ a b Burke, James, "Connections", page 168
5. ^ a b c d Burke, James, "Connections", page 170
6. ^ Clark, Ronald W. (1985). "page 63". Works of Man: History of Invention and Engineering, From the Pyramids to the Space Shuttle (1st American Edition. 8"x10" Hard cover ed.). Viking Penguin,Inc., New York, NY, U.S.A., (1985). pp. 352 (indexed). ISBN 9780670804832. Within a few years, however, the cost was reduced by nine-tenths as it was found cast-iron cylinders could be produced with sufficient accuracy.
7. ^ The MMD Group of Companies."MMD Sizers". The MMD Group of Companies, 2005, p 3.
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To help you learn about the causes of the Cold War, complete the following activity on the BBC website. Make sure you watch the video carefully, because after each section there is a short quiz!
As the activity you completed talked about, Winston Churchill's famous speech the 'Iron Curtain', as well as the initiation of the 'Marshall Plan', were two incidences that helped fuel the onset of the Cold War.
The Iron Curtain
Given on March 5th, 1946, the speech highlights the conflicting ideological views of the west and the east. The speech fuelled the Cold War tension that was emerging between communist and non - communist countries at the time. Below is a short YouTube video that shows a small excerpt of the speech.
To read a full transcript of the speech, click here
The Marshall Plan
Created by Secretary of State George C. Marshall, the Marshall Plan was created to help the war-torn nations of Eastern Euope make it through the economic crisis and food famine after the wake of WWII. Below is a short YouTube video that outlines the main ideas of the Marshall Plan.
To learn more about the Marshall plan, and read a part of the original document, click here
What were the political, ideological and economic reasons that helped cause the Cold War? Some of the answers you would have learnt from the quiz, however you may also need to do some additional web research
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A revolutionary technique for producing hydrogen by releasing oxygen from cerium oxide has been developed by researchers in Italy.
The researchers, from three different institutions in Trieste, used various technologies to obtain the results from the cerium oxide, a pale yellow-white powder used in ceramics and polishing glass. These included scanning tunnelling microscopy which allows images to be obtained of a material’s surface with atomic resolution and numerical modelling used to describe electronic and atomic structure using parallel computing.
Cerium oxide is used as a catalyst which favours many fundamental reactions that have profound implications for energy storage and environmental issues such as the purification of polluted gases and the production of hydrogen.
\\$quot;Ceria-based materials are oxygen buffers, materials that allow one to efficiently store or release oxygen, thus favouring a high catalytic activity and inducing a set of chemical reactions which would otherwise require higher pressures and temperatures,\\$quot; said Friedrich Esch from the TASC INFM-CNR laboratory. \\$quot;The production of more efficient catalysts is therefore of paramount importance for saving energy, increasing the safety of industrial processes and reducing environmental impact.\\$quot;
Stefano Fabris of the National Simulation Centre added that most of the recent research has focused on the energy production from alternative sources, on the reduction of the environmental impact, and on the energy storage. However, to pursue these objectives, new and more efficient catalysts are needed.
Most industrial processes currently involve heterogeneous catalysts - devices that are in a different state to one of the reactants. The present study could inspire the design of new efficient catalysts for producing a large variety of goods, for example, plastic materials, fuels, fertilizers and drugs.
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About Guatemala
Thought to be named after the many trees that blanket the volcanoes, mountains and lowlands, this tiny country situated in Central America has a population of only 14,000,000. The major portion of the population is settled around the current capital, Guatemala City, and La Antigua (literally 'the old' capital). Smaller towns and villages are scattered throughout the 22 regions.
Bordered by Mexico, El Salvador, Honduras, and Belize, Guatemala also has coastal regions on both the Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean. The topography is mainly mountainous but also extends to black volcanic sandy beaches, mangrove forests, the rainforests of Tikal, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and towering volcanoes. Tikal National Park was named the first mixed UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Also a World Heritage Site, the cobbled streets and colonial facades of the city of La Antigua, attract international visitors, specifically during the annual Lenten festivities. Celebrations involve processions of giant floats containing biblical characters carried by locals through streets lined with alfombras (literally carpets of flower petals, fruit and vegetables created by local homeowners and businesses). To be involved in the processiones and Easter re-enactments is a great honour for Guatemalans and preparations take place many months in advance.
The Catholic faith is the dominant religion throughout the country, though indigenous beliefs are still practised, (often interwoven and adapted in the smaller communities where it is not unheard of for traditional Catholic church buildings to house idols and symbols of Maya ritual).
Guatemala's journey to the present winds a treacherous path beginning with unearthed artefacts that date back as far as 12,000BC. Pre-Columbian arrowheads and evidence of maize production suggest the foundations of a hunter-gatherer society which evolved to become a part of the mighty Maya heritage.
Evidence of the Maya survives long after the collapse of the civilisation in 900AD. The colourful dress of the remaining indigenous population is common on the streets of modern-day Guatemala, in stark contrast to the introduction of modern strip malls and office blocks. Apart from the officially-spoken Spanish, 22 Maya languages have been identified in Guatemala including K'iche (spoken by a minority 9% of the population), Kaqchikel, Mam and Q'eqchi.
The geography of Guatemala lends itself easily to natural disasters and earthquakes, mudslides, volcanic eruptions, and hurricanes have all been the source of major disruption and loss of life.
In the Colonial period of Spanish leadership, Guatemala was both Audencia and a Captaincy General until its independence was declared on September 15, 1821.
The politics of Guatemala have proved over the years to have been as tumultous and damaging as natural forces beginning with the dictatorship of Juan Manuel Cabrera (helped to power by the United Fruit Company). The Peace Accord was signed in 1996 and ended the most recent period of armed conflict.
In 1871 Guatemala's Liberal Revolution was assisted by Justo Rufino Barrios who attempted to modernise, improve trade, introduce new crops and manufacturing facilities. It was at this point in time that coffee was introduced as a means of crop production. Today, many coffee plantations continue to produce quality coffee beans that are exported worldwide to places such as the famous Starbucks chain.
Poverty and violence are now the focus for change for Guatemala.
In 2005 the World Health Organisation published figures that suggested that 21.5% of the population were living on less than $1 a day and in 2008 an estimated 40 murders a week were reported in Guatemala City. Domestic violence and crimes against women are endemic and often go unreported. Guatemala has the third lowest rate of contraceptive use in the Americas, 49% of children under 5 suffer from chronic malnutrition and this figure rises to 68% amongst the indigenous population. It is estimated that 30% of pregnant women have nutritional deficiencies.
Raising awareness of the social issues in Guatemala today is crucial in the effort to increase standards of living throughout the population. In 1992, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Rigoberto Menchu for her work raising international awareness of the government sponsored genocide against the indigenous population during the Guatemalan Civil War (1990-96). Many charities work within the country to continue to promote issues of health, hygiene and well-being.
A country of contrasts and diversity, from its ancient roots in the Maya ruins of Tikal, through the earthquake-ravaged colonial facades, to the modern day McDonalds and hypermarkets. Everywhere in Guatemala there is evidence of hard times, but for every image of destruction and decay there is another of hope and rebirth, whether the repeatedly rebuilt churches of Antigua or the giant cross and message of biblical hope mounted atop a city slum. An inner strength shines through in the warmth and welcoming smiles of the people and the beauty of the environment and underlines the uniqueness that is Guatemala.
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Roman and Anglo-Saxon
Newcastle's castle was built on the ruins of a Roman Fort called Pons Aelius. ‘Pons’ is the Latin word for ‘bridge’ while ‘Aelius’ comes from the family name of the Emperor Hadrian, so the name means something like ‘Hadrian’s Bridge’. It was named after the Roman bridge across the Tyne which it guarded, which stood where the Swing Bridge is today.
It was built in around 122AD, about the same time as Hadrian’s Wall, which it formed part of. It was built of timber, and was rebuilt in stone in around 211AD. The soldiers who garrisoned it originally were members of a tribe called the Cugerni from Germany. This regiment was later replaced by a regiment of the Cornovi – a British tribe from near Manchester. This was the only regiment of British soldiers stationed along Hadrian’s Wall.
The fort was abandoned in around 400AD when Roman rule in Britain ended. The Anglo-Saxons who came after them built on the ruins. Today, the only things which can be seen of the Roman fort are the lines of cobbles on the ground around the Keep which mark where the foundations of the buildings used to be.
We don’t know very much about Newcastle after the Romans left. The Anglo-Saxon historian Bede writes about a settlement 12 miles from the sea called ‘Ad Murum’ meaning ‘On the Wall’ which some people have suggested was on the site of modern Newcastle. Later writers say that Newcastle was known as ‘Monkchester’ in Anglo-Saxon times, although there is no evidence of a monastery here.
What we do know is that there was an Anglo-Saxon cemetery on the site of the old Roman fort, underneath the Castle Keep and the railway viaduct. Over 600 graves were excavated between the 1970s and 1990s. There are also the remains of the tower of a small church under one of the viaduct arches, but no evidence of the surrounding settlement.
The church and cemetery were still in use when the Normans invaded in 1066.
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Revenue is the income a firm obtains from the sales of its goods or services. Three terms must be understood:
• Total revenue (TR) - all the revenue earned by the business. Total revenue = price x quantity demanded.
• Average revenue (AR) - total revenue divided by number sold.
• Marginal revenue (MR) - the increase in total revenue as the result of one more sale. This is not necessarily the same as the price. It is only the same as price, if price remains constant.
Revenue curves vary depending on whether price is constant at all levels of output (as in the case of a firm which is a price-taker), or falls as output increases (as in the case of a firm who is a price-setter). Look at Figures 1 and 2 below to see the difference this makes to the shape of the average / marginal revenue and total revenue curves:
Figure 1 Revenue curves - constant price (price-taker)
Figure 2 Revenue curves - falling price (price-setter)
You have to be able to calculate revenue, in any form, from data, then draw and interpret curves. Time for an example, and for you to do some work again!
Output (units) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Total revenue ($ 000) 0 100 180 240 280 300 300 280 240 180 100
Plot this with output on the horizontal axis and revenue on the vertical axis. Look at it and then we will do some more calculations.
There is also a static version of this graph available.
Total revenue rose at first, reached a maximum, and then declined.
From the total revenue curve data above, now calculate the figures for marginal revenue and average revenue. Once you have had a go, click on the answer link below to check your calculations.
Answer - revenue calculations
Now, plot the marginal and average revenue curves from this data as well. Examine it. What does it tell you?
There is also a static version of this graph available.
Observation of the graph shows:
• Both AR and MR fall as output increases.
• AR and MR start at the same point on the Y-axis, at the same level of revenue.
• MR can and does become negative.
• Using the first graph as well, when MR is zero, TR is at its maximum. Output is 5.5 units.
Within economics you will meet:
• Normal profit - is that level of profit which is just sufficient to keep the firm in its present use. Normal profit is assumed to be an element of the ATC curve.
• Supernormal profit (or abnormal profit)- this is any profit made in excess of normal profit.
The definitions of supernormal and normal profit mean that profit on a diagram drawn by an economist shows supernormal profit only. Normal profit is included as an element of the ATC curve and arises where ATC = AR. Examine the following diagrams (we'll look at how to build these diagrams in more detail later on):
Figure 3 Firm in perfect competition - supernormal profit
Figure 4 Monopoly - supernormal profit
This has to be compared with the accountant's definition of profit.
Accounting profit
The difference between revenue from sales and the costs incurred in making these sales, regardless of any credits given or taken.
Accountants deal in facts. They do not get involved with concepts such as normal profit. Governments tax accounting profit, not normal profit.
Why do firms try to make a profit?
Profit has many uses:
• It is the return to the entrepreneur.
• It is a source of funds for development
• It is a motivator.
Profit is a driving force within business. It is an incentive to invest for investors. It lies behind all cost reduction exercises, as the aim of cost reduction is profit maximisation.
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Pediatric Enteroviral Infections
Updated: Jun 16, 2017
• Print
Enteroviruses, a group of single-stranded sense RNA viruses, are commonly encountered infections, especially in infants and children. They are responsible for a myriad of clinical syndromes, including hand-foot-and-mouth (HFM) disease, herpangina, myocarditis, aseptic meningitis, and pleurodynia.
Patients with enterovirus infections may present with symptoms as benign as an uncomplicated summer cold or as threatening as encephalitis, myocarditis, or neonatal sepsis. Enteroviral infections annually result in a large number of physician and emergency department visits. In 1998, Pichichero et al performed a prospective study and found that nonpolio enteroviral infections resulted in direct medical costs ranging from $69-771 per case. [1] In addition, patients with nonpolio enteroviral infections missed a minimum of 1 day of school or camp; some missed as many as 3 days of school or camp. The significant economic and medical impacts of enteroviral infections occur mostly during the peak months of summer and fall. In temperate climates, enteroviral outbreaks occur year-round.
Enteroviruses belong to the Picornaviridae (small RNA viruses) family. The enteroviral group includes coxsackievirus, echovirus, and poliovirus. Enteroviruses are believed to have 2 distinct classes: polioviruses (types 1, 2, and 3) and nonpolioviruses (coxsackievirus, enterovirus, echoviruses, and unclassified enteroviruses). Enteroviral infections consist of 23 coxsackievirus A, 6 coxsackievirus B, 28 echovirus, and 5 unclassified enteroviruses.
More recently, a related genus of viruses, Parechovirus, has been described; two enterovirus species (echovirus types 22 and 23) were reassigned as parechovirus. [2] To date, more than a dozen parechovirus strains have been described; however, not all sequences have been published. The clinical appearance of Parechovirus infection can be similar to enteroviral infections, but tests for Parechovirus are mostly confined to research laboratories.
The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported a 2014 outbreak of enterovirus 68 (also called enterovirus D68) that began in at least six US states from mid-August to mid-September, including Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, and Missouri. [3] This outbreak has since spread coast to coast, with 175 cases in 27 states. The additional reported states include Alabama, California, Connecticut, Georgia, Indiana, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Washington. [4] The total number of confirmed cases is higher because this figure does not include cases confirmed by individual state laboratories. Enterovirus 68 was first identified in 1962 in California but had not been commonly reported in the United States before the 2014 outbreak. The CDC identified that among the enterovirus 68 cases in Missouri and Illinois, children with asthma seemed to have a higher risk for severe respiratory illness. [3]
Enterovirus 71 has gained notoriety in recent years for causing a rapidly fatal rhombencephalitis, in association with epidemics of HFM disease in East Asian countries. This appears to be a particularly aggressive neutrophic serotype of enterovirus.
Coxsackievirus A6 was recently described as a somewhat distinct clinical entity of "atypical hand foot mouth disease", as the skin lesions described are vesiculobullous rather than the typical flat ulcers seen in HFM disease and may be more extensive, often involving areas of preexisting eczema.
Each virus obtains its antigenicity from the capsid proteins that surround the RNA core. According to the CDC, 65 human serotypes of enteroviruses have been identified; however, a small number cause most outbreaks. Since the implementation of polio vaccines, the incidence of wild-type polio has been eradicated in the western hemisphere.
The most common form of human transmission is the fecal-to-oral route. Although respiratory and oral-to-oral routes are possible, they are more likely to occur in crowded living conditions. Enteroviruses are quite resilient. They remain viable at room temperature for several days and can survive the acidic pH of the human GI tract. The incubation period is usually 3-10 days.
The enterovirus enters the human host through the GI or respiratory tract. The cell surfaces of the GI tract serve as viral receptors, and initial replication begins in the local lymphatic GI tissue. The virus seeds into the bloodstream, causing a minor viremia on the third day of infection. The virus then invades organ systems, causing a second viremic episode on days 3-7. This second viremic episode is consistent with the biphasic prodromal illness. The infection can progress to CNS involvement during the major viremic phase or at a later time. Antibody production in response to enteroviral infections occurs within the first 7-10 days.
Coxsackievirus notoriously replicates in the pharynx (herpangina), the skin (HFM disease), the myocardium (myocarditis), and the meninges (aseptic meningitis). It can also involve the adrenal glands, pancreas, liver, pleura, and lung.
Echovirus can replicate in the liver (hepatic necrosis), the myocardium, the skin (viral exanthems), the meninges (aseptic meningitis), the lungs, and the adrenal glands.
After exposure, poliovirus replicates in the oropharynx and GI tissue. Following this replication, polio advances, invading the motor neurons of the anterior horn cells of the spinal cord. It can progress to other CNS regions, including the motor cortex, cerebellum, thalamus, hypothalamus, midbrain, and medulla, causing death of neurons and paralysis. Neuropathy occurs due to direct cellular destruction. Antibody production occurs in the lymphatic system of the GI tract, prior to invasion of the CNS tissue. Infants retain transplacental immunity for the first 4-6 months of life.
The enteroviruses are capable of directing almost all cellular protein translation to viral genes through the modification of host cell translation factors (messenger RNA [mRNA] cap-binding proteins) and using internal ribosome entry sites (IRES) to bypass the crippled host machinery. As such, they are highly damaging to the cells they infect.
United States
Nonpolio enteroviral infections cause an estimated 10-15 million symptomatic infections per year in the United States. Many are treated as potential episodes of sepsis, and antibiotics and acyclovir are administered to treat possible bacterial or herpetic infection.
In 1952, an epidemic of polio occurred in the United States, causing 3,000 deaths and 57,879 cases. The vaccine has virtually eliminated wild-type polio in the United States. In 1994, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the eradication of wild polio in the Western hemisphere. Approximately 6 cases of vaccine-associated paralytic polio (VAPP) occur yearly, leading to the recommendation of inactivated vaccine because the risk of natural disease is so rare in the United States. VAPP is linked to the concomitant administration of live (oral) polio vaccine with intramuscular injections (perhaps allowing the virus better access to myocytes and neuronal axons) and occurs in 1 per 2-4 million vaccinations (paralytic polio occurs in 1 in 200 wild-type infections).
In 1979, an outbreak occurred in numerous Amish communities throughout the United States. A smaller outbreak occurred in 2005 in an Amish community in Minnesota. Genetic sequencing of the virus surprisingly revealed that it was only 2.3% different from the Sabin vaccine strain and was likely acquired from subclinical circulating infections from overseas.
Nonpolio enteroviral infections are quite prevalent worldwide. The exact numbers are unavailable. [5, 6, 7]
Poliomyelitis still occurs in many developing countries as a result of poor health care and an inability to access vaccines. [8] The CDC reported 6227 cases in 1998. [9] This significant drop from the previous decade, in which 35,251 cases were reported, is due to aggressive vaccination programs. Worldwide eradication is hoped to occur in the near future.
Recently, setbacks have been noted in Nigeria, where suspicion about the motivations of the vaccination program led to a refusal to vaccinate children. One outbreak in 2003 crossed 15 other African countries and even spread as far as Indonesia, resulting in the paralysis of over 200 children. A more recent outbreak in 2006 affected mostly adults who were missed by vaccination campaigns. As of June 2006, 7 people had died and 27 people had been paralyzed. Nigeria had about half of the reported polio infections in the first 3 months of 2009.
With war and civil unrest, new cases have been seen in Somalia and Syria, as reported below. Somalia in particular has been hard hit, as militant activity and specific attacks against Medecins Sans Frontieres staff who have been coordinating large parts of the vaccination efforts resulted in the organization pulling out of the country entirely in late 2013.
Worldwide polio cases from 2013 are reported as follows: [10]
• Nigeria (endemic) – 53 (801 cases in 2008)
• India (now eradicated) – 0 (559 cases in 2008)
• Pakistan (endemic) – 93 (118 cases in 2008)
• Afghanistan (endemic) - 14 (31 cases in 2008)
• Ethiopia (outbreak) - 9 (3 cases in 2008)
• Kenya (outbreak) - 14 (0 cases in 2008)
• Somalia (outbreak) - 190 (0 in 2008)
• Syria (outbreak) - 23 (0 in 2008)
• 3 more cases confirmed in June 2017 [11]
• Cameroon (outbreak) - 4 (unknown in 2008 but last previous case was in 2009)
• Democratic Republic of Congo- 4 cases confirmed in June 2017 [12]
Much of the success of the WHO polio eradication campaign has been through aggressive vaccination and grass-roots support from religious, tribal, and social leaders. A monovalent oral polio vaccine (mOPV) is increasingly used in areas with a single circulating strain because it appears to be more effective at inducing protective immunity. However, vaccine-associated paralysis is more likely with the live-attenuated oral polio vaccine (OPV). To fully eradicate paralytic polio, the WHO is working towards a global transition to the inactivated polio vaccine where possible.
Some genetic evidence suggests that if the poliovirus is eradicated, genetic recombination between other enteroviruses may result in a phenotypically similar virus. However, this appears to be of academic interest only at this time.
The overall mortality rate for nonpolio viruses is extremely low. The patients at greatest risk are those with neonatal sepsis.
Occasionally, enteroviruses cause global encephalitis, which has a good prognosis; however, a few fatalities have been reported. Enterovirus 71 has been linked with a rhombencephalitis (inflammation of the brain stem) in outbreaks of hand-foot-and-mouth disease in the eastern hemisphere (Taiwan, Japan, Malaysia, and Australia). Fatality rates from these outbreaks have been as high as 14%. Myoclonus is a poor prognostic indicator, as are lethargy, persistent fever, and peak temperature higher than 38.5 º C. [13]
Most cases of myocarditis and pericarditis are self-limited, but a potentially significant mortality rate is associated with myocarditis. Older patients can develop a dilated cardiomyopathy following myocarditis.
The overall mortality rate for paralytic polio is 2-10%. For those who survive, a 6-month period is allowed to predict how much muscle function will return.
Enteroviruses have a worldwide distribution and are not race-specific infections.
Males and females are equally affected. Males are more likely to be symptomatic.
People of all ages, including adults, elderly people, and young people, are at risk of manifesting symptoms of enteroviruses. Children have a higher rate of infection because of exposure, hygiene, and immunity status. The infection course tends to be benign in older children and more serious in neonates. Unlike most cases of nonpolio enteroviral infections, acute hemorrhagic conjunctivitis occurs most frequently in adults aged 20-50 years.
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You are on page 1of 5
Experiment 26
Lung Volumes and Capacities
Pulmonary function tests are a broad range of tests that measure lung volumes and
capacities that are usually done in a health care provider's office or a specialized facility.
In other words, they measure how well the lungs take in and exhale air and how
efficiently they transfer oxygen into the blood. Lung volumes and capacities are related to
a person’s age, weight, gender and body position. In fact, vital capacity decreases with
age, in supine position as compared with erect (sitting or standing posture) and with
restrictive and obstructive lung diseases. On the other hand, residual volume increases
with age and with obstructive lung diseases such as emphysema.
Perhaps the oldest device and the most commonly used lung function screening
study is spirometry. Spirometry measures how well the lungs exhale. The information
obstructive pulmonary disease, COPD).
A wet spirometer measures lung volumes based on the simple mechanical
volumes are defined below and illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 1: Wet spirometer
Relation to the Case
In the case, we have a patient who has symptoms of cough and shortness of
breath. His chest x-ray showed symptoms of infiltrates and pneumonia which will
definitely affect his breathing. Thus, it is important to perform pulmonary function tests
such as spirometry to measure the patient’s lung volume and capacities. This can help
determine the degree of difficulty the lungs are going through. It can also be used after
disease treatment.
Objectives of the Experiment
1. To define and measure the various lung volumes and capacities
2. To compare the values obtained between a female and a male subject.
The different lung volumes and capacities were measured with the use of a wet
spirometer taken with the subject standing.
The various lung volumes and capacities were done in three trials and the average
of each was taken. The ones measured were as follows:
Tidal Volume – The subject was asked to inhale a normal breath. After which,
he/she was asked to place the mouthpiece of the spirometer between the lips and then
exhale normally into the spirometer.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) – After exhaling normally, the mouthpiece is
placed between the lips and the subject was asked to exhale forcefully all the additional
air possible.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) – The subject was asked to breathe in deeply as
much as he/she can. Then place the mouthpiece and exhale normally. The value recorded
here is subtracted from the tidal volume to get the IRV.
Vital Capacity – Breathe in maximally, place the mouthpiece and then forcibly
exhale all the air possible.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC) – After exhaling normally, breathe in as deeply as
possible, place the mouthpiece and exhale normally.
Figure 3: Testing of the subjects involved
Marco Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
TV 0.4 0.5 0.7 0.53 L
ERV 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.80 L
IRV 1.1 – 0.4 = 0.7 1.4 – 0.5 = 0.9 1.2 – 0.7 = 0.5 0.70 L
VC 3.0 3.5 4.5 3.66 L
IC 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.23 L
Figure 4: Tabulated result of the male subject’s different lung volume and capacities
Isay Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
TV 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.23 L
ERV 0.6 1.0 0.8 0.80 L
IRV 0.5 – 0.3 = 0.2 0.4 – 0.2 = 0.2 0.4 – 0.2 = 0.2 0.20 L
VC 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.33 L
IC 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.43 L
Figure 5: Tabulated result of the female subject’s different lung volume and capacities
The measurement of the different lung volumes and capacities by the use of a wet
spirometer was done with the subject standing so that the abdominal organs do not
interfere with the diaphragm as it contracts and moves downward, pushing out the
The various lung volumes and capacities that were measured using the spirometer
are the tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, inspiratory reserve volume, vital
capacity and inspiratory capacity. The tidal volume or the resting tidal volume is the
volume of air entering the lungs during a single inspiration which is approximately equal
to the volume leaving the lungs on the subsequent expiration. The normal value of which
is 500ml/0.5L. The expiratory reserve volume is the additional volume of air that can be
expired after the resting tidal volume which amounts to 1500 ml. Meanwhile, the amount
of air than can still be inspired after the resting tidal volume is termed inspiratory reserve
volume which is about 3000 ml. On the other hand, the capacities are the sums of the two
or more lung volumes. Inspiratory capacity is the maximum volume of air that can be
inspired from end expiratory position. It is called a capacity because it is the sum of tidal
volume and inspiratory reserve volume. The vital capacity is the maximal volume of air
that a person can expire, regardless of the time required, after a maximal inspiration. In
other words, it is the sum of the three volumes: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume
and expiratory reserve volume.. A variant on this method is the forced vital capacity
(FVC), in which the person takes a maximal inspiration and then exhales maximally as
fast as possible. The apparatus that measures this also measures the volume expired after
1 second. This is the forced expiratory volume in 1 second or the FEV1 of which normal
persons can expire approximately 80 percent of the FVC in 1 second. These
measurements are useful diagnostic tools for patients with obstructive lung disorders in
which they cannot expire a normal fraction of the FVC in 1 second because of their
narrowed airways. On the contrary, patients with restrictive lung diseases are
characterized by a reduced vital capacity but a normal FEV1/FVC ratio.
Based on the tabulated results above, we can see that there is a difference in the
lung volume and capacities recorded between the male and female. Usually the lung
volumes and capacities of males are larger than the lung volumes and capacities of
females. Even when males and females are matched for height and weight, males have
larger lungs than females. Because of this gender-dependent lung size difference,
different normal tables must be used for males and females.
Also as noted on the tables above, the female subject’s lung volume results was
considerably lower than normal. This could probably be that the subject had coughs and
colds during experimentation that affected her breathing, and in turn affected the different
lung volumes.
We can note in this experiment that a spirometer can only measure the different
lung volumes and capacities mentioned above. The total lung capacity and residual
volume cannot be measured directly with a spirometer. In the case of the residual volume,
it is not possible for us to expire this since this volume of air remains in the lungs even
after we forcibly expire. Meanwhile, since the total lung capacity is the sum of the four
distinct lung volumes including here is the residual volume, it also cannot be measured.
In this experiment, we were able to define and measure the various lung volumes
and capacities with the use of a wet spirometer. However, the residual volume and the
total lung capacity were not measured since the residual volume, which is one of the
components of the total lung capacity, is the volume of air remaining in lungs even after
forceful expiration. We also observed that the lung volumes and capacities between males
and females vary. Males usually exhibit larger lung volumes and capacities than females
because of the gender-dependent lung size difference.
Kisner, C. and Colby, L. (1996). Therapeutic Exercise Foundations and Techniques, 3rd
ed. F. A. Davis Company.
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MSDN Visual Basic Community
TitleUse regular expressions in VB .NET
DescriptionThis example shows how to use regular expressions in VB .NET. It uses the Regex class to validate text entered by the user.
Keywordsregular expression, string, parsing, parse
CategoriesStrings, Algorithms
When the user changes the text in the txtTestExp text box, the program makes a Regex object, passing the constructor the regular expression to match. It calls the object's IsMatch method, passing it the text that the user entered and sets the text box's background color to yellow if the text doesn't match the expression.
Private Sub txtTestExp_TextChanged(ByVal sender As _
System.Object, ByVal e As System.EventArgs) Handles _
Dim reg_exp As New Regex(txtRegExp.Text)
If reg_exp.IsMatch(txtTestExp.Text) Then
txtTestExp.BackColor = Color.White
txtTestExp.BackColor = Color.Yellow
End If
End Sub
The example program starts with the regular expression "^([2-9]{3}-)?[2-9]{3}-\d{4}$". The pieces of this expression have the following meanings:
^Match the beginning of the string
[2-9]{3}-Match the characters 2 through 9 exactly 3 times, followed by a -
([2-9]{3}-)?Match the expression "[2-9]{3}-" zero or 1 times
[2-9]{3}-Again, match the characters 2 through 9 exactly 3 times, followed by a -
\d{4}Match any digit exactly 4 times
$Match the end of the string
The result is that the string must have the form 222-2222 or 222-222-2222.
Also note that the Regex class has a shared IsMatch method that you can use without creating a Regex object. Creating an object as in this example allows the object to compile the regular expression so it can later evaluate the expression more quickly. This is useful if you need to use the expression many times.
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"language_score": 0.6904860138893127,
"url": "http://vb-helper.com/howto_net_regular_expression.html"
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How to teach grammar to elementary students
The teachers need to make the strong foundation in the English subject, because only then they will be getting the better knowledge about the subject and they will be using the basic things throughout their lifetime. Every subject area has its own topic that keeps the students particularly interested in the specific part of the subject.
Likewise in English, grammar is the topic which keeps the ELA and even educators to love and show more interest in learning the grammar. But there are also some students who don’t like studying the grammar, because they found that is hard to learn, once the educators teach grammar in elementary school in a better and simple way the grammar becomes an interesting topic for the students where they also love to learn grammar.
The regularities and rules of the English subject can be hard to students and the usual teaching strategies, such as editing or sentence diagramming examples which can be of disengaging and boring one for the students.
In general the grammar is not taught in the tedious way where the educators teach the elementary students with fun grammar activities, this helps them to understand the grammar even more than before. This way of the grammar with fun activities method was developed by the curriculum writers for teaching the English grammar to the elementary students in the motive to keep them attentive, interest and love to study grammar.
6 fun activities to teach grammar to ELA students
The following are the 6 fun activities of teaching grammar to the ELA school students in which this method of teaching grammar through games will help the students to learn and understand the rules and regulations of the grammar and also they get to know grab the things in quick and fast manner.
In general when the subjects or topic methods taught using a game or music then students will get to understand it easily and they won’t forget till their lifetime.
• ELA studentsHot (grammar) potato
• Create posters
• Conjunction bee
• Fastest editor
• Grammar drama
• Pop culture revisions
For example the hot potato is fun game that requires the quick hands and quick thinking and it is of a small group or whole class activity. Here the teacher chooses the category such as like verb and gives a small ball or any other item (potato) to pass and the teacher sets the time clock or play the music, where the student need to pass the ball to the next person by shouting the topic by saying the example.
The game continues until the students get the correct example for the verb where the game difficulty depends on the topic. The above are easy ways to teach grammar to elementary student’s game, the curriculum developers can transform the tedious and hard grammar instruction into the fun lessons. Many teachers are suggesting to their students to play the grammar games to easily understand the variation in grammar.
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e (mathematical constant)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
Graph of the equation Here, e is the unique number larger than 1 that makes the shaded area equal to 1.
The constant can be characterized in many different ways. For example, e can be defined as the unique positive number a such that the graph of the function y = ax has unit slope at x = 0.[3] The function f(x) = ex is called the (natural) exponential function, and is the unique exponential function equal to its own derivative. The natural logarithm, or logarithm to base e, is the inverse function to the natural exponential function. The natural logarithm of a number k > 1 can be defined directly as the area under the curve y = 1/x between x = 1 and x = k, in which case e is the value of k for which this area equals one (see image). There are alternative characterizations.
2.71828182845904523536028747135266249775724709369995... (sequence A001113 in the OEIS).
The constant has been historically typeset as "e", in italics, although the ISO 80000-2:2009 standard recommends typesetting constants in an upright style.
Compound interest[edit]
If the interest is credited twice in the year, the interest rate for each 6 months will be 50%, so the initial $1 is multiplied by 1.5 twice, yielding $1.00 × 1.52 = $2.25 at the end of the year. Compounding quarterly yields $1.00 × 1.254 = $2.4414…, and compounding monthly yields $1.00 × (1 + 1/12)12 = $2.613035… If there are n compounding intervals, the interest for each interval will be 100%/n and the value at the end of the year will be $1.00×(1 + 1/n)n.
Bernoulli noticed that this sequence approaches a limit (the force of interest) with larger n and, thus, smaller compounding intervals. Compounding weekly (n = 52) yields $2.692597…, while compounding daily (n = 365) yields $2.714567…, just two cents more. The limit as n grows large is the number that came to be known as e; with continuous compounding, the account value will reach $2.7182818...
Bernoulli trials[edit]
Graphs of probability P of not observing independent events each of probability 1/n after n Bernoulli trials, and 1 − P vs n ; it can be observed that as n increases, the probability of a 1/n-chance event never appearing after n tries rapidly converges to 1/e.
This is very close to the limit
Optimal planning problems[edit]
A stick of length L is broken into n equal parts. The value of n that maximizes the product of the lengths is then either[15]
The stated result follows because the maximum value of occurs at (Steiner's problem, discussed below). The quantity is a measure of information gleaned from an event occurring with probability , so that essentially the same optimal division appears in optimal planning problems like the secretary problem.
The number e occurs naturally in connection with many problems involving asymptotics. An example is Stirling's formula for the asymptotics of the factorial function, in which both the numbers e and π enter:
As a consequence,
Standard normal distribution[edit]
The normal distribution with zero mean and unit standard deviation is known as the standard normal distribution, given by the probability density function
The constraint of unit variance (and thus also unit standard deviation) results in the 1/2 in the exponent, and the constraint of unit total area under the curve ϕ(x) results in the factor .[proof] This function is symmetric around x = 0, where it attains its maximum value , and has inflection points at x = ±1.
In calculus[edit]
The graphs of the functions xax are shown for a = 2 (dotted), a = e (blue), and a = 4 (dashed). They all pass through the point (0,1), but the red line (which has slope 1) is tangent to only ex there.
The value of the natural log function for argument e, i.e. ln(e), equals 1.
The principal motivation for introducing the number e, particularly in calculus, is to perform differential and integral calculus with exponential functions and logarithms.[16] A general exponential function y = ax has a derivative, given by a limit:
The parenthesized limit on the right is independent of the variable x: it depends only on the base a. When the base is set to e, this limit is equal to 1, and so e is symbolically defined by the equation:
Another motivation comes from considering the derivative of the base-a logarithm,[17] i.e., of loga x for x > 0:
where the substitution u = h/x was made. The a-logarithm of e is 1, if a equals e. So symbolically,
The logarithm with this special base is called the natural logarithm and is denoted as ln; it behaves well under differentiation since there is no undetermined limit to carry through the calculations.
There are thus two ways in which to select such special numbers a. One way is to set the derivative of the exponential function ax equal to ax, and solve for a. The other way is to set the derivative of the base a logarithm to 1/x and solve for a. In each case, one arrives at a convenient choice of base for doing calculus. It turns out that these two solutions for a are actually the same, the number e.
Alternative characterizations[edit]
The five colored regions are of equal area, and define units of hyperbolic angle along the hyperbola
1. The number e is the unique positive real number such that .
The following four characterizations can be proven equivalent:
1. The number e is the limit
2. The number e is the sum of the infinite series
where n! is the factorial of n.
4. If f(t) is an exponential function, then the quantity is a constant, sometimes called the time constant (it is the reciprocal of the exponential growth constant or decay constant). The time constant is the time it takes for the exponential function to increase by a factor of e: .
and therefore its own antiderivative as well:
Exponential functions and intersect the graph of , respectively, at and . The number is the unique base such that intersects only at . We may infer that lies between 2 and 4.
The number e is the unique real number such that
for all positive x.[18]
Also, we have the inequality
for all real x, with equality if and only if x = 0. Furthermore, e is the unique base of the exponential for which the inequality axx + 1 holds for all x.[19] This is a limiting case of Bernoulli's inequality.
Exponential-like functions[edit]
The global maximum of occurs at x = e.
Steiner's problem asks to find the global maximum for the function
This maximum occurs precisely at x = e. For proof, the inequality , from above, evaluated at and simplifying gives . So for all positive x.[20]
defined for positive x. More generally, for the function
The infinite tetration
Number theory[edit]
The real number e is irrational. Euler proved this by showing that its simple continued fraction expansion is infinite.[22] (See also Fourier's proof that e is irrational.)
Complex numbers[edit]
The exponential function ex may be written as a Taylor series
Furthermore, using the laws for exponentiation,
which is de Moivre's formula.
The expression
is sometimes referred to as cis(x).
The expressions of and in terms of the exponential function can be deduced:
Differential equations[edit]
The general function
is the solution to the differential equation:
given above, as well as the series
Less common is the continued fraction (sequence A003417 in the OEIS).
which written out looks like
This continued fraction for e converges three times as quickly:[citation needed]
Stochastic representations[edit]
In addition to exact analytical expressions for representation of e, there are stochastic techniques for estimating e. One such approach begins with an infinite sequence of independent random variables X1, X2…, drawn from the uniform distribution on [0, 1]. Let V be the least number n such that the sum of the first n observations exceeds 1:
Then the expected value of V is e: E(V) = e.[24][25]
Known digits[edit]
The number of known digits of e has increased substantially during the last decades. This is due both to the increased performance of computers and to algorithmic improvements.[26][27]
Number of known decimal digits of e
Date Decimal digits Computation performed by
1690 1 Jacob Bernoulli[7]
1714 13 Roger Cotes[28]
1748 23 Leonhard Euler[29]
1853 137 William Shanks[30]
1871 205 William Shanks[31]
1884 346 J. Marcus Boorman[32]
1949 2,010 John von Neumann (on the ENIAC)
1961 100,265 Daniel Shanks and John Wrench[33]
1978 116,000 Steve Wozniak on the Apple II[34]
Since that time, the proliferation of modern high-speed desktop computers has made it possible for amateurs, with the right hardware, to compute trillions of digits of e.[35]
In computer culture[edit]
For instance, in the IPO filing for Google in 2004, rather than a typical round-number amount of money, the company announced its intention to raise $2,718,281,828, which is e billion dollars rounded to the nearest dollar. Google was also responsible for a billboard[36] that appeared in the heart of Silicon Valley, and later in Cambridge, Massachusetts; Seattle, Washington; and Austin, Texas. It read "{first 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of e}.com". Solving this problem and visiting the advertised (now defunct) web site led to an even more difficult problem to solve, which in turn led to Google Labs where the visitor was invited to submit a résumé.[37] The first 10-digit prime in e is 7427466391, which starts at the 99th digit.[38]
1. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed.: natural logarithm
2. ^ Encyclopedic Dictionary of Mathematics 142.D
3. ^ Jerrold E. Marsden, Alan Weinstein (1985). Calculus. Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-90974-5.
4. ^ Sondow, Jonathan. "e". Wolfram Mathworld. Wolfram Research. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
5. ^ a b c O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F. "The number e". MacTutor History of Mathematics.
6. ^ Howard Whitley Eves (1969). An Introduction to the History of Mathematics. Holt, Rinehart & Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-029558-4.
9. ^ Lettre XV. Euler à Goldbach, dated November 25, 1731 in: P.H. Fuss, ed., Correspondance Mathématique et Physique de Quelques Célèbres Géomètres du XVIIIeme Siècle … (Mathematical and physical correspondence of some famous geometers of the 18th century), vol. 1, (St. Petersburg, Russia: 1843), pp. 56–60, see especially p. 58. From p. 58: " … ( e denotat hic numerum, cujus logarithmus hyperbolicus est = 1), … " ( … (e denotes that number whose hyperbolic [i.e., natural] logarithm is equal to 1) … )
10. ^ Remmert, Reinhold (1991). Theory of Complex Functions. Springer-Verlag. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-387-97195-7
11. ^ Euler, Meditatio in experimenta explosione tormentorum nuper instituta.
12. ^ Leonhard Euler, Mechanica, sive Motus scientia analytice exposita (St. Petersburg (Petropoli), Russia: Academy of Sciences, 1736), vol. 1, Chapter 2, Corollary 11, paragraph 171, p. 68. From page 68: Erit enim seu ubi e denotat numerum, cuius logarithmus hyperbolicus est 1. (So it [i.e., c, the speed] will be or , where e denotes the number whose hyperbolic [i.e., natural] logarithm is 1.)
13. ^ Grinstead, C.M. and Snell, J.L.Introduction to probability theory (published online under the GFDL), p. 85.
15. ^ Steven Finch (2003). Mathematical constants. Cambridge University Press. p. 14.
17. ^ This is the approach taken by Kline (1998).
18. ^ Dorrie, Heinrich (1965). 100 Great Problems of Elementary Mathematics. Dover. pp. 44–48.
19. ^ A standard calculus exercise using the mean value theorem; see for example Apostol (1967) Calculus, §6.17.41.
22. ^ Sandifer, Ed (Feb 2006). "How Euler Did It: Who proved e is Irrational?" (PDF). MAA Online. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-02-23. Retrieved 2010-06-18.
23. ^ Hofstadter, D.R., "Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies: Computer Models of the Fundamental Mechanisms of Thought" Basic Books (1995) ISBN 0-7139-9155-0
24. ^ Russell, K.G. (1991) Estimating the Value of e by Simulation The American Statistician, Vol. 45, No. 1. (Feb., 1991), pp. 66–68.
26. ^ Sebah, P. and Gourdon, X.; The constant e and its computation
27. ^ Gourdon, X.; Reported large computations with PiFast
28. ^ Roger Cotes (1714) "Logometria," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 29 (338) : 5–45; see especially the bottom of page 10. From page 10: "Porro eadem ratio est inter 2,718281828459 &c et 1, … " (Furthermore, by the same means, the ratio is between 2.718281828459… and 1, … )
30. ^ William Shanks, Contributions to Mathematics, … (London, England: G. Bell, 1853), page 89.
32. ^ J. Marcus Boorman (October 1884) "Computation of the Naperian base," Mathematical Magazine, 1 (12) : 204–205.
33. ^ Daniel Shanks and John W Wrench (1962). "Calculation of Pi to 100,000 Decimals" (PDF). Mathematics of Computation. 16 (77): 76–99 (78). doi:10.2307/2003813. JSTOR 2003813. We have computed e on a 7090 to 100,265D by the obvious program
35. ^ Alexander Yee. "e".
36. ^ First 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of e}. Brain Tags. Retrieved on 2012-02-24.
37. ^ Shea, Andrea. "Google Entices Job-Searchers with Math Puzzle". NPR. Retrieved 2007-06-09.
38. ^ Kazmierczak, Marcus (2004-07-29). "Google Billboard". Retrieved 2007-06-09.
Further reading[edit]
External links[edit]
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Elision (Latin: “striking out”) is the slurring or omission of a final unstressed vowel that precedes either another vowel or a weak consonant sound, as in heav’n (for heaven). It may also be the dropping of a consonant between vowels, as in o’er (for over). Elision is used to fit words into a metrical scheme, to smooth the rhythm of a poem, or to ease pronunciation.
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"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9128047823905945,
"url": "https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/elision/322351"
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Exploring space
Ever wondered what is actually out there in space? Well you don’t need a space suit to find out. You don’t even have to set foot inside a space craft. You may have seen or read in the news about NASA’s Mars Rover called Curiosity which is a robot designed for exploring the surface of the planet Mars.
Sent up into space by scientists at NASA, Curiosity has already sent back some interesting finds, from rocks with unusual compositions, and soil that is very similar to that found in Hawaii. The robot is made of different parts which have been developed by scientists and engineers to do different jobs. For example, it has high definition cameras, so we can see what is on Mars, and special wheels and tyres, for navigating the surface of the planet. Curiosity can even scoop up samples and use its specialist equipment to analyse rock samples so it can tell us what Mars is made of.
You may wonder what the point is of exploring space but from this kind of research we can tell what is actually out there, it can explain the history of our solar system, it may also help us develop new technologies which can be useful for everyone here on Earth and for some there is always the hope of finding extra terrestrial life.
However, sending such technology into space can be quite tricky and requires the work of skilled scientists and engineers. Not only does technology need to be developed to work whilst in space, or on a different planet but space craft are needed to get it there. We already have rockets and spacecraft to get robots and humans there but engineers are now working to design and develop ways that we can access and explore space at a lower cost.
If you think you have the curiosity and drive to find what is out there you could be involved as:
The image within this article is courtesy of NASA
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• Today is: Tuesday, April 23, 2019
Leprosy: know the causes and symptoms:
Dr. Monika Bhanushali
Dr. Monika Bhanushali
September30/ 2016
Leprosy is also known as Hansen’s disease. It is an infectious disease caused by bacteria Mycobacterium leprae. The disease has affected many people all around the world. In previous years, leprosy was associated with social stigma because of which people have been out casted and shunned from the societies.
Even today, India has largest number of cases of Leprosy. Every year almost 1.2 to 1. 3 lac new cases of leprosy are reported from India.
The bacteria spread through droplets by repeated contact with an infected an untreated person. Children are more susceptible than adults. Contrary to the common belief, leprosy is not highly contagious. and it is completely curable. As these bacteria grow slowly, the symptoms may even appear 20 years after the infection.
1. Skin lesions: light coloured skin patches
2. Thickened nerves: the nerves become thick as the bacteria reside inside the nerve tissue.
3. Numbness: the area of the hypopigmented patches are in sensitive to touch.
4. Muscle weakness: as the nerves are damaged, the muscles become weak
5. Deformity of hands and feet: as the sensations in the hands and legs are lost, the chances of secondary infections can result in loss of tissue from the limbs resulting in ulcers and deformities. It can even result in wrist drop, feet drop and claw hand.
6. Eye problems: as the sensations are lost in the eyes, there are chances of injury to the eye resulting even in loss of vision. Muscles supporting the eyes might get affected resulting in lagopthalmos.
Types of leprosy:
There are two broad categories in which leprosy is classified:
1. Tuberculoid also known as paucibacillary: it has only one light coloured in-sensitive patch and nerve involvement
2. Lepromatous also known as multibacillary: it has symmetric patches and nodules, nerve involvement
3. Just nerve involvement without skin lesions can also be present
1. Clinical diagnosis:
Presence of skin lesions with sensory loss indicates the symptoms of leprosy. Mainly the diagnosis is done by the clinical presentation of light coloured skin patches and definite loss of sensation.
1. Skin smear:
A skin smear of the skin lesion show presence of the bacteria under the microscope.
Leprosy was feared to be not curable a few decades ago. But this is not at all the case anymore. Leprosy is 100% curable. There are medications available which are given in the multi drug therapy(MDT) form. The MDT is highly effective and the people are not infectious after a month of treatment. In India, the government programme NLEP (National Leprosy Eradication Programme) has extensive reach and free drugs available in government hospitals.
Although, leprosy can be cured, the disease can cause some permanent skin damage, nerves and organs damage. The leprosy can cause following long lasting complications:
1. Disfigurement of the face
2. Wrist drop, foot drop, claw hand (commonest deformity)
3. Infertility
4. Damage to the nose cartilage
5. Loss of sensations which result in easy injuries and burns causing tissue loss and deformities.
Dr. Monika Bhanushali
Dr. Monika Bhanushali
3 × 1 =
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"url": "http://www.healthwatchcenter.in/disease-a-z/leprosy-know-causes-symptoms/"
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Home >> Economy and Society >> Features of Planned Economy
Features of Planned Economy
Target settings for different sectors of economy that determine the supply. It is a type of economy in which some central authority makes a wide range of decisions pertaining to production and wages. The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state (which, in turn, may be decided by the people through a democratic process). Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. For example, many modern societies fail to develop certain medicines and vaccines which are seen by medical companies as being unprofitable, but by social activists as being necessary for public health. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. Second, a planned economy can maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. This means that planned economies do not suffer from a buisness cycle.
Under a planned economy, neither unemployment nor idle production facilities should exist beyond minimal levels, and the economy should develop in a stable manner, unimpeded by inflation or recession. A planned economy can serve social rather than individual ends: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be distributed according to the social value of the service performed. A planned economy eliminates the dependence of production on individual profit motives, which may not in themselves provide for all society's needs.
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"language_score": 0.9356806874275208,
"url": "http://www.sociologyguide.com/economy-and-society/features-of-planned-economy.php"
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