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Mestas", "Jr.", "Invasion of Italy", "World War II", "Historical Narratives", "Daily Reports", "Personnel Records", "Laiatico", "Monte Capello", "Monte Battaglia", "General Mark Clark", "Diaguished Unit Citation", "Medal of Honor. Silver Stat", "Italy 1943", "Italy 1944", "Italy 1945", "Rome. Monte Cassino", "Po Valley Campaign" ]	null	[]	null	The World's Largest Archive Dedicated to the Preservation of the History of the 88th Infantry Division. The 88th Infantry Division Archive is a website of Documents, Pictures and Stories about the 88th Infantry Division Blue Devils, the 349th Infantry Regiment, the 350th Infantry Regiment, 351st Infantry Regiment, 337th Field Artillery, 913th Field Artillery Battalion, 338th Field Artillery, 339th Field Artillery, 313th Combat Engineers, 313th Medical Battalion, the Mt.Mestas Memorial Monument, PFC.Felix B. Mestas, Jr. and the Invasion of Italy phase of World War II between 1944-45. Our focus is towards preserving Family and Historical knowledge.		favicon.ico		null	The 88th Infantry Division was activated at Camp Gruber, Oklahoma on 15 July 1942 under the command of Major General John E. Sloan. On that day, standing on the dusty, hot parade ground, on behalf of the fledgling Division, General Sloan accepted the challenge from the President of the 88th Division Veterans Association to, “take up the job we didn’t get done.” In response, referring to the Great War veterans present, General Sloan assured onlookers that, “their faith will be sustained, their record maintained and the glory of the colors never will be sullied as long as one man of the 88th still lives.” It was a solemn and demanding pledge, but one that the men of the 88th would keep through some of the hardest-fought battles of the Second World War. General Sloan drove the soldiers of the 88th hard, from activation throughout all of its pre-deployment training. Comprised overwhelmingly of draftees, after basic training for the Division’s recruits, small unit training was conducted at Camp Gruber. Next, the 88th participated in Third Army Louisiana Maneuvers #3 from mid-June 1943, and moved to Fort Sam Houston, Texas, in late August before staging Camp Patrick Henry, Virginia in November. From the Hampton Roads Port of Embarcation, the 88th sailed for North Africa, arriving in Casablanca, French Morocco, on 15 December. The Division next moved to Algeria just before the end of the year, and conducted intensive training for employment in Italy. Under the command of the Assistant Division Commander, Brigadier General Paul W. Kendall, an advance party departed for Italy on 26 December, and went into the line as observers on 4-5 January, attached to 3rd, 34th, and 36th Infantry Divisions, and the British 5th, 46th, and 56th Divisions. On 3 January 1944, a member of this advance echelon became the 88th’s first KIA when Sergeant William A. Streuli of Paterson, New Jersey (A forward observer in B/339th Field Artillery Battalion) was killed by fragments from a bomb dropped by a Luftwaffe aircraft in the 34th Infantry Division sector. Lieutenant Elwin Ricketts, Battery B Executive Officer, became the first WIA when he was wounded in the same attack. The main body of the 88th was transported to Italy in early February 1944, arriving in the Naples area in increments as they were ferried across from Oran, Algeria. The first Division unit into the line was 2nd Battalion, 351st Infantry, which relieved elements of the Texas Division’s 141st Infantry Regiment near Cervaro on 27 February. Early the next day, firing in support of a French unit, the first artillery round fired in combat by an 88th DIVARTY unit was sent downrange by Battery C, 913th Field Artillery Battalion. Its target was a registration point at the Monte Cassino Abbey, the rubble of which was occupied by the Germans after the Allies bombed it, and not before. The entire Division moved into the line on 4 March, and at 1000 hours on 5 March 1944 assumed responsibility for the sector previously occupied by the British 5th Division. At the same time, the 88th came under the control of the British X Corps, and deployed its three infantry regiments on line from the Mediterranean into the foothills to the east. Opposing the 88th in the strong fortified positions of the Gustav Line, were the German 71st and 94th Infantry Divisions. The Blue Devil infantry spent the next two months occupying and improving defensive positions and patrolling, while DIVARTY fired harassing and interdiction missions at German positions and suspected and known lines of communication. At 2300 on 11 May, American, British, British Commonwealth, French, and Polish guns began a massive barrage, behind which the entire Allied front in Italy began their last attack on the Gustav Line. Finally, the first US Army division comprised primarily of draftees would be tested in the crucible of a major operation. In less than an hour, the 350th Infantry Regiment captured Mt. Damiano, key terrain overlooking the flank of the French units attacking on the Division’s right. In that action, Staff Sergeant Charles W. Shea of F/350th took charge of his platoon after the platoon leader was killed and the platoon sergeant was wounded, and led an assault which knocked the defenders out of their well-prepared positions. For his actions that day, Staff Sergeant Shea became the first Blue Devil to earn the Medal of Honor. The rest of the Division also pushed hard and forced the stubborn foe off the Gustav Line. The 351st Infantry stormed into Santa Maria Infante and engaged in a particularly bitter battle with the German defenders there. After more than two days of vicious combat, the 351st seized Santa Maria, and any doubts that a well-trained “draftee division” could fight as well as Regular Army or National Guard units were dispelled. As the 349th Infantry Regiment passed through the 351st and continued the attack to the north, the 88th’s operations took on aspects of a pursuit, one of the most challenging—and exhausting—missions possible for an infantry unit in mountains. Yet the elements of the Division doggedly pursued the withdrawing Germans, annihilating them where they chose to stand, and chasing them up and over the endless Italian hills. Through towns like Itri, Fondi, and Roccgorga, the Blue Devils drove on toward Rome, effectively destroying the German 94th Infantry Division in the process. So badly battered was the 94th that it had to be withdrawn to Germany for reconstitution, and did not return to combat until October. Surging northward, elements of the 88th made contact with Allied units breaking out of the Anzio beachhead on 29 May, and were the first to enter the “Eternal City”—Rome— on 4 June. After the fall of Rome, the 88th was pulled out of the line to refit and prepare for subsequent operations. Those operations began on 5 July, when the Division relieved the 1st Armored Division in the vicinity of Pomerance. As the British, British Commonwealth, and French colonial forces opened their drive to the Germans’ next line of defense, the Gothic Line above the River Arno, they attacked on the east of the 88th toward Firenze. At the same time, other US forces attacked toward Livorno on the west coast. Between these, the 88th was ordered to seize Volterra, an ancient Etruscan fortress town with a spectacular view of its approaches for miles around. The Division attacked Volterra at 0500 on 8 July with the 349th and 350th Infantry Regiments abreast, with the 351st in reserve. Intending to envelop the objective from both sides, the attack successfully drove the defenders of the veteran 90th Panzer Grenadier Division from their choice terrain. Volterra was secure by 2200 hours. While performing security duties on the Division’s left flank, the 351st Infantry Regiment unexpectedly ran into a hornet’s nest near Laiatico on 9 July. Here, the regiment encountered Grenadier Regiment 1060, an element of the recently-disbanded 92nd Infantry Division now attached to the 362nd Infantry Division, as well as other elements of the 90th Panzer Grenadiers. After being initially repulsed on 11 July, the regiment attacked again on the 12th with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions up and the 1st in reserve. The 3rd Battalion tore into the 1060th’s 1st Battalion, destroying it and killing the enemy battalion commander. By the early morning of 13 July, all regimental objectives were secure; for its part in the attack, the 3rd Battalion, 351st Infantry Regiment was later awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation. By 25 July, the Fifth Army’s offensive power had been spent; the loss of VI Corps and its veteran 3rd, 36th, and 45th Infantry Divisions to the impending invasion of Southern France prevented it from continuing the drive further to the north. The removal of the French Expeditionary Corps for participation in the same operation also diminished Allied combat power in Italy. Above the Arno, the units of the Germans’ Army Group Southwest were finishing their preparations for defense of the Gothic Line, and the Allied forces of the US Fifth and British Eighth Armies were going to require every ounce of power they could muster to breach the heavily fortified line in the mountains that ran from the Ligurian coast in the east to the Adriatic in the west. Perhaps the most significant change in the 88th’s history to that point occurred in August 1944, when Major General Sloan was transferred first to a hospital in Italy, then to the States for treatment of a recurring disease. General Sloan had built the division from activation through all of its training, and had led the 88th into combat. A tough and demanding trainer, his insistence on excellence had paid off in victory and saved lives…and proven that the US Army’s divisions made up primarily of conscripts—the largest category of units, just coming into the line in 1944—could be highly effective on the battlefield. General Sloan was succeeded by the Division’s Assistant Commander, Brigadier General Paul W. Kendall. Kendall had served with the 88th through stateside training and had established a very visible presence throughout the Division’s combat to that point. His succession to Division command seemed only natural to the most of the Blue Devils, and while General Sloan would be missed, the turbulence inevitably created by the departure of any respected and experienced leader was certainly greatly attenuated by General Kendall’s assumption of command. Allied forces in Italy attacked toward the Gothic Line on 10 September, and penetrated it in the central and Adriatic sectors, but the Germans remained ensconced in their mountain fortifications in the west, and it was up to the Blue Devils to drive them out in their zone. The Division’s history, The Blue Devils in Italy, sums up the Gothic Line assault this way.... Each veteran and survivor has his own personal tale of horror, his own nightmare of those forty-four days and nights which blended together in one long drawn-out hell. It has been said that ‘all the mornings were dark, all the days were just different colors of gray and all the nights were black.’ And all the time up in those mountains north of Florence was just borrowed time. The terrain was so rough the Germans figured that no troops in the world could get through the few heavily defended mountain passes. But the Blue Devils made it, through the passes or over the mountain tops. The weather was so bad that the Germans thought no foot soldiers or vehicles could possibly operate in the mud and slime. But the Blue Devils walked and rode through the worst of it. The defenses and concrete, mined emplacements were so formidable that the Germans estimated they were impregnable. But the Blue Devils stormed and shattered the biggest and the best of them. Perhaps the most spectacular fighting of that raw, rainy autumn took place on three craggy mountain peaks in late September and early October. On 27 September, elements of the 350th Infantry Regiment linked up with Italian partisans and occupied Mt. Battaglia without opposition. However, over the next six days, the “Green Devils” of the German 1st Parachute Division attacked fiercely and without surcease in an effort to seize this key terrain. Their efforts were in vain, however, as the 350th committed everything it had, including headquarters clerks, and threw back every assault to retain the critical mountain top. Casualties were grave—50% of the regiment, with all but one company commander killed or wounded—and acts of extraordinary valor had been almost common. For its part in the brutal fighting on Mt. Battaglia, the 2nd Battalion, 350th Infantry was later awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation, and for his gallantry and intrepidity—at the cost of his life—Captain Robert Roeder, CO of Company G, was awarded the Medal of Honor. While the 350th was grimly holding on to Mt. Battaglia, the 349th Infantry Regiment was attacking the village of Belvedere enroute to its objective, Mt. Grande. At Belvedere, it earned laurels of its own, if from a distinctly different source. Referring to the 349th’s assault, a German officer captured in the fighting there remarked to his captors that, “In nine years of service, I have fought in Poland, Russia, and Italy—never have I seen such spirit I would be the proudest man in the world if I could command a unit such as the one which took Belvedere.” Few comments could be more telling than a profound compliment from an opponent. Even as the “Kraut Killers” (349th) and “Battle Mountain” (350th) regiments were engaged in these ferocious and costly actions, the 351st Infantry Regiment was locked in its own ferocious struggle for Mt. Capello. As the author of The Blue Devils in Italy put it, “The battle for Capello…was a struggle between German soldiers who would not withdraw and American troops who would not be stopped.” The fighting raged for days, sometimes literally at bayonet point,until the 1st and 2nd Battalions secured the top of the mountain. For its part in the battle, the 2nd Battalion, 351st Infantry Regiment was later awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation. Opposed by elements of the Luftwaffe’s elite 1st Parachute Division (the defenders of Monte Cassino earlier in the year), the 88th slugged forward through seemingly endless mountains toward the Po Plain. In the total of 44 days of rain, mud, terror, ferocity, and blood that was the campaign in the North Appenines for the Blue Devils, there were many tactical victories, but no ultimate operational success. Like the rest of the fighting elements of the Fifth Army, the Division’s soldiers were just too exhausted to push further. Company G, 351st came closest to breaking through, but was literally wiped out at Vedriano, on the very verge of the Po Valley southeast of Bologna, on 24 October. The 88th went over to the defensive in late October and patrolled, improved positions, and rehabilitated its combat troops as best it could through the oncoming winter of 1944-45. The Division relieved the 85th Infantry Division in its sector on 22 November, and was in turn itself relieved for general rehabilitation on 13 January. After a brief interval out of the line, the Blue Devils were again committed on 24 January in relief of the 91st Infantry Division near Loiano and Livergnano. After more patrolling and maintenance of defensive positions, the Division was pulled out of the line again for further rehabilitation, but also special training intended to prepare it for the impending spring offensive. That offensive, which would finally defeat the Wehrmacht in Italy, commenced on April Fool’s Day with a supporting attack by the 92nd Infantry Division on the Ligurian coast in the west to draw German forces away from the point of the impending main effort. Another supporting attack, in much greater strength, was launched by the British Eighth Army on the Adriatic coast on 9 April. Finally, with the German reserves being decisively committed to meet these attacks at the extreme ends of the line in Italy, on 14 April, Fifth Army jumped off in the main attack against the German center. The 88th’s attack began at 2230 hours on 15 April, as its infantry regiments lunged toward Monterumici. In two days of fearsome fighting, the Blue Devils knocked the German defenders off the key ridge; they could not have known it at the time, but the German defense of Monterumici was the last well-organized resistance that the 88th would encounter. Once past Monterumici, the 88th was on its way across the Po and to the Alps. Verona fell on 25 April, followed by Vicenza three days later. German forces in Italy surrendered on 2 May, although it took until early the next day to notify all Blue Devil units of the capitulation. On 4 May, elements of the 349th Infantry Regiment linked up with units from the 103rd Infantry Division’s 409th Infantry Regiment coming down from Austria—where German forces had yet to surrender—in the Brenner Pass, marking the long-sought union of Allied forces attacking from Italy with those which had originally landed in France and fought their wary through the Reich. The Blue Devil Division’s accomplishments in its 344 days in combat reflect the valor, commitment, and unwavering devotion to duty of its soldiers. Not on ly did the 88th earn high praise from the likes of General Mark Clark, Commanding General of Fifth Army and a widely-recognized hard taskmaster, but it was even grudgingly admired by experienced enemy senior officers. Generalmajor Karl-Lothar Schulz, Commanding General of the famed 1st Parachute Division and one of only 159 recipients of the Knight’s Cross with Oak Leaf and Swords, told his interrogators, “the 88th Division is the best Division we have ever fought against.” A written estimate of enemy unit effectiveness prepared by German intelligence echoed Schulz’s sentiments. It rated the 88th, “a very good division with excellent fighting material.” It also noted that after VI Corps departed for France that the 88th was “the best US division in Italy,” with “very good leadership.”
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"https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/Af7UgO-1DWFGU_SwNfqwhI6AhuU=/250x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918-573dffc85f9b58723d68de09.jpg", "https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/GhCMEQzuL4eT51qoczzykOU1dgg=/250x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/world-war-one-medal-valor-3000x2076--574797bd5f9b585165ed7ee8.jpg", "https://www.thoughtco.com/thmb/GhCMEQzuL4eT51qoczzykOU1dgg=/250x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/world-war-one-medal-valor-3000x2076--574797bd5f9b585165ed7ee8.jpg", "https://privacy-policy.truste.com/privacy-seal/seal?rid=e166d0ee-e663-4ad0-9384-f5bd78093a89" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Kennedy Hickman", "www.facebook.com" ]	2009-07-21T12:00:00-04:00	World War I in 1915 saw the growth of the conflict to a global scale and the Allies and Central Powers sought a breakthrough that would lead to victory.	en	/favicon.ico	ThoughtCo	https://www.thoughtco.com/world-war-i-a-stalemate-2361561	With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, large-scale fighting commenced between the Allies (Britain, France, and Russia) and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire). In the west, Germany sought to utilize the Schlieffen Plan which called for a swift victory over France so that troops could then be shifted east to fight Russia. Sweeping through neutral Belgian, the Germans had initial success until being halted in September at the First Battle of the Marne. Following the battle, Allied forces and the Germans attempted several flanking maneuvers until the front extended from the English Channel to the Swiss frontier. Unable to achieve a breakthrough, both sides began digging in and constructing elaborate systems of trenches. To the east, Germany won a stunning victory over the Russians at Tannenberg in late August 1914, while the Serbs threw back an Austrian invasion of their country. Though beaten by the Germans, the Russians won a key victory over the Austrians as the Battle of Galicia a few weeks later. As 1915 began and both sides realized that the conflict would not be swift, the combatants moved to enlarge their forces and shift their economies to a war footing. German Outlook in 1915 With the beginning of trench warfare on the Western Front, both sides began assessing their options for bringing the war to a successful conclusion. Overseeing German operations, Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn preferred to focus on winning the war on the Western Front as he believed that a separate peace could be obtained with Russia if they were allowed to exit the conflict with some pride. This approach clashed with Generals Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff who wished to deliver a decisive blow in the East. The heroes of Tannenberg, they were able to use their fame and political intrigue to influence the German leadership. As a result, the decision was made to focus on the Eastern Front in 1915. Allied Strategy In the Allied camp there was no such conflict. Both the British and French were eager to expel the Germans from the territory they had occupied in 1914. For the latter, it was both a matter of national pride and economic necessity as the occupied territory contained much of France's industry and natural resources. Instead, the challenge faced by the Allies was the matter of where to attack. This choice was largely dictated by the terrain of the Western Front. In the south, the woods, rivers, and mountains precluded conducting a major offensive, while the sodden soil of coastal Flanders quickly turned into a quagmire during shelling. In the center, the highlands along the Aisne and Meuse Rivers too greatly favored the defender. As a result, the Allies focused their efforts on the chalklands along the Somme River in Artois and to the south in Champagne. These points were located on the edges of the deepest German penetration into France and successful attacks had the potential to cut off the enemy forces. In addition, breakthroughs at these points would sever German rail links east which would compel them to abandon their position in France (Map). Fighting Resumes While fighting had occurred through the winter, the British renewed the action in earnest on March 10, 1915, when they launched an offensive at Neuve Chapelle. Attacking in an effort to capture Aubers Ridge, British and Indian troops from Field Marshal Sir John French's British Expeditionary Force (BEF) shattered the German lines and had some initial success. The advance soon broke down due to communication and supply issues and ridge was not taken. Subsequent German counterattacks contained the breakthrough and the battle ended on March 13. In the wake of the failure, French blamed the result on a lack of shells for his guns. This precipitated the Shell Crisis of 1915 which brought down Prime Minister H.H. Asquith's Liberal government and forced an overhaul of the munitions industry. Gas Over Ypres Though Germany had elected to follow an "east-first" approach, Falkenhayn began planning for an operation against Ypres to begin in April. Intended as a limited offensive, he sought to divert Allied attention from troop movements east, secure a more commanding position in Flanders, as well as to test a new weapon, poison gas. Though tear gas had been used against the Russians in January, the Second Battle of Ypres marked the debut of lethal chlorine gas. Around 5:00 PM on April 22, chlorine gas was released over a four-mile front. Striking a section line held by French territorial and colonial troops, it quickly killed around 6,000 men and forced the survivors to retreat. Advancing, the Germans made swift gains, but in the growing darkness they failed to exploit the breach. Forming a new defensive line, British and Canadian troops mounted a vigorous defensive over the next several days. While the Germans conducted additional gas attacks, Allied forces were able to implement improvised solutions to counter its effects. Fighting continued until May 25, but the Ypres salient held. Artois and Champagne Unlike the Germans, the Allies possessed no secret weapon when they began their next offensive in May. Striking at the German lines in Artois on May 9, the British sought to take Aubers Ridge. A few days later, the French entered the fray to the south in an effort to secure Vimy Ridge. Dubbed the Second Battle of Artois, the British were stopped dead, while the General Philippe Pétain's XXXIII Corps succeeded in reaching the crest of Vimy Ridge. Despite Pétain's success, the French lost the ridge to determined German counterattacks before their reserves could arrive. Reorganizing during the summer as additional troops became available, the British soon took over the front as far south as the Somme. As troops were shifted, General Joseph Joffre, the overall French commander, sought to renew the offensive in Artois during the fall along with an assault in Champagne. Recognizing the obvious signs of impending attack, the Germans spent the summer strengthening their trench system, ultimately constructing a line of supporting fortifications three miles deep. Opening the Third Battle of Artois on September 25, British forces attacked at Loos while the French assaulted Souchez. In both cases, the attack was preceded by a gas attack with mixed results. While the British made initial gains, they were soon forced back as communication and supply problems emerged. A second attack the next day was bloodily repulsed. When the fighting subsided three weeks later, over 41,000 British troops had been killed or wounded for the gain of a narrow two-mile deep salient. To the south, the French Second and Fourth Army attacked along a twenty-mile front in Champagne on September 25. Meeting stiff resistance, Joffre's men gallantly attacked for over a month. Ending in early November, the offensive at no point had gained more than two miles, but the French lost 143,567 killed and wounded. With 1915 coming to a close, the Allies had been bled badly and had showed that they had learned little about attacking trenches while the Germans had become masters at defending them. The War at Sea A contributing factor the pre-war tensions, the results of the naval race between Britain and Germany were now put to the test. Superior in numbers to the German High Seas Fleet, the Royal Navy opened the fighting with a raid on the German coast on August 28, 1914. The resulting Battle of Heligoland Bight was a British victory. While neither side's battleships were involved, the fight led Kaiser Wilhelm II to order the navy to "hold itself back and avoid actions which can lead to greater losses." Off the west coast of South America, German fortunes were better as Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee's small German East Asiatic Squadron inflicted a severe defeat on a British force at the Battle of Coronel on November 1. Touching off a panic at the Admiralty, Coronel was the worst British defeat at sea in a century. Dispatching a powerful force south, the Royal Navy crushed Spee at the Battle of the Falklands a few weeks later. In January 1915, the British utilized radio intercepts to learn about an intended German raid on the fishing fleet at Dogger Bank. Sailing south, Vice Admiral David Beatty intended to cut off and destroy the Germans. Spotting the British on January 24, the Germans fled for home, but lost an armored cruiser in the process. Blockade and U-boats With the Grand Fleet based at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands, the Royal Navy imposed a tight blockade on the North Sea to halt trade to Germany. Though of dubious legality, Britain mined large tracts of the North Sea and stopped neutral vessels. Unwilling to risk the High Seas Fleet in battle with the British, the Germans began a program of submarine warfare using U-boats. Having scored some early successes against obsolete British warships, the U-boats were turned against merchant shipping with the goal of starving Britain into submission. While early submarine attacks required the U-boat to surface and give warning before firing, the Kaiserliche Marine (German Navy) slowly moved to a "shoot without warning" policy. This was initially resisted by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg who feared that it would antagonize neutrals such as the United States. In February 1915, Germany declared the waters around the British Isles to be a war zone and announced that any vessel in the area would be sunk without warning. German U-boats hunted throughout the spring until U-20 torpedoed the liner RMS Lusitania off the south coast of Ireland on May 7, 1915. Killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans, the sinking ignited international outrage. Coupled with the sinking of RMS Arabic in August, the sinking of Lusitania led to intense pressure from the United States to discontinue what had become known as "unrestricted submarine warfare." On August 28, Germany, unwilling to risk war with the United States, announced that passenger ships would no longer be attacked without warning. Death From Above While new tactics and approaches were being tested at sea, an entirely new military branch was coming into existence in the air. The advent of military aviation in the years prior to the war offered both sides the opportunity to conduct extensive aerial reconnaissance and mapping over the front. While the Allies initially dominated the skies, the German development of a working synchronization gear, which allowed a machine gun to safely fire through the arc of the propeller, quickly changed the equation. Synchronization gear-equipped Fokker E.Is appeared over the front in the summer of 1915. Sweeping aside Allied aircraft, they initiated the "Fokker Scourge" which gave the Germans command of the air on the Western Front. Flown by early aces such as Max Immelmann and Oswald Boelcke, the E.I dominated the skies into 1916. Quickly moving to catch up, the Allies introduced a new set of fighters, including the Nieuport 11 and Airco DH.2. These aircraft allowed them to regain air superiority prior to the great battles of 1916. For the remainder of the war, both sides continued to develop more advanced aircraft and famous aces, such as Manfred von Richthofen, The Red Baron, became pop icons. The War on the Eastern Front While the war in the West remained largely stalemated, the fighting in the East retained a degree of fluidity. Though Falkenhayn had advocated against it, Hindenburg and Ludendorff began planning an offensive against the Russian Tenth Army in the area of the Masurian Lakes. This attack would be supported by Austro-Hungarian offensives in the south with the goal of retaking Lemberg and relieving the besieged garrison at Przemysl. Relatively isolated in the eastern part of East Prussia, General Thadeus von Sievers' Tenth Army had not be been reinforced and was forced to rely on General Pavel Plehve's Twelfth Army, then forming to the south, for aid. Opening the Second Battle of the Masurian Lakes (Winter Battle in Masuria) on February 9, the Germans made quick gains against the Russians. Under heavy pressure, the Russians were soon threatened with encirclement. While most of the Tenth Army fell back, Lieutenant General Pavel Bulgakov's XX Corps was encircled in the Augustow Forest and forced to surrender on February 21. Though lost, XX Corps' stand allowed the Russians to form a new defensive line further east. The next day, Plehve's Twelfth Army counterattacked, halting the Germans and ending the battle (Map). In the south, the Austrian offensives proved largely ineffective and Przemysl surrendered on March 18. The Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive Having sustained heavy losses in 1914 and early 1915, the Austrian forces were increasingly supported and led by their German allies. On the other side, the Russians were suffering from severe shortages of rifles, shells, and other war materials as their industrial base slowly retooled for war. With the success in the north, Falkenhayn began planning for an offensive in Galicia. Spearheaded by General August von Mackensen's Eleventh Army and the Austrian Fourth Army, the attack commenced on May 1 along a narrow front between Gorlice and Tarnow. Striking a weak point in the Russian lines, Mackensen's troops shattered the enemy position and drove deep into their rear. By May 4, Mackensen's troops had reached open country causing the entire Russian position in the center of the front to collapse (Map). As the Russians fell back, German and Austrian troops moved forward reaching Przemysl on May 13 and taking Warsaw on August 4. Though Ludendorff repeatedly requested permission to launch a pincer attack from the north, Falkenhayn refused as the advance continued. By early September, the Russian frontier fortresses at Kovno, Novogeorgievsk, Brest-Litovsk, and Grodno had fallen. Trading space for time, the Russian retreat ended in mid-September as the fall rains began and German supply lines became over-extended. Though a severe defeat, Gorlice-Tarnow greatly shortened the Russian's front and their army remained a coherent fighting force. A New Partner Joins the Fray With the outbreak of the war in 1914, Italy elected to remain neutral despite being a signatory of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary. Though pressed by its allies, Italy argued that the alliance was defensive in nature and that since Austria-Hungary was the aggressor it did not apply. As a result, both sides actively began courting Italy. While Austria-Hungary offered French Tunisia if Italy remained neutral, the Allies indicated they would allow the Italians to take land in the Trentino and Dalmatia if they entered the war. Electing to take the latter offer, the Italians concluded the Treaty of London in April 1915, and declared war on Austria-Hungary the following month. They would declare war on Germany the following year. Italian Offensives Due to the alpine terrain along the frontier, Italy was limited to attacking Austria-Hungary through the mountain passes of the Trentino or through the Isonzo River valley in the east. In both cases, any advance would require moving over difficult terrain. As Italy's army was poorly equipped and under-trained, either approach was problematic. Electing to open hostilities through the Isonzo, the unpopular Field Marshal Luigi Cadorna hoped to cut through the mountains to reach the Austrian heartland.
2080	dbpedia	2	81	https://www.nps.gov/articles/54th-massachusetts-regiment.htm	en	54th Massachusetts Regiment (U.S. National Park Service)	https://www.nps.gov/gett…-of-Congress.jpg	https://www.nps.gov/gett…-of-Congress.jpg	[ "https://www.nps.gov/theme/assets/dist/images/branding/logo.png", "https://www.nps.gov/gett/blogs/images/54th-Blog-08-Kurz-and-Allison-Library-of-Congress.jpg?maxwidth=1300&maxheight=1300&autorotate=false", "https://www.nps.gov/articles/images/Shaw_5.jpg?maxwidth=650&autorotate=false", "https://www.nps.gov/fosu/learn/historyculture/images/54th.jpg?maxwidth=650&autorotate=false", "https://www.nps.gov/fosu/learn/historyculture/images/WCarney.jpg?maxwidth=650&autorotate=false", "https://www.nps.gov/fosu/learn/historyculture/images/ShawMemorial_1.jpg?maxwidth=650&autorotate=false", "https://www.nps.gov/common/commonspot/templates/assets/images/branding/nps_logo-bw.gif", "https://www.nps.gov/common/commonspot/templates/assets/images/app-promo/footer-app-promo.png", "https://www.nps.gov/common/commonspot/templates/assets/images/app-promo/app-store-badge.svg", "https://www.nps.gov/common/commonspot/templates/assets/images/app-promo/google-play-badge.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/common/commonspot/templates/images/icons/favicon.ico		https://www.nps.gov/articles/54th-massachusetts-regiment.htm	Following the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863, President Abraham Lincoln called for the raising of Black regiments. Massachusetts Governor John Andrew quickly answered Lincoln's call and began forming the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry Regiment, one of the first Black regiments to serve in the U.S. Civil War. Black men from across the city, state, country, and even other nations, traveled to Boston to join this historic regiment. Through their heroic, yet tragic, assault on Battery Wagner, South Carolina in July 1863, the 54th helped inspire the enlistment of more than 180,000 Black soldiers…a boost in morale and manpower that Lincoln recognized as essential to the victory of the United States and the destruction of slavery throughout the country. Recruiting the 54th Massachusetts Governor John A. Andrew of Massachusetts, an abolitionist, eagerly organized the creation of the regiment once securing the permission to do so. Recruiting offices opened throughout the United States and even in Canada as Massachusetts did not have a sufficiently large free Black population to fill the regiment. Local leaders such as Lewis Hayden as well as national spokesmen including Frederick Douglass helped recruit soldiers for the regiment. Recruitment met with such success that enough men enlisted to form not only the 54th Regiment but also a second Black infantry regiment, the 55th Massachusetts. Governor Andrew chose Robert Gould Shaw of the 2nd Massachusetts Infantry Regiment to lead the 54th. The son of prominent abolitionists, Shaw had already seen combat and been wounded at the Battle of Antietam. Shaw and other officers trained the men of the 54th at Camp Meigs in Readville, just outside of Boston, until late May 1863. On May 28, 1863, the 54th departed for the war front, marching through Boston, and loaded onto the transport DeMolay for their voyage south. Thousands turned out to watch their farewell parade. According to the Boston Evening Transcript, "no single regiment has attracted larger crowds into the streets than the 54th."1 With the band playing "John Brown's Body," the 54th marched down State Street to the waterfront "passing over ground moistened by the blood of Crispus Attucks, and over which Anthony Burns and Thomas Sims had been carried back to bondage."2 The 54th Arrives in South Carolina In early June of 1863, the 54th Massachusetts arrived in Beaufort, South Carolina. Captured in the Fall of 1861, the Sea Islands around Beaufort had become not only a military hub for the Department of the South, but the site of an growing experiement at post-slavery, known as the Port Royal Experiment. The regiment paraded through the streets of Beaufort, where onlookers included soldiers in the 1st and 2nd South Carolina Volunteers, two all-Black regiments organized in the Sea Islands the previous year. Officers freely mingled with teachers, including Charlotte Forten at the Penn School, who noted in her journal that the officers of the 54th attended the July 4, 1863 celebration at Brick Baptist Church. A few weeks after their arrival, the regiment moved to St. Simons Island, Georgia, where they encamped "at a spot called Fredericka."3 From here, the regiment participated in the raid on Darien, Georgia, before moving back to Beaufort, where they encamped on St. Helena Island. By early July, they were beginning preparations to participate in an offensive to capture Charleston. The Fight for Wagner Initially tasked with manual labor details and the ransacking of Darien, Georgia, of which Shaw did not approve, the 54th did not see real action until a skirmish with Confederate troops on James Island on July 16, 1863. This fight provided the 54th with combat experience and earned them the praise of their fellow soldiers from the Tenth Connecticut whom they helped save from Confederate attack and capture. One journalist wrote, "probably a thousand homes from Windham to Fairfield (CT) have in letters been told the story how the dark-skinned heroes fought the good fight and covered with their own brave hearts the retreat of brothers, sons, and fathers of Connecticut."4 Though weary and weakened from battle and march, Shaw and the 54th readily accepted the opportunity to lead the assault on Battery Wagner, the strategic stronghold guarding Charleston Harbor, on July 18. Knowing this battle would prove vital to shaping public opinion about the use of Black soldiers, Shaw told his men "'how the eyes of thousands would look upon the night’s work."5 Though they fought gallantly, Shaw and many of the 54th lost their lives in the ensuing battle. "The splendid 54th is cut to pieces," wrote Lewis Douglass, son of the famous abolitionist and a soldier in the 54th. "The grape and canister shell and Minnie swept us down like chaff," he continued, "but still our men went on and on."6 Harriet Tubman, witnessing the battle from a distance, remembered: And then we saw the lightening, and that was the guns; and then we heard the thunder, and that was the big guns; and then we heard the rain falling, and that was the drops of blood falling,; and when we came to get in the crops, it was the dead that we reaped.7 The 54th suffered roughly 42% casualties in this horrific battle against a strongly defended enemy, with more than 270 soldiers killed, wounded, captured, and/or missing and presumed dead of the 650 men of the 54th that participated in the battle.8 Significance of the Battle Though clearly a miliary defeat, the 54th Regiment's heroic assault on Battery Wagner proved both a powerful political and symbolic victory. Through their actions, the 54th helped convince a skeptical public and military that Black men could and would fight bravely. Frederick Douglass wrote, after the 54th "had distinguished itself with so much credit in the hour of trial, the desire to send more such troops to the front became pretty general." In the weeks after the assault on Wagner, General Ulysses S. Grant wrote to President Lincoln, "I have given the subject of arming the negro my hearty support." He said that the use of Black soldiers would be the "heavyest blow yet given the Confederacy" and that by "arming the negro we have added a powerful ally...They will make good soldiers and taking them from the enemy weakens him in the same proportion [that] they strengthen us."9 The heroic efforts of the 54th Regiment inspired the nation to begin mass recruitment and mobilization of Black soldiers. The 54th paved the way for more than 180,000 Black men joining the United States forces, which ultimately helped turn the tide of the war. Sergeant William H. Carney Sergeant William H. Carney, born enslaved in Virginia, settled in New Bedford, Massachusetts after escaping bondage via the Underground Railroad. Though severely injured in the assault on Wagner, he saved the national colors after the color bearer fell. "I suddenly saw the old flag fall," recounted Carney, "I threw my gun away and grasped the staff of the fallen colors, and ran for the head of the column...the fire of the rebels was something terrible and men fell around me on every hand..." Wounded in several places, Carney crawled his way to safety and proclaimed to fellow soldiers of the 54th: "The old flag never touched the ground."10 In 1900, Carney received the Medal of Honor for his valor 37 years earlier, becoming the first African American to earn the honor.11 James Henry Gooding Born enslaved in North Carolina, Corporal James Henry Gooding was emancipated as a young child and moved to New York City. Here he gained an education at the New York Colored Orphans Asylum. As an adult, Gooding moved to New Bedford, Massachusetts where he worked on whaling ships in the late 1850s. During the Civil War, Gooding wrote a series of letters to the editors of the New Bedford Mercurcy about the regiment's operations in the South. His letters are some of the best first-hand accounts of life in the 54th Massachusetts from the perspective of an enlisted soldier, and much of what we know about daily life in the regiment comes from his letters.12 The 54th Massachusetts After Battery Wagner In the aftermath of Fort Wagner, the wounded of the regiment were sent back to Beaufort, where they were treated in two of the antebellum mansions the US Army had converted into hospitals. Approximately 25 soldiers of the 54th had been taken prisoner at Fort Wagner, and their legal status in the hands of the Confederacy became the impetus for the breakdown of the prisoner exchange system. The 54th continued to serve on the southeast coast for the remainder of the war. Although most of its service took place in the Charleston area, the regiment also saw service in a significant campaign in Florida in 1864 where they heroically guarded the retreat following the defeat at the Battle of Olustee. They also fought at Honey Hill and Boykin's Mill, South Carolina in the waning months of the war. The 54th regiment returned to Massachusetts in late August, 1865, and received a hero's welcome as they made their return parade through Boston on September 2.13 Footnotes 1. "Reception and Departure of the Fifty-Fourth Regiment," Boston Evening Transcript, May 28, 1863, 2. 2. Luis F. Emilio, A Brave Black Regiment: History of The Fifty-Fourth Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry 1863-1865 (New York, NY: Da Capo Press, 1995), 34. 3. The New South (Beaufort, SC). June 20, 1863, 2. 4. Emilio, A Brave Black Regiment, 66. 5. Douglas R. Egerton, Thunder at the Gates: The Black Civil War Regiments That Redeemed America ( New York: Basic Books, 2016), 128. 6. Letter from Lewis Douglass to Frederick Douglass and Anna Murray Douglass, July 20, 1863. Transcribed in Freedom’s Journey: African American Voices of the Civil War, ed. Donald Yacovone (Chicago: Lawrence Hill Books, 2004), 108-9. 7. Egerton, Thunder at the Gates, 133. 8. Egerton, Thunder at the Gates, 139. 9. Egerton, Thunder at the Gates, 145-147. 10. "Bravest Colored Soldier," Boston Herald, January 10, 1898, 6. 11. New Bedford Evening Standard, May 4, 1864, 2: "A medal of honor has been awarded to Sergt. William H. Carney, of this city, company C, 54th Mass. Regiment, for gallant and meritorious conduct in the Morris Island campaign." According to Carney's descendant, Carl Cruz, "the first medal he was given was the Gilmore Medal of Meritorious Award which was basically given right on site...He was also awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. The tragic end of the story was that he got it late and did not have a formal ceremony. He received the medal in 1900. It was awarded to him in 1863. He did not receive it because there was an oversight in the papers. There was a gentleman by the name of Christian Fleetwood who also fought in the 54th and was putting together the 1900 Exhibition in Paris that was going to show Blacks. He asked Carney for his medal and some other documents. They later found out that he did not get the medal. So Mr. Fleetwood petitioned the War Department along with Luis Fenollosa Emilio, who wrote A Brave Black Regiment: A History of the 54th Regiment of Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry, 1863-1865. So along with sending in those documents, the medal was sent to him with the acknowledgment." (It Wasn't In Her Lifetime But It Was Handed Down: Four Black Oral Histories of Massachusetts). According to the The Colored American June 2, 1900, "In connection with the Negro exhibit at the Paris Exposition, Mr. Thomas J. Calloway conceived the idea of making a collection of photographs of colored men who had received medals of honor from the Congress of the United States...It was during this search that the gentleman in charge found to his great surprise that no medal from Congress had been issued to Sergt. Carney, and after corresponding with the gallant sergeant, took up the case personally, searched for and found the necessary evidence to establish the claim, put it in proper form, and submitted to the Secretary of War for action. It is needless to say that the action was favorable, and now at all subsequent encampments, re-unions and other official functions, the bronze star with its broad striped ribbon will be conspicuous on the broad chest of the brave hero Sergt. William H. Carney." Military records show that Carney finally received the Medal of Honor in 1900, "Medal of Honor awarded May 9, 1900, for most distinguished gallantry in action at Fort Wagner, South Carolina, July 18, 1863" (Fold3 https://www.fold3.com/image/260466997 pg 17). 12. These letters can be found in: James H. Gooding, On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier's Civil War Letters From the Front, ed. by Virginia M. Adams (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1991). 13. Emilio, A Brave Black Regiment, 329-333. Sources Blatt, Martin, and Brown, Thomas, and Yacovone, Donald., eds. Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001. Burchard, Peter. One Gallant Rush: Robert Gould Shaw and His Brave Black Regiment. Saint Martin's Press: Toronto: Macmillan Co. of Canada, 1965. Duncan, Russell. Where Death and Glory Meet: Colonel Robert Gould Shaw and the 54th Massachusetts Infantry. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1999. Egerton, Douglas R. Thunder at the Gates: The Black Civil War Regiments That Redeemed America. Basic Books: New York, 2016. Emilio, Louis. A Brave Black Regiment. A History of the Fifty-fourth regiment of Massachusetts volunteer infantry. Boston: Boston Book Company, 1891. Gooding, James H. On the Altar of Freedom: A Black Soldier's Civil War Letters From the Front. Edited by Virginia M. Adams. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1991. Kantrowitz, Stephen. More Than Freedom: Fighting for Black Citizenship in a White Republic, 1829-1889. New York: Penguin Books, 2012.
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]	2021-04-20T16:12:36+02:00	Explore the comprehensive and detailed WW2 timeline, featuring accurate data, significant events, major battles and a historical chronicle of the war.	en	/images/misc/favicon.ico		null	Marinus van der Lubbe (13 January 1909 - 10 January 1934) was a Dutch communist who was tried, convicted, and beheaded by the Nazis for allegedly setting fire to the German Reichstag building on 27 February 1933. He was the first victim of the Nazis. The Nazis exploited the fire to pass emergency legislation that abolished a number of constitutional protections and paved the way for Nazi dictatorship. Former SA member, Hans-Martin Lennings, issued a statement to the notary in 1955 stating that he brought Marinus van der Lubbe to the Reichstag (ordered by Nazi parliamentarian and SA member Karl Ernst) on that evening in February 1933. When he arrived, the Reichstag was already burning. Therefore Marinus van der Lubbe could not have lit the building. This statement was only recently found in Hanover archives. Van der Lubbe was given a posthumous pardon as the documents proved he could not have done it. President Franklin D. Roosevelt asks the US Congress to declare war on Japan following the previous day's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. He spoke to the Congress: "Yesterday, December 7th, 1941, a date which will live in infamy, the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the empire of Japan. The facts of yesterday and today speak for themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their opinions, and well understand the implications for the very life and safety of our nation. With confidence in our armed forces, with the unbounding determination of our people, we will gain the inevitable triumph so help us God. I ask that the Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese empire." Reinhard Heydrich, chief of the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA), convenes the Wannsee Conference in a villa outside Berlin. At this conference, he presents plans to coordinate a European-wide “Final Solution of the Jewish Question” to key officials from the German State and the Nazi Party. The "Final Solution" was the code name for the systematic, deliberate, physical annihilation of the European Jews. At some still undetermined time in 1941, Hitler authorized this European-wide scheme for mass murder. The Casablanca Conference (codenamed SYMBOL) or Anfa Conference was held at the Anfa Hotel in Casablanca, French Morocco, from January 14 to 24, 1943, to plan the Allied European strategy for the next phase of World War 2. In attendance were United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British prime minister Winston Churchill. Also attending were the sovereign of Morocco, Sultan Muhammad V, and representing the Free French forces, Generals Charles de Gaulle and Henri Giraud, but they played minor roles and were not part of the military planning. Soviet general secretary Joseph Stalin declined to attend, citing the ongoing Battle of Stalingrad as requiring his presence in the Soviet Union. On March 13 to 14, 1943, SS and police carried out the operation, murdering around 2.000 Jews in the ghetto. The SS transferred another 2.000 Jews those capable of work to the Plaszow forced labor camp. The rest of the Jews were deported to the Auschwitz-Birkenau in two transports, arriving on March 13 and March 16. At Auschwitz-Birkenau, the camp authorities selected 549 persons from the two transports to be registered as prisoners. They others, approximately 2.450 people, were murdered in the gas chambers. The Battle of Kursk was a major Second World War engagement between German and Soviet forces on the Eastern Front near Kursk in the Soviet Union, during July and August 1943. The battle began with the launch of the German offensive Operation Citadel, on 5 July, which had the objective of pinching off the Kursk salient with attacks on the base of the salient from north and south simultaneously. Operation Harvest Festival was the murder of 43.000 Jews at the Majdanek, Poniatowa and Trawniki concentration camps by the SS, Order Police battalions and Ukrainian Sonderdienst on 3 and 4 November 1943. After a series of Jewish uprisings in ghettos and extermination camps, Heinrich Himmler ordered the murder of the remaining Jewish forced laborers in the Lublin District of German-occupied Poland. Thousands of SS and police personnel arrived in Lublin on 2 November. SS and Police Leader Jakob Sporrenberg was in charge of the operation. The Leningrad-Novgorod strategic offensive was a strategic offensive during WW2. It was launched by the Red Army on January 14, 1944 with an attack on the German Army Group North by the Soviet Volkhov and Leningrad fronts, along with part of the 2nd Baltic Front, with a goal of fully lifting the siege of Leningrad. Approximately two weeks later, the Red Army regained control of the Moscow Leningrad railway, and on January 26, 1944 Joseph Stalin declared that the siege of Leningrad was lifted, and that German forces were expelled from the Leningrad Oblast. The Battle of Berlin, designated as the Berlin Strategic Offensive Operation by the Soviet Union, and also known as the Fall of Berlin, was one of the last major offensives of the European theatre of WW2. After the Vistula Oder Offensive of January and February 1945, the Red Army had temporarily halted on a line 60 km east of Berlin. On 9 March, Germany established its defence plan for the city with Operation Clausewitz. The first defensive preparations at the outskirts of Berlin were made on 20 March, under the newly appointed commander of Army Group Vistula, General Gotthard Heinrici.
2080	dbpedia	2	15	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/herrlisheim-what-became-of-the-12th-armored-divisions-lost-battalion/	en	Herrlisheim: What Became of the 12th Armored Division’s Lost Battalion	https://warfarehistoryne…659121757514.jpg	https://warfarehistoryne…659121757514.jpg	[ "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/search-icon.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/search-icon.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/Herrshiem014-e1659121757514.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem012.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem002.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/W-Herrlisheim-MAP.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem003.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem006.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem007.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Herrshiem009.jpg", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/e8d572f4af53db07bb04ebfa63dbec00?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/c1fa88bce1173d771eda385767216a08?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/8d6c0d2d6a1689c8dfb49c238d58fd6a?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/0d5fe5a067ca2d24c2982419242bbbed?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/da4ce52149d7415e678e3899123d9255?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/32007044c00322f94af6c2c50ce38892?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/8b871d9b0ae1921a36c4e53de95daf68?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/2c4acd4419c3fe15c803531a78787e8a?s=32&d=mm&r=g", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/WW-Meximieux-3-HT-Jul03-e1658263816359.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/W-El-Lead-Spread-copy-scaled.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/W405001-crop1.png", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/W-761st-LEAD-HT-May08-e1658263873906.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/Video-Game-Training.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Treaty-of-Versailles.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/W-Insight-DeGaulle-2-HT-Jul09-e1675374835808.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/M-Nov19-Soldiers-1-4C.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/snow-tanks.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/logo.svg", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=180324792517877&ev=PageView&noscript=1&cd%5Bpage_title%5D=Herrlisheim%3A+What+Became+of+the+12th+Armored+Division%27s+Lost+Battalion&cd%5Bpost_type%5D=article&cd%5Bpost_id%5D=24685&cd%5Bplugin%5D=PixelYourSite&cd%5Buser_role%5D=guest&cd%5Bevent_url%5D=warfarehistorynetwork.com%2Farticle%2Fherrlisheim-what-became-of-the-12th-armored-divisions-lost-battalion%2F" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2019-01-21T04:28:58+00:00	The 12th armored division's 43rd tank battalion mysteriously disappeared during a bitter winter fight in Herrlisheim.	en	https://warfarehistoryne…e-touch-icon.png	Warfare History Network	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/herrlisheim-what-became-of-the-12th-armored-divisions-lost-battalion/	By Nathan N. Prefer On January 17, 1945, as Allied forces prepared to descend on Germany itself and put an end to the war in Europe, an American tank battalion disappeared. The 43rd Tank Battalion, commanded by Lt. Col. Scott Hall, organic to the 12th Armored (“Hellcats”) Division’s Combat Command A, joined with the 17th Armored Infantry Battalion to push German forces out of the town of Herrlisheim in France’s Alsace region. Shortly after the battalion entered the town, some garbled but seemingly desperate messages were received by Combat Command A from Colonel Hall. Neither Hall nor his battalion was ever heard from again. It was not until 1940 that the United States War Department made the first move to create tank, later armored, battalions within the U.S. armed forces. Originally only 15 were authorized, half “heavy” and half “light.” The original battalions consisted of a Headquarters and Headquarters (H & H) company and three tank companies. Each tank company consisted of three platoons of five tanks each, with a headquarters section of two additional tanks. In 1942, a service company was added. Later additions included a light tank company, an assault gun platoon, a mortar platoon, and a reconnaissance platoon. By 1943, the battalions usually had a total of 54 medium tanks, 17 light tanks, three assault guns (105mm howitzers), three 81mm mortar halftracks, and numerous support vehicles. A fully staffed tank battalion numbered 729 officers and enlisted men. By January 1945, the standard American armored division numbered 10,937 officers and men, 195 medium tanks, 18 105mm self-propelled howitzers, and several other armored vehicles within the supporting reconnaissance, engineer, medical, and service units. But the bulk of the division’s fighting power rested in the three tank battalions and three armored infantry battalions, which were usually paired under one of three (A, B, and R or Reserve) combat commands. In all, the U.S. Army fielded 16 armored divisions during the war, all of which served in the European or Mediterranean Theaters. One of these was the 12th Armored Division, which was activated at Camp Campbell, Kentucky, on September 15, 1943. After a year’s training it moved to Tennessee to participate in Army-wide maneuvers and then to Camp Bowie, Texas, for additional training. The division’s combat elements consisted of three tank battalions, the 23rd, 43rd, and 714th; the 17th, 56th, and 66th Armored Infantry Battalions with the 119th Armored Engineer Battalion and 92nd Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron. By September 1944, the division was at Camp Shanks, New York, preparing to go overseas. The division’s troops, who called themselves the “Hellcats,” arrived at Le Havre, France, on November 9, 1944, after a month’s stay in England. Originally assigned to the Ninth U.S. Army on the northern end of the American front lines, they had barely sent forward advance parties to scout out their area of operations when orders changed. Joining the Seventh U.S. Army The 12th Armored Division, now commanded by Maj. Gen. Roderick R. Allen, unexpectedly found itself assigned to the Seventh U.S. Army, Sixth Army Group, one of three Army Groups under the control of Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Forces (SHAEF) commanded by General Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Sixth Army Group was at the extreme southern end of the Allied front lines in France. General Allen was a rarity among divisional commanders in the U.S. Army during World War II. He did not attend West Point. Instead, the Texas-born commander received a Bachelor of Science degree from the Agriculture and Mechanical College of Texas in 1915 and was commissioned into the cavalry the following year. He served in France during World War I and later graduated from the Command and General Staff School and the Army War College. He had served in various posts with armored units since 1940 and had been promoted to major general in February 1944. He commanded the 20th Armored Division in training before assuming command of the Hellcats in September 1944. The Sixth Army Group was also unique at this point. While half its units were experienced U.S. Army units, some of which had first seen combat in North Africa in 1942, the other half were French, the newly introduced French First Army. Commanded by Lt. Gen. Jacob L. Devers, it had landed in southern France on August 15, 1944, and had been fighting its way to the Rhine River and Germany ever since. The 12th Armored Division joined the American half of Sixth Army Group, the Seventh U.S. Army. Under the command of Lt. Gen. Alexander (“Sandy”) M. Patch, the Seventh Army was pushing north and east to reach the Rhine River, the traditional boundary between France and Germany. Moving up, the leading units of Combat Command A entered the combat zone at Weisslingen on December 5, 1944, and soon relieved elements of the veteran 4th Armored Division. Here the first shots were fired by Battery A, 493rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion. The division’s first success came with seizing the town of Singling and piercing the Maginot Line in its sector. After crossing the German border on December 21, 1944, the division was pulled out of line for a brief rest and recuperation period. In this most difficult season, the weather in sunny southern France was anything but. The area in which Seventh Army operated in December and January 1944 was a wet, cold quagmire of mud, rain, and snow. Soon the Americans were whitewashing their tanks to blend with the snow-covered landscape. Nor could the local population be relied upon. Alsace Province had been under German control for years, and some inhabitants were German sympathizers. In one instance, the soldiers of Battery A, 495th Armored Field Artillery Battalion were puzzled by the accuracy of German counterbattery fire against them despite their best efforts at camouflage. They soon discovered that a dog, which made the same journey past their positions each day, was actually carrying the coordinates of their guns to the enemy then returning home to its master within the American lines. The 43rd Tank Battalion’s First Action The initial action of the 43rd Tank Battalion occurred on December 12 when, paired with the 66th Armored Infantry Battalion, it successfully attacked the towns of Guising and Bettviller in daylight. Casualties were light, and the battle went according to plan. Shortly after this first victory the division was relieved by the 44th Infantry Division and went into reserve. While in reserve the division’s officers discussed what had worked in their first action, what had failed, and what they needed to do to improve their combat performance. Combat Command A, led by Brig. Gen. Riley Finley Ennis, another non-West Point officer, moved back to the front on December 18 and once again relieved elements of the 4th Armored and 80th Infantry Divisions. These units were being pulled out to move north to attack the flank of the massive German offensive through the Ardennes that had hit the First U.S. Army hard. Part of General George S. Patton’s Third Army, which held the front line just north of Seventh Army, they were badly needed to halt the Germans. Because of this, General Patch’s Seventh Army would be required to cover more of the front lines as Patton pulled his troops to the north. As a result, the Hellcats’ rest period was cut short. Anticipating a New German Offensive The day after Combat Command A returned to the front a major conference was held at the French town of Verdun. Present were Generals Eisenhower, Omar Bradley (commanding 12th Army Group), and Patton. Concerned about the massive German attack in the Ardennes, what would come to be known as the Battle of the Bulge, the decision was made to pull Patton’s Third Army to the north and to halt all offensive operations of the Sixth Army Group. Devers was even instructed to give up ground if necessary to maintain a continuous front line with 12th Army Group. Devers was disappointed at his new orders, but they were obeyed. While awaiting the outcome of the battle to his north, he made plans for a renewal of his offensive in the first week of January 1945, when he believed the northern emergency would be over. In late December 1944, Patch’s Seventh Army had six infantry and two armored divisions available. While the Hellcats were holding a sector of the front, Patch kept the 14th Armored Division in reserve. The frontline units had to hold a line that was 126 miles long, which meant that each battalion was responsible for a front of some two miles, far beyond the usual demands on a battalion. Because of priority given to the northern group of armies, supplies and equipment in Sixth Army Group were dwindling, as were sufficient replacements for casualties. Worse, intelligence officers began reporting signs of a German counteroffensive aimed at Seventh Army; whether it was a diversion or a real offensive remained unclear. The 12th Armored Division was now a part of the XV Corps under Maj. Gen. Wade Haislip. It was backing the frontline defenses of the 44th, 100th, and 103rd Infantry Divisions. Operations were limited to sending out patrols, repulsing enemy probes, and engaging in sharp artillery duels. Christmas Day, 1944, proved busy for the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion holding a sector of the front line. A determined German ground attack was repulsed by artillery and mortar fire. Rumors of a pending massive attack circulated, including the probable dropping of German paratroopers behind American lines. Roadblocks were established and passwords changed frequently. Several units, including Combat Command B, were pulled out to perform maintenance on their vehicles and other equipment. But nothing major happened. With no sign of any imminent attack from the Germans, Seventh Army pulled the 12th Armored Division into reserve on December 30. It remained on three-hour notice to move against any German attack. Replacements for the 62 men killed, 454 wounded, and four missing in action were being integrated into the division as the year ended. Objective: Herrlisheim The new year began badly. The anticipated German counteroffensive, known as Operation Nordwind, hit the Seventh Army hard. The German plan was to strike in Alsace and force an American withdrawal, delaying the Allied advance into Germany and giving German scientists more time to develop the so-called “wonder weapons,” which would change the course of the war in Germany’s favor. Knowing that Sixth Army Group had been significantly weakened while covering an extended front, the German planners also believed the attack would relieve some of the pressure on the southern shoulder of the Bulge. The ultimate goal was to split the Seventh Army, clear a way to the fortress city of Metz, and get behind Patton’s Third Army, disrupting the entire Allied line. After some initial success, the German offensive lost power. Generals Devers and Patch had been quick to react. One of their many moves was to assign the 12th Armored Division to VI Corps, under the command of Maj. Gen. Edward “Ted” Brooks. Brooks’ corps had been exposed when the Germans attacked on both flanks and was forced to withdraw. It had no reserves. Both of Seventh Army’s armored divisions, the 12th and 14th, were rushed to VI Corps. Upon arrival in VI Corps, General Allen was told that a German bridgehead at Gambsheim was the greatest threat to VI Corps and that reducing it was his first objective. On January 8, 1945, Combat Command B, with the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion and 714th Tank Battalion, was ordered to attack the town of Herrlisheim at the center of the German bridgehead. Attached to the 79th Infantry Division, Combat Command B attacked Herrlisheim from the north on the morning of the 8th, while to the south French troops were to attack Gambsheim. Supported by Company B, 119th Armored Engineers, the actual attack began at 10 am. Intelligence reports indicated there were some 1,200 Germans in the entire pocket, but these estimates were later discovered to be far too low. In fact, Combat Command B was about to attack three regiments of the German 10th SS Panzer Division reinforced by elements of the 553rd Infantry Regiment. Trapped at the Waterworks Company B, 714th Tank Battalion followed Company A, 56th Armored Infantry Battalion in the attack, supported by both mortars and assault guns firing from elevated positions outside the town. Company C, 56th Armored Infantry Battalion, with a full complement of 251 officers and men, moved off to protect the flanks of the attack and join up with the French once Herrlisheim had fallen. Before that could be done, the company had to secure a group of small buildings near the Zorn River. These structures contained machinery used to control the flow of water from the Zorn to the Moder River, and they would soon be known simply as the Waterworks. While operating there, an American platoon rounded up several prisoners at a cost of four men killed and several others wounded. Facing Herrlisheim, the tanks of Company C, 714th Tank Battalion came under fire from enemy artillery and mortars. Attempting to join the infantry, the tanks found that a bridge at the Waterworks was destroyed, halting their advance. Instead, Companies A and C, 714th Tank Battalion took up positions along the Zorn River and tried to support the infantry. Their fire soon ceased, however, when ammunition began to run low. Meanwhile, Companies A and B, 56th Armored Infantry Battalion were supposed to enter the Waterworks, cross the Zorn, and clear Herrlisheim. Despite the early loss of one of the company commanders, the operation proceeded after nightfall. With a crossing accomplished, the Americans surprised a group of about 30 Germans who were moving across open, flat ground, apparently completely unaware that they were within rifle shot of American soldiers. Indeed, so close were the Germans that the Americans had to give orders in whispers so as not to alert the approaching enemy. Staff Sergeant Charles F. Peischl was first to notice that the Germans had become suspicious. He was also the first American to open fire, followed immediately by the rest of B Company. Most of the Germans were killed or wounded. Before the Americans could verify their success, however, there came orders to withdraw to the Waterworks. The entire 56th Armored Infantry Battalion, reinforced by Company L, 314th Infantry Regiment, 79th Infantry Division, assembled there. The Waterworks soon became a trap for the Germans. In the middle of the night mortars began landing in the courtyard, and movement was heard outside. Hand grenades from German infiltrators were tossed at the American positions. The Americans defended themselves, keeping the Germans at bay, until suddenly two enemy tanks opened fire. Because of an intervening wall, the enemy tanks could not fire down into the sheltering Americans, but they continued to fire at the buildings. Efforts by the 40th Engineer Combat Regiment to replace a destroyed bridge to allow American tanks to cross the Zorn were halted by the German tank fire. One of the two German tanks was knocked out in a gallant action by Private Robert L. Scott of the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion, but increasing German pressure kept the Americans pinned down. Wounded men had to be evacuated by the light tanks of Company D, 714th Tank Battalion. Supplies were brought up the same way. At daylight the German tanks and most of the enemy infantry withdrew, although more than 100 were trapped and forced to surrender. The 18 self-propelled 105mm howitzers of the supporting 494th Armored Field Artillery Battalion had fired more than 3,700 rounds during the night and into the morning in support of the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion. But so far no American had entered Herrlisheim. While the Americans decided what to do next, the artillery kept up a harassing fire against the outskirts of Herrlisheim, pinning down the several German tanks. House-to-House in Herrlisheim On January 9, the Americans renewed their attack on Herrlisheim. Once more the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion led the way with Companies A and B, with Company C in reserve. This time the attack was to begin just before dawn, secure the Waterworks, and then push forward to Herrlisheim by dawn. This would be an infantry battle supported at long range by the tanks of Company B, 714th Tank Battalion, still stymied by a lack of bridges across the Zorn. Captain James Leehman took Company B, 714th Tank Battalion forward, prepared to cross once the Bailey bridge had been completed at the Waterworks. Once across, he was to provide close support to the 56th Armored Infantry Battalion. The two remaining companies of the tank battalion were positioned in fields west of Herrlisheim, firing long-range support. The plan went awry from the start. As Captain Leehman approached the Waterworks, he saw immediately that no work was being done to install the Bailey bridge. He joined the rest of the 714th Tank Battalion in providing long-range support. In fact, the bridge was not completed that day. In an effort to improve the fire support, Lt. Col. William J. Phelan, commander of the 714th Tank Battalion, ordered Company A to cover Herrlisheim from the north and northeast. However, Company A’s field of fire was blocked by the infantry moving across its front. The armored infantry had begun its attack on schedule. Moving toward the town they were immediately greeted with heavy machine-gun fire. Then mortar rounds began to fall among them. Another company commander and several soldiers fell. Nevertheless, Company B pushed forward and reached a few of the closest buildings in Herrlisheim. There, enemy fire again stopped the advance. The company altered its direction to seek shelter in a gulley that ran nearby. Perhaps half the company had already been killed or wounded. The light tanks of Company D, 714th Tank Battalion were again pressed into service to evacuate wounded men. The battalion surgeon, Captain William Zimmerman, later credited the light tanks with saving the lives of at least 65 wounded soldiers. Company A was also hit by German fire but managed to advance with fewer casualties, coming up on Company B’s flank and moving beyond it. Company A advanced halfway to Herrlisheim before halting to await Company B. When it did not appear, orders were received to enter Herrlisheim itself. Company C was ordered to follow Company A, mopping up as it went forward. Companies A and C entered the town at midafternoon and discovered that their radios did not work. A runner was sent to make contact with Company B, which remained pinned down in the fields before the town. Although the armored infantry began to clear the town in house-to-house fighting, the Americans were unable to contact anyone because of the radio problem. Niether Combat Command B nor the two battalion command posts knew anything of what was going on in Herrlisheim. House-to-house fighting has always been a risky venture. In Herrlisheim each American platoon took a street or row of houses and methodically moved down the line from one to the next. While a few riflemen stood guard outside the house, others went to the rear to check the outhouses. They then went to the first floor windows and fired into the house to discourage snipers or any other enemy inside. Next the door was kicked down and the basement investigated as the GIs worked their way to the top floor. Any civilians encountered were ordered to assemble on the ground floor. In Herrlisheim, several abandoned machine guns and antitank positions were discovered. The 56th Armored Infantry was making good progress when suddenly Company A came face to face with a German PzKpfw. IV tank. The Americans took cover from the tank’s fire for about half an hour, after which the tank withdrew. As they resumed their advance, several more enemy tanks were observed approaching. With no tanks of their own on this side of the Zorn River, the infantrymen were in trouble. Indeed, although there were signs of progress, the attack was coming apart. Company B was still pinned down and suffering casualties at an alarming rate. Company A faced at least three enemy tanks, and the defenders were showing a more aggressive attitude with snipers infiltrating American lines. Darkness was coming fast, and Company A was ordered to withdraw to the edge of the town and establish a defensive position. Company C moved to aid Company B, which was withdrawn at dark. Captain Francis Drass, commander of Company A, took command of all the infantry elements in Herrlisheim as night fell. As Company B withdrew, it lost its second company commander in less than 12 hours. Contact Lost With Headquarters As night fell German artillery fire increased. Enemy infiltration intensified into and beyond the American positions. Company D, 714th Tank Battalion did yeoman’s work in evacuating wounded and prisoners of war. Battalion headquarters of the 56th Armored Infantry sent a specially equipped radio patrol to try to make contact with its embattled companies in Herrlisheim, but it was stopped by German machine-gun fire. A prisoner reported that the companies in Herrlisheim had been wiped out. Captain Elmer Bright, battalion intelligence officer and leader of the patrol, also found some 30 soldiers from the forward companies who had withdrawn. They confirmed the prisoner’s report of the annihilation of their commands. With this information from two sources, Captain Bright turned back. The night of January 9-10, 1945, was a nightmare in Herrlisheim. The Americans were surrounded and cut off. German patrols wandered throughout the town setting fire to houses they believed were occupied by the Americans. There was no contact with any headquarters. American officers ordered their men to shoot at anything that moved outdoors and told them not to leave their houses for any reason at the risk of getting shot by friendly fire. Sergeant Peischl, still fighting with Company B, later recalled, “The Krauts seemed to have a system of first firing at a building with tracers to mark it, and then blowing it up with a bazooka or antitank gun. Some might have been doped up, for they would come right up to our doors, open them, and yell, ‘Komm heraus!’ We wasted no time in knocking them off.” Another Day of Fighting Dawn brought some slight relief. The enemy ceased individual attacks on houses, although mortar fire and snipers continued to take a toll on the Hellcats. As dawn broke over Herrlisheim American medium tanks appeared in town. Captain Leehman’s Company B, 714th Tank Battalion had finally crossed the Zorn on the just completed Bailey bridge. Now the tankers sought contact with the armored infantry companies beleaguered in the town. They knocked out one German tank at point-blank range and began shouting in an attempt to locate the infantrymen. Finally, a lone American appeared and directed the tanks to Company A, 56th Armored Infantry. A quick discussion between the tank and infantry company commanders determined that their force could not hold the town, and the tanks radioed back for permission to withdraw. This request was refused, and the combined force was ordered to hold where it was. Once again the light tanks brought up supplies and evacuated wounded and prisoners. A thick fog enveloped the area, making movement difficult. One of the light tanks was knocked out by a German antitank gun using the fog for cover. After four round trips by the light tanks, enemy antitank fire became thick on the only route they could use, and so evacuation and resupply ceased. One light tank was trapped in Herrlisheim, two were knocked out, and only one managed to make the last trip successfully. Company B, 119th Armored Engineer Battalion was ordered to move into Herrlisheim and fight as infantry. Joining with the armored infantrymen, the engineers took their places in the bridgehead. That bridgehead remained static throughout January 10, with enemy fire so heavy that any movement out of the protecting houses was impossible. Nevertheless, both battalion commanders came up during the day to take charge of their respective commands. The 714th Tank Battalion lost two tanks to roving German antitank teams during the day. Its battalion commander was wounded by enemy artillery. Several M8 self-propelled guns tried to get into town to provide support, but they ended up crashing through the thick ice covering the local canals and remained there until nightfall. Continuous German fire and heavy casualties delayed and eventually postponed an attack to complete the conquest of Herrlisheim. The arrival of reinforcements and supplies was halted, and attempts to drop supplies by light plane were prevented due to the fog. The wounded were piling up at the aid stations and battalion command posts. As darkness approached, the two battalions prepared for another long night as tanks paired up with occupied houses to await the next German attack. German Counterattack on the Seventh Army Finally, at 2 am on January 11, the order came to withdraw. The movement was completed in orderly fashion. Noise was kept to a minimum, and the tank engines were not started until they were ready to pull out. A friendly artillery barrage covered much of the noise and kept the Germans busy. The night was so dark and the fog so thick that the infantrymen had to hold each other’s belts to avoid getting lost in the gloom. Within an hour the survivors were back across the Zorn. The first battle of Herrlisheim had gone to the Germans. The Germans were convinced that the Seventh Army was weak and that another strong push would bring success. Indeed, the collection of American and French Army units containing the Gambsheim bridgehead lent credence to that belief. Surrounding the German enclave were the 314th Infantry Regiment (79th Infantry Division), Combat Command B of the 14th Armored Division, the 232nd Infantry Regiment (42nd Infantry Division/Task Force Linden), and elements of the French 3rd Algerian Infantry Division. To overcome what the Germans viewed as a miscellaneous collection of forces, they committed their experienced 21st Panzer and 25th Panzergrenadier Divisions to secure the Gambsheim bridgehead. General Brooks soon found his VI Corps fighting for its life against three attacks from three directions. Several days of bitter fighting ensued. By January 16, the German attack had pushed VI Corps back along the west bank of the Rhine. Another attack was expected, but contrary to the expectations of Generals Patch and Brooks, it did not come against the main American line. Instead, the Germans hit the western flank held by the 12th Armored Division. The Hellcats had been ordered to seize Herrlisheim to cut the principal German north-south communication line with the Gambsheim bridgehead. They had moved into position and launched their first attack, which failed when far more Germans were found to be defending the town than General Allen had been led to believe. Normally a job for an infantry division, the Hellcats were the sole reserve available to Seventh Army, and so they had drawn the short straw. Undeterred, General Allen ordered both Combat Commands A and B to renew the attack. This time Major James W. Logan’s 17th Armored Infantry Battalion would attack Herrlisheim from the south while Lt. Col. Scott Hall’s 43rd Tank Battalion skirted the east end of the town to surround it. The objective of Combat Command B was to clear the Stainwald Woods and the town of Offendorf, which flanked Herrlisheim. The attack was to begin on January 17. The 43rd Tank Battalion Disappears Into Thin Air Once again the armored infantrymen were able to enter the town and begin clearing it only to encounter increasingly stronger German defenses as they went along. The 17th Armored Infantry Battalion soon found itself surrounded in the town, cut off, and forced to withdraw despite strong artillery support, losing a number of prisoners. Major Logan’s final message to headquarters at about 4 am simply reported, “I guess this is it,” as his battalion was overrun. But what had happened to their support, the 43rd Tank Battalion? It would be months before anyone discovered exactly what had happened to the battalion, which had never returned to American lines. The 43rd Tank Battalion, under the command of Lt. Col. Scott Hall (some sources give Lt. Col. Nicholas Novosel as commander at this time), had fought at Offendorf the day before, where it had lost 12 tanks to enemy action. As planned, the 43rd followed the 17th Armored Infantry Battalion to the outskirts of Herrlisheim and then turned off on its flanking mission to the east and north. Radio contact between the two units of Combat Command A was lost at 10 that morning. At about noon on January 17, the commanding officer radioed his executive officer at Combat Command A, “Things are plenty hot.” Some garbled messages came in later, but no one could understand them or determine where the battalion was located. One message from the battalion operations officer reported incoming German antitank fire. The last message from the battalion commander reported the unit’s location as east of Herrlisheim, and a short time later a brief message was received reporting that the battalion commander’s tank had been knocked out. Nothing else was ever heard from the 43rd Tank Battalion. Some 29 American medium tanks and their crews had simply vanished. While the battle still raged in Herrlisheim, the supply and administrative units of Combat Command A searched in vain for some sign of the 43rd Tank Battalion. Despite being overrun, many of the 17th Armored infantrymen had managed to escape from Herrlisheim, but not one man returned from the flanking maneuver of the 43rd Tank Battalion. Piecing Together the Fate of the 43rd It was not until a day later that the mystery began to clear. An artillery observer flying over the battlefield on January 18 reported several destroyed American tanks on the eastern outskirts of Herrlisheim. Continuing on, he found two more groups of destroyed American tanks in the area. These tanks were reported to be deployed in a circular defensive formation. Some were painted white while others had been burned black. General Allen immediately ordered a rescue attempt, but closer observation reported no sign of movement from the American tanks and also recorded a strong German presence in the immediate area. With no evidence that there was anyone left to rescue, the attempt was cancelled. Intelligence reports later added to solving the mystery of the lost battalion. Information received after the battle revealed that the attack of Combat Command A had unexpectedly run into the counterattack of the 10th SS Panzer Division, which had been ordered to enlarge the bridgehead. That evening German radio announced that an American lieutenant colonel and 300 of his men had been taken prisoner at Herrlisheim and that 50 American tanks had been captured or destroyed. General Allen and his staff could only speculate that the 43rd Tank Battalion had run into a well-planned German ambush and been annihilated. With no fresh forces left to him, General Brooks ordered a withdrawal of his VI Corps. Herrlishiem would have to wait. In late February 1945, more information on the lost battalion was found. The 12th Armored Division’s graves registration report dated February 23 indicates that the 43rd Tank Battalion tanks that were found knocked out in the town had been hit by panzerfausts—infantry-held antitank weapons—while the tanks on the eastern edge of the town had been devastated by high-velocity cannons. The investigators found many German antitank positions indicating that both 75mm and 88mm antitank guns had been positioned just outside the town. The conclusion was drawn that the battalion had entered the town, been struck by infantry armed with antitank weapons, and had then withdrawn to the outskirts of the town, where it encountered a barrage of antitank fire. Some 28 destroyed tanks were identified. Contrary to the German report, the bodies of the battalion commander and many of his men were also identified. The report went on to state that it appeared from tracks and other indicators that perhaps four American tanks had been captured intact and removed by the Germans. The End of Operation Nordwind The Hellcats were not yet done with Herrlisheim. On January 18, a task force consisting of Company B, 66th Armored Infantry Battalion and Company B, 23rd Tank Battalion made an abortive attack to try to reach any survivors of the 17th Armored Infantry Battalion who might be in town. On the flank, Combat Command B made no headway against the Germans. That evening orders came for the division to withdraw to the west side of the Zorn to coordinate with a general withdrawal of VI Corps. Some small German counterattacks were repulsed once the division had settled into its new positions. The next day the Hellcats were relieved by the 36th Infantry Division. The Hellcats moved to Strasbourg for a rest before returning to combat with the French First Army. Ironically, just a few days after the Hellcats were relieved, the Germans decided that they had no chance to break through Seventh Army and called off their Nordwind offensive. Their best remaining combat units were shifted to the Eastern Front, leaving behind some 23,000 casualties against American losses of 14,000. Indeed, the Seventh Army was stronger than ever with the arrival of the 42nd, 63rd, and 70th Infantry Divisions at the front and the veteran 101st Airborne Division held in reserve. The Lessons of the Battle of Herrlisheim The Herrlisheim battle pointed out lessons that had been learned earlier in the battles for Normandy, northern France, and Brittany. Inexperienced combat divisions often had to learn in combat how to maneuver their tank and infantry assets. In Herrlisheim the new 12th Armored Division too often separated its infantry and armor, particularly in street fighting. A good infantry-tank team was essential to clearing a defended town. Tanks alone in narrow streets with overhanging roofs were sitting ducks for German antitank teams. Similarly, infantrymen could not adequately clear a town without close armored support. At Herrlisheim, the armored infantry repeatedly went into the town without accompanying armor. Likewise, the attack of the 43rd Tank Battalion had no infantry support, which might have pushed the German antitank gunners back far enough to enable the combined force to gain a foothold on the eastern end of Herrlisheim. However, for an inexperienced combat unit the Hellcats gave as good as they took. By the end of January 1945, the Seventh Army was once again on the attack. General Brooks’ VI Corps was ordered to eliminate the Gambsheim bridgehead. He sent the 36th Infantry Division, supported by Combat Command B of the 14th Armored Division, to clear the zone. Miserable weather restricted the armor to a few good roads, and strong German defenses delayed the advance repeatedly. Nevertheless, the bridgehead was cleared by February 11, and American troops finally occupied Herrlisheim. The Hellcats went on to take part in the clearing of the Colmar Pocket in February with the French First Army and then attacked through the lines of the 94th Infantry Division in March, reaching the Rhine north of Mannheim, Germany, on March 20, 1945. They crossed the Rhine at Worms and fought their way eastward through southern Germany until they reached Schweinfurt. Town after town fell to the now highly experienced combat division until it forced a crossing of the Danube River. The Hellcats were in Austria, moving on Innsbruck, when the war ended. Months of fighting had cost them 724 killed and 2,416 wounded in combat. Many of these casualties had been incurred far to the west at a town called Herrlisheim.
2080	dbpedia	1	2	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_divisions_in_World_War_II	en	List of German divisions in World War II	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	https://en.wikipedia.org/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/German_Motor_INF_DIV_1941.png/500px-German_Motor_INF_DIV_1941.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/German_WW2_Infantry_Divsion_1943.png/500px-German_WW2_Infantry_Divsion_1943.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2004-08-22T17:54:28+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_divisions_in_World_War_II	This article lists divisions of the Wehrmacht (German Armed Forces) and Waffen-SS active during World War II, including divisions of the Heer (army), Luftwaffe (air force), and the Kriegsmarine (navy). Upgrades and reorganizations are shown only to identify the variant names for what is notionally a single unit; other upgrades and reorganizations are deferred to the individual articles. Due to the scope of this list, pre-war changes are not shown. Most of these divisions trained in Berlin, which is also where new military technology was kept and tested. These designations are normally not translated and used in the German form in the unit name or description. See also: Panzer division The designation "Light" (leichte in German) had various meanings in the German Army of World War II. There were a series of 5 Light divisions; the first four were pre-war mechanized formations organized for use as mechanized cavalry, and the fifth was an ad hoc collection of mechanized elements rushed to Africa to help the Italians and organized into a division once there. All five were eventually converted to ordinary Panzer divisions. Various other divisions were dubbed "Light" for other reasons, and are listed among the Infantry Series Divisions (see below ↓). The backbone of the Heer was the infantry division. Of the 154 divisions deployed against the Soviet Union in 1941, including reserves, there were 100 infantry, 19 panzer, 11 motorized, 9 security, 5 Waffen-SS, 4 "light", 4 mountain, 1 SS-police, and 1 cavalry. A typical infantry division in June 1941 had 17,734 men organized into the following sub-units:[4] three infantry regiments with staff and communications units three battalions with: three infantry companies one heavy weapons company one anti-tank company (mot.) one artillery company one reconnaissance unit one tank destroyer battalion with: three companies (each with twelve 3.7 cm guns) one artillery regiment three battalions three batteries one pioneer battalion one communications unit one field replacement battalion Supply, medical, veterinary, mail, and police Infantry divisions were raised in waves (Aufstellungswelle), sets of divisions with a standardized table of organization and equipment. In general the later waves (i.e., the higher-numbered divisions) were of lower quality than the earlier ones. Divisions are listed by number and reflect their lineage where names or designations were changed over time. 1st Ski Division (previously 1st Ski Brigade) According to Davies, the Cavalry divisions were mounted infantry and the Cossack divisions were "true cavalry", modelled on the Russian cavalry divisions. In 1945 the Reichsarbeitsdienst (Reich Labour Service) transferred personnel to the army to form new divisions as part of the 35th Aufstellungswelle, the last of the war. Main article: Kriegsmarine Main article: Luftwaffe The Hermann Göring formations grew from a single police detachment to an entire armored corps over the course of the war. The later epithet Fallschirm ("parachute") was purely honorific. To keep its existence secret, the first German airborne division was named as if a Flieger ("flier") division in the series of Luftwaffe divisions that controlled air assets rather than ground troops-named 7th Flieger Division (often translated 7th Air Division - which see: 1st Parachute Division (Germany)) The division was later reorganized to start a series of nominally airborne divisions. Though named Fallschirmjäger ("paratrooper") divisions, only some of them participated in airdrops in the early part of the war. Whilst the first five divisions received full paratrooper training, the remaining divisions did not and in practice operated as ordinary infantry throughout their existence. The lower-numbered ones earned and maintained an elite status, but quality generally declined among the higher-numbered divisions. Main article: Luftwaffe Field Divisions Luftwaffe Field Divisions were ordinary infantry divisions organized from Luftwaffe personnel made available after mid-war due to problems with manpower. They were originally Luftwaffe units but were later handed over to the Heer, retaining their numbering but with Luftwaffe attached to distinguish them from similarly numbered divisions already existing in the Heer. These were headquarters for controlling aggregates of flak ("anti-aircraft artillery") assets rather than ordinary combined arms divisions organized for ground combat. Main article: List of Waffen-SS divisions All divisions in the Waffen-SS were ordered in a single series up to 38th, regardless of type. Those tagged with nationalities were at least nominally recruited from those nationalities. Many of the higher-numbered units were small battle groups (Kampfgruppen), i.e. divisions in name only. Also Panzer Division Kempf, a temporary unit of mixed Heer and Waffen-SS components. List of World War II military units of Germany List of German army groups in World War II List of German corps in World War II List of German brigades in World War II
2080	dbpedia	2	9	https://tmd.texas.gov/the-36th-infantry-division-celebrates-100-year-anniversary-fact-sheet	en	The 36th Infantry Division Celebrates 100 Year Anniversary Fact Sheet	https://tmd.texas.gov/Da…c2c-a73165944620	https://tmd.texas.gov/Da…c2c-a73165944620	[ "https://tmd.texas.gov/Data/Sites/1/skins/texas-military/img/logo-white.svg", "https://tmd.texas.gov/Data/Sites/1/media/tmd-seal/texas-military-department-logo.png", "https://tmd.texas.gov/Data/Sites/1/skins/texas-military/img/logo.svg", "https://tmd.texas.gov/Data/Sites/1/media/elsp/fixed-navbar-icon/elsp_white_simple.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The 36th Infantry Division Celebrates 100 Year Anniversary Fact Sheet	en	/Data/Sites/1/skins/texas-military/img/favicons/apple-touch-icon.png?v=5e440f30-74c8-4ec0-bc2c-a73165944620		https://tmd.texas.gov/the-36th-infantry-division-celebrates-100-year-anniversary-fact-sheet	Click here to download Texas Military Department News "Texans Serving Texas" FOR IMMEDIATE PUBLIC RELEASE: The 36th Infantry Division Celebrates 100 Year Anniversary Fact Sheet Unit History: As of July 18, 2017, the 36th Infantry Division, Texas Army National Guard, has enjoyed a century of commitment to service to the citizens of Texas and the United States. Although so much has changed over those 100 years, from uniforms and haircuts, vehicles and weapons, to even the make-up of the force itself, the dedication of its soldiers has not wavered during that time. Muster Day: War Department in Washington D.C. published General Order Number 95 on July 18, 1917 creating the 36th Division from Soldiers of the Texas and Oklahoma National Guard. Troops started to muster just eight days later and by October 1917, the troops from both states came together at Camp Bowie outside Fort Worth, Texas. World War I: After rigorous training, the division was on its way to Europe to fight the Central Powers in World War I. The division endured 24 days of combat as a part of the French 4th Army while operating on the left flank of the U.S. 1st Army during the Meuse-Argonne offensive, the largest American campaign of the war. On November 11, 1918, the Great War came to an end with the signing of the armistice. On the same day, the War Department approved the shoulder insignia for the division – a green capital “T” superimposed on a blue arrowhead. The “T” stood for Texas and the arrowhead harkens to the Native American heritage of Oklahoma. The 36th Division suffered more than 2,500 casualties, including 466 killed in action. Two members were awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. World War II: In November 1940, the division was mobilized to the new Camp Bowie near Brownwood, Texas and began training in preparation for war. Participated in the Louisiana and Carolina Maneuvers, trained at Camp Blanding, Fla. and Camp Edwards, Mass. 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery Regiment detached from 36th Infantry Division and was sent to the Pacific Campaign on special mission; 2-131 FAR was the first American unit to fight on foreign soil in World War II before becoming prisoners of war by the Japanese. On September 9, 1943, the 36th Division became the first U.S. division to land on the European Continent when it made an amphibious assault landing at Salerno, Italy; nine months before the D-Day Normandy, France landings. The 36th encountered heavy German opposition as they pushed north through Altavilla, Naples, San Pietro and Cassino, taking heavy losses trying to breach the Rapido River, the last major German defensive barrier before Rome. May 1944, reinforced allied troops on the Anzio beachhead which lead to the liberation of Rome two days before D-Day. The division conducted a second amphibious assault landing in Southern France; driving up the Rhone River valley, fought a week-long battle at Montelimar, and then chased the German 19th Army to the foothills of the Vosges Mountains. The division turned back a German offensive attack in January 1945, participated in eliminating the Axis-held Colmar pocket. Breached the Siegfried Line in March 1945 and entered Germany; liberated the Landsburg Concentration Camp. Captured several high ranking Nazis including the Commander of the German Army on the Western Front. The unit endured more than 400 days of combat; suffered nearly 19,500 casualties with 3,131 Soldiers killed in action. Fourteen Soldiers awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. Post World War II Transformation: The Texas National Guard underwent changes that added the 49th Armored Division in 1947. The 36th Infantry Division was deactivated in 1968, but many of the Arrowhead soldiers were still serving with the 49th Armored “Lone Star” Division. Called upon in the 2003 Space Shuttle Columbia disaster to assist with recovery. Deployed overseas to the Balkans in 2000 and 2003. 49th was reorganized as an infantry unit and reflagged under the 36th Infantry Division in 2004. September 11, 2001: September 11, 2001 changed the world and the mission for the U.S. military. Provided additional security at airports, military facilities and key infrastructure locations throughout the state. The division has deployed large, small and everything in between in support of the Global War of Terror in both Iraq and Afghanistan. The 56th Infantry Brigade Combat Team to Iraq in 2005, the 36th Combat Aviation Brigade to Iraq in 2006, the 72nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team to Iraq in 2009. The 36th Division Headquarters deployed to Iraq in 2010-2011 to provide command and control of operations during the drawdown of U.S. Forces becoming the first National Guard division to take over a command for Operation New Dawn. Several battalion, company and Task Force deployments in support of GWOT to Afghanistan, Iraq, Kuwait, Egypt, Kosovo, Bosnia, the Horn of Africa, Central America, the Persian Gulf and other countries around the world. The 36th Division Headquarters has deployed successive Train, Advise and Assist Command teams to Afghanistan becoming the first National Guard division to take over a regional command in Afghanistan; the second rotation, commanded by Brig. Gen. Chuck Aris, remains in Afghanistan. On The Homefront: The division continues to take the lead during major conflicts, but remains committed to providing support and care to the citizens of Texas Conducts Defense Support to Civil Authorities missions to include hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, flood relief and rescues and wildfire suppression across the state and providing security operations along the U.S.-Mexico border to prevent drug and human trafficking from entering Texas. Into The Future: The division will remain an adaptable force within the Army’s Total Force Policy. Three units within the Associated Unit Pilot program partnering active and reserve component units to train together as they prepare to fight together. -30- The mission of the Texas Military Department (TMD) is to provide the Governor and the President with ready and trained forces in support of the citizens of Texas and State and Federal civil/military authorities at home and abroad. The Texas Military Department is commanded by the Adjutant General of Texas, the state's senior military official appointed by the governor, and is comprised of the Texas Military Department (formerly the Adjutant General's Department), the Texas Army National Guard (TXARNG), the Texas Air National Guard (TXANG), the Texas State Guard (TXSG) and the Domestic Operations Command (DOMOPS). For more information about the Texas Military Department visit our Website at https://tmd.texas.gov.
2080	dbpedia	1	57	https://www.keymilitary.com/article/final-offensive	en	The Final Offensive	https://supersocial.fullfatthings.com/i/1/https://www.keymilitary.com/article/final-offensive	https://supersocial.fullfatthings.com/i/1/https://www.keymilitary.com/article/final-offensive	[ "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/key%20military%20logo_0.png", "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/styles/listing_card/public/imported/2020-03-24/img_84_1_1.jpg?h=3108a18c&itok=MktOolYa", "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/styles/listing_card/public/imported/2020-03-24/img_32-1_57.jpg?h=5c16d65e&itok=JQjp9YPW", "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/styles/listing_card/public/imported/2020-03-24/img_110-1_13.jpg?h=7629f9de&itok=EmUCAa66", "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/styles/listing_card/public/imported/2020-03-24/img_118-1_1.jpg?h=043521b8&itok=4tuGRrlz", "https://fft-keymilitary.b-cdn.net/sites/militarykey/files/styles/medium_scale/public/publications/BAW_MasterLogo_Jan2012.png?itok=w9Nc8ArI", "https://www.keymilitary.com/themes/custom/key_simple/images/militarykey-devices.jpg", "https://pixel.quantserve.com/pixel/p-9Yp58hh8HXUzM.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-03-24T19:59:05+00:00	Richard Doherty details the last big push to bring an end to...	en	themes/custom/key_simple/favicons/apple-touch-icon.png	Key Military	https://www.keymilitary.com/article/final-offensive	Richard Doherty details the last big push to bring an end to the war in Italy. Spring of 1945, Britain’s illustrious Eighth Army was pitted against elite German defenders in a climactic operation to secure the Po Valley. The morning of April 9, 1945, was a warm, bright day in the historic Romagna region of northern Italy, but the quiet was soon to be shattered. The Allied soldiers occupying their frontline positions quietly withdrew some 500 yards into sheltered trenches, while overhead the squadrons of the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces sortied aircraft, as per usual. Everything was being done to assure the Germans that this was just another routine morning. That had all changed by the afternoon. Between 1.45 and 2.20pm, in an overwhelming display of power, 825 B-17 Fortress and B-24 Liberator heavy bombers, accompanied by 234 B-25 Mitchell light bombers, flew over the front to drop more than 1,500 tons of bombs, mostly 20lb fragmentation devices with 100lb weapons mixed in. Plastered all over German positions, the bombers’ purpose was to disrupt, which they did effectively by destroying communication lines. However, there was more for the airmen to do, with both American XXII Tactical Air Command an…
2080	dbpedia	1	3	https://www.worldwar1luton.com/event/battle-ginchy	en	The Battle of Ginchy			[ "https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/all/themes/wwi/images/LUT013_TheCultureTrust_Logo_White.svg", "https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/default/files/wwi-logo_0_0.jpg", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg.png", "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_German_Empire.svg.png", "https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/default/files/lottery_0.png", "https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/all/themes/wwi/images/LUT013_TheCultureTrust_Logo_White.svg", "https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/default/files/uni_bedfordshire.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://www.worldwar1luton.com/sites/default/files/favicon.ico		https://www.worldwar1luton.com/event/battle-ginchy	The Battle of Ginchy took place on 9 September 1916 during the Battle of the Somme, when the 16th Division captured the German-held village. Ginchy is 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) north-east of Guillemont, at the junction of six roads on a rise overlooking Combles, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) to the south-east. After the conclusion of the Battle of Guillemont on 6 September, XIV Corps and XV Corps were required to complete the advance to positions which would give observation over the German third position, ready for a general attack in mid-September, for which the Anglo-French armies had been preparing since early August. British attacks from the boundary between the Fourth Army and the French Sixth Army from Leuze Wood north to Ginchy, had begun on 3 September when the 7th Division captured the village, before being forced out by a German counter-attack. Attacks on Leuze Wood and attempts to re-take Ginchy on 4 and 5 September were also defeated by German counter-attacks. The 7th Division was relieved by the 16th Division and 55th Division on the evening of 7 September and the 5th Division was replaced by the 56th Division on the right at the army boundary. Date 9 September 1916 Location Ginchy, France Result British victory Belligerents United Kingdom France German Empire Commanders and leaders Douglas Haig Ferdinand Foch General Émile Fayolle Henry Rawlinson General Joseph Alfred Micheler Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria Max von Gallwitz Fritz von Below Strength 3 divisions c. 3 divisions On 9 September the British began a bombardment early in the morning but waited until late afternoon to advance, to deny the Germans time to counter-attack before dark. The British assault in the south by the 56th Division and the 16th Division reached Bouleaux Wood but the attack in the centre was repulsed. On the northern flank Ginchy was captured by the 16th Division and several German counter-attacks were defeated. The loss of Ginchy deprived the Germans of observation posts, from which they could observe all of the battlefield and eliminated the salient at Delville Wood, which had been costly to defend, due to observed German artillery-fire from three sides and the many counter-attacks by German infantry in July and August, the attack on 31 August being the largest mounted by the Germans during the Battle of the Somme. The success of the French Sixth Army on 12 September, in its biggest attack of the battle and the advance of the right flank of the British Fourth Army from 3–9 September, enabled both armies to make much bigger attacks, sequenced with the Tenth and Reserve armies in September, which captured much more ground and inflicted approximately 130,000 casualties on the German defenders
2080	dbpedia	2	55	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-45th-infantry-divisions-desperate-defense-at-anzio/	en	The 45th Infantry Division’s Desperate Defense at Anzio	https://warfarehistoryne…nzio-1-LEAD1.jpg	https://warfarehistoryne…nzio-1-LEAD1.jpg	[ "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/search-icon.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/search-icon.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/line-arrow-down.svg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-1-LEAD1.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-2-e1657316932571.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-3.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/VTB-Mobile-Ads-300x250-2.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-4.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-5-e1657316988320.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-MAP-1024x876.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-6-e1657317030433.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-7-1024x713.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-Fal20-Anzio-8-1.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-9-crop-225x300.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-10-920x1024.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-12.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-13-e1657317114874.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-11.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-14.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Q-45th-Anzio-1-1024x1024.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/02/M-Spr23-Weapons-1-e1675978443414.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/WW-Midway-2-4C-Nov01-e1709850832912.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/W-Honorable-6-HT-Jul11-crop1.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/W-Narvik-Lead-NEW-4C-Mar05-e1698874752214.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/M-Profiles-LEAD-4C-Dec08-crop-sc.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/W-Chicago-Lead-4C-Nov06-e1687547876651.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/CoCo_Release_Screenshot_WhereCanIGo.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/M310002-crop.png", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/snow-tanks.jpg", "https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/wp-content/themes/warfare-history-network/dist/images/logo.svg", "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=180324792517877&ev=PageView&noscript=1&cd%5Bpage_title%5D=The+45th+Infantry+Division%27s+Desperate+Defense+at+Anzio&cd%5Bpost_type%5D=article&cd%5Bpost_id%5D=51342&cd%5Bplugin%5D=PixelYourSite&cd%5Buser_role%5D=guest&cd%5Bevent_url%5D=warfarehistorynetwork.com%2Farticle%2Fthe-45th-infantry-divisions-desperate-defense-at-anzio%2F" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2022-08-23T12:53:29+00:00	The 45th Infantry Division’s 2nd Battalion, 157th Infantry Regiment was nearly wiped out by a German counterattack at Anzio in February 1944.	en	https://warfarehistoryne…e-touch-icon.png	Warfare History Network	https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/the-45th-infantry-divisions-desperate-defense-at-anzio/	By Christopher Miskimon The sunrise on February 16, 1944, dawned foggy over the Via Anziate—the only highway between Anzio and Rome. Overnight, the 45th Infantry Division’s 2nd Battalion, 157th Infantry Regiment (2/157), had advanced to take positions on the west side of the roadway, assuming its place on the front lines. Company E, commanded by Captain Felix Sparks, sat at the right flank of the battalion’s line, where it bordered the division’s 179th Regiment. Looking out across the muddy ground in front of his position, Sparks saw overcoat-clad figures moving, but could not tell who they were. He called his higher headquarters and asked if the soldiers of the 179th were wearing overcoats. They weren’t, a voice on the radio replied. “Those are Krauts coming after us,” Sparks told his men. Behind the enemy infantry, the sound of tank engines echoed through the chill morning air. It wasn’t long before enemy artillery began pounding Company E’s foxholes. Shells landed for 10 solid minutes, but the troops were so well dug in that casualties were light. When the barrage lifted, three German panzers, unsupported by infantry, came forward and attacked. “They made a mistake,” Sparks said. Company E had the support of an antitank gun and two M10 tank destroyers (TDs). Sparks yelled to the TD commander, “Get ‘em!” For a moment, the M10’s commander sat confused. “Are those British tanks?” he asked. A British division was dug in a few miles east. “Hell, no—they’re German tanks!” Sparks shouted, and the TDs wasted no more time. They opened fire and quickly knocked out two of the panzers. Both exploded under the concentrated American fire, pieces of them flying across the battlefield; the third made a fast retreat. One of the M10s moved just then; Sparks figured the crew wanted a better field of fire. The movement exposed it to enemy view, however, and a German armor-piercing round crashed into the thinly armored TD. It burst into fast-spreading flame, forcing Sparks to abandon his foxhole and find another. Almost immediately, German infantry attacked. Sparks’ men mowed them down. “We killed every damn one of them,” he later recalled. He thought the Germans might be drunk; they shouted as they ran awkwardly across the muddy ground. A few made it to E Company’s foxholes but were quickly cut down, tumbling into the mud in their gray overcoats. The sound of firing could be heard coming from the 179th’s lines; the enemy was attacking there as well. Only half an hour passed before the third German wave attacked E Company. This time, the infantry came with armored support. “That’s what killed us,” Sparks said, referring to the mutual support of tanks and infantry. The panzers moved up to point-blank range and opened fire, blasting the American foxholes. As E Company fought to hold back the enemy assault, Sparks saw a crewman from one of the tank destroyers climb atop the vehicle and man its .50-caliber machine gun, exposing himself to enemy fire. This sergeant even tied himself to the gun using a leather strap the crews used to lean against when firing at enemy aircraft. The machine gun roared, sending long bursts of the heavy .50-caliber bullets into the enemy ranks. As Sparks watched, a burst from a submachine gun struck the man down; spurts of dust flew from the man’s jacket as the bullets went through him. “He was killed, but he stopped the Germans right at the edge of my foxhole.” Sparks didn’t even know the soldier’s name. At midday, as the fight raged on, Sparks sent away his sole remaining tank destroyer, its ammunition depleted. It left at full speed with the Germans firing at it the entire way; Sparks watched rounds impact just behind it as it moved. Shortly afterward, another wave of Germans attacked, several battalions directing their strength at E Company. This time, Sparks saw only one way to stop the assault: he called in artillery on his own position, a tactic only used as a last resort to avoid being overrun and defeated. E Company’s troops were still in their foxholes, while the Germans advanced in the open. The attack was finally stopped, broken up by the deadly, explosive power of the artillery, but the fight was far from over. E Company fought for its life that morning because it sat at the boundary between the 157th and 179th Infantry Regiments’ segments of the line. Such boundaries were vulnerable spots an attacker could exploit. On February 16, 1944, the Germans launched a major counterattack designed to pierce Allied lines and drive them back into the sea. That attack’s point of focus was Company E’s position. The Anzio landings were less than a month old when this counterattack—dubbed Operation Fischfang by the Germans—occurred. The Allied Fifth and Eighth Armies had earlier hoped to outflank the well-emplaced Germans in the Gustav Line to the south, either forcing them to withdraw or pinning them between two Allied forces. In the event, the Anzio invasion failed; the Allied VI Corps commander, American Maj. Gen. John P. Lucas, didn’t move his forces fast enough to get inland to the high ground where he could block Axis movements. Even if he had, it was doubtful whether the landing force could have been reinforced and supplied sufficiently to prevent its destruction by German counterattacks. Whatever the case, several American and British divisions were ashore at Anzio, and they were as determined to hold their beachhead as the Germans were to push them out. The stage was set for a struggle of wills between the two sides, and the 157th Infantry Regiment sat in the center of the cauldron. The 157th Infantry was part of the 45th Infantry Division, known as the “Thunderbirds” for the Native American Thunderbird design on their shoulder patch. This National Guard division drew units from Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico, and contained large numbers of Native American troops. Activated in 1940, by early 1944 the 45th had participated in the invasions of Sicily and Salerno, and then fought in the mountains at Venafro, near Cassino, before being pulled from the front line for transfer to Anzio in January 1944. The 157th formed the division’s Colorado component. Commanded by Colonel John H. Church, the regiment was organized along standard U.S. infantry lines, with three battalions reinforced by a few organic units, such as an anti-tank and a cannon company. The regiment regularly received support from divisional artillery and attachments from tank, tank-destroyer and engineer units. The M10s supporting Sparks’ E Company on the morning of February 16 came from the 645th Tank Destroyer Battalion. While the regiment was well-supported and supplied, it faced the combined might of several German divisions with their own tank, artillery, and air support. Since arriving at Anzio, the 157th had fought several small battles against Wehrmacht forces, but now it stood directly in the path of an onslaught designed to wipe out the Anzio beachhead completely. The Germans gathered three corps containing eight divisions and numerous supporting regiments and battalions for their counterattack. The main attack concentrated along the Via Anziate road, closely coinciding with the six-mile section of front defended by the 45th Division. The German 715th Infantry and 3rd Panzergrenadier Divisions spearheaded the attack, focusing on the 45th Division’s 157th and 179th Regiments, giving the Germans a 3-to-1 advantage at their point of attack. Diversionary attacks took place on both flanks of the main attack, striking the British 56th and U.S. 3rd Infantry Divisions. German armor used the small village of Aprilia as a base; they would sortie from there and make their attacks before returning to replenish their ammunition and fuel. Aprilia was known to the Allies as “The Factory” because the church’s bell tower and a matching tower at city hall looked like industrial smokestacks. As the attack pushed down the Via Anziate, it would reach a prominent feature known as the Overpass. This was in fact an actual highway overpass for an unfinished road that went over the Via Anziate and the railroad tracks that paralleled it. The Overpass had no real tactical value other than as an easily recognizable landmark on the mostly flat terrain. If the Germans could punch through along this axis and reach the coast a few miles beyond, they would cut Allied forces in half and could defeat each part in detail. The German counterattack began at dawn on February 16, 1944—a cold morning with a misty fog lying across the battlefield. The usual harassing fire from artillery and mortars had punctuated the night and then suddenly stopped, leaving a silence that seemed almost as deafening as the bark and crash of shells. The quiet lasted only a few minutes—the German gunners were preparing for their new fire missions—before the GIs, huddled in their foxholes, heard it. In the distance, cannon fired, mortars launched their bombs into the air, and the dreaded Nebelwerfers fired their rockets, which shrieked through the sky with a terrifying noise. A barrage was coming—the Americans crouched deep into their foxholes or dove into dugouts, pressing into the mud as the incoming fire rushed down on them. Explosions ripped the landscape, sending hot shards of jagged shrapnel in all directions. The blasts shook the ground; if a round landed directly in a foxhole, the occupants were almost certainly killed. The German artillery pounded the Americans all along the line and behind, aiming for headquarters and assembly areas. While E Company got a shelling of about 10 minutes, in some places the bombardment went on for over an hour. Lt. Col. Ralph Krieger, commanding the 1st Battalion, 157th Infantry (1/157), recalled the barrage: “It was hell, I’ll tell you for sure. I lost quite a few people, including my orderly. We were in an advanced CP [Command Post] in a ditch, and the Germans started shelling us. He got hit by a direct hit on his foxhole; I was right alongside him. How I missed getting hit, I don’t know. My S-2 [Intelligence Officer] was wounded at the same time.” Krieger’s battalion was behind the lines, however, and was spared the worst of it. The 2nd Battalion, led by Lt. Col. Lawrence Brown, had moved into the front line the night before and was barely in position when the attack came. It was astride the Via Anziate, with G Company on the left on the Buon Riposo Ridge, in reality just a slightly elevated point in the otherwise-flat terrain. F Company was in the center, with E Company on the right. H Company, the battalion weapons company, sat in reserve. This was when Captain Sparks’ E Company was hit head-on by the attack. The neighboring 179th Infantry also bore the brunt of German tanks and artillery, with its forward companies battered and in one case surrounded. They fought back, however, with observers directing heavy artillery fire at the attackers. On the 157th’s left, the British 56th Division suffered a two-division assault from the German 4th Fallschirmjäger (Parachute) and 65th Infantry Divisions. The British section of the line contained wadis (dry creek beds) that the Germans used as a route of infiltration. During the confused fighting, the British pulled back, leaving the left flank of the 157th exposed. Meanwhile, the German attack on the 157th overran F and G companies, leaving E Company similarly exposed. Sparks had one platoon on the west side of the Via Anziate, and it was practically wiped out. “The damn fool Germans finally discovered we had nobody on our flank,” Sparks stated. “I don’t know why they didn’t figure it out earlier, but they didn’t. The Germans would fight like hell but sometimes they were utterly stupid.” The rest of the battalion also fought for its life. Pete Conde served in the 157th’s Anti-tank company, equipped with 57mm guns only marginally effective against the armor of German tanks and assault guns. “After the British withdrew, our flank was open,” he said. “The Germans came in and really surprised the mortars [mortar platoon] behind the hill, where I was. Many of our fellows were captured.” The 3rd Battalion, 157th (3/157) sat in positions about two kilometers behind 2/157. The men in 3/157 saw the Germans overrun their GI brethren and continue attacking southward toward the coast. K Company’s Bud McMillan endured the barrage with his platoon and watched as the Germans started across the open ground right in front of them. Bud carried a sniper rifle and put his marksmanship to deadly use. “I was able to shoot the ones I thought were officers or NCOs,” he recalled. “You pretty well had your choice of what you were going to shoot at. Up to 400 or 500 yards, you could really pick ‘em off.” The Germans kept coming in rushes—advancing a short distance before dropping to the ground, rolling sideways so they wouldn’t rise again in the same spot, and then dashing ahead once more. Their own machine guns and mortars fired to cover them. McMillan continued, “I was in the slit trench, just shootin’ at them, and a piece of shrapnel came down and hit me in the right thigh. “I took off my belt and tied a tourniquet around my leg and I kept on fightin’. There really wasn’t but about nine or 10 of us doin’ any shootin’—the rest were either gone or in hidin’. Just to our immediate front there must have been a hundred or more Germans running right at us.” The early-morning darkness may have helped Don Amzibel, from L Company. On outpost duty when the attack began, he watched as flares lit the early-morning sky and panzers clanked toward him. He remembered, “German soldiers were running by us as if we weren’t there. Of course, it was dark, and maybe they were doped up.” Amzibel and his fellow soldier in the outpost snuck back to the company’s main position, shouting the password to avoid being shot by the sentries. In danger of being surrounded, L Company fell back. It was the first time Don had been in a retreat. When 1/157 moved into the fight they also ran into the German advance. Like Sparks, Captain Kenneth Stemmons, commanding B Company, had to call in artillery on his own foxholes. He said, “When the Germans finally broke through … with infantry and tanks and a little bit of mechanized stuff, it got so bad that I had to call for artillery on our position. I had asked for quite a bit of it and they replied, ‘Let us give you a little bit to see if that’s what you really want.’ But we were in our holes and the Germans were running around in the open. We got the artillery and the Germans suffered terrible casualties.” Infantry firepower also came into play that morning. 1st Sgt. Daniel Ficco of C Company told his men to hold fire until a few hundred Germans crowded an open area in front of them. “Then I gave the order and we fired. We had some mortars, and the ground was almost black with Germans coming at us. I was firing an M-1 and it got so hot, I could hardly touch it; I don’t know how many rounds I put through it.” Still, artillery played the decisive role on the 16th. The 45th’s artillery poured fire into the waves of German attackers. Mel Craven of A Battery, 158th Field Artillery Battalion, recalled being taught in basic training the maximum rate of fire for a 105mm howitzer was four rounds per minute. “When the attack came, I and another man were on a two-man gun watch; the rest of the crew was asleep. When the Germans hit, we didn’t have enough time to call and wake them. “By the time the rest of the crew got out of their foxholes and down into the gun pit, we had almost expended 30 rounds of ammunition.” He estimated their rate at 10-12 rounds per minute. “After a captured German soldier came back through our lines, he had one request—he wanted to see our ‘automatic artillery.’ That gave us an indication what rate of fire we were putting out.” Felix Sparks still fought for the life of his company. At midday, a German halftrack appeared with a white flag. A German officer got out and asked for a 30-minute truce to evacuate the wounded on both sides. Sparks agreed, loaded his own casualties in his last running truck, and sent them back. Afterward, the fighting resumed, and the young captain once again called in artillery on his own position, stopping the attack for the moment. Nearby, G Company’s commander, 1st Lt. Joe Robertson, also became desperate. Two hundred dead Germans and several knocked-out tanks littered the ground in front of his men, but one platoon was lost, and the enemy was closing in. Robertson, too, called in the guns on his own position, but the Germans kept coming, leaping into the American foxholes and engaging in hand-to-hand combat. The Americans fell back as enemy tanks arrived, blasting the foxholes with direct cannon fire. A few miles back, 3/157 took up positions around the Overpass and immediately came under intense artillery fire. They knew the German attack was aimed at reaching the beaches and cutting the Allied position in two. They had to hold. The incoming fire forced the battalion CP to move back 600 yards, and the aid station was hit several times. Despite everything, they held. Nightfall brought only slight respite. 1st Sgt. Ficco took two Native American soldiers on a patrol to capture a prisoner. They snuck across a canal amidst a large number of German troops and found tanks and armored vehicles preparing for an attack. They continued on until they spotted a lone German sentry guarding a bridge over the canal. Ficco told his men to wait there while he snuck down the road to approach the sentry from the other side. He walked straight down the road so the guard would challenge him. When that happened, the two GIs rushed out and took the sentry unawares. Ficco’s patrol made it back to friendly lines. They then called in artillery on the enemy armor preparing to attack. The Germans did attempt a night assault on G Company, using the wadis to its left, but the Americans perceived their enemy in the dark and set up machine guns and BARs on the ridge. Thousands of .30-caliber bullets rained down on the area, breaking up the attack and filling the wadis with dead Germans. Bud McMillan remained at his post despite his wounds, firing his sniper rifle. He recalled that at dusk, a group of British soldiers appeared. They promptly fixed bayonets and, at the blast of a whistle, charged the Germans. McMillan decided it was time to go, fearing the activity would bring down mortar fire on the position. He got near the Overpass, where a British tank was firing into the darkness. Some British troops found him and filled his canteen cup with tea. Shortly after the tank was hit, a truck appeared, and McMillan was put in it next to a wounded British tanker. They were evacuated to a hospital near Anzio. Felix Sparks used the darkness to get help for E Company. He was supposed to meet a platoon of five M4 Sherman tanks, but he got only two. He took them anyway and placed them where the tank destroyers had been earlier; they would prove useful the next day. That night a company of Germans from the 715th Division crept into E Company’s outpost line and killed or captured all the sentries. As the sun rose on February 17, there were now fewer than 50 men left in the company. The new day brought a renewed effort from the Germans. They’d suffered heavier-than-expected casualties the day before—1,700 men—and expended more ammunition than planned. Success would have to come quickly, before the attack ran out of men and materiel. Despite their slow progress, the Germans did manage to force a gap between the 157th and 179th and became determined to exploit it. That morning, Luftwaffe aircraft roared in, strafing and bombing to further soften the Americans. Before their arrival, the German artillery had used up a significant portion of their remaining ammunition. This bombardment forced the defenders to take cover while 14 German infantry battalions from various units moved into the assault. American artillery replied, joined by two Navy cruisers, each of their six-inch shells equivalent to a 155mm howitzer round. U.S. troops often complained that the U.S. Army Air Force was rarely present over the battlefield; a common joke among the soldiers in the Anzio beachhead described the 36 hours a day of air cover they got—12 from their own air forces and 24 from the enemy’s. This morning, for once, the Allied air power arrived ahead of the Luftwaffe. Hundreds of bombers appeared overhead, dropping 1,100 tons of bombs on the Germans—to that date, the highest tonnage of bombs dropped in a ground-support mission. As soon as the Allied planes left, however, 45 Stukas appeared, bombing and strafing as German ground troops tore at the gap between the 157th and 179th regiments, determined to make a hole through which they could pour to the coast. Atop Buon Riposo Ridge, Corporal Henry Kaufman lay in his slit trench, enduring the bombardment. When it ended, he crept out, determined to find better cover. Dead Americans—sometimes only pieces of them—dotted the landscape. He found a friend, Pfc. Fred White, and they set off together. Suddenly an enemy tank appeared; the two men took cover near a 10-foot-high cliff as the tank fired several rounds. Explosions crashed around them as they tried to dig in with their entrenching tools. After a few minutes, the tank left. Kaufman discovered that the small cliffside had collapsed, burying White. He quickly dug the man out, finding him miraculously unhurt. The remnants of 2/157 grimly held despite the battering of artillery, tanks, and infantry. As it was pushed back, the battalion occupied an area known as the Caves, a series of tunnels carved into a hill. Built during World War I, likely to store gunpowder, the sandstone walls were hardened by years of exposure to air. A number of chambers made up the interior of each tunnel. At least 50 women and children, refugees from Aprilia, were sheltering in the Caves when the American arrived. The battalion CP set up in one cave, and men from the companies straggled in as the day continued, though E and G Companies were virtually cut off by this time. German tanks roamed the field behind G Company, firing on any target they found. Two tanks even penetrated through the American lines, moving toward the Overpass. American gunners knocked out one tank just short of the feature, but the other tank drove right through it, only to be destroyed on the other side by focused gunfire. Sparks’ E Company, also cut off, suffered heavily from relentless attacks by the 725th Grenadier Regiment. The M4 Sherman tanks he’d received the night before turned the tide, keeping the enemy at bay with cannon and machine-gun fire. Sparks had only 28 men left now, and they were almost out of ammunition. Finally, orders came to fall back to the Caves. He waited until full daylight that morning, fearful of losing men in the dark, before moving his shattered company to a small hill near the Caves and overlooking the road. The artillery dropped smoke to cover their movement. “We were the right flank of the battalion,” he recalled. “We had excellent observation and dug in a circle. The Germans went by us and left us alone. But what the damn fools didn’t know was that I had an artillery radio, and every time I saw a group, I brought in artillery fire on them.” The Sherman tanks moved back, but not before knocking out two panzers. Now a portion of the battalion occupied the Caves, with the rest in fighting positions just outside, where they could continue the battle. Captain Peter Graffagnino, battalion surgeon, set up an aid station in the Caves; captured German medics and doctors helped tend the wounded from both sides. Pete Conde spent the day carrying water cans into the Caves; he recalled seeing one German doctor with a pistol still on his belt as he tended the injured. No one had thought to take it from him. One E Company man, separated from his unit, found his way to the Caves just ahead of a hundred Germans. He warned the men inside of the impending attack. Rifle fire and grenades forced the enemy back, but another company-sized attack came at dusk, getting close enough for hand grenades to fly back and forth again. G and H Companies fired on the enemy from their position on the ridgeline just above the Caves while, inside, Captain George Hubbert, the battalion’s artillery-liaison officer from the 158th Field Artillery, called in fire missions. U.S. artillery rained down for two hours until the surviving enemy fled. The fighting continued all night. Henry Kaufman remembered the close combat: “We were trapped by the Germans and unable to move more than 15 or 20 feet outside of the cave…very close hand-to-hand combat, with fixed bayonets, right outside the entrance to our cave…We somehow managed to kill several Germans outside the cave; in the ensuing battle, we captured an entire German machine-gun nest consisting of three Germans and their machine gun.” The captured men and weapon were pulled into the cave. This went on for the next several nights. Water and food ran out; men became desperate to quench their thirst. The 157th’s official history stated, “Near one company sector trickled a stream in which lay several dead Germans, who had been cut down by machine gun fire. The water ran blood red but the thirsty men filled their canteens, boiled it, and drank it.” The Executive Officer of B Company, Philip Burke, stated, “We were hit by a German attack, but they couldn’t get us because the apertures and openings to the Caves were easily defended…The part of the Caves I was in had two or three openings from which we were defending. We couldn’t move out except at night, when we’d go down to the creek to get the dirtiest water I ever drank. It was drainage from the farms in the area.” The Germans slowly continued to gain the upper hand, but they suffered, too. The Allied artillery proved relentless and never seemed to run out of ammunition; the air strikes also made their mark, and even battle-hardened German troops grudgingly admitted the Americans’ doggedness. A letter written by a German soldier revealed the strain: “The 45th American Division have had us in an uncomfortable spot. These damned American dogs are bombing us more and more every day. For a few days, a damned American with a Browning automatic has been shooting at us. He has already killed five of our men. If we ever get hold of this pig we will tear him to pieces.” Another soldier from the 715th Division wrote: “It’s really a wonder I am still alive. What I have seen is probably more than many saw in Russia. I’ve been lying day and night under artillery barrages like the world has never seen.” Hans Schule, of the 7th Company, Lehr Regiment, recalled the relentless shelling and bombing during his unit’s attack. “The terrible fire had already completely demolished us before the attack and our morale was destroyed. With guns we were threatened by our officers and non-commissioned officers and forced to leave our shelters and go into the attack. “The enemy artillery became even stronger and we could find shelter only in the shell holes…I found myself with an American in the same hole…We stared into each other’s eyes, neither of us reacting. I then understood that the American infantry were under the fire of their own artillery.” Afterward Schule took the American prisoner and marched him back to his own lines, disregarding an order from an officer to kill the GI. The next day, Schule realized his regiment “did not exist anymore.” This was the Lehr Regiment’s first time in battle; even Field Marshal Albert Kesselring, the German commander in Italy, later acknowledged the unit should never have led such an assault. Pulled off the line, the remnants of the Lehr spent the next two days carrying dead Germans back to casualty-collection points. With 2/157 cut off at the Caves, the rest of the regiment deployed to bolster the line and defend the Via Anziate route near the Overpass. Its embankment ran 100 yards to either side, making it easiest to simply stick to the road on the way to the sea. At the moment, only I Company protected it, formed in a semicircle in front of the concrete edifice. The division commander ordered K and L to join them; there could be no retreat from this position. Behind them, hasty defensive lines were filled with cooks, clerks, and mechanics from the 45th’s rear echelons. 1st Sgt. William Pullum of K Company remembered going to the Overpass: “We were on one side of the road and I Company was on the other. We were in front of the Overpass and were in a very tenuous position. We had an awful lot of folks wounded there. We were actually supposed to attack and relieve the men at the Caves, then realized we couldn’t. Daylight caught us and we started to get casualties like it was going out of style.” The intense enemy fire soon killed or wounded all the officers in K Company, so Pullum took command. A large German unit charged I Company’s lines, only to be trapped in the curling loops of concertina wire the Americans had strung in front of their positions. GI machine guns chattered, cutting down the Germans as they struggled to get free. On the night of the 17th, the Germans tried infiltrating, using tank and artillery fire as cover, but I Company held on, receiving a resupply of ammunition but no food or water. A few tanks from the 191st Tank Battalion reinforced the infantry, using the firepower of their cannon and machine guns to keep the Germans at bay. Sergeant Phil Miller drove one of the M4s at the Overpass: “It looked like the whole German army had risen up out of the ground and came charging at us. We hit them with everything we had and still they kept coming. I lost another tank from a direct hit from a German 88. My assistant gunner and I were the only two that got out; the three men in the turret were killed in the blast and fire.” As badly as the attack smashed the American lines, the Germans suffered as well. War Correspondent Reynolds Packard watched the battle through binoculars. He later wrote he saw “tank battle and infantry fighting all along the skyline. German wounded and dead are so numerous as to actually hamper their attacks as advancing waves of Nazi infantry walk over a gruesome carpet of their own dead and dying.” Later that night K and L Companies joined other British and American troops in a counterattack, aimed at reaching the Caves and restoring the front lines. The confused night operation went badly. At first, the Americans advanced 1,000 yards through artillery fire with lightning flashing overhead. Jack McMillion of L Company recalled arriving at the end of the advance and hearing friendly fire on both sides of his unit. “This was supposed to be a small gap, but it must have been a half mile wide and there were just a few of us.” A patrol went out but never returned. As the men waited in the dark, the officers deciding their next step, a panzer appeared with a long line of German troops advancing behind it. A Nebelwerfer crew also set up nearby. GIs took cover in a drainage ditch as their enemy marched past, and McMillion watched the screaming rockets fly directly overhead toward the Overpass. The officers decided to fall back using the ditch, which angled away from the German column. They reached the Overpass just at dawn. As they passed a farmhouse, some men in overcoats called out in English, “What outfit is this?” Somebody answered, and the men opened fire. They were Germans! Bullets struck the side of the house as the Americans dashed by. Luck was with them; all of them made it to the Overpass, with just one man wounded by a bullet to the buttocks. The German plan for the 18th was for more of the same; five full regiments attacked with tank support and artillery—at least while the ammunition lasted. Just before noon, Captain William McKay, flying a Piper Cub artillery-spotting plane, saw at least 2,500 Germans advancing with tanks. He quickly called in the fire missions, and 224 Allied guns joined the bombardment, hurling thousands of shells at the attackers. Despite the devastation, the Germans kept advancing, determined to reach the Overpass and beyond. Awaiting them, Companies I, L, and M endured the shelling. It was a rainy day, but GIs later recalled that the artillery was so intense that a wet haystack nearby was set alight. Jack McMillion recalled a stiff firefight: “Behind us, we had tank destroyers that had their noses over the embankment and were firing at the Germans, and the Germans were firing at them, and we infantry were hugging the mud in between.” L Company’s mortar section went forward, trying to get within range of the Germans attacking the Caves; none of them returned. Don Amzibel was in McMillion’s platoon. “We were spotted by the Germans,” he recalled. “I guess we interrupted their breakfast, because they started hollering at us and chasing us, waving their mess kits. Our top sergeant, Jack McMillion, fired a few shots…they retreated back to their line…The shelling was awful. Tanks fired a few feet over our heads, trying to knock the Overpass out of commission. Every time a mortar shell landed near us, we were buried with dirt and mud. If the Germans had broken through, they’d have cut the beachhead in two.” A few men in I Company paid the Germans back. Jackson “Cowboy” Wisecarver used his light machine gun to kill 30 of the enemy in one day. Medic Joe Franklin recalled Wisecarver was also a deadly shot with a .45 pistol. “I couldn’t hit a wall with a .45,” Franklin stated. The medic also remembered Kenneth Kindig, who carried a brand-new sniper rifle at the Overpass. As Germans tried to get through the wire in front of the company, he shot them down. “I was on the outskirts with that sniper rifle and they were coming up through some drainage ditches at us,” Kindig said. “I picked them off before they could get around to us.” Some 25 enemy soldiers fell to Kindig’s fire, but he soon ran into bad luck. During a lull in the fighting, he had paused to eat some cheese and crackers when a mortar round exploded nearby. “A piece of shrapnel went through the front of my helmet and lodged in the back, between the helmet and helmet liner. I guess it knocked me out for a little bit. When I woke up, I was still sitting up and my can of cheese was running over with blood. The shell also blew the stock and telescopic sight off my brand-new sniper rifle.” Kindig was evacuated after dark, the only time casualties could be moved without drawing fire. He spent a month in the hospital and later received a Bronze Star for his actions. 3/157 stayed in that precarious position, 100-150 yards in front of the Overpass, for three days and nights, fighting off repeated attacks. While 2/157 remained encircled at the Caves, Maj. Gen. William Eagles, the 45th’s commander, attached part of 1/157 to the neighboring 179th Regiment, which was also in bad shape after days of non-stop fighting. The move allowed the 179th to shorten its lines while the 157th received American armored infantry from the 1st Armored Division as well as British troops to shore up the holes in its own lines. Further German attacks were repulsed with help of the division artillery, which fired 12,557 rounds on February 18 alone. The fighting went on, but the tide had turned. The German offensive gradually ran out of energy; too many men lay dead and wounded, and there wasn’t enough artillery ammunition to match the Allies’ superior logistical ability. February 19 and 20 were marked by German barrages and attacks all along the salient, but responding Allied artillery proved too heavy and accurate. All of this made little difference to the infantrymen of the 157th, still in their foxholes and CPs, enduring the enemy’s last attempts to break through. The battle transitioned to a test of willpower between two armies unwilling to concede. The Germans deployed fresh troops to finish 2/157 in the Caves. H Company’s commander, Kenneth Kerfoot, recalled a harrowing enemy attack on the night of February 19: “We tried to get out that night…We had 70 or 80 men left out of a hundred, but 40 or 50 were walking wounded. German machine guns pinned us down. We would have been slaughtered, so we surrendered at the crack of dawn.” As the enemy marched their new prisoners to the rear, Kerfoot saw immense stacks of dead Germans, awaiting burial, in piles chest-high going the length of a city block. In the Caves on the 20th, Henry Kaufman watched as a German armored vehicle rolled up to the entrance of his cave. It carried a flamethrower and loosed a stream of fire into the cave, burning Kaufman’s right arm. The GIs threw hand grenades and fired armor-piercing bullets, driving the vehicle away. Two days later, the Germans attacked again, this time using tear gas. Coughing, eyes burning, six H Company men, including Kaufman, surrendered. The machine-gun crew the GIs captured days earlier was liberated. When the Italian women came out, several Germans called them collaborators and started shooting them, until an officer appeared and ordered them to stop. Kaufman saw 25-30 German bodies outside the cave’s entrance. One German ordered Kaufman and another GI to carry one of the dead to a collection point nearby. The German who gave the order said the dead man was his brother. Felix Sparks and his last 16 men still sat in their isolated position on February 21. He received word that the battalion would be relieved by a British battalion, at which point the Americans would consolidate and withdraw after the British troops took over their positions. The British attempt met with heavy resistance; they reached Sparks’ position but had lost 76 men and most of their ammunition and heavy weapons along the way. “He didn’t even have a machine gun, so I gave him ours,” Sparks said of the officer who commanded the group. The Americans fell back to the Caves and spent the night there. The Germans attacked again, and artillery was brought down, almost to the cave entrances. It stopped them that night, but on the 22nd a group of Germans got into one cave, captured a platoon of GIs, and freed a large number of prisoners. An American lieutenant volunteered to go out and zero in the artillery. Armed only with a trench knife, he found a foxhole atop the Caves and called in fire missions for over an hour; he made it back inside afterward. Minutes later, orders came to evacuate the Caves—it was time to go. A man went to wake up the heroic lieutenant, who sat with a cigarette perched between his lips. The young officer was dead. Lt. Col. Brown issued a timetable, hoping to keep the withdrawal orderly and prevent further losses. First spot went to G Company, followed by F Company, Battalion Headquarters, H Company, E Company, and finally the walking wounded. At 1:30 AM, the first troops went out in single file. Sparks went back to his old position to retrieve the loaned machine gun, but the gun—and all the British—were gone. He went back to the withdrawing column and took the lead, guiding the survivors to a small bridge over a ravine; Sparks stood by until all of them were over it. After the last man crossed, Sparks stumbled over a dropped tin of British ration biscuits and ate them quickly before moving to catch up with the column. Suddenly, a German machine gun opened up, long bursts flashing out into the night, seeking Americans to kill. “The Germans had established a line and we had wandered into it,” Sparks recalled. “The firing didn’t break out until about half our column had passed through their outpost. “The bullets were really flying, and I was yelling, ‘Fire back, fire back!’ Then I yelled, ‘Everybody follow me!” Sparks ran to a nearby canal and fell eight feet to the bottom. He took a head count; only a dozen men had followed him. He decided to move out with the small band he had, warning them not to fire even if the Germans fired at them. Concealment in the dark was their best hope. As they infiltrated, German voices called out to them, trying to determine who they were. The enemy troops threw a few grenades but did nothing more. They went on for another half mile and came across a British artillery position. Sparks shouted, “We’re Americans!” at the surprised British gunners, hoping they wouldn’t shoot. The front half of the column got back to American lines; the rest were killed or captured, along with the unmovable wounded back at the Caves. Captain Graffagnino, the surgeon, had insisted on staying with them and also became a prisoner. Lieutenant Philip Burke shot his way to freedom. As he moved through the ravines, he recalled, “The Germans were up above, firing down on us. I happened to have a submachine gun with me and managed to take care of a couple of them up on the high walls.” Though wounded, he made it back and was evacuated to a hospital, rejoining the battalion a month later. Operation Fischfang ended in defeat for the Germans. While the casualties they suffered fighting the 157th in particular are unknowable, their total recorded losses for the operation were 5,389, including 609 captured. Some of the German units suffered so badly they never completed their casualty reports, so the actual number is higher, but also unknowable. The 157th, however, paid a high cost for its part in stopping the German counterattack of February 16–20. Total casualties for the 45th Division during that period totaled 3,400, with another 2,500 evacuated for medical causes such as trench foot and exposure in the frigid weather. Among the hardest hit was 2/157. When the Battle of the Caves began, the unit had 751 men; after the smoke cleared, it had 177. Some newspapers in America even referred to them as the “Lost Battalion of World War II.” Felix Sparks received 150 replacements when he got back to the beach, along with orders to reconstitute E Company; he was the only man left from his original company. A few days later, another man, Sergeant Leon Siehr, made it back to American lines after evading the Germans; Siehr would die in action three months later. Air attacks continued to cause casualties in Sparks’ new company for days. Despite all this death and suffering, the 157th held throughout the German attack. The regiment did its duty, though at a terrible price, and had to be rebuilt before it could return to the front lines. The focus of a four-day, six-division attack came right at it, even went through it and over it; but while the 157th bent, was bloodied and battered, it never broke. The regiment continued to fight, landing in southern France in August 1944 (Operation Anvil), liberating the Dachau concentration camp, and ending the war in Munich on May 8, 1945. In all, it spent 511 days in combat with the 45th Division, more than any other recorded by an American combat unit. The seven days from February 16-22 ranked among the worst of them.
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2080	dbpedia	2	43	https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/north-vietnamese-army-easter-offensive-1972-massacre-near-rockpile	en	The North Vietnamese Army Easter Offensive of 1972: A Massacre Near the Rockpile?			[ "https://smallwarsjournal.com/themes/custom/ccc_theme/smallwars_theme_logo.png", "https://smallwarsjournal.com/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail/public/author_photos/wrbakerbiopage.jpg?itok=BeA4V3jo", "https://smallwarsjournal.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/88x31.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	The exact location or locations where a massacre may have occurred is unknown. The NVA may have marched the ARVN troops to North Vietnam or even Laos. There is thick vegetation in the Rockpile area, as well. Though it may take a human rights organization to prove or disprove this possible massacre, it will remain an open question until it is put to rest, one way or another.	en	/themes/custom/ccc_theme/favicon.ico		https://smallwarsjournal.com/jrnl/art/north-vietnamese-army-easter-offensive-1972-massacre-near-rockpile	W. R. Baker Preface The Easter Offensive of 1972 caught not only the South Vietnamese military by surprise, but also the military commanders of the United States. In large part because the North Vietnamese offensive at Tet (in February) did not occur as expected, politicians and senior ARVN (Army of the Republic of Vietnam) officers were taking a long weekend break and many U.S. senior officers had left or were in the process of leaving South Vietnam for Rest & Recuperation, as well. The supposed country-wide alert issued by ARVN was either obviously ignored or was never really issued. Not so for the very few Human and Signal Intelligence units remaining in-country who knew better and were reporting main-force NVA activity. In fact, the 571st Military Intelligence Detachment/525th Military Intelligence Group, headquartered in Da Nang, warned ARVN and United States commands throughout the country and elsewhere of who, when, and where the offensive was to begin - publishing the first of many collateral Intelligence Summaries prior to and during the offensive. In war, the proverb, “Expect the unexpected” is especially true. A few facts seem to be in order to set the stage. What will then follow are things that may have happened, though it will probably take some time to prove or disprove it. Given the character of the NVA and the Viet Cong in many of their previous actions (e.g., Tet 1968), bringing this information to light is warranted because it is consistent with how they acted against ARVN and U.S. forces. One of the least mentioned events that occurred during the Easter Offensive of 1972 is the surrender of the 56th ARVN Regiment of the 3rd ARVN Division on Easter Sunday, April 2, 1972. The Easter Offensive began at 0900 on 30 March 1972 as NVA artillery, especially the long-range, Soviet-made M-46/130mm guns, began an intense shelling of ARVN and South Vietnamese Marine firebases. (The first two American soldiers were killed a few hours later.) In many ways, most of the 56th ARVN Regiment and 2nd ARVN Regiment were caught in the open as they traded positions to familiarize themselves with the different types of terrain and to prevent something called, “firebase syndrome.” The newly-formed 56th had spent only five months in the FSB C-2 area west of QL-1, below the DMZ, while the veteran 2nd (taken entirely from the 1st ARVN Division) had occupied the western fire bases (Fire Bases Khe Gio and Fuller and Camp Carroll) – where U.S. and ARVN generals were convinced any major NVA attack would come from - not through the DMZ. Two days later (1 April), Camp Carroll was completely surrounded by the 24th NVA Infantry Regiment/304th NVA Infantry Division, supported by the recently permanently assigned 38th Composite Artillery Regiment (newly equipped with five different artillery systems). Elements of the 1/56, 2/56, and 3/56 Battalions had managed to straggle into Camp Carroll by 1 April. The first human wave assault on Camp Carroll was preceded by sappers on this day, as well. LTC Pham Van Dinh, the commander of the 56th ARVN Regiment, talked with Lieutenant General Hoang Xuan Lam, commander of ARVN’s I Corps, who indicated that there would be no reinforcements and that he was to hold his position. The general apparently cut the phone call short as he left for his evening tennis match. (Lam also commanded the ill-fated Lam Son 719 campaign the year before.) LTC Dinh also talked on the phone with his wife living in Hue, some 65km away. At 1400 (2:00pm) on 2 Apr, the NVA’s second human wave attack on Camp Carroll came from the west, near the main gate. A little before 1500, “Dinh received a call from the NVA” about surrendering. This was followed-up a short time later by someone who claimed to be the commander of the communist forces in the area who told him that they would overrun “241” (Camp Carroll) if Dinh did not surrender. Dinh asked for time to meet with his Vietnamese staff and commanders to consider surrendering, which the communist commander granted. A little before 1500, thirteen men - the battalion commanders and regimental staff – assembled in the tactical operations center. Ton That Man, of the 1/56, was the only officer to urge continuing the fight. Eventually, after Dinh continued talking, the vote was unanimous to surrender. The NVA also knew that there were two American advisors assigned to the 56th ARVN Regiment and they knew both were present in Camp Carroll. LTC Dinh was instructed to ensure they surrendered, as well. The U.S. Army advisors, Lieutenant Colonel William C. Camper and Major Joseph Brown, Jr., tried to convince Dinh not to surrender – that things were bad, but they could continue to resist for a while longer. Their words fell on deaf ears, Dinh had already made up his mind. Each ARVN division had a cavalry squadron attached to it. Elements of the 3/11th Cavalry were in Camp Carroll when LTC Dinh surrendered. As LTC Camper and MAJ Brown were leaving, they noticed some of the 11th Cav soldiers were still armed (the 56th soldiers had been ordered to put down all their weapons). Upon questioning, it appeared that they were not informed of what had transpired. Over twenty 11th Cav troopers accompanied the two American advisors and three 56th ARVN soldiers to a CH-47/Chinook helicopter that was diverted to rescue them. About 150 ARVN artillerymen manned the batteries of 105mm, 155mm, and a single battery of 175mm guns at Camp Carroll. LTC Camper doesn’t think they surrendered but is uncertain what happened to them. LTC Camper also knew of an unidentified ARVN battalion operating near the Rockpile when the Offensive began, but nothing else is known about them. Camp Carroll Surrenders A “despondent” LTC Pham Van Dinh surrendered his 1500-1800 men and 22 (unspiked) artillery pieces, quad-50s and Dusters, plus an unknown number of 3/11th Cav and artillerymen. LTC Pham Van Dinh, the commander of the 56th ARVN Regiment, talked with his soon-to-be captors on the phone twice, complying with an order to fly a white flag, prohibit the spiking of artillery tubes and to hold the U.S. advisors in custody (which he did not do). Another version states that Dinh didn’t either have time to spike the guns or he didn’t think about it. One version has it that Dinh originated the phone call himself on April 1st (and perhaps even March 31st) and negotiated the surrender with the commander of the 38th Composite Artillery Regiment, who spoke for the commander of the 304th NVA Division. Interestingly, an unsubstantiated report by an unknown ARVN general stated that 1,000 soldiers eventually returned to friendly lines and were absorbed into other ARVN units (all apparently without any documentation). Likewise, ARVN officers told an American officer that most of the captured 56th Regiment soldiers were marched to the Rockpile and executed. What was originally named the Rockpile by the U.S. Marine Corps, was approximately 10 miles (16 km) from the DMZ and is 16 miles west of Dong Ha. The Rockpile is a rock formation 790 feet (240 meters) high and is one kilometer from Route 9. A Communist Conspiracy or Just a Series of Coincidences? Brigadier General Vu Van Giai, the 3rd ARVN Division commander, was extremely upset by the rampant desertion rate in his division. A communist network helped 3rd ARVN deserters to return southward, out of I Corps, through an underground railroad of safe houses. Both the 56th and 57th ARVN Regiments had many deserters and untrustworthy soldiers assigned to them. Many deserters had originally come from the Saigon and III Corps area. Such a railroad would obviously have had other communist contacts, perhaps searching for defectors, conducting propaganda, and collecting intelligence for NVA and Viet Cong use. LTC Dinh was a national hero, referred to as the “Young Lion of Hue” for his role in retaking Hue from the NVA and Viet Cong in Tet 1968. As such, he would have been an attractive target to turn and switch sides by the communist North. Doesn’t it seem odd that two regiments were swapping positions on the very day and the very hour that the offensive started? Not one senior officer (ARVN or U.S.) had even planned to watch over the movement of the units – they surely must have known that it was prearranged. If any NVA attacks were expected to come from the west, why was the most experienced infantry regiment (the 2nd) trading places (they were headed towards the DMZ) with the least experienced 56th (headed away from the DMZ)? No covering forces (artillery and air) were even on-call to protect the ARVN units swapping places. Neither of the exchanging regiments had any experience in relief in-place operations. Their communications equipment was simply turned off and put on trucks a half-hour before the start of the offensive. LTC Dinh was part of the first group to leave for Camp Carroll. Wasn’t all this convenient? It was an established fact that both the NVA and ARVN monitored each other’s radio transmissions. Did Dinh initiate contact with the assaulting NVA forces as part of a preconceived plan? While calling his wife on the phone is understandable (if for no other reason than “rank hath its privileges”), was there some other underlying reason for this unusual contact? Were there others (possibly communist agents) involved in a possible conspiracy to surrender the regiment? Had they passed information on the swapping of firebases to other communist agents? Aftermath The next day, Dinh spoke on Radio Hanoi (a broadcast heard by many in the South) asking ARVN soldiers to support the North. There are two pictures from an unknown magazine that show LTC Dinh and his executive officer being welcomed by an NVA officer, probably the commander of the 38th Composite Artillery Regiment who had negotiated the surrender. Presumably, a portion of Dinh’s regiment are applauding behind them in the background, obviously not with a 1,000 or so soldiers, which would have had an even greater propaganda value. Later, it was revealed that LTC Dinh may have been promoted to a full Colonel in the NVA. The surrender of the 56th ARVN Regiment, 3rd ARVN Division at Camp Carroll on April 2, 1972, at 1520 (3:20pm), will remain one of the unspeakable acts of cowardice to have ever taken place in military history. It also presaged other ARVN surrenders and desertions in the II and III Corps areas, despite the disclaimers of some general officers. A Malmedy-like Massacre in Northern South Vietnam? A major problem in trying to confirm or refute a massacre by the NVA in early-April 1972 is the fact that a communist government is in place in Vietnam. The Vietnamese government continues to deny anything that puts them in a bad light and has never given a full accounting of the Hue and Dak Son massacres, nor have they indicated who was tried for these atrocities. Another bloodlust was conducted by a NVA battalion a few miles away from the Rockpile. However, this wanton disregard for human life was witnessed by numerous press and other eyewitness reports that were published in newspapers. These NVA troops were part of a blocking force south of Quang Tri who reportedly killed between 1,000-2,000 soldiers, old men, women, and children escaping southward along QL-1 (the national north-south highway) during late-April and early-May. The commander of the battalion told his troops that anyone coming south were the enemy and they were to kill them all. Was anyone held responsible for this inhumanity or was he given a medal? It has been 46 years since this 56th ARVN Regiment massacre may have occurred and finding witnesses or participants will be difficult. Civilians who may have lived in the area undoubtedly fled southward when the NVA artillery deliberately rained down on them. The commanders and soldiers of the 24th NVA Regiment, 38th Composite Artillery Regiment and the 304th NVA Division are obvious starting points, if possible. The sheer number of military and civilians that died in re-education camps and in boats trying to leave Vietnam will also hinder any investigation if some of these people were present at the time of the incident. The exact location or locations where a massacre may have occurred is unknown. The NVA may have marched the ARVN troops to North Vietnam or even Laos. There is thick vegetation in the Rockpile area, as well.
2080	dbpedia	2	14	https://premium.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/28id.htm	en	28th Infantry Division (Mechanized)			[ "https://premium.globalsecurity.org/images/global-security.gif", "https://premium.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/images/28id.gif", "https://premium.globalsecurity.org/military/agency/army/images/28id2.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "Military Agencies", "Army", "XVIII Airborne Corps" ]	null	[ "John Pike" ]	null	The 28th Infantry Division is a highly-responsive National Guard Division, trained to conduct a variety of missions provided by the federal government as well as the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.		/favicon.ico		null	"Keystone Division" As of July 2006, as part of its transformation to a modular force, the 28th Infantry Division is scheduled to be reorganized into four brigade combat teams and one aviation brigade instead of the current system of three BCTs and one aviation brigade. The division is scheduled to contain the 2nd Brigade Combat Team (Heavy), the 55th Brigade Combat Team (Heavy), the 56th Brigade Combat Team (Stryker), the 53rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team and the 28th Aviation Brigade. Additionally, Special Troops Battalions and support units will be attached to each individual brigade. The 28th Infantry Division is a highly-responsive National Guard Division, trained to conduct a variety of missions provided by the federal government as well as the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. During peacetime, Division soldiers can be called by the Governor for emergency situations. Offering disaster relief and assisting civil law enforcement authorities are only a few of the situations for which the 28th "Keystone" Division must be prepared. For its federal mission, the Division maintains a high state of readiness to survive the pace and lethality that characterize medium- and large-scale conflicts. The Division maintains armories in 84 cities throughout the Commonwealth. As of mid-2000, strength figures reported over 15,000 soldiers within the Division. The primary elements of the 28th "Keystone" Division include three Combat Brigades, Division Artillery, Division Support Command, Combat Aviation Brigade, Combat Engineer Brigade and several separate battalions and company-sized elements. The 28th Infantry Division is the oldest division in the armed forces of the United States. The Office of the Chief of Military History certified that General Order No. 1, dated March 12, 1879, officially established the Division. Elements of the Division can trace their histories back to 1747, when Benjamin Franklin organized his battalion of "Associators" in Philadelphia. Other Pennsylvania units of the 28th Infantry Division had their beginnings in the Revolutionary War. Troop A, 1st Squadron, 104th Cavalry, was organized on Nov. 17 ,1774. The 109th Artillery Regiment was formed Oct. 17, 1775 as the 24th Connecticut Militia. Both units served with distinction in General George Washington's Continental Army during the war. During the War of 1812, the Mexican War and the Civil War, units fought victoriously at Vera Cruz and Cerro Cordo. Units of the Pennsylvania Militia won 29 battle streamers during these wars. In 1878, Governor John F . Hartranft conceived the idea of forming a single National Guard of Pennsylvania . Hartranft became the 28th Division 's first commander. The Division mustered into federal service in 1898 for theSpanish-American War. Elements saw action in Puerto Rico and the Philippines. On Oct. 27, 1918, the Red Keystone was designated the shoulder sleeve insignia of the Division. The distinctive Keystone was the second shoulder sleeve patch to receive official Army approval. Units of the 28th Infantry Division, known at the time as the 7th Division, were called to active duty for the Mexican Border incidents in 1916. Pennsylvania's 7th Division was ordered to active duty at Camp Hancock, Georgia, on July 15, 1917. On October 11, 1917, the Division was reorganized as the 28th Division while it was still training in Georgia. The 28th Division arrived in France on May 18, 1918. It was committed to battle on July 14. Soldiers of the Division participated in six major campaigns - Champagne, Champagne-Marne, Aisne-Marne, Oise-Marne, Lorraine, and Meuse-Argonne. During those campaigns, over 14,000 battle casualties were suffered by the division. Its fierce combat abilities earned it the title "Iron Division" from General of the Armies John J. Pershing. On Feb. 17, 1941 , the 28th Division was ordered into federal service for one year of active duty. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on Dec. 7, 1941 led soldiers of the 28th to remain on active for the duration of the war. Having conducted specialized combat training ineverything from offensive maneuvers in mountainous terrain to amphibious warfare, the Division's intensive training agenda culminated in its deployment to England on Oct. 8, 1943. After another 10 months of training in England and Wales, the first elements of the Division entered combat on July 22, 1944, landing on the beaches of Normandy. From Normandy, the 28th advanced across western France, finding itself in the thick of hedgerow fighting through towns such as Percy, Montbray, Montguoray, Gathemo and St. Sever de Calvados by the end of July 1944. The fury of assaults launched by the 28th Infantry Division led the German Army to bestow the Keystone soldiers with the title "Bloody Bucket" Division. In a movement north toward the Seine in late August, the Division succeeded in trapping the remnant of the German 7th Army through Vorneuil, Breteuil, Damville, Conches, Le Neubourg and Elbeuf before entering Paris to join in its liberation. The famous photograph of American troops before the Arc de Triomphe, marching in battle parade down the Champs Elysees, shows the men of 1st Battalion, 110th Infantry Regiment, 28th Infantry Division. With no time to rest, the Division moved on to fight some of the most bloody battles of the War the day following the parade. The advance continued through the Forest of Compeigne, La Fere, St. Quentin, Laon, Rethel, Sedan, Mezieres, Bouillon and eventually across the Meuse River into Belgium. The Keystone soldiers averaged 17 miles a day against the resistance of German "battle groups." The city of Arlon, Belgium, fell to a task force as the Division fanned out into Luxembourg in early September.On September 11, 1944, the 28th claimed the distinction of being the first American unit to enter Germany. After hammering away in assaults which destroyed or captured 153 pillboxes and bunkers, the Division moved north toward the Siegfried Line, clearing the Monschau Forest of German forces. After a brief respite, the Keystone soldiers made another move northward to the Huertgen Forest in late September. Attacks in the forest began November 2, 1944. The 28th Infantry Division stormed into Vossenack, Kommerscheidt and Schmidt amid savage fighting and heavy losses. By November 10, the 28th began to move south, where it held a 25-mile sector of the front line along the Our River. It was against this thinly fortified division line that the Germans unleashed the full force of their winter Ardennes "blitzkreig" offensive. Five Axis divisions stormed across the Our River the first day, followed by four more in the next few day. Overwhelmed by the weight of enemy armor and personnel, the Division maintained its defense of this sector long enough to throw Von Runstedt's assault off schedule. With allied forces able to a move in to counterattack, the "Battle of the Bulge" ensued, inflicting heavy losses on the enemy forces. Having sustained a devastating 15,000 casualties, the 28th withdrew to refortify. But within three weeks, the Division was back in action. By January 1945, Division soldiers had moved south where they served with the French First Army in the reduction of the "Colmar Pocket." The 109th Infantry Regiment was awarded the French Croix de Guerre for its action which helped lead to the liberation of Colmar, the last major French city in German hands. By February 23, 1945, the Division returned north to the American First Army. The 28th was in position along the Olef River when an attack was launched on March 6, 1945, carrying the Division to the Ahr River. Schleiden, Germund, Kall, Sotenich, Sistig and Blankenheim all fell in a raid advance. By early April, the Division moved west of the Rhine and took up occupation duties in the area north of Aachen along the Holland-German border. Permanent occupation came two weeks later at the Saurland and Rhonish areas. In early July 1945, the 28th began its redeployment to the U.S. The Division was deactivated on December 13, 1945. Five campaign streamers - Normandy, Northern France, Ardennes-Alsace, Rhineland, and Central Europe - were earned during World War II, in addition to the Croix de Guerre. Early in 1946, the 28th Infantry Division was organized as part of thePennsylvania National Guard. In 1950, the Division, once again, was ordered into active service to become part of the United States NATO force in Germany after the North Koreans invaded South Korea. The Division was returned to the control of the Commonwealth on June 15, 1954. In October 1965, the 28th Infantry Division was one of three National Guard Divisions selected as part of the Army Selected Reserve force (SRF). In 1968, as part of the SRF and high on the list for activation, it was again reorganized, this time into a three-state configuration. Although the 28th was not mobilized in force for Operation Desert Storm, division volunteers were deployed to serve in the Middle East and other locations. The 121st Transportation Company, which is now part of the Division's 103rd Engineer Battalion, served in Saudi Arabia during the war. In early 1996, soon after the Dayton peace accords were signed, forward observers from the 28th Division Artillery were called up for nine months to support NATO peacekeeping forces in Bosnia. The Target Acquisition Battery of the 109th Field Artillery was mobilized for the peacekeeping mission two years later. And in 1999, the Division's Company H, 104th Aviation (Air Traffic Control) was activated, with its tour of duty extending into 2000. As of mid-2001, the 28th Mechanized Infantry Division was scheduled to lead the multinational peacekeeping force in the U.S. sector of Bosnia for six months beginning in October 2002.
2080	dbpedia	1	41	https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history-heritage/battle-honours-honorary-distinctions/ypres-1915.html	en	Ypres, 1915	https://www.canada.ca/etc/designs/canada/wet-boew/assets/favicon.ico	https://www.canada.ca/etc/designs/canada/wet-boew/assets/favicon.ico	[ "https://www.canada.ca/etc/designs/canada/wet-boew/assets/sig-blk-en.svg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/ypres-1915-image1.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/ypres-1915-image4.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/ypres-1915-image5.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/ancre-heights-a008007.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/bellewaarde-c049485.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/dnd-mdn/images/military-history/bhhd/ancre-heights-major-general-currie.jpg", "https://www.canada.ca/etc/designs/canada/wet-boew/assets/wmms-blk.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Battle Honours and Honorary Distinctions", "First World War", "Ypres", "1915" ]	null	[ "National Defence" ]	null	The official battle honours and honorary distinctions of the Canadian Forces.	en	/etc/designs/canada/wet-boew/assets/favicon.ico		https://www.canada.ca/en/department-national-defence/services/military-history/history-heritage/battle-honours-honorary-distinctions/ypres-1915.html	First World War Sketch of the Battle of Frenzenberg, 8 May 1915. Credit: Sketch by Nicholson, found in C.E.F. 1914-1919 p.89. Date 22 April – 25 May 1915 Geographical Parameters The Comines – Ypres Canal as far as Voormezeele: then road to Vlamertinghe Château – Elverdinghe Château – Boesinghe – Langemarck Context A group honour incorporating the “Battle of Gravenstafel Ridge”, the “Battle of St. Julien”, the “Battle of Frezenberg Ridge”, and the “Battle of Bellewaarde Ridge”, formally entitled “The Battles of Ypres, 1915”, and itself being part of the “Summer Operations, 1915 (March – October)”Footnote 1. Description
2080	dbpedia	0	76	https://pdfcoffee.com/osprey-campaign-315-the-hindenburg-line-1918-pdf-free.html	en	The Hindenburg Line 1918	https://pdfcoffee.com/im…918-pdf-free.jpg	https://pdfcoffee.com/im…918-pdf-free.jpg	[ "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/pdfcoffee_logo.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/img/200x200/osprey-campaign-315-the-hindenburg-line-1918-pdf-free.jpg", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/thumbnail_placeholder.png", "https://pdfcoffee.com/pdfcoffee/assets/img/pdfcoffee_logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Guest" ]	null	THE HINDENBURG LINE 1918 Haig’s forgotten triumphALISTAIR M cCLUSKEYILLUSTRATED BY PETER DENNIS CAMPAIGN 315THE...	en	https://pdfcoffee.com/pd…e-icon-57x57.png	pdfcoffee.com	https://pdfcoffee.com/osprey-campaign-315-the-hindenburg-line-1918-pdf-free.html	Citation preview THE HINDENBURG LINE 1918 Haig’s forgotten triumph ALISTAIR M cCLUSKEY ILLUSTRATED BY PETER DENNIS CAMPAIGN 315 THE HINDENBURG LINE 1918 Haig’s forgotten triumph ALISTAIR MCCLUSKEY ILLUSTRATED BY PETER DENNIS Series editor Marcus Cowper CONTENTS THE STRATEGIC SITUATION 5 CHRONOLOGY 10 OPPOSING COMMANDERS 12 Allied commanders n German commanders OPPOSING FORCES 19 The British Army n The French Army n The German Army n Orders of battle OPPOSING PLANS 29 Allied plans n German plans THE CAMPAIGN 35 ‘An abundance of courage but too little technique’, 26 September n ‘On this day we buried all our hopes of victory’, 27 September n ‘The whole operation went like clockwork’, 28 September ‘As far as the eye could see, our troops were pushing forward’, 29 September ‘The supply of OHL reserves can no longer be assumed’, 30 September ‘Casualties amongst the leaders were huge’, 1 October n The breakthrough is denied, 2 October No respite, 3 October n A note is prepared, 4 October n The last ‘Cooee’, 5 October Preparing the last blow, 6–7 October n Endgame, 8 October AFTERMATH 89 THE BATTLEFIELD TODAY 93 FURTHER READING 94 INDEX 95 50km 4 1. 2. 3. 4. 10e FR XXXX XXXX 17 5e FR XXXX GAC XXXXX 1 XXXX 3 XXXX Somme Py 4e FR XXXX Marne 1 First US XXXX Verdun Montfaucon 5 XXXX bre Sam KRONPRINZ XXXXX Namur Grandpré Mézières BOEHN Hirson Reims Aisne XXXX Laon 7 XXXX St Quentin 18 Aulnoye Brussels XXXXX Maubeuge Mons RUPPRECHT XXXXX Valenciennes Cambrai Soissons 2 Es e lde Ghent ch t/S u ca XXXX XXXX XXXX XXXX GAE 8e FR Nancy XXXXX St Mihiel C XXXX Metz 19 7e FR XXXX XXXX Luxembourg GALLWITZ XXXXX Spa Liège e 0 2 6 Lys XXXX Lille 3 4 French/US attack, 26 September 1918 British attack, 27 September 1918 French/Belgian/British attack, 28 September 1918 British attack, 29 September 1918 1re FR ine 50 miles Front line, 18 July 1918 Front line, 26 September 1918 Paris Oise GAR XXXX Arras Ypres St Quentin Canal Fourth BR XXXX XXXX XXXXX Amiens Third BR First BR Fifth BR XXXX XXXX Se 0 N Rouen e BEF mm So XXXXX GAF Second BR BELGIAN XXXXX N o rd a l du Ca n XXXX XXXXX A B XXXX XXXX WÜRTTEMBURG Koln ine e Rh Meus Bruges Koblenz The General Offensive Mosell THE STRATEGIC SITUATION Between 26 and 29 September 1918, the Allies launched their largest combined attack on the Western Front during World War I. As part of Maréchal Foch’s General Offensive, the British, French, American and Belgian armies launched four attacks in rapid succession across a 350km front between the Argonne and Flanders. At the centre of this huge assault the British Expeditionary Force’s (BEF) First, Third and Fourth Armies, supported by the French 1re Armée, breached the formidable Hindenburg Line defences between Cambrai and St Quentin. In stark contrast to the bloody stalemates of 1916–17, this success drove the German Army from its last fully prepared defensive position west of the Rhine, shattering the authority of the German Imperial and military establishment. However, while this battle demonstrated the newly found tactical and operational dominance of the Allies, it also exposed the latent strategic tensions between them as they sought the most advantageous positions for the post-war settlement. These factors converged to ensure that, as a result, the Armistice with Germany was imposed in 1918 and on stringent Allied terms. From 1918 onwards, however, the battle of the Hindenburg Line struggled to receive the public recognition it deserved and, unlike the Somme and Passchendaele, soon slipped from the cultural memory of the war. It became Haig’s forgotten triumph. The German Army constructed the Hindenburg Line in response to the unsustainable casualty rates it suffered in 1916 at Verdun and on the Somme. When Hindenburg and Ludendorff replaced Falkenhayn as leaders of the German Supreme Command – Oberste Heeresleitung (OHL) – in early September, they immediately reviewed the Central Powers’ strategy. As a result, the German Army assumed a defensive posture in France and Flanders and the main strategic offensive in the West transferred to the German Navy, which prepared to launch a submarine campaign against Allied shipping in 1917. This strategy required the construction of a state-of-the-art defensive position between Arras and Laon, which shortened the front line by approximately 45km, releasing units to reconstitute the German reserve, and also implemented all the lessons learnt during 1915–16 in how to fight effective defensive battles. The new position provided deep German dead outside a dugout on the Somme in 1916. The German Army suffered around 700,000 casualties here and at Verdun under the crushing weight of Allied artillery fire. This experience was a major factor in the decision to build a defence line that was both difficult for the British and French guns to hit and protected the garrison from blast and shrapnel when in their fighting positions. (IWM, Q4256) 5 The Hindenburg Line at Inchyen-Artois. The belts of barbed wire and the parallel trench lines running across the centre of photograph were a signature feature of the German defensive systems of 1917–18. (IWM, Q58649) 6 shelters and trenches to protect the front-line troops, who in turn used thick obstacle belts integrated with fire-swept zones to block Allied thrusts. The Germans named the new line the Siegfried Stellung after the mythological hero, but it was quickly christened ‘The Hindenburg Line’ by the Allies after its presumed creator. A workforce of 65,000 men began construction in late September 1916 and by March 1917 it was complete. Three further defence lines were developed from it in quick succession. The Wotan Stellung ran north from Arras to Lille. Meanwhile, the Hunding-Brunhild-Kriemhild Stellung ran south-east from Laon to Verdun, while the Michael Stellung ran across the base of the St Mihiel salient. Together they formed a shield from the North Sea, via Arras, Soissons and Verdun, to Metz. The Siegfried Stellung eventually consisted of up to four defence lines arranged in a zone 4 miles deep. These became known to the Allies as the ‘Advanced Hindenburg Line’, the ‘Main Hindenburg Line’, the ‘Hindenburg Support Line’ and the ‘Hindenburg Reserve Line’. In the sector between Cambrai and St Quentin, each ran broadly north to south with approximately 2,500m separation between them. Where specific areas of threat were identified, additional trenches were added, such as the ‘Marcoing Line’ and ‘Cantaing Line’ near Cambrai. Separately from the nomenclature outlined above, sections of each line could be named after localities at either end of them, such as the ‘Masnieres–Beaurevoir–Fonsommes Line’ also being used for the ‘Hindenburg Reserve Line’ between these villages. Between Cambrai and St Quentin, these lines exploited the Canal du Nord and the St Quentin Canal to provide additional obstacles. The former was under construction at the outbreak of the war and was mostly dry. The latter was built by Napoleon’s engineers and included the 6km-long Bellicourt Tunnel, passing under the watershed between the river Schelde and the river Somme. The forward trenches of the Main Hindenburg Line generally ran along the eastern bank of both canals where their paths converged, and ran north-west to south-east between Havrincourt and Bantouzelle to pass from one canal to the other. At the Bellicourt Tunnel, the Main Hindenburg Line defences swept to the west of the canal line to protect the de facto ‘bridge’ it provided, while barges in the tunnel itself also acted as shell-proof underground accommodation for the garrison. Each canal was faced with brick walls up to 3m high, and while the older St Quentin Canal (known as the Schelde Canal by the BEF north of the Bellicourt Tunnel in 1918) was around 11m wide, the more modern Canal du Nord was excavated to a width of up to 40m. Concrete dams had been constructed by the Germans to retain water in certain sectors while elsewhere deep mud prevailed. Wire entanglements were inserted into both. Where the canals crossed the rolling chalk downs between Cambrai and St Quentin, cuttings 15–25m deep existed to enhance their value as military obstacles. Two further tunnel systems existed in addition to that at Bellicourt. At Bellenglise a tunnel had been mined into the hillside behind the Hindenburg Main position to shelter approximately 3,000 men, while further south, the Le Tronquoy Tunnel carried the canal under the high ground 5km north of St Quentin. South of St Quentin the line ran along the eastern bank of the river Oise, exploiting the river and its wide marsh-filled valley as a major obstacle to any Allied attack. By the end of 1917, the strategic situation had changed dramatically. The collapse of Tsarist Russia, and the advantage gained over Italy after the battle of Caporetto, enabled Germany to re-consider offensive operations on the Western Front once again. Here they now held the initiative over the French and British, whose armies were recuperating following the punishing Nivelle Offensive and the Third Ypres campaigns. This strategic opportunity was counterbalanced by the growing threat from the United States, which had entered the war in April 1917 as an Associated Power to the Entente, in response to Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare. Although somewhat raw in skill and dependent on British and French industry for the majority of their equipment, the increasing strength of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) only promised to shift the initiative back towards the Allies from the middle of 1918 onwards. Consequently, sensing a six-month window of opportunity, on 21 January OHL ordered the launching of a series of massive assaults designed to defeat Britain and France before American strength could be brought to bear. In March 1918, the first of these blows saw the Hindenburg Line between Arras and St Quentin act as the springboard for the German attempt to destroy the BEF. Operation Michael saw the 17., 2. and 18. Armeen drive back the British Third and Fifth Armies an unprecedented 40 miles in 15 days of bitter fighting. Further assaults were launched in Flanders in April, on the Aisne in May, on the Matz in June and on the Marne in July, all of which also captured much ground and imposed heavy casualties on the Allies. However, although severely stretched, the Allied line held, and in the process exacted a huge toll from the Germans. Although the British and French suffered 288,000 and 225,000 casualties between March and the end of June, the German Army lost a staggering 688,000 men during the same period. These casualty rates fundamentally shaped the political context, where much trepidation remained in the Allied governments over the critical manpower shortages for the coming battles. The crippling human cost since 1914 resulted in both the British and French politicians developing plans for the war’s culminating campaigns to be fought in 1919 on the back of American troops now flooding into France. In Britain, the War Cabinet deliberated the future British strategy together with the Dominion governments. The Prime Minister, Lloyd George, wanted a return to an ‘eastern’ strategy to maximize Britain’s post- A reinforced concrete dugout entrance in the Hindenburg Line. These shelters were essential to protect the German front-line troops from the weight of Allied artillery. (IWM, E(AUS) 3581) American infantry marching to the docks at Southampton for embarkation. Although Russia had been knocked out of the war, the prospect of American forces flooding into France during 1918 was a key factor in the German decision to launch a pre-emptive attempt to secure victory through the Spring Offensives. (IWM, Q70817) 7 British and French infantry fighting in the Bois de Reims, 23 July 1918, during the second battle of the Marne. The appointment of Foch as Supreme Military Commander at Doullens on 26 March 1918 greatly improved the cooperation and coordination between the Allied armies. Most of the major engagements saw one country’s reserves supporting forces from another when required. This was an essential improvement in the Allied effort to defeat the German Army on the Western Front. (IWM, Q11110) 8 war Imperial benefits. He argued for manpower to be prioritized into the Royal Navy and industry, particularly shipbuilding, at the expense of the BEF which was to be reduced in size. He was supported to some extent by the General Staff at the War Office, but even General Henry Wilson, the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS) and Billy Hughes, the Australian Prime Minister, pointed out that the war would only be won by defeating the German Army and that this would have to be done in France. On 16 August, the Cabinet agreed the compromise strategy to prepare the BEF to fight alongside the French and Americans on the Western Front in 1919 but with an army lavishly supplied with guns and tanks to offset the diminishing manpower base. Although these debates took place as the Allied fortunes improved following the battles on the Marne and at Amiens, the Cabinet’s fear of repeating the heavy casualties of the 1916–17 campaigns was deeply rooted. Consequently, on 31 August General Wilson sent Haig a telegram highlighting the risks that would be associated with a costly but unsuccessful attack on the Hindenburg Line. Unsurprisingly, Haig was furious at the lack of support he now felt he was receiving from London, describing the Cabinet as a ‘wretched lot’ in his reply to Wilson. Nevertheless, he travelled to London to reassure Milner, the Secretary of State for War, and to plead for more manpower to sustain the BEF. However, although Haig believed he had been well received, in private both Milner and Wilson feared ‘another Passchendaele’, with Milner stating that if Haig ‘broke’ the current BEF, there would be no other to replace it. Although the tensions between the French military and politicians were not as great as those the British faced, the French Army’s offensive capabilities were still fragile after three years of heavy losses despite its rehabilitation under Pétain, the French Chief of the General Staff. Notwithstanding the significant French-led victory on the Marne, on 31 July he warned Foch, the Allied Supreme Military Commander, that the French Army was now at the ‘limit of effort’, being over 100,000 men under establishment. As a result, Foch requested that the men due for conscription in 1920 be called up two years early, in 1918. The French Government agreed but with Prime Minister Clemenceau’s caveat that French blood was now the ‘most precious material’ and was to be conserved where possible. The German Army was also suffering a manpower crisis. In April 1918 it had 4,000,000 men on the Western Front and 1,000,000 on the Eastern Front. Casualty replacements for the West were provided in part by sick and wounded returning to duty, combing out rear area units and further redeployment of men from Russia. However, by July the army in the West had been reduced in strength to 3,580,000 and in the East down to 580,000. In response, Germany also called up their 1920 recruit class, which was expected to provide around 300,000 troops, but these would not be ready for deployment until the autumn on completion of their training. However, the scale of the casualties was too great for even these measures. Consequently, the combat strength of front-line battalions could only be sustained by disbanding 22 infantry divisions and redistributing their manpower. Notwithstanding its manpower difficulties, Germany was also beginning to polarize politically. In response to the failure of the unrestricted submarine campaign, the centre and left-wing parties in the Reichstag formed a majority coalition on a ‘peace without annexations’ mandate. This majority was held in check for the time being by the right-wing minority, the Kaiser and OHL, who remained empowered following the victory over Tsarist Russia and the advances in the West. The situation was exacerbated by the tightening grip of the Allied naval blockade, which saw Germany’s civilian population slide towards starvation. Any potential source of relief from the East had proved too small in scale, as Germany was forced to balance the conflicting interests of the Bolshevik and Ukrainian regimes that blocked efficient access to the harvest. OHL desperately needed time to replenish the western armies and develop a stable and economically productive situation in Eastern Europe to support the German Empire. From the middle of July, as the Allies regained the initiative, the Hindenburg Line reassumed its pivotal role in both the Allied and German plans. On 24 July, Foch issued a strategic directive to drive the German forces from France and Belgium in three phases. First, the main railways in Allied possession were to be secured from German threat and the Germans pushed back to the defensive positions they held at the turn of the year. Second, a combined offensive was to break through these positions. Third, the Germans were to be cleared from France and Belgium. In response, Ludendorff planned to exhaust the Allies, successfully arguing against the Foreign Minister, Admiral von Hintze, at an Imperial Council at Spa on 14 August, that repeating the successful defensive battles of 1917 together with some limited offensives could deliver a negotiated settlement. But rather than withdrawing to the Hindenburg Line immediately, as argued by some senior members of the General Staff, Ludendorff could not bring himself to voluntarily surrender the ground bought with so much blood, consequently ordering the occupation of an extemporized ‘Winter Line’ running north–south from Noyon to Queant and anchored on the River Somme. However, events on the battlefield were now gathering their own momentum. Spearheaded by the Fourth Army, the BEF’s rapid successes during August pushed the Germans back across the old Somme battlefield, and on 31 August, the Australian Corps ruptured the German ‘Winter Line’ with a dramatic coup de main at Mont St Quentin north of Péronne. Faced with simultaneous pressure from the British First Army beginning to push south-eastwards from Arras, Ludendorff had little alternative than to order the further withdrawal back to the Hindenburg Line itself setting the scene for the climactic engagement. An Australian soldier in the street fighting in Péronne, 3 September 1918. Although the Western Front is forever associated with trench combat, during the General Offensive much of the BEF’s fighting took place in villages as they fought the Germans for control of key transport routes or tactically dominating ground. (IWM, Q11271) 9 CHRONOLOGY 10 21 March Operation Michael commences. Germans advance west from the Hindenburg Line. 5 April Operation Michael finishes with front line east of Amiens. 8 August Battles of Amiens (British Fourth Army) and Montdidier begin. 11 August Battle of Amiens ends. 15 August Battle of Montdidier ends. 21 August Battle of Albert 1918 (British Third Army) begins. 22 August Battle of the Scarpe 1918 (British First Army) begins. 27 August Haig’s letter to Foch recommending the shift of American effort from Metz to Meziérès to complement British thrust on Cambrai–St Quentin. 29 August Battle of Albert 1918 ends. 30 August Battle of the Scarpe 1918 ends. Second battle of Bapaume (British Third Army) begins. 1 September Mont St Quentin and Péronne captured (British Fourth Army). 2 September Battle of the Drocourt-Quéant Line (British First Army). German withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line begins. 3 September Second battle of Bapaume ends. Foch issues Operational Directive to breach the Hindenburg Line. 4 September Pursuit to the Hindenburg Line begins. 6 September OHL Conference at Avesnes decides to fight on the Hindenburg Line. 8 September Haig requests opinions of Horne, Byng and Rawlinson over the Hindenburg Line assault. 9 September Foch adds Flanders attack to his Operational Directive. 12 September Battle of Havrincourt (British Third Army) (First Battle of the Hindenburg Line). Battle of St Mihiel (American First Army). 15 September Horne and Byng commence planning for assault on the Main Hindenburg Line. 18 September Battle of Épehy (British Fourth Army). Rawlinson commences planning for assault on the Main Hindenburg Line. 23 September Foch issues final dates for synchronized assaults starting on 26 September. 26 September Franco-American Argonne Offensive begins. 27 September Battle of the Canal du Nord begins. 28 September Battle of Ypres 1918 begins. 29 September Battle of St Quentin begins. 1 October Battle of the Canal du Nord ends. 2 October Battles of St Quentin Canal and Ypres 1918 end. 3 October Battle of the Beaurevoir Line begins. 5 October Battle of the Beaurevoir Line ends. 8 October Battle of Cambrai 1918 begins. 9 October Battle of Cambrai 1918 ends (Final Battle of the Hindenburg Line). 17 October Battle of the Selle begins (British First, Third and Fourth Armies). 25 October Battle of the Selle ends. 1 November Battle of Valenciennes (British First and Third Armies). 4 November Battle of the Sambre (British Fourth Army). 6 November Sedan liberated. 8 November Mauberge liberated. 11 November Mons liberated and Armistice. 11 OPPOSING COMMANDERS ALLIED COMMANDERS Haig and his army commanders. Plumer is front left with Rawlinson front right. In the second row, Byng is on the left, Munro is in the centre and Birdwood is on the right. (IWM, Q9689) 12 Maréchal Ferdinand Foch was an artilleryman who had spent the vast majority of his pre-war career in staff appointments, culminating in 1908 as Commandant of the École Supérieure de Guerre. He led XX Corps through the frontier battles of 1914 before promotion to command 9e Armée on the Marne, and subsequently the Groupe d’Armées du Nord (GAN) through the Artois battles of 1915. His star waned somewhat following the Somme campaign in 1916 before he re-emerged as Chief of the General Staff of the Army in May 1917. By 1918 he had shown himself to be an effective manager of civil–military relations when he was summoned on 26 March to take over the role as Generalissimo of the Allied Forces in the face of the German onslaught. Throughout the war he demonstrated an energetic determination to drive his subordinates to better efforts on the front line. This was increasingly tempered with a reflective ability that underpinned his adept handling of political and military leaders in meeting the challenges posed by the German Army. Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig commanded the BEF. A career cavalryman, he began the war in command of I Corps in 1914, before moving to First Army in 1915. Following the disaster at Loos in October he succeeded Sir John French as CinC of the BEF. He led the Army through the trials of the Somme, Arras and Third Ypres and oversaw its transition to a citizen conscript force from its Regular and Reservist foundations. Although he had a reputation for being a poor verbal communicator, British politicians were more suspicious of what they viewed as over optimism and questionable military judgement. However, having almost lost his post during the German Offensives in 1918, his support of Foch’s appointment as Generalissimo and his subsequent performance managing both him and his subordinate army commanders suggest an individual who was becoming increasingly effective as a strategic and operational level leader. First Army was commanded by General Sir Henry Horne. He led the artillery of I Corps through 1914 before taking over command of 2nd Division in early 1915. In November he accompanied Kitchener to the Dardanelles and by early 1916 had been appointed to command XV Corps in Egypt. In April he was recalled to France and reformed XV Corps as part of Rawlinson’s Fourth Army on the Somme. In October he was promoted to command First Army with which he oversaw the capture of Vimy Ridge in April 1917. He held this critical position and the Arras sector through the course of the German Spring Offensives in 1918. His combat performance throughout these appointments marked Horne as a consummate tactician. He was particularly effective in using firepower and other technology to assist his men and in exploiting the terrain in manoeuvring his force to advantage. Horne’s corps commanders in the Hindenburg Line battle were Lieutenant-Generals Sir Alexander Godley of XXII Corps and Sir Arthur Currie of the Canadian Corps. Although a British officer, Godley began the War as Commandant of the New Zealand Military Forces. He led the composite Australian-New Zealand Division and Corps at Gallipoli before arriving in France in 1916. He fought on the Somme and at Ypres before the II ANZAC Corps was re-designated XXII Corps in 1918. Currie was a member of the militia before mobilizing to command a brigade at Ypres in 1915 and a division on the Somme and Arras in 1916–17. He was promoted to command the Canadian Corps for the battle of Third Ypres. He developed the reputation for thorough and pragmatic plans that maximized the use of firepower. Third Army was commanded by General Sir Julian Byng. Byng commanded 3rd Cavalry Division at Antwerp and Ypres in 1914 and early 1915. In May he assumed command of the Cavalry Corps before moving to Gallipoli in August to take over IX Corps at Suvla. After a brief period in command of the Suez defences in January 1916, he returned to the Western Front to lead XVII Corps at Arras. In May he was appointed to command the Canadian Corps and led them through the bitter autumn fighting on the Somme and the hard-won success at Vimy in April 1917. In June he was promoted to command Third Army and planned the ground-breaking attack at Cambrai with a predicted artillery barrage and massed armoured and infantry assault. In March 1918 he held his army together in the face of the Spring Offensive before breaking the back of the critical German assault on Arras. Byng’s corps commanders were Lieutenant-Generals Sir Charles Fergusson of XVII Corps, Sir Aylmer Haldane of VI Corps, Sir George Harper of IV Corps, and Sir Cameron Shute of V Corps. Fergusson commanded 5th and then 9th Divisions in 1914, seeing combat at Le Cateau and on the Aisne. In January 1915 he took over II Corps before moving to XVII Corps in May 1916, where he remained until the end Lieutenant-General Sir Arthur Currie, GOC Canadian Corps. (IWM, CO1970) Lieutenant-General Sir Charles Fergusson, GOC XVII Corps. (IWM, HU122006) 13 Lieutenant-General Sir John Monash, GOC Australian Corps. (IWM, E(AUS)2350) 14 of the war. Haldane commanded 3rd Division from the outbreak of the war until 1916, when he took over VI Corps. Harper was staff officer in GHQ before assuming command of 51st Highland Division in September 1915, and leading it through the battles of the Somme, Arras, Third Ypres and Cambrai. In March 1918 he moved to IV Corps. Shute commanded 59th Brigade in 1915 before leading in turn 63rd (Royal Naval), 32nd and 19th Divisions through 1916–17. In April 1918 he assumed command of V Corps. At the head of Fourth Army was General Sir Henry Rawlinson. Rawlinson was an infantry officer who briefly commanded 4th Division on the Aisne in September 1914 before leading IV Corps at Ypres, Neuve Chapelle and Loos. In January 1916 he assumed command of the newly formed Fourth Army for the Somme Offensive, but disappointing results saw him ‘sidelined’ during 1917 before moving to the Supreme War Council in January 1918. In March he replaced Hubert Gough in command of Fifth Army in the latter stages of Operation Michael and successfully defended Amiens from the final German assaults. He then oversaw the renaming of his force as Fourth Army and its rehabilitation through the summer, culminating in the successful attack at Amiens on 8 August. Rawlinson was a capable professional who repeatedly demonstrated pragmatic and practical solutions to the tasks faced by his men. By 1918, however, he had also developed the self-confidence to back his judgement against Haig’s in a manner that had eluded him in 1916. Rawlinson’s corps commanders were Lieutenant-Generals Sir Richard Butler of III Corps, Sir John Monash of the Australian Corps and Sir Walter Braithwaite of IX Corps. Attached to Fourth Army was also MajorGeneral George Read of II (US) Corps, which fought alongside Monash’s Australians. Butler spent much of the war in staff appointments in I Corps, First Army and GHQ. His offhand manner towards field commanders such as Rawlinson in this period was a source of lingering irritation. His operational command was limited, having assumed command of III Corps in January 1918, and he did not hold Rawlinson’s confidence. Monash was a civil engineer by profession and was a member of the militia before the war. He served as a brigade commander in Gallipoli and as a divisional commander on the Western Front. He took over the Australian Corps in June 1918, where he developed the reputation as cool and effective in combat. Braithwaite began the war in a staff appointment in the War Office, before deploying to Gallipoli as the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force (MEF) Chief of Staff. Loathed by the Australians in particular for his perceived arrogance, his indifferent performance saw him recalled to London. In January 1917 he was assigned to command 62nd Division, which he led at Arras and against the German Spring Offensive at Bullecourt and Cambrai. He took over IX Corps on 13 September. Read saw action in the US–Mexican border campaign in 1916 before returning to Washington as a member of the Army General Staff. In April 1918, after a brief period in command of 15th Cavalry Division, he moved to 30th Infantry Division, which he took to France. In June he assumed command of II (US) Corps in preparation for the coming offensive. Lieutenant-General Sir Walter Braithwaite, GOC IX Corps. (IWM, Q8932) In GHQ Reserve were the Cavalry Corps commanded by LieutenantGeneral Sir Charles Kavanagh and XIII Corps commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Tom Morland. Kavanagh commanded 7th Cavalry Brigade in 1914 and, from April 1915, 2nd Cavalry Division. He moved to 5th Division in July 1915 where he remained until taking over the Cavalry Corps in 1917. Morland commanded 5th Division at Ypres in 1914 before taking over X Corps in 1915, which he led on the Somme in 1916 and Messines in 1917. He moved to XIII Corps in 1918. Supporting the British between St Quentin and the Oise was the French 1re Armée, part of the Groupe d’Armées Réserve (GAR). GAR was commanded by Général Émile Fayolle. Fayolle commanded a division at the Marne in 1914 and 33e Corps in Artois in 1915, before taking over 6e Armée on the Somme in 1916. In April 1917 he was promoted to command Groupe d’Armées Centre (GAC), before taking over GAR in March 1918. Général Eugène Debeney commanded the French 1re Armée. Debeney began the war as the Chief of Staff of 1re Armée before being promoted to command 25e Division d’infanterie and seeing action at Verdun in early 1916. He commanded 32e Corps on the Somme in April, before a further promotion to command 7e Armée in December 1916. A year later he returned to command 1re Armée, successfully halting the German Offensive between Amiens and Montdidier in March, before taking part in the August counter-offensive in the same sector. Acutely aware of the human cost borne by the French Army since 1914, his tactical approach primarily relied on firepower to avoid overextending the endurance of his men. Debeney’s Corps Commanders were Général de Riols de Fonclare of 15e Corps, Général Nollet of 36e Corps, Général Toulorge of 31e Corps and Général Hély d’Oissel of 8e Corps, who played a peripheral role in the battle. De Fonclare commanded 1re Division d’infanterie at Verdun and on the Somme in 1916, where he was promoted to command 33e Corps. In 1917 he took over 35e Corps at Verdun until it redeployed to Picardy in summer 1918 for the counter-offensive. Nollet commanded 129e and 66e Divisions d’infanterie in Alsace, Lorraine and Champagne 15 in 1915. He took over 12e Corps at Verdun in 1916, before moving to 36e Corps on the Channel coast in March 1917. The corps fought on the Avre and in Flanders during the German Spring Offensive in March 1918 and moved back to Picardy in September. Toulorge commanded 27e and 130e Divisions d’infanterie between January 1916 and February 1918, seeing heavy fighting at Verdun. He moved to 31e Corps in February 1918, fighting at Villers-Brettoneaux in April and at Montdidier in August. GERMAN COMMANDERS Kaiser Wilhelm II, Generalfeldmarschall von Hindenburg and General von Ludendorff. (IWM, Q23746) 16 The de facto operational commander at OHL was General Erich Ludendorff. Ludendorff began the war as Deputy Chief of Staff of the Second Army and won national recognition for his role in the capture of the frontier fortresses around Liège in August 1914. He was rapidly deployed to successfully defend East Prussia as Hindenburg’s Chief of Staff at 8. Armee before leading it through the Gorlice–Tarnów counter-offensive in 1915. In 1916 he followed Hindenburg to OHL, assuming the position of ‘First Quartermaster General’. This shift into the grand strategic environment saw Ludendorff develop increasingly extreme nationalistic objectives. He proposed widespread annexations in the East to implement the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, and also in the West, where even after the defeat of his Spring Offensive in the summer of 1918, he sought opportunities to retain German control of the occupied parts of France and Belgium. He retained tight operational and tactical control over the German armies, giving limited freedom of action to his army group commanders. This undermined his ability to work effectively with them. The German forces west of Cambrai formed the left wing of Heeresgruppe Rupprecht, commanded by Kronprinz Rupprecht of Bavaria. Rupprecht was a professional soldier who commanded 6. Armee in Lorraine and Flanders in 1914–15. He was appointed to lead the northernmost Heeresgruppe through the defensive battles on the Somme, at Arras and at Third Ypres in 1916–17. He possessed better military insight than most of his peers and proved himself to be a shrewd and effective commander. However, his failure to secure Arras and Ypres-Hazebrouck during the 1918 Spring Offensive and his army group being surprised at Amiens in August showed he was not infallible. The left flank of Heeresgruppe Rupprecht was defended by 17. Armee under the command of General Otto von Below. Below commanded I Reservekorps at the outbreak of the war and fought on the Eastern Front in 1914. He took over 8. Armee in November, which he led through the Courland Offensive in 1915. In October 1916 he was given his own army group in Macedonia, commanding German and Bulgarian forces before moving to the west in April 1917 to command 6. Armee at Lille. In September he moved to Italy, where he led the Austro-German 14. Armee’s stunning success at Caporetto. Consequently, he was returned to the West in February 1918 to command 17. Armee on the northern flank of Operation Michael. However, facing the better prepared defences around Arras, he was unable to repeat his Italian achievements and failed to capture the city. Below’s forces south of the River Sensée consisted of II Bayerische Armeekorps commanded by General Konrad Krafft von Delmensingen, XVIII Armeekorps, commanded by Generalleutnant Gunter von Etzel, and XIV Reservekorps, commanded by Generalleutnant Curt von Morgen. Delmensingen was Chief of Staff of 6. Armee in 1914 before taking over command of the Alpenkorps mountain division in 1915, leading it through Verdun and also in Serbia and Romania. In 1917 he was Chief of Staff to Heeresgruppe Württemburg before becoming Chief of Staff of 14. Armee in Italy for the Caporetto Offensive. He took over II Bayerische Armeekorps in April 1918. Etzel commanded 33. Infanterie-Division in 1914 before taking over 3. Kavallerie-Division on the Eastern Front. In 1918 he assumed command of XVII Armeekorps on the Avre and the Matz before moving to XVIII Armeekorps in August. Morgen commanded 3. Reserve-Infanterie-Division on the Eastern Front in 1914, then moved to I Reservekorps in November. He remained in the East until 1917, when his corps moved to the Western Front, fighting on the Avre and the Matz in 1918. In August 1918 he assumed command of XIV Reservekorps. South of Cambrai were 2. Armee and 18. Armee of Heeresgruppe Boehn, commanded by General Max von Boehn. Boehn was brought out of retirement in 1914 and assumed command of IX Reservekorps on the Western Front, where he fought throughout 1915 as trench warfare became established. In 1916 his corps saw action at Verdun on the ‘Giessler Height’ and the Somme before he was promoted to command Army Detachment ‘C’ on the Meuse in February 1917. In March he moved to 7. Armee in Champagne where he fought on the Chemin des Dames in May and at Malmaison in October. His army made significant gains around Reims during the Spring Offensive in May 1918 before he was appointed to command his own army group in August. Boehn was a highly experienced officer who celebrated his 50th year of military service in December 1917. He was an extremely effective tactical commander, winning the Pour le Mérite with Oak Leaves for his actions on the Somme and the Chemin des Dames. Kronprinz Rupprecht of Bavaria (front row, third from left), Commander Heeresgruppe Rupprecht, with his staff. (IWM, Q24005) General Otto von Below (right), Commander German 17. Armee. (IWM, Q23980) 17 General Max von Boehn, Commander Heeresgruppe von Boehn. (IWM, Q70778) 18 General Adolph von Carlowitz commanded 2. Armee. Carlowitz began the war as the Minister for War in the Kingdom of Saxony and took over XXVII Reservekorps on mobilization. However, he failed to cope with the stress of combat at Ypres and was relieved of his duties. He spent the first half of 1915 in command of 12. Reserve-InfanterieDivision before moving to the Eastern Front in August to lead III Reservekorps during the Lake Naroch Offensive. He returned to the west in August 1917 to command XIX Armeekorps, which he led with some success on the Lys in April 1918. In August he briefly took over the 9. Armee until it was dissolved in the aftermath of the battle of Épehy. A week later he replaced Marwitz in command of 2. Armee. 2. Armee consisted of 54. Generalkommando, commanded by Generalleutnant Alfred von Larisch; IV Reservekorps, commanded by Generalleutnant Richard von Conta; and 51. Generalkommando, commanded by Generalleutnant Hans von Below. Larisch commanded the 10., 81. and Garde-Ersatz Divisions between October 1914 and January 1918, seeing combat on the Meuse in 1914, on the Eastern Front in 1915, at Verdun in 1916 and at Riga in 1917. He took over 54. Generalkommando in January 1918 and fought at Soissons in May. Conta commanded 1. Infanterie-Division on the Eastern Front in 1914–15 and at Verdun in 1916. In August he took over IV Reservekorps in the Balkans before bringing it back to the west for the Spring Offensive in 1918. Below commanded Augusta-Garde-Grenadier-Regiment from the outbreak of the war until 1916, seeing combat in Belgium, Poland and eastern Russia. In October 1916 he assumed command of 89. InfanterieDivision in Romania, before returning to France in January 1917 to lead 238. Infanterie-Division at Arras, Ypres and the opening assault of the Spring Offensive. He assumed command of 51. Generalkommando in August 1918. Defending the sector from St Quentin to the Oise was 18. Armee, commanded by General Oskar von Hutier. Hutier commanded 1. GardeInfanterie-Division in the West in 1914, seeing action on the Marne. Between April 1915 and January 1917 he commanded XXI Armeekorps before moving east to take over 8. Armee in April. Here he gained a formidable reputation for the exploitation of infiltration tactics and surprise artillery bombardments, particularly at Riga in September. He returned to the West in December 1917 to assume command of 18. Armee for Operation Michael, where he shattered the British Fifth Army on the Somme. I Bayerische Armeekorps was commanded by Generalleutnant Nikolaus Ritter von Endres. Endres commanded an infantry brigade until March 1915, when he was promoted to command 4. Bayerische-Infanterie-Division. He fought on the Somme in 1914, Loos in 1915, the Somme in 1916, Ypres in 1917 and Kemmel in 1918. He was promoted to command I Bayerische Armeekorps in June 1918. The other corps elements of 18. Armee were only peripherally engaged. They consisted of XXVI Reservekorps, commanded by Generalleutnant Oskar Freiherr von Watter, XVIII Reservekorps, commanded by Generalleutnant Ludwig Sieger and XIV Armeekorps commanded by Generalleutnant Friedrich von Gontard. OPPOSING FORCES THE BRITISH ARMY By September 1918 the BEF was at the peak of its combat effectiveness, although competing national manpower demands promised to diminish its strength if the war went into 1919. Its combat performance was built on increasingly effective tactical and operational techniques, being lavishly supplied with state-of-the-art technology and being well led by experienced officers and NCOs. The principle of flanking attacks on enemy positions – by now well established for small units – was beginning to percolate up into higher formation tactical doctrine. It was included in the latest draft of the manual SS 135 The Division in the Attack, which was being circulated across the BEF for comment during August and its influence was already apparent in battle. Critically, the BEF’s corps were beginning to manoeuvre more effectively with each other – such as the Canadian Corps and XVII Corps at the battle of the Drocourt–Quéant Line on 2 September – in order to crack the German line. The presence of the Australian and Canadian corps was a key advantage. Both had retained the 12-battalion structure in their divisions when the remainder of the BEF had reduced to nine earlier in the year; both retained command of all their national divisions, and the Australians remained an all-volunteer force throughout. This strong and relatively stable structure enhanced esprit de corps, developed effective command and control systems and maximized their performance in battle. While the British formations perhaps lacked the élan of their Dominion colleagues in general, several were equally effective, such as IX and XVII corps, as they would show in the coming battle. An Australian infantry platoon receiving a briefing. Only 18 men strong, from an establishment of 50, this picture illustrates the manpower problems that were biting deep into the BEF. This was offset by an increase in firepower, with two Lewis guns on display supplied with spare magazines carried by several platoon members. The haversack on each man’s chest contained his respirator to protect against chemical attack. (IWM, E(AUS) 2790) 19 Shells being manufactured in the National Shell Filling Factory in Birtley, County Durham. By late 1918, the full weight of British and Imperial industry was supporting the war effort. Between noon on 28 September and noon on 29 September, the BEF fired 943,847 rounds of artillery ammunition. It was the maximum expenditure in one day of the entire war. (IWM, Q27737) 20 By 1918, each infantry platoon had enhanced firepower and assault techniques. The addition of Lewis guns and rifle grenades gave each platoon the firepower necessary to assault enemy positions independently, with both systems being used to cover the attack by riflemen and grenadiers. Where possible, these assaults were delivered from the flank or rear. There were usually four platoons to a company and four companies to a battalion. To increase the firepower available in support, 3in., 6in. and 9.45in. mortar batteries were available at brigade, division and corps levels respectively. Like the infantry, the artillery had seen a rapid development of its capability. Better quality control of shell production and calibration of each gun enabled the batteries to fire much more accurately than previously. Combined with better maps and survey techniques, these improvements enabled the gunners to hit targets without the need to range their shots. Co-operation with the infantry was enhanced by the development of ‘neutralizing fire’ to augment the traditional ‘destructive’ bombardment techniques, in order to cover the approach of the assault troops until they were within metres of the objectives. Each division had two field artillery brigades, each consisting of three batteries equipped with 18-pdr guns and one battery equipped with 4.5in. howitzers. Additional field artillery brigades and heavy artillery brigades equipped with 60-pdr, 6in., 8in., 9.2in., 12in., 14in. and 15in. guns and howitzers were available at corps and army level. The increase in quantity and quality of heavy artillery was fundamental to the improvement in the BEF’s effectiveness. In July 1916 it had 658 heavy artillery pieces in France. In July 1917 it had 1,744, and by September 1918 it had 2,206 on charge. When concentrated around the chosen assault sectors, these weapons gave the BEF the ability to dominate the German artillery ranged against them. Finally, the first British consignment of mustard gas ammunition had arrived to provide 32,000 rounds for Fourth Army’s 18-pdr and 6in. howitzers. Despite its limited success on the Western Front since 1914, the cavalry had retained and developed its capability as the exploitation arm. In September 1918 the Cavalry Corps underwent a fundamental reorganization as it prepared for the assault on the Hindenburg Line. The 2nd Cavalry Division was broken up, with the 3rd, 4th and 5th Cavalry Brigades attached to First, Third and Fourth Armies respectively, to provide an exploitation force under direct control of the front-line commanders for more timely employment. To replace them, the corps had been augmented with a ‘motorized’ infantry brigade in buses, two motor machine gun battalions, an infantry cyclist battalion and an armoured car battalion. The two remaining divisions each consisted of three brigades, each of three regiments. Although traditional cavalry weapons were retained, the troopers were equipped with the same Lee Enfield rifles as their infantry counterparts and fought with firepower as much as cold steel. In support of the corps was a mounted artillery brigade. Once the German front line had been penetrated, it was intended that this all-arms formation would strike deep into the rear and seize key railway communication centres. The operation to breach the Hindenburg Line would rely greatly on the performance of the Royal Engineers, particularly in crossing the Canal du Nord and the St Quentin Canal. Each division possessed three field companies to support its brigades. A further field company per division was available for tasks in the army or corps areas. Basic ‘stock span’ steel bridging had been introduced early in the war, and in 1917, Hopkins and Inglis heavy bridges were brought into service, which would be critical for the task ahead. The Tank Corps would also be critical in assisting the Hindenburg Line assault, using its vehicles to breach wire obstacles and bring heavier firepower to bear on German strongpoints. The Mk. V tank was the mainstay of the force, armed with 6-pdr cannon or machine guns and driven by a 150hp engine at 4.6mph. Newer vehicles, such as the ‘Whippet’ light tank and a variety of armoured cars, had been developed to more rapidly exploit opportunities to disrupt the German defensive system in greater depth. Some of the Mk. V tanks had also been ‘stretched’ to provide space to carry infantry machine-gun crews to deeper objectives. All of the vehicles, however, were uncomfortable for their crews, required extensive maintenance and lacked endurance on the battlefield. Air support was provided by the newly formed Royal Air Force. Each army was supported permanently by an RAF brigade, each consisting of a corps wing, an army wing and a balloon wing. Each corps wing assisted the balloon wing in controlling artillery fire close to the front line and maintaining contact with the foremost troops in battle. The army wings consisted of bomber, fighter and fighter-reconnaissance squadrons to take the aerial battle beyond the front lines, to protect the corps wing and to deny German aircraft the opportunity to operate over British lines. In addition to each army-affiliated RAF Brigade, IX Brigade, consisting of two army wings and a night operations wing, was tasked by GHQ to whichever army required more concentrated aerial support. Attached to Fourth Army was II (US) Corps. This corps had been in France since July 1918, undertaking a period of training and deployments with the BEF at Ypres to develop its combat experience. While most American units similarly familiarized with Western Front combat had since been concentrated into the American First Army under Pershing on the Meuse, II (US) Corps had been retained in the BEF to offset British manpower shortages. II (US) Corps consisted of 27th and 30th Infantry Divisions, each of which was substantially larger than their BEF counterparts, being established for 28,000 men. Each division was made up of two brigades, each containing two regiments of three infantry battalions and supporting units. Although one American field artillery battalion had been retained, the remainder was provided by the Australian Corps. While strong in number and possessing high morale, II (US) Corps was critically weak in combat experience in comparison to the BEF. This was exacerbated by Pershing’s decision to remove junior officers for centralized American training, although given the pace and scale of American engagement in the war he had little alternative. British cavalry crossing the river Canche during the experimental exercise run on 17 September 1918. Haig’s intent was to develop a mobile force capable of exploiting any opportunity to move though a break in the German defences and seize objectives in their rear areas. (IWM, Q9314) 21 Troops of 27th (US) Division training for combat alongside tanks. (IWM, Q57694) Morale in the BEF was generally good following the successful summer operations, although the prospect of assaulting the Hindenburg Line with its formidable reputation was somewhat daunting. Fatigue was also a concern, as even elite units such as the Australians were beginning to show the strain of extended combat on the Western Front. They were, however, well trained, well equipped and confident in their leaders and themselves. THE FRENCH ARMY Although the French Army of 1918 was tactically effective, the necessity to conserve manpower tempered its approach to battle. It also developed tactical techniques that maximized the used the firepower from artillery and machine guns to spare its infantry, with envelopment and flank attack being the preferred manoeuvre. Each infantry division contained three infantry regiments, each of three battalions of 700 men. Rifle platoons had rifle, bombing and light machine-gun squads. Each battalion had a machine-gun company and was equipped with 37mm infantry cannon alongside 45mm and 60mm mortars. The French units included a large number of troops from the French colonies. Zouaves were recruited from Frenchmen living overseas and had a tough fighting reputation, while the tirailleurs were recruited from the indigenous colonial populations. The artillery increased from 20 per cent of the army in 1914 to 38 per cent by 1918. The outstanding 75mm field gun from the pre-war divisions had been augmented with 105mm, 120mm and 155mm howitzers. These were supported in turn by heavier pieces, including the 220mm and 370mm weapons assigned to Debeney’s 1re Armee for the coming battle. Unlike the British, the French air arm had not become a separate service. Each army and corps had a number of fighter, reconnaissance and bomber squadrons. A proportion of the air service escadrilles had been grouped into a powerful Division Aérienne, but this was assigned to the MeuseArgonne operation. 22 THE GERMAN ARMY The German Army was in serious difficulties in September 1918. 17., 2. and 18. Armees had formed the spearhead of Operation Michael and received little respite in the subsequent months as the cream of their divisions continually shuffled from Flanders to Champagne to support the other assaults. The remainder spent extended periods in the line, exposed to the depredations of aggressive BEF patrolling, in particular from the Australians. Perhaps more concerning was that fact that their defensive positions seemed increasingly difficult to retain. Even when successful defensive engagements had been fought, prisoners had been lost in unprecedented numbers. This suggested that while the German Army remained a dangerous tactical adversary, morale was increasingly fragile. In short, it was rapidly approaching the point beyond which it could no longer continue the war. German defence was still based on the doctrine disseminated at the end of 1917. A forward zone approximately 500–1,000m deep consisted of small outposts to hold off enemy patrols and to disrupt small-scale attacks. Behind this was the battle zone approximately 2,500m deep. The forward edge was normally the main line of resistance and was held by the front-line battalions, with support and reserve units further back in each regimental sector. Behind the front-line divisions were the Eingrief divisions, tasked to move forwards when required to block penetrations and re-establish the original front line if possible. However, the understrength front-line divisions now lacked the manpower to adequately defend their sectors to the width or depth required. This resulted in too great a proportion of their infantry being pulled into the forward positions, where they remained under threat from the Allied artillery fire or flanking infantry attacks. Furthermore, those left to the rear were generally too weak to mount successful counter-attacks when required. The core of the German Army was the infantry division, consisting of three infantry regiments, each of three battalions, an artillery command and supporting troops. Although each division was established at 12,500 men, Dismounted German cavalry launch a counter-attack. Due to infantry manpower shortages in 1918, 27 German cavalry regiments were dismounted and reorganized into three Kavallerie-Schützen-Divisons (5., 6. and 7.). Each KavallerieSchützen-Division consisted of nine cavalry regiments grouped into three KavallerieSchützen-Kommandos, each the equivalent of an Infanterie-Regiment. Each had a Feld-Artillerie-Regiment, and 7. also had a Füss-ArtillerieRegiment. (IWM, Q55024) 23 German field gun deployed in the anti-tank role in forward positions. (IWM, E(AUS) 3411) 24 most were considerably below this strength by September 1918. In August, infantry battalion manning was reduced from 800 to 750 men, with those under 650 reorganized into three rifle companies instead of four. By the end of September, battalions were averaging 540 men strong. Regiments with battalions of fewer than 400 men were reorganized into two battalions. Each battalion had a machine-gun company with 12 guns, augmented by six light machine guns in each rifle company. A light mortar company with six 76mm mortars supported the riflemen and machine-gunners in each strongpoint to provide a deep, fire-swept zone in which to defeat the Allied assaults. The line infantry formations were augmented in 1917 and 1918 by Jäger and cavalry units re-grouped into divisional-sized formations and retrained for dismounted combat. The artillery command consisted of three battalions, each of two batteries equipped with 77mm field guns and one battery of 105mm light howitzers, and a heavy füβ artillery battalion, with two batteries of 150mm howitzers and one battery of 100mm guns. The divisional artillery was supported by batteries of heavier calibre guns and howitzers under corps and army HQ control. The British combination of armour and surprise artillery barrages since the battle of Amiens posed a significant tactical dilemma to the Germans. Whereas previous defensive doctrine envisaged the field guns being concentrated behind the main line of resistance for their own protection, an increasing proportion were now pulled into the foremost positions to provide close defence and anti-tank support. The remainder of the guns, however, were deployed further away in order to escape capture from the deeper British penetrations. These somewhat contradictory actions exposed the forward guns to capture in the initial assault, while those deployed in depth found it much more difficult to coordinate effective fire support to the front line. The disruption of the German defensive firepower in this manner was a critical factor in the late summer and autumn battles of 1918. The Luftstreitkräfte lacked the numbers of the Allied air forces, but possessed exceptional aircraft, and in September 1918, exacted a heavy toll during bitter combat. The fighters of the Jagdstaffeln (Jastas) and the ground attack aircraft of the Schlactstaffeln (Schlastas) were concentrated on the most active fronts, with only a smaller proportion permanently assigned to specific locations. The Jastas were increasingly equipped with the excellent Fokker DVII, while the Schlastas mainly flew the Halberstadt CLII and CLIV aircraft, specializing in lowlevel attack missions. Reconnaissance and artillery cooperation tasks were conducted by Fliegerabteilung (FA) and Fliegerabteilung (Artillerie) FA(A) units. During operations, the Jastas were normally controlled at army level to assist concentration of force, while control of the Schlastas, FAs and FA(A)s was normally devolved to corps level to ensure better integration with the ground battle. Orders Of Battle BRITISH ARMY, 27 SEPTEMBER 1918 FIRST ARMY – GEN. SIR HENRY HORNE VIII Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston XXII Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Alexander Godley 51st Division – Maj. Gen. Carter-Campbell 173rd Brigade 174th Brigade 175th Brigade 56th Division – Maj. Gen. Hull 167th Brigade 168th Brigade 169th Brigade Canadian Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur Currie 1st Canadian Division – Maj. Gen. Macdonell 1st Canadian Brigade 2nd Canadian Brigade 3rd Canadian Brigade 2nd Canadian Division – Maj. Gen. Burstall 4th Canadian Brigade 5th Canadian Brigade 6th Canadian Brigade 3rd Canadian Division – Maj. Gen. Loomis 7th Canadian Brigade 8th Canadian Brigade 9th Canadian Brigade 4th Canadian Division – Maj. Gen. Watson 10th Canadian Brigade 11th Canadian Brigade 12th Canadian Brigade 11th Division – Brig. Gen. de l’E Winter 32nd Brigade 33rd Brigade Brutinel’s Brigade Army Troops 3rd Cavalry Brigade 7th Tank Battalion Royal Air Force I Brigade RAF THIRD ARMY – GEN. HON. SIR JULIAN BYNG XVII Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Charles Fergusson Bt 52nd Division – Maj. Gen. Marshall 155th Brigade 156th Brigade 157th Brigade 57th Division – Maj. Gen. Barnes 170th Brigade 171st Brigade 172nd Brigade 63rd Division – Maj. Gen. Blacklock 188th Brigade 189th Brigade 190th Brigade VI Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Aylmer Haldane Guards Division – Maj. Gen. Matheson 1st Guards Brigade 2nd Guards Brigade 3rd Guards Brigade 2nd Division – Maj. Gen. Pereira 5th Brigade 6th Brigade 99th Brigade 3rd Division – Maj. Gen. Deverell 8th Brigade 9th Brigade 76th Brigade 62nd Division – Maj. Gen. Whigham 185th Brigade 186th Brigade 187th Brigade IV Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Montague Harper 5th Division – Maj. Gen. Ponsonby 13th Brigade 15th Brigade 95th Brigade 37th Division – Maj. Gen. Bruce Williams 63rd Brigade 111th Brigade 112th Brigade 42nd Division – Maj. Gen. Solly-Flood 125th Brigade 126th Brigade 127th Brigade New Zealand Division – Maj. Gen. Russell 1st New Zealand Brigade 2nd New Zealand Brigade 3rd New Zealand Brigade V Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Cameron Shute 17th Division – Maj. Gen. Robertson 50th Brigade 51st Brigade 52nd Brigade 21st Division – Maj. Gen. Campbell 62nd Brigade 64th Brigade 110th Brigade 33rd Division – Maj. Gen. Pinney 19th Brigade 98th Brigade 100th Brigade 38th Division – Maj. Gen. Cubitt 113th Brigade 114th Brigade 155th Brigade Army Troops 4th Cavalry Brigade 11th Tank Battalion 12th Tank Battalion 15th Tank Battalion Royal Air Force III Brigade RAF FOURTH ARMY – GEN. SIR HENRY RAWLINSON BT III Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Richard Butler 12th Division – Maj. Gen. Higginson 35th Brigade 36th Brigade 37th Brigade 18th Division – Maj. Gen. Lee 53rd Brigade 54th Brigade 55th Brigade 58th Division – Maj. Gen. Ramsey 173rd Brigade 174th Brigade 175th Brigade 74th Division – Maj. Gen. Girdwood 229th Brigade 230th Brigade 231st Brigade 25 XIII Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Thomas Morland 25th Division – Maj. Gen. Charles 7th Brigade 74th Brigade 75th Brigade 50th Division – Maj. Gen. Jackson 149th Brigade 150th Brigade 151st Brigade 66th Division – Maj. Gen. Bethell 198th Brigade 199th Brigade South African Brigade Australian Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir John Monash 2nd Australian Division – Maj. Gen. Rosenthal 5th Australian Brigade 6th Australian Brigade 7th Australian Brigade 3rd Australian Division – Maj. Gen. Gellibrand 9th Australian Brigade 10th Australian Brigade 11th Australian Brigade 5th Australian Division – Maj. Gen. Talbot Hobbs 8th Australian Brigade 14th Australian Brigade 15th Australian Brigade 27th American Division – Maj. Gen. O’Ryan 105th Infantry Regiment 106th Infantry Regiment 107th Infantry Regiment 108th Infantry Regiment 30th American Division – Maj. Gen. Lewis 117th Infantry Regiment 118th Infantry Regiment 119th Infantry Regiment 120th Infantry Regiment IX Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Walter Braithwaite 1st Division – Maj. Gen. Strickland 1st Brigade 2nd Brigade 3rd Brigade 6th Division – Maj. Gen. Marden 16th Brigade 18th Brigade 71st Brigade 32nd Division – Maj. Gen. Lambert 14th Brigade 96th Brigade 97th Brigade 46th Division – Maj. Gen. Boyd 136th Brigade 137th Brigade 138th Brigade Army Troops 5th Cavalry Brigade 1st Tank Battalion – Mk. V 3rd Tank Battalion – Whippet 4th Tank Battalion – Mk. V 5th Tank Battalion – Mk. V 6th Tank Battalion – Whippet 8th Tank Battalion – Mk. V 13th Tank Battalion – Mk. V 16th Tank Battalion – Mk. V* 301st (US) Tank Battalion – Mk. V 17th Armoured Car Battalion Royal Air Force V Brigade RAF GHQ TROOPS Cavalry Corps – Lt. Gen. Sir Charles Kavanagh 1st Cavalry Division – Maj. Gen. Mullens 26 1st Cavalry Brigade 2nd Cavalry Brigade 9th Cavalry Brigade 3rd Cavalry Division – Maj. Gen. Harman 6th Cavalry Brigade 7th Cavalry Brigade Canadian Cavalry Brigade 4th Guards Brigade Household Cavalry Machine Gun Brigade Royal Air Force IX Brigade RAF FRENCH ARMY, 27 SEPTEMBER 1918 1RE ARMÉE – GÉN. EUGÈNE DEBENEY 15e Corps d’Armée – Gén. de Riols de Fonclare 46e Division – Gén. Gratier 1re GBC 2e GBC 3e GBC 47e Division – Gén. Dillemann 4e GBC 5e GBC 6e GBC 126e Division – Gén. Mathieu 55e RI 112e RI 173e RI 36e Corps d’Armée – Gén. Nollet 133e Division – Gén. Valentin 321e RI 401e RI 15e GBC 166e Division – Gén. Cabaud 171e RI 294e RI 19e BCP 26e BCP 31e Corps d’Armée – Gén. Toulorge 56e Division – Gén. Demetz 106e RI 132e RI 10e GBC 152e Division – Gén. Andrieu 11e RI 125e RI 135e RI 169e Division – Gén. Serat Almeras Latour 13e RI 29e RI 39e RI 8e Corps d’Armée – Gén. Hély d’Oissel 37e Division – Gén. Simon 2e RZ 2e RT 3e RZ 3e RT 67e Division – Gén. Bousquier 283e RI 288e RI 369e RI 123e Division – Gén. de Saint-Just 6e RI 12e RI 411e RI 58e Division – Gén. Priou 412e RI 6e RT 11e RT 60e Division – Gén. Jacquemot 202e RI 225e RI 248e RI ARMY TROOPS 15e Division – Gén. Arbanève 10e RI 56e RI 134e RI 34e Division – Gén. Savatier 59e RI 83e RI 88e RI 64e Division – Gén. Colin 269e RI 331e RI 340e RI 70e Division – Gén. Tantôt 226e RI 360e RI 17e GBC Key to abbreviations BCP – Battalions chasseurs à pied GBC – Groupe des battalions chasseurs RI – Régiment d’infanterie RT – Régiment de tirailleurs RZ – Régiment de zouaves GERMAN ARMY, 27 SEPTEMBER 1918 17. ARMEE – GEN. OTTO VON BELOW I Bayerische Reserve Armeekorps – Gen. Karl Ritter von Faßbender 111. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Busse FüsR 73 IR 76 IR 164 15. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Hucke RIR 17 RIR 25 RIR 69 234. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Stumpff IR 451 IR 452 IR 453 48. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Hippel RIR 221 RIR 222 RIR 223 220. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Bassewitz RIR 55 RIR 90 IR 190 II Bayerische Armeekorps – Gen. Konrad Krafft von Delmensingen 214. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Maercker IR 50 IR 343 IR 358 35. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Wohlgenuth IR 61 IR 141 IR 176 58. (Sächs) Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Graf von Eckstaedt RIR 103 IR 106 IR 107 22. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Neubaur IR 82 IR 83 IR 167 XVIII Armeekorps – GenLt. Günter von Etzel 12. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Funcke IR 23 IR 62 IR 63 187. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Langermann und Erlenkamp IR 187 IR 188 IR 189 7. Kavallerie-Schützen-Division – GenMaj. von Heuduck KSK 28 KSK 30 KSK 41 1. Garde-Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Tiede GRR 1 GRR 2 IR 64 207. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Mattiaß IR 98 IR 208 IR 209 XIV Reservekorps – GenLt. Curt von Morgen 49. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Uechtritz und Steinkirch RIR 225 RIR 226 RIR 228 20. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Zwenger IR 77 IR 79 IR 92 6. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Mutius IR 24 IR 64 IR 396 113. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Passow RIR 32 Füs R 36 IR 66 3. Marine-Division – GenMaj. Graf von Moltke MIR 1 MIR 2 MIR 3 18. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Wrisberg RIR 31 RIR 84 RIR 86 2. ARMEE – GEN. ADOLPH VON CARLOWITZ 54. Generalkommando – GenLt. Alfred von Larisch Jäger Division – GenMaj. von Dassel JägR 11 JägR 12 JägR 13 21. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Briese RIR 80 RIR 87 RIR 88 30. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Riebensahm IR 99 IR 105 IR 143 201. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Bachelin IR 401 IR 402 IR 403 IV Reservekorps – GenLt. Richard von Conta 8. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Hamann IR 72 IR 93 IR 153 54. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Kabisch RIR 27 IR 84 RIR 90 121. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Breβler 27 RIR 7 RIR 56 IR 60 2. Garde-Division – GenMaj. von Friedeburg Kaiser Alexander GGrenR Kaiser Franz GGrenR Königin Augusta GGrenR 51. Generalkommando – GenLt. Hans von Below 185. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Horn RIR 28 IR 65 IR 161 75. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Eisenhardt-Rothe RIR 249 RIR 250 RIR 251 2. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Dommes GrenR 4 FüsR 33 IR 44 21. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Wahlen-Jürgaβ FüsR 80 IR 81 IR 87 18. ARMEE – GEN. OSKAR VON HUTIER I Bayerische Armeekorps – GenLt. von Endres 79. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Landauer RIR 261 RIR 262 RIR 263 197. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Alt-Stutterheim RIR 273 SächsJägR 7 ErzR 28 82. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Lorne de St Ange RIR 270 RIR 271 RIR 272 221. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von der Chevallerie IR 41 RIR 60 IR 45 11. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Freiherr Schmidt von Schmidtseck GrenR 10 FüsR 38 IR 51 25. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Mattiaß RIR 83 RIR 118 IR 168 34. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Teetzmann IR 30 IR 67 IR 145 206. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Etzel IR 359 IR 394 RErzR 4 XXVI Reservekorps – GenLt. Freiherr von Watter 22. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. Schubert RIR 71 RIR 82 RIR 94 6. Bayerische-Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Ritter von Rauchenberger BayIR 6 BayIR 10 Bay IR 13 231. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Dewitz IR 442 IR 443 IR 444 28 208. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Groddeck IR 25 IR 185 RIR 65 XVIII Reservekorps – GenLt. Sieger 241. (Sächs) Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Fortmüller IR 472 IR 473 IR 474 84. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Leu IR 335 IR 336 IR 423 XIV Armeekorps – GenLt. von Gontard 237. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Jacobi IR 460 IR 461 IR 462 24. (Sächs) Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Hammer IR 133 IR 139 IR 179 105. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Schaer IR 21 IR 129 IR 400 OHL RESERVES 26. (Württemburgische) Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Fritsch (Caudry) RIR 119 RIR 121 IR 180 38. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Schultheis (Solesmes) IR 94 IR 95 IR 96 5. Bayerische-Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Clauβ (Le Cateau) Bay IR 7 Bay IR 19 Bay IR 21 119. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. Hagenberg (Barzy) IR 46 RIR 46 IR 58 1. Reserve-Division – GenMaj. von Waldersee (Le Nouvion) RIR 1 RIR 3 RIR 59 232. Infanterie-Division – GenMaj. von Dewitz (Guise) FüsR 36 IR 65 RIR 32 3. Landwehr Division – GenMaj. Zierold (Guise) LIR 6 LIR 7 LIR 46 Key to abbreviations Bay – Bayerische FüsR – Füsilier-Regiment GRR – Garde-Reserve-Regiment GrenR – Grenadier-Regiment GGrenR – Garde-Grenadier-Regiment IR – Infanterie-Regiment JägR – Jäger-Regiment KSK – Kavallerie-Schützen-Kommando LIR – Landwehr-Infanterie-Regiment MIR – Marine-Infanterie-Regiment RErzR – Reserve-Ersatz-Regiment RIR – Reserve-Infanterie Regiment Sächs – Sächsische OPPOSING PLANS ALLIED PLANS Although Foch’s strategy had roots that could be traced back to December 1914, the operational and tactical plans of 1918 were fundamentally changed. The offensives of 1915–17 aimed to breach multiple defensive lines in one bound and consequently took significant amounts of time to plan in great detail. These intricate schemes often failed to allow for the uncertainties of combat, demanded too much from their inexperienced command teams and often chafed against competing national priorities. By late 1918, however, the Allied commanders were working with each other in a far more cooperative manner, with plans better attenuated to the capabilities of their troops, and which developed detail incrementally as the campaign situation developed. As the first phase of Foch’s strategic directive neared completion, the operational planning to breach the Hindenburg Line increased in tempo. Noting Pershing’s plan for an advance towards Metz, Haig wrote to Foch on 27 August, proposing that after the forthcoming American operation to reduce the St Mihiel salient, the AEF’s exploitation be shifted towards Mézières instead of Metz, to improve the mutual support between the Allied armies in the subsequent advances. This suggestion coincided with Foch’s developing plan to seize the key strategic railway linking Germany with the central and western parts of the front. But he also wanted to commence the exploitation as quickly as possible lest the Germans gain time to reorganize. The proposed change did not go down well with Pershing, who looked towards the St Mihiel–Metz operations as being the signal event of the AEF’s arrival in the war. However, after a series of fractious meetings and telegrams, Pershing agreed to the new plan with the proviso that the American contribution to the Mézières operation would be as an independent army alongside the French 4e Armée rather than as part of a larger French force. Consequently, on 3 September Foch issued a further directive, combining the Franco-US attack towards Mézières with the British thrusts towards Cambrai–St Quentin. Foch further developed the scope of his offensive on 9 September when he added an attack by the British, French and Belgian forces in the Groupe d’Armées de Flandres (GAF) to the original scheme. This was followed on 16 and 19 September by the addition of attacks by the French 5e and 10e Armées across the Aisne and Chemin des Dames to cover the left flank of the assault towards Mézières. Only the timing of each Allied thrust remained 29 Haig’s plan Douai XX XXX 220 I BAY R N II tan ng Wo tellu S Valenciennes XXXX 17 XXX XX II BAY First BR le Se XXXX Blécourt XXX XXX XVIII 1 CAN lde he Sc 207 B o ur lo n Wo o d 3 MAR XXXX XXX XVII XX XXXX XXXX 2 26 R VI 2 bre Sam 3 XX XXX 18 R XX Le Cateau Gkdo 54 XXX XXX XX 201 7 XX Ca n V 2G XXXX Busigny XXX XXX IV R III XXX AUS Fourth BR II US 4 Gkdo 51 21 XXX XX 119 XX XX XXX 5 BAY g lun Stel ion) Hermann struct ( u n d er c o n a l du N ord IV Havr in cour t Wood XXX For êt d e M or m al Solesmes XIV R XXXX 38 Cambrai XX XXX XXX XX 6 XX XX 1 GR Third BR Se l e nsé XXII 22 Aubencheulaux-Bois XXX Bohain XX XX 1R XX 232 XX XXXX 34 XXX 25 R IX Verly XX 8 XXX XX 15 FR XXXX I BAY Guise 11 XXX XX 3L St Quentin XX Mont d’Origny 206 Som 5 XXX XXX 1. 2. XXVI R St Q u an al me 36 FR XXXX 18 1re FR XXXX C tin en 31 FR XXX 3. Alaincourt 4. XXX XVIII R Hunding St e Serre 8 FR XXX Oise XXX XIV 0 0 5 miles Fo r ê t de S t G o ba in 5km XX XX 30 XX XX ll u n g 5. 27 September: First Army to capture Bourlon Wood and secure left flank along river Sensée. 27–28 September: Third Army to clear Hindenburg Line and establish bridgehead over St Quentin Canal south of Cambrai. 29 September: Third Army advances to objective line of Le Cateau–Solesmes 29 September: Fourth Army delivers main attack between le Tronquoy and le Catelet to objective line of Bohain–Busigny. 29 September: French 1re Armée envelops St Quentin and secures right flank along the river Oise. 28 September onwards: Cavalry Corps contingency plans: 6. Exploit north-east towards Valenciennes and Lille via Third Army sector. 7. Exploit north-east towards Valenciennes and Lille via Fourth Army sector. 8. Exploit south-east to towards Laon via Fourth Army sector. to be confirmed. While Foch was concerned that they would need to be sequenced to offset logistic constraints, Haig was equally worried about the need to draw away the German forces most heavily concentrated on the front he was to attack. After further deliberation, on 23 September Foch directed that what was now termed the General Offensive would commence three days later, with each operation being launched at one-day intervals. The Franco-US assault towards Mézières was to be launched first on 26 September, with the British assault towards Cambrai commencing the following day. The Flanders operation was to be launched next on 28 September, with the culminating British attack on the main Hindenburg Line defences north of St Quentin taking place on 29 September. The subsidiary attacks by the French 10e and 5e Armées were to be launched on 27 and 30 September respectively. This ambitious plan promised to stretch Ludendorff’s forces to the limit. The German Army had 190 divisions on the Western Front – 125 in the front line and 65 in reserve – but in response to the Allied campaign’s development during August and September, too many were increasingly threatened with isolation east of the Meuse. Whereas Armee Abteilung ‘C’ and Heeresgruppe Württemburg consisted of 25 front-line and 4 reserve divisions at the end of August, by 21 September they had been reinforced with a further six front-line and 18 reserve divisions to block any further American advance towards Metz and the east. This misconception was deliberately reinforced by Foch’s visit to Nancy and Belfort between 19 and 22 September. As the German reserves shuffled to the east, 17., 2. and 18. Armees reduced their combined strength by 18 divisions. In this respect, Haig’s aim to draw off German forces facing the BEF was already achieved, as the St Mihiel attack had become a feint for the General Offensive. In addition to his influential role in the development of the strategic and higher operational plans of the Allied armies, Haig was also deeply involved in orchestrating the tactical plans for the First, Third and Fourth Armies’ attacks. On 8 September, Haig asked his Army Commanders – Generals Horne, Byng and Rawlinson – for their opinions on the assault on the Hindenburg Line. All three agreed that while they should attack quickly German transport withdrawing across the St Quentin Canal at Bellenglise in September 1918. Each Infanterie-Regiment had 233 horses and 72 wagons to transport its equipment. Despite the advent of the motor vehicle, all armies on the Western Front depended on horsepower for transport. That this team is pulling two wagons highlights the acute shortage of draft animals in the German Army by this stage of the war. (IWM, Q60476) 31 Australian infantry digging in during the battle of Épehy on 18 September 1918. In the background can be seen the effects of the smokescreens fired by the artillery to blind the German defence, the machinegunners in particular. (IWM, E(AUS) 3248) 32 to prevent the Germans reorganizing, due to the complexity and depth of the Hindenburg Line, the sequencing of discrete, limited scale operations would be required to disrupt the system without exposing their own troops to German counter-attacks. With Haig’s consent, on 11 September Third Army seized the fortified village of Moeuvres overlooking the Canal du Nord to secure their grip on the west bank and cover right flank of the Canadians to their north. The following day it secured the Advanced Hindenburg Line around the key village of Havrincourt. Further south, on 18 September, Fourth Army did the same between Hargicourt and Pontruet at the battle of Épehy. The conditions were now set for Horne and Byng to attack the Main Hindenburg Line west of Cambrai and Rawlinson to do likewise over the St Quentin Canal. Horne and Byng began their planning for the main assault on 15 September. Horne delegated the task of crossing the Canal du Nord to Lieutenant-General Currie’s Canadian Corps. Currie’s ambitious plan envisaged two divisions blasting their way through on a 2,500-yard front north of Mouevres. Thereafter, two further divisions were to join the assault as it fanned out to the north and east to envelop the heights around Bourlon Wood. Crossings over the Schelde Canal north of Cambrai were to be attempted if possible thereafter. In an attempt to impose an element of deception into the plan, Currie forbade daylight movement in forward areas, while Godley’s XXII Corps was to conduct operations to simulate an attack across the whole front south of the Sensée. In Third Army’s sector, Byng’s problems were more complex. Notwithstanding that the Hindenburg Line ran obliquely away from his right wing, the fact that Fourth Army’s assault was scheduled two days later than First Army’s, meant that he had to maintain contact with the advancing First Army on his left and the relatively static Fourth Army on his right. He therefore directed XVII Corps to keep up with the Canadians on the left, while VI and IV Corps echeloned back to the right to where V Corps was broadly holding its position. In conjunction with the Canadians, XVII Corps was to cross the Canal du Nord on a narrow front and then fan out to the east and south before closing up to the St Quentin Canal in the vicinity of Rumilly. Although the Canadians were left in relative peace to conduct their preparations, XVII Corps was not so lucky. For ten days prior to the assault, they had to fight off bitter counter-attacks from XVIII Armeekorps attempting to recapture Moeuvres. In the south, Rawlinson gave the main task to Lieutenant-General Monash’s Australian Corps who, together with Major-General Read’s II (US) Corps, were to breach the Hindenburg Line over the Bellicourt Tunnel. Eschewing the prospect of a difficult assault over the canal as it passed through its deep cuttings, Monash ordered the Americans to seize the Main Hindenburg Line between Bellicourt and Le Catelet before fanning out to the north and south. The Australians would then pass through them and capture the Hindenburg Support and Reserve positions. Should this be successful, the 17th Armoured Car Battalion and the 6th Tank Battalion were to pass through the Australian infantry and conduct a deep raid towards the German communications hub at Busigny and Le Cateau. III Corps was to link the Australians with Third Army to the north. Rawlinson accepted the plan on 19 September with a significant alteration. He included Lieutenant-General Braithwaite’s proposal that IX Corps would assault across the canal at Bellenglise simultaneously with the Australian and American attack. Throughout the week leading up to the main attack, both Lieutenant-General Butler’s III Corps and IX Corps attempted to widen the breach in the Advanced Hindenburg Line with limited success. Such was Rawlinson’s dissatisfaction with Butler, on 22 September Haig agreed to replace III Corps with Morland’s XIII Corps, but rather than delay the attack to effect this change, Rawlinson instead ordered the Americans to seize the Advanced Hindenburg Line positions between Hargicourt and Tombois Farm as a preliminary to the main assault. III Corps was to provide flank security. The Cavalry Corps was retained under Haig’s control but began to work up contingency plans to pass through either Third or Fourth Army and disrupt the German communications at either Valenciennes or Le Cateau. In the air, IX Brigade RAF would begin the process of isolating the battlefield overnight 26/27 September by bombing the key railway stations of Denain, Busigny and Le Cateau before switching their attention to German airfields the following day. I Brigade RAF was to prevent German forces crossing the Sensée from the north, to drive down German observation balloons and provide close air support, while III Brigade RAF did the same on the St Quentin Canal south of Cambrai. As Fourth Army entered the fray on 29 September, V Brigade RAF was to fly in support, with priority targets being the destruction of enemy balloons, impeding German reserves approaching the battle, and neutralizing artillery batteries firing in the open. From St Quentin to the Oise, Debeney’s 1re Armée was ordered to support the right flank of the British, but remained under command of Fayolle’s Groupe d’Armée Réserve (GAR). Fayolle’s mission also required him to support the left flank of the Meuse-Argonne operation with Mangin’s 10e Armée. Given that he was not the highest priority for resources across the French Army, on 20 September he instructed Debeney to operate with a strict economy of men and munitions to best husband those he had. Consequently, Debeney’s plan, distributed on 25 September, was to envelop St Quentin from the north and south. He gave primacy to 15e Corps’ assault, which was to assist 31e and 36e Corps’ southern pincer by turning the Hindenburg Line north of St Quentin. However, as 15e Corps was not due to enter the line until the latter part of 29 September, this attack would be impossible to co-ordinate with Fourth Army’s assault. In an attempt to resolve this contradiction, Debeney ordered 31e and 8e Corps to attack on 29 September between Urvillers and Cerizy to distract Hutier’s 18. Armee. The Hindenburg Line at Bellicourt looking east. The tunnel lies directly below the village, with the trenches of the Main Hindenburg Line covering the approaches from the west. In the background can be seen the villages of Nauroy, Estrées, Joncourt, Wiancourt, Ramicourt and, in the far distance, Montbrehain. (IWM, Q55630) 33 GERMAN PLANS The St Quentin Canal cutting seen from Riqueval Bridge looking south. This sector was defended by GR 4 of 2. Infanterie-Division. The footbridges were left in place to allow the passage of troops to the forward positions west of the canal. (IWM, Q9510) 34 While Foch and Haig were able to combine the efforts of their forces, Ludendorff was slowly losing his ability to do the same for the Germans. On 23 September, as the Allied focus shifted back to the west of the Meuse, OHL belatedly recognized that 22 of their reserve divisions were now poorly positioned in Alsace and Lorraine. In a desperate attempt to regain a more balanced deployment, orders were issued to move 12 divisions back across the Meuse to the west. However, the consequence of the increased number of divisions in Lorraine was a reduction in the reserves available to support 17., 2. and 18. Armees. Lacking the strength to defend the whole of their front in depth, Rupprecht and Boehn identified priority sectors in which to concentrate their reserve divisions. Four were deployed in 17. Armee covering the western approaches to Cambrai, three in 2. Armee covering the Bellicourt Tunnel and four in 18. Armee covering St Quentin. Critically, of 2. Armee’s reserves, only one division was in the Bellenglise sector now targeted by Rawlinson, and this had detached one of its three regiments to IV Reservekorps at Bellicourt. Three further reserve divisions under OHL control were located around Caudry and Le Cateau, with another two divisions further east around Le Nouvion and two more around Guise. The mounting Allied pressure was also beginning to fray the German command and control system, with Ludendorff increasingly in conflict with his key staff and army commanders. In August he imposed OHL direction to override Rupprecht’s attempts to refine tactical doctrine for defence of the German forward positions. On 6 September, he gave an erratic brief to his Heeresgruppen Chiefs of Staff, blaming the troops for the battlefield reverses. He outlined unrealistic plans to construct a new defence line to the rear – the Hermann Stellung – in weeks, when the comparable task of constructing the Hindenburg Line in 1916–17 had taken 65,000 men four months to complete. On 9 September, Oberstleutnant Wetzell, Chief of the OHL Operations Section, resigned after being repeatedly ignored by Ludendorff who increasingly interfered with tactical operations. More spectacularly, General von der Marwitz was relieved of command of 2. Armee on 22 September, after his perceived failure during the battle of Épehy, and replaced by General von Carlowitz. On 23 and 24 September, Wetzell’s replacement, Haye, published OHL’s latest estimate of the situation which forecast widespread Allied attacks along the whole line, including the Cambrai–St Quentin axis, but suggested that Lorraine remained as the primary threat. None of this augured well for the coming battle. THE CAMPAIGN ‘AN ABUNDANCE OF COURAGE BUT TOO LITTLE TECHNIQUE’, 26 SEPTEMBER The campaign opened in the early hours as the American First and the French 4e Armies launched their assault on the Meuse, while at St Quentin, Rawlinson’s troops began their preparatory bombardment. The French and American infantry assault commenced along a 70km front at 0525hrs, and by the end of the day penetrations up to 7km had been punched through the defences of Heeresgruppe Gallwitz and Heeresgruppe Kronprinz. These were deepest either side of the Argonne forest, however, where the difficult terrain and intricate defences slowed progress. As the key heights at Montfaucon eluded capture, an American Staff Officer, Colonel George C. Marshall, observed that his inexperienced troops had, ‘an abundance of courage, but too little technique’. The battle of the St Quentin Canal Given the complexity of the defences which faced them, Rawlinson and Monash decided to revert to a preliminary artillery bombardment rather than rely on the surprise bombardments launched at zero hour, which had become the norm in Fourth Army since the battle of Hamel in July. To that end at 2230hrs, 1,044 field and 593 heavy guns crashed the first salvoes intended to disrupt the Hindenburg Line defences, suppress the German artillery and lower morale of the defending troops. The initial phase of the bombardment BELOW LEFT American tank units equipped with French FT-17 tanks move forwards in the Argonne. (IWM, Q58691) BELOW RIGHT German troops manning a trench while wearing respirators. The Gasschutzmaske Type IV 17 ‘Gummimaske’ and Gasschutzmaske 17 ‘Ledermaske’ both had replaceable filters. Each filter required changing every 20–30 minutes. Note the unprotected dog in the trench. (IWM, Q45349) 35 24 XXX BEF Units II BAY 1. 10th Brigade 2. 167th Brigade 3. 168th Brigade 4. 169th Brigade 5. 32nd Brigade 6. 34th Brigade 7. 3rd Canadian Brigade 8. 1st Canadian Brigade 9. 10th Canadian Brigade 10. 12th Canadian Brigade 11. 11th Canadian Brigade 12. 2nd Canadian Brigade 13. 190th Brigade 14. 188th Brigade 15. 189th Brigade 16. 156th Brigade 17. 157th Brigade 18. 155th Brigade 19. 2nd Guards Brigade 20. 1st Guards Brigade 21. 3rd Guards Brigade 22. 171st Brigade 23. 172nd Brigade 24. III Brigade RAF 3 DELMENSINGEN BANTIG BL VALLE BA SENSÉE CANAL AUBIGNY-AU-BAC 23 1 Z 25 ÉPINO 12 26 6 OISY-LE-VERGER 5 18 B A SAUCHY-CAUCHY C 3 SAUCHY-LESTRÉE D 16 8 14 20 7 2 E 1 MARQUION 6 4 F XXX BLUE LINE XXII 13 5 GODLEY G H 6 RED LINE EVENTS 1. 0520hrs: 3rd Canadian, 1st Canadian, 10th Canadian, 190th, 156th, 157th and 2nd Guards Brigades commence assault behind artillery barrage. INCHY-EN-ARTOI 2. 0600hrs: 156th Brigade held up by wire west of Canal du Nord. 3. 0630hrs: III Brigade RAF begins rolling interdiction mission of River Sensée crossing points and Bantigny Valley. 4. 0700–0730hrs: Canadian and 2nd Guards Brigades secure ‘Red Line’. 5. 0710hrs: 1st Guards Brigade commences assault on ‘Green Line’. 6. 0820hrs: 3rd Canadian, 1st Canadian, 12th Canadian and 11th Canadian Brigades commence assault on ‘Green Line’. 188th Brigade passes through 190th Brigade but is held by KSK 30 reserve battalion in ‘Sugar Factory’. 7. 0915–1020hrs: Canadian brigades secure ‘Green Line’ between Bourlon Wood and Marquion. 8. 1020hrs: 12th Canadian, 1st Canadian, 2nd Canadian and 3rd Canadian Brigades commence assault to ‘Blue Line’. 9. 1045hrs: GRR 1 launches counter-attack towards Raillencourt. Attack halted along Cambrai–Sauchy railway line under fire from 1st and 12th Canadian Brigades. 10. 1100hrs: IR 82 and IR 167 deploy between Sancourt and Épinoy. IR 83 deploys south-east of Haynecourt. Reserve-Infanterie-Regiment 225 deploys to Graincourt. 11. 1200hrs: 3rd Marine Division deploys to Noyelles. 12. 1215hrs: 3rd Guards Brigade commences assault on ‘Blue Line’ east of Flesquières. 13. 1220hrs: 32nd and 34th Brigades cross Canal du Nord. 14. 1300hrs: Canadians secure the ‘Blue Line’. Marine-Infanterie-Regiments 1, 2 and 3 launch counter-attack towards Flesquières and Anneux. 15. 1345hrs: GRR 2 and RIR 64 launch counter-attack towards Bourlon. Attack held up on Cambrai–Sauchy railway line under fire from 1st and 12th Canadian Brigades. GRR 1 withdrawn to Sailly. 16. 1400hrs: I and II IR 23 launch counter-attack 36 7 south of Sauchy-Lestrées. 17. 1415–1430hrs: 188th and 189th Brigades finally capture ‘Sugar Factory’ and advance towards Graincourt and Anneux. 156th and 157th Brigades clear last German resistance west of Graincourt. 18. 1450hrs: 2nd Canadian, 32nd and 34th Brigades commence advance from ‘Blue Line’. 19. 1500hrs: 3rd Guards Brigade pushed back from Premy Chapel Ridge. 20. 1550hrs: 169th Brigade crosses the Canal du Nord and begins clearance of eastern bank towards the north. 21. 1600hrs: 171st and 172nd Brigades pass through Graincourt and Anneux and commence assault on ‘Blue Line’. MIR 1 holds 171st Brigade east of Anneux. 172nd Brigade advances approximately 1km east of Graincourt before being halted by MIR 2. 172nd Brigade and 3rd Guards Brigade link up. 22. 1650hrs: IR 213 deploys in Proville. 23. 1800hrs: IR 141 deploys east of Épinoy. 24. 1900hrs: 11th Canadian Brigade completes envelopment of Bourlon Wood and secures western edge of Fontaine-Notre-Dame. 25. 1930hrs: 2nd Canadian and 32nd Brigades halt advance in front of German positions held by IRs 141, 82 and 167 between Épinoy and Sancourt. 26. 1945hrs: 34th Brigade secures Oisy-le-Verger. Infanterie-Regiments 107 and 103 withdraw to the river Sensée. Infanterie-Regiment 106 secures Aubigny-au-Bac and bridge. 27. 2000hrs: IR 209 deploys south-east of Fontaine-Notre-Dame. 28. 2230hrs: IR 83 redeploys from Haynecourt to Blécourt. XXX XVIII ETZEL NY LINE LACK Y ANTIGNY BLÉCOURT SANCOURT T 28 S 10 V CAMBRAI R OY SAILLY 22 Q HAYNECOURT PROVILLE AA RAILLENCOURT 9 O 27 15 BB 18 8 14 24 11 FONTAINENOTRE-DAME NOYELLES 14 10 W X 4 ANNEUX 11 22 21 21 23 14 SUGAR FACTORY 17 1 12 15 GRAINCOURT L I 20 5 M K 9 IS CANAL DU NORD FLESQUIÈRES MORGEN 17 13 MOEUVRES XXX XIV RES J 1 19 Y 6 4 A. IR 106 B. IR 103 C. IR 107 D. IR 63 E. IR 23 F. IR 62 G. IR 189 H. IR 188 I. IR 187 J. KSK 28 K. KSK 41 L. KSK 30 M. RIR 226 N. RIR 228 O. RIR 225 P. IR 79 Q. GRR 1 R. GRR 2 S. RIR 64 T. IR 83 U. IR 82 V. IR 167 W. MIR 1 X. MIR 2 Y. MIR 3 Z. IR 141 AA. IR 213 BB. IR 209 PREMY CHAPEL RIDGE BOURLON WOOD BOURLON 6 German Units 2 4 16 N 17 18 19 1 P XXX CAN CURRIE XXX XVII FERGUSSON THE FIRST ‘EXPANDING TORRENT’ The Canadian and XVII Corps’ assault over the Canal du Nord, 27 September 1918 37 included the first British use of artillery shells filled with mustard gas. The destructive effect was limited, although Reserve Feldartillerie Regiment 55 lost a battery west of Joncourt, with 21 gas casualties. The neutralizing effect, however, was profound as the front-line troops, including those of 2. Infanterie-Division at Bellenglise, were forced to wear their respirators for extended periods or retreat underground where they were cut off from fresh food and water supplies from the rear. The barrage was programmed to continue until zero hour on 29 September, cutting wire in front of the canal, targeting the larger concrete positions, breaching the canal walls and finally destroying the telephone exchanges to break communications. ‘ON THIS DAY WE BURIED ALL OUR HOPES OF VICTORY’, 27 SEPTEMBER The second day of the offensive saw the British First and Third Armies launch the second of the attacks at Cambrai, while the previous day’s operations continued. The Argonne attack recommenced at 0515hrs with the French push towards Somme-Py. However, the German defence was beginning to firm up, with machine-gun and trench mortar fire presenting stiff resistance to the assaulting infantry. Only a 2–3km advance was made in the east, with none at all in the west. In the American sector, V (US) Corps was able to capture Montfaucon but progress was beginning to slow. The rapid switch from St Mihiel was partly to blame, as Pershing was forced to deploy less well-trained formations, whose inexperienced administrative units were placed under severe pressure to sustain the large force in a remote region with limited transport infrastructure. Furthermore, the divisions deployed on the Meuse suffered from inexperienced leadership from their officers and NCOs, with Gallwitz’ men noting that small groups could delay much larger attacking forces. ‘Break in’ at Cambrai – the battle of the Canal du Nord The 16th Canadian Infantry Battalion moving forwards near Inchy-en-Artois. (IWM, CO3289) 38 At Cambrai, although Third Army’s artillery commenced a wire-cutting programme on 18 September, while First Army’s guns engaged in deception shoots on XXII Corps’ front, no preliminary bombardment on the scale fired by Rawlinson was fired by Horne or Byng. However, fears that the assault troops would be hit by German artillery in their exposed assembly positions proved unfounded. As the assault infantry formed up, the overnight rain cleared. In the distance, the night bomber squadrons of III and IX Brigades RAF attacked those German headquarters that had been identified and Busigny railway junction. At 0520hrs the opening salvoes of the barrage erupted and tore into the German defences. 1st Canadian and 4th Canadian Divisions quickly crossed the dry section of the canal at Inchy-en-Artois and punched through the forward companies of 187 Infanterie-Division to secure the Canal du Nord Line by 0730hrs. Although the German artillery did reply, Horne’s deception plan worked, as much fell on the Arras–Cambrai road west of Marquion rather than the Canadians to the south. In XVII Corps, 52nd and 63rd Divisions stormed out of Moeuvres into the forward positions of the 7. Kavallerie-Schützen-Division manning trenches that had formed the original Hindenburg Support Line. Progress was slower than in the Canadian sector, particularly in the area around the ‘Sugar Factory’ on the Bapaume road, which resisted capture until 1440hrs, long after the Canadians had pushed around the northern flank of Bourlon Wood. Meanwhile, the engineers began the task of bridging the canal. In 4th Canadian Division’s sector, three bridges were passable one way for horsed transport by 0800hrs, and the bridge between Inchy and Bourlon was open for two-way lorry transport by 0820hrs. 1st Canadian Division’s engineers had more trouble from German fire, but had footbridges open by 1000hrs and a bridge for two-way lorry traffic by 1730hrs. The remainder of 1st Canadian Division, together with 11th British Division, poured over these and swung north, into the rear of 12. and 58. Infanterie-Divisions, who desperately moved back to face the new threat from the south. Some assistance for the defenders came in late morning and early afternoon, when the 1. Garde-Reserve and 22. InfanterieDivisions counter-attacked from their reserve positions. However, unable to coordinate their efforts, they were absorbed into the battle piecemeal rather than delivering the powerful riposte that was needed to halt Currie’s men. Consequently, they found themselves replacing the shattered 7. KavallerieSchützen-Division and 187. Infanterie-Division – including IR 188, whose history recorded the catastrophic loss of hope – to re-establish a new left flank for XVIII Armeekorps and cover the north-western approaches to Cambrai. To the south of Bourlon Wood, the final stage of XVII Corps’ attack stalled when 57th Division’s light signals meant to call the infantry forwards were confused with similar signals fired by the Germans as they launched their own counter-attack towards Anneux. Not until 1800hrs did the 57th move forwards to finish the day 1km east of Graincourt, some 3km behind the foremost Canadian positions to the north. Although Byng always intended his army’s attack to echelon back towards the right, his plan included a three-hour delay between the assaults of VI and IV Corps in order that the former could advance far enough to re-orientate their subsequent combined attack towards the east rather than north-east. Despite Haldane’s protests that the right flank of his corps would be exposed to fire from the high ground in IV Corps’ sector as they moved forwards, Harper refused to advance the timing of his attack and Byng decided not to make him do so. This lack of cohesion had significant consequences. VI Corps commenced their assault in conjunction with XVII Corps at 0520hrs. On the left, the Guards Division cleared the remnants of the Hindenburg Main Line and fought their way across the canal, but thereafter, resistance from 49. Reserve-Division along the junction with XVII Corps and from strongpoints around Flesquières delayed the remainder of the advance. Flesquières, along with the Hindenburg Support Line to the east, was cleared by 3rd Division, and by mid-morning, the 2nd and 62nd Divisions in the corps’ second echelon had pushed through to assault the St Quentin Canal at Marcoing. IV Corps launched its assault at 0752hrs with 42nd Canadian engineers bridging the Canal du Nord at Moeuvres. (IWM, Q9638) 39 40 41 3 1 2 CLOSE SUPPORT: FIELD ARTILLERY AT INCHY, 27 SEPTEMBER 1918 (PP. 40–41) Although the British Army’s pre-war artillery doctrine envisaged its field guns deploying amongst the forward infantry positions, their vulnerability to
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To go to an archived version of that page, click here: June 2013 Home Page Archive. To return to this month's actual Home Page, click on the Signal Corps orange Home Page menu item in the upper left corner of this page. continuing... From the 23rd of May until the morning of June 1 the 56th was kept in complete isolation from the rest of the world. Then at 0730 on June 1 the tour of duty our Signal man and his fellow soldiers were on took its next step forward; advance units of the 56th were ordered to begin boarding LST #54, at Falmouth Bay, England. On June 5, 1944, at 1:00 am, LST #54 set sail for continental Europe. If our soldier was like any of the others that set out on that June morning for France, then he probably felt both anxious as well as at ease. Having been provided with floatation gear, and finding himself riding alongside communication vehicles he was well familiar with, it was clear that a watery landing like the ones he had trained for lay ahead. Yet there was likely no fear in these thoughts, as he already had more than two years under his belt doing just such a thing. On the personal side however, there must have been a few nagging thoughts in his mindâ¦ nagging thoughts that said that no matter the outcome, it was time to move this life experience to its next stage, because only by continuing the march could our soldier eventually hope to conclude his tour and wend his way back to that warm bed he left behindâ¦ as well as the girlfriend or wife, and the family and life he missed so. For our Signaleer, by this stage, nearly 3 years down the road from when he was drafted, the recognition had fully set in: unless he and those around him continued moving forwardâ¦ and finished their tour of dutyâ¦ there would never be an end to this war. And without a clean, clear, unambiguous end, our soldier of the 56th Signal Battalion knew that he might spend the rest of his life never seeing home again. From this standpoint at least, while the tour of duty our WWII soldier was on was different from that our future Vietnam and Afghanistan soldiers would live, the thought was the same: approaching the unknown and fearing a bad outcome was subsumed by a determination to get it on and get it over with, if only so that one could go home again. THE 56TH SIGNAL BATTALION AT OMAHA BEACH - NORMANDY On June 5, 1944, the elements of the 56th that loaded up in Falmouth Bay found themselves trying to make a landing at the Easy Red Sector, on Omaha Beach, in Normandy, France. They were part of the US Armyâs Fifth Corps. As background, the Fifth Corps was part of the First US Army, sharing its position along with a sister unit called the 7th Corps. The 5th Corps held within it two Infantry Divisions, the1st and the 29th. Each Division had about 10,000 troops. The 56th Signal Battalionâs task was to provide advance radio and wire teams to support the 5th Corps. In the case of our typical Signal Corps trooper living out his tour of duty during the Second World War, he was one of the 200 56th Signal Battalion Signaleers included in the 5th Corpsâ first landing at Omaha Beach. In that capacity he and his mates were assigned to provide communication support during the landing and in its immediate aftermath, between 5th Corpsâ Headquarters and the 1st and 29th Infantry Divisionâs Headquarters. To do this the 200 odd men he was part of were broken down into wire communications teams, loaded onto separate Naval LST craft, told that from this point forward they should consider themselves both assigned and attached to the two Divisional Infantry Initial Assault Groups that hit the beach, and to do their best to support them. Having never been on one, most of our readers will not know that an LST, or Landing Ship Tank, is nearly as long as a football field. Itâs also some 50 feet wide, with a set of doors at the front end that open in opposite directions to allow the loading and unloading of tanks and other vehicles. Having both a top and a lower deck, the vehicles on an LST can be moved around by means of an elevator. As originally intended, the ship is designed to be able to reach the shallows of a shoreline and unload its vehicles directly onto the beach. The truth is however that rough seas and sub-standard shorelines often made this impossible. That was the case at Omaha Beach. On June 5, 1944, LST #54 wallowed in rough seas and rainy weather for several hours en route to the Easy Red Sector of Omaha Beach. When it became obvious that the flotilla it was a part of was not going to land that day, the entire task force returned to port, where it passed a miserable night before departed in darkness early the next day. Following the same course as the day before, LST #54 finally made its approach to the Omaha Beach site, where DUKW Radio vehicles were set afloat from the ship, moving on their own into the waters as LST #54 and the rest of the flotilla approached the shoreline. Instantly the DUKWs came under heavy enemy fire. Under this withering fire men were dropping all around, while significant damage was being inflicted on the DUKW vehicles and the radio equipment they contained. Still, LST #54 soldiered on, and tried repeatedly to nose itself up to the Omaha Beach disembarking point. All of this took place in the shadowy hours of pre-morning dawn. By the time of first light it was clear that the Germans had their artillery fire zeroed in, and in spite of all of the work the infantry boys did to secure the landing area the lack of a deep enough level of secure beachhead forced ships like LST #54 to back away from shore to anchor a mile or so out from Easy Red beach, and hope for another attempt later in the day after the infantry could secure a deeper section of the beach. Over the next few hours most of the other landing craft involved experienced the same scenario, to the point that dozens of ships began to build up behind the one our 56th Signal Battalion soldier sat in. To try to turn the situation around, the beach masters called the landing ships with tanks in them to come ashore, come hell or high water, and discharge their troops and cargo. The communication boys, in the LSTs anchored off shore, having nothing but communication vehicles in their LSTs, sat out this part of the show. Riding at sea for what seemed like forever, finally, on June 7, 1944, at around 1000 hours, LST #54 got its call to approach the beach for unloading. Even then however, it soon became apparent that as valiant as the 1st IDâs fighting had been, the depth of penetration of the line of security ashore had not reached the point where the LSTâs radio cargo and vehicles could do much good before being put out of commission by German artillery fire. To try to figure out how to help the cause, instead of just sitting on an LST bobbing in the waves and being told what to do, one of the Officers on LST #54 took charge of things. He called out to the 56th Signal Battalion EM we are following and ordered him to accompany him ashore. The Officerâs plan was to go ashore himself and find out what could be done to move things along. Who was this Officer? It could have been 1st Lieutenant Dean Chase. Lieutenant Chase was one of the Junior Officers in Company A of the 56th Signal Battalion, was from Virginia, and graduated as part of U.S. Army Signal Corps OCS Class 42-03. Or it could have been 2nd Lieutenant George W. Galusha, a California man that graduated as part of U.S. Army Signal Corps OCS Class 43-14 and was also serving in Company A of the 56th. Then again it could have been 2nd Lieutenant Robert L. Hilliard, from Illinois, a graduate of OCS Class 42-09 and another member of Company A, or maybe even 1st Lieutenant Roger D. Lumb, from Wisconsin, a graduate of OCS Class 42-09, and an Officer in Company B of the 56th. All of these Junior Officers, graduates of Army Signal OCS, were present in the Omaha Beach landing. Whoever it was, this Officer called for the EM Signaleer we are following to hitch himself to the Officerâs side and follow him ashore. Together they transferred to a Navy Higgins craft that was running shuttle service between the waiting LSTs anchored at sea, bringing both wounded friendlies as well as wounded and disoriented enemy prisoners off shore, while taking replacements back on shore. Once in the Higgins they headed for shore, where enroute they would have seen a sea filled with the debris of war, as well as the bodies of young men in clearly recognizable OD uniforms. Mixed in with the flotsam and jetsam around them were vast stretches of oil, and equally large stretches of discolored sea waterâ¦ sea water discolored with the distinct color of red that comes only from blood. By this day, June 7th, small arms fire would have been suppressed, but artillery fire would still be coming in. Most noticeable of all however, while the situation along the beach was guardedly under control, the air all along it would have still hung heavy with the terror that only the day before would have been so thick that it could have been cut. Bodies, machines blown to hell, sand drifting up to and entangling those trying to wade ashore, confusion, noise, all of this and more, while no longer running at the level it had run the day before, would have been perceptible just below the surface. Being Signaleers from the 56th Signal Battalion on a mission, our two men would have moved up the beach to reconnoiter the place at the top of the beach where the 56th was assigned an exit point, from which the unit, when it finally came ashore, would be able to put the beach behind them as they secured a place where they could pause to reorganize. Scouting for just such a place, our two men would have gone looking for what they knew of as Exit E-1, their assigned departure point. In doing so they would have passed the infamous German WN-65 concrete armament bunker, on their right, as they worked their way up the small hill towards Exit E-1. If they could get from the landing point to Exit E-1, they could then reorganize and move out in the direction of St. Laurent-sur-Mer, the goal of the first dayâs orders. It being just the two of them, our EM Signaleer and his Lieutenant would have quickly found that after going only 800 yards from the beach they were in the midst of troops of the 1st Infantry Division who were fully engaged in short range, small arms combat. Being communications guys, they would have also quickly figured out that the sniper fire and hedgerow resistance the 1st ID boys were trying to subdue was too much to allow the 56th men to lay wire in the area without losing most of the men involved. The fact of the matter was, while the area along the waterline was somewhat secure, the area where the beach met the headland was still being aggressively contested by the Germans. Knowing that there wasnât much they could do until the area was secured, after a few hours of reconnoitering our two men would have returned to the shore, where they would have boarded another Higgins for a ride back to LST #54. In what must have been a poignant reminder of what lay ahead for many men of the 56th, as they returned to their LST they would have seen literally truckloads of fallen American soldiers being loaded, to be taken somewhere for close-by burial. For our EM Signaleer, three years into his tour of duty, this is what he would have seen; and his tour was not over yet. The fact was, in the middle of a beach landing and assault that tried to take a few hundred feet of ground on the continent of Europe, take it back from the enemy and hold it, there was no time for fear, none for sadness, no value in wondering why, no time to give a proper burial to those who secured the few feet of land the Americans were able to stand on that day of June 7, 1941, and even less time to pause and reflect on when this tour of duty would end, or how. Our Signaleer would have spent the night of June 7 back on LST #54, where finally, at 0945 on June 8, 1944, his craft would set him and his unit ashore. In short order they would move their vehicles from the LST to Navy Rhino vessels, a kind of motorized mesh raft. From there, loaded with both troops and vehicles, each Rhino would head for the Normandy shore, making its way up onto the beach in about 4 feet of water. From there the 56th would make its way up to the previously scouted Exit E-1. Lucky for the Signal boys that made up this contingent, the 1st ID had cleared a pathway between the numerous enemy mine fields, from the waterâs edge all the way up to Exit E-1. And since the vehicles they were taking with them had been waterproofed before embarking England, they would have had no difficulty in taking them through the last several feet of water that had to be covered before everything and everyone was on dry land. As for the EM Signaleer we are following, having been ashore the day before, on this day he would have noticed that something was different from what he had seen the day before. What he would have noticed was that on this morning, at 0945 on June 8th, the waters along the shore would have been cleared of floating dead bodies. Debris, yesâ¦ lots of it would have been floating aroundâ¦ clothing, boxes, equipment, damaged landing craft, everything. But floating American soldiers, not any more. Unlike the day before, they were all goneâ¦ and while the place looked like a war zone, it was at least a sterile war zone. As soon as the 56th was fully ashore the men set about de-waterproofing their vehicles. This was then followed with the time worn task of laying twisted pair wire to get the telephone nets up and running as soon as possible. While for some the occasional enemy artillery fire might have given them a start, for most, having spent several days watching the scene from an LST, all that mattered was getting the job done. - - - - - The end of the first day ashore marked a milestone in our Signaleerâs tour of duty. But it was only one step along the path that would form a completed tour. As the sun sank on the evening of June 8, he and his unit secured an apple orchard in which they bivouacked for the night, before setting off early the next morning to begin laying cable again. Secure as they might have felt, this was to prove no cake walk for them. The Germans were not about to roll over and cry uncle. Within a few minutes a low flying ME-109 dropped dozens of anti-personnel bombs directly over the encampment. And just like that, the unit had its baptism of fire as 28 men of the 56th succumbed to wounds or were killed. With this baptism of fire behind him, and the perilous crossing of the English Channel over, from this point forward, for our Signaleer, this phase of his tour of duty involved nothing more than doing what he had been taught. But one wonders: if he had paused to think about it, might it have occurred to him how strange this tour of duty was turning out to be? More than just his being part of a massive effort to defeat the Germans, for him, as an individual, this tour was turning out to be more like a chautauqua, that is, a journey where there is a beginning, a middle and an endâ¦ and that if one is ever to resume oneâs normal life again one must live through each of these three phases, learning the lessons of life in the process, and most importantly, attaining the original purpose that started the chautauqua in the first place. That is, one must not only travel the road and learn from it, one must also survive the road and accomplish the goals of the chautauqua too. Travelling the road, living through the journey, and learning the lessons along the way are all well and good, but if the goal of the chautauqua is not attained, then the journey will never end. As to how any of this applies to our analysis of what differentiates a tour of duty today from those of WWII, the question must be asked: what were the goals of a tour of duty in WWII? And what are they for a combat soldier in one of todayâs wars? Unless they are known, and in our story here our Signaleer accomplishes them, his tour of duty will have a bad ending. The point being that while our Signaleer may be the one making the tour, those who are laying out the steps and stages along the way will be the ones that determine whether the tour will achieve its end goal or not. Both thenâ¦ in WWIIâ¦ and today, whoever lays out the steps that make up a tour of duty for a typical soldier during war time had better know what they are doing, or else the tours they prescribe will never endâ¦ they will just evolve, from one soldier to the next, as the chautauquaâs goals fail to be reached, and one soldier is co-opted to fill in the space left by a predecessor as he falls by the waysideâ¦ as the war goes on forever. Whether our hypothetical 56th Signal Battalion soldier thought these thoughts as he made his way along the beaches and road ways in the vicinity of St. Laurent-sur-Mer and Colleville-sur-Mer, we will never know. What we do know however is that as far as he was concerned this was not a sightseeing tour. To him this was not the pretty French countryside of St. Laurent-sur-Mer and Colleville-sur-Mer, France, but the Sectors that led to Omaha Beachâs Exit E-1; sectors that he knew as FOX, EASY, DOG, and CHARLIE. Sectors all in need of twisted wire cable and telephones to link the 5th Corps HQ with those of the 1st and 29th ID, as well as connect these with the various support troops attached to the 5th Corps, including the Anti-Aircraft boys, Engineering, Hospital units, Artillery, Supply, and Intelligence, and any others that showed up and claimed a need to communicate. On the surface, that was our 56th Signal Battalion soldierâs mission during the assault on Omaha Beach, in the Easy Red sector. But as we hinted above, something else was going on under the surface. Under the surface he was living through a tour of duty that centered around marching himself from that soft warm bed he was drafted out of to Hitlerâs front door. Our signal manâs tour of duty was turning out to be one endless march to get in the face of the enemyâ¦ up close, and personal. So that the enemy could be killed, and this chautauqua come to an end. - - - - - With the beach areas along the coast of France secured, our manâs tour of duty continuedâ¦ inland, east, towards Germany. Unknown to our Signaleer at the time, his tour of duty was about to take a turn for the worse, as the 56th Signal Battalion made its way toward the Ardennes. Of all of the steps and stages that the 56th went through enroute to face Hitler, the 1944-45 winter Ardennes campaign proved the most trying. The Ardennes was a densely forested area of Wallonia that covered portions of Belgium, France and Luxembourg, along what was then called the Western Front. As most readers know, the Germans mounted a surprise attack that caught the Allied forces completely off guard. This battle, known as the Battle of the Bulge, became the costliest battle in terms of US casualties during all of World War II. Yet while it proved costly to Uncle Sam, it hurt the Germans even more, as it depleted their war-making resources to the extent that the country was never able to recover. As a result, for Germany, the Battle of the Bulge became the final significant offensive operation of the war. The 56th Signal Battalion played a prime role in the Battle of the Bulge, and our Signaleerâs tour of duty took him right through the middle of it. The 56th arrived in the city of Eupen (pronounced OY-pen), Belgium, in October of 1944. Over the month preceding their arrival in Eupen, the unit had marched through Bastogne and Luxemburg, and was tired and ready for a rest upon arrival at Eupen. Part of the problem was the weather, which got colder with each passing day, sapping the menâs strength in the process. This being a war rather than a training exercise, supplies were hard to come by, as the supply lines rarely kept up with the advancing troops. From a practical standpoint, everything was in short supply from the gas needed to run the vehicles to clothing, food, and repair equipment, and so the idea of stopping for a bit to rest in Eupen made sense. For those unfamiliar, Eupen played a crucial role in the Battle of the Bulge, as it sat along the AmblÃ¨ve River, which in turn served to protect the Alliesâ northern flank. Unless it was held the Germans would have direct access to the Alliesâ flank, as well as both Spa and Verviers. Eupen also served as a necessary part of any supply line the Germans might require if they choose to attack any of these places. And to top all of this off, it was the locus of a bridge connecting Eupen to MalmÃ©dy, making it imperative that the Germans take both the town and the bridge, as they were both needed if the 1st SS Panzer Division was to mount a major armored thrust to dislodge the Americans and push them back. Because of this, taking control of Eupen early in any exercise to drive back the Americans was critical for the Germans. Upon their arrival in Eupen Companies A and B of the 56th were assigned a large, empty leather processing factory for their quarters. For nearly three months the units remained there, complaining about the smell of leather, but happily accepting the fact that the building was secure, closed and warm. From this location the 56th went about its task of providing signal links and an overall telephone based communication network to serve the units it supported. Sometime in the pre-dawn daylight hours of December 16, 1944, the unit was awakened with the dull thudding sound of enemy artillery shells leaving their tubes enroute to Eupen. A sound sequence composed of an initial thud, followed by an incoming whistle-cum-swishing sound, followed in turn by the crack of the exploding shell, artillery is one of the more memorable sounds of war a soldier will ever hear. For the men of the 56th Signal Battalion, the sounds they heard that morning were unmistakable. As the 56th roused itself for combat, the explosions drew nearer until they were in the back yard of the building. Amid the smoke and rubble of damaged vehicles, the unit was alerted and ordered to take up defensive positions. On the horizon, barely visible, could be seen German paratroopers dropping into the area. Some landed in the large open field to the side of the Tannery where the 56th was housed. With the confusion that ensued it was difficult to gather the unit for any sort of offensive action, and so Companies A and B were ordered to leave Eupen and retreat about 10 miles to the rear, to await further orders. As the battle unfolded wire communications throughout the Fifth Corps area began to suffer, with most damage coming from artillery, tanks rolling over ground laid wire, and trees falling in the process and dragging down the wires strung through them. A call to action was ordered, and the 56thâs men set up round-the-clock repair teams. Most men barely had enough time to catch a wink of sleep. Typical of ground combat during WWII, the constant activity of troop movement and the advancing and dodging of tanks and vehicles made it near impossible to lay wire where it was needed, never mind keep it functional as everything and everyone tramped over it. Add to this the wet, snowy weather, and even when the wires could be kept intact and isolated from the water, the telephone equipment itself broke down. Maintaining effective wire based communication proved almost hopeless, but was made all the worse along about the afternoon of the first day when enemy air support ramped up and dozens of daytime raids and attacks were made by low flying Messerschmitts. Air activity of fighter planes increased considerably, with loss and damage on both sides. While only a side show, along about this time two of the Signaleers of Company A managed to capture a parachuting enemy pilot from a damaged Messerschmitt, as he dropped into an open field near the unit. As the story goes, almost instantly another ME-109 roared overhead at only a few hundred feet, presumably to learn the fate of the fellow airman. Considering that it was only the day before when the men of the 56th learned of the massacre of captured American POWs at MalmÃ©dy, it was to be expected that some of the Allied troops on the ground aimed their 50 calibers in the direction of the parachuting pilot. As it was, he was not hit. Covered with oil and dirt he was escorted from the field and taken as a POWâ¦ fortunately for him by the Americans, who would likely give him much better POW treatment than those 80 that died at MalmÃ©dy.[1] - - - - - The Battle of the Bulge marked a turning point in the war against the Germans, as seasoned troops and active resistance tapered off over the next few months, with the fall of the country coming shortly thereafter in April. From Eupen the 56th moved on to Kassel, Germany. And as the Soviet Red Army nosed its way into Berlin on 16 April, 1945, the 56th found itself leaving a defeated and leveled Kassel for its next destination, somewhere near Liepzig. Since Eisenhower had decided to let the Soviets take the glory for the fall of Berlin, the U.S. units in the area served a different purpose. In various fashion they were fanned out to secure the surrounding countryside, take critical towns, airports and junction points that would put full stop to Germany's war effort, and bring the government that fostered this curse on the world to an end once and for all. The destination the 56th was headed towards was not made known to the men, but in usual fashion it all seemed to be well planned, timed, under control, and in a generally eastward direction, as said above, towards Liepzig. Then suddenly it all changed. The tour of duty that seemed on track for our Signaleer to find himself in Berlin was ordered to turn on a dime and head out in a new direction, to join up with Third Army forces, at which time they would then both turn sharply to the right and head southeast in the general direction of the Czech Republic. Unbeknownst to our Signaleer, this forced march southeast instead of east would prove to be one of the last major steps in his tour of duty, and perhaps the most important. As the 56th approached the city of Weimar, Germany, the countryside turned eerily quiet. Moving towards a spot just to the northeast of Weimar, in the center of a triangular area between the towns of Neiderzimmern, Ettersburg, and Gaberndorf, the unit came upon the concentration Camp at Buchenwald. At this point in our story we will segue to the words of the Signaleer whose real life story we have been using as background for this story: a US Army Signal Corps Signaleer known as Robert Howard Searl Sr., Technician 4th Class, a member of the 56th Signal Battalion, Company A. Technician Searl, in writing of his war experiences, reported that as they entered Buchenwald âIt was apparent that the German forces had hurriedly abandoned the enclosure and the restraining gates were open, and many of those forcibly retained at the camp were confused and milling in the roadways, heading in all directions. Most were beyond the ability of movement or willingness to travel and sat dazed by the roadside, with no realization of direction or purpose. Hardly recognizable as humans, most were dressed in the easily noticeable striped rags. âDirectly inside the enclosure were human stacks of gaunt and emaciated exposed naked bodies in horrible positions of death, awaiting the oven fire of final destruction. The profound smell of death prevailed the area. Too late for long awaited freedom or recovery for those piled as refuse, but the motionless mercy of death had ended their suffering. As we stared at this, our sacrifices and the price of war seemed justifiable and our purpose made clear. The feeling was in all of us that the end was near for enemy resistance. As we quickly left the area the forward troop progress was almost without interference or enemy contact, as we headed for Czechoslovakia." After Buchenwald, Signalman Searlâs tour of duty took him and the 56th on to Pilsen, Czechoslovakia, where for all practical purposes his tour of duty came to an end. Arriving after dark on May 6, 1945, the scene was one of triumph. By that time it was clear to the Germans that they had lost the war, and troops were surrendering by the hundreds to any US unit they could find. Clearly, they preferred to be taken as POWs by America than the thousands of Russians roaming the streets. For the men of the 56th Signal Battalion, it had been a long war. Most had endured 3 years away from home. A few days later, on May 8, the Second World War officially ended in Europe. All that was left was to get back home to that warm bed our Signalman had been drafted out of long, long ago. - - - - - Having tried to show what a tour of duty was in WWII, we can close the story here. Our point has been made. Unlike a tour of duty in Vietnam, Iraq, or Afghanistan, the tours of duty soldiers went through before the Korean War were unique in Americaâs history. In Technician Searlâs story above one can see what they were: they consisted of a long march, without deflection, departure, or break, whose purpose was to take Americaâs soldiers from their homes to the center of power of the enemy: Berlin. And once there to grind that enemy to dust and end once and for all the warring efforts that the enemy brought on the world. In Part III of this series we will look at how this kind of tour of duty has changed over the years, to the point that now wars are fought without need or regard to find, fix, kill, and end the enemy's capacity to govern his country. No longer is the objective to remove the enemy's military capacity to wage war, dismantle his government and remove its leaders, now it is only necessary to reduce his capacity to strike, while leaving yourself open for him to strike back at in the future, when he feels so inclined. For an analysis of what caused the structure and purpose of a tour of duty to change, and what this says about America's resolve to win the wars it fights, continue reading Part III in this series. Epilogue During his tour of duty US Army Signal Corps Technician Searl received the following medals and awards: Good Conduct Medal, American Defense Medal, American Campaign Medal, European-African-Middle East Medal, World War II Victory Medal, Army of Occupation Medal [Germany], Initial Assault Bronze Arrowhead Award, Army Meritorious Unit Award, ETO Battle Campaigns [Normandy - Northern France] [Rhineland - Ardennes/Alsace - Central Europe] . In July, 2015, former Tech Seargent 4th Class Searle sent an eMail to this Association in which he commented... "...a current resident of Wilmington, North Carolina, having recently moved to this location from Ocean City, Maryland. During the change of location process, I happened to run across a copy of an article from the OCS Association, written in June 2013 entitled âA Tour of Dutyâ written by one of your Association writers. It was a very interesting account based on my very own personal experiences as a âSignaleerâ member of the 56th Signal Battalion in WWII in Europe. The reference data was very well prepared and written and made very accurate depiction of data as reported from my many WWII experiences as I have posted on the Internet in the past, for all the world to read. The reporters other observations and comments were well done. I did want to pass along my appreciation for his work. A few days ago, to Re-read the story once again on this July 4th brought back many memories in addition to being the 70th Anniversary of my honorable discharge from the military on July 4, 1945. My final rank was Technician 4th and my period of service was over 4 years, with 36 months spent overseas from 1942 to 1945. I am 97 years of age. You may be interested in my contributions to the WWII related sites below. I have enjoyed your OCS publication . â Patrick Elie - France. My Text Dday WWII â Omaha Beach [Robert H. Searl] Pbase Photos or GOOGLE - âBob Searl WWII Photosâ WWII related Photos R.H. Searl â Frank Everards - Belgium WWII Veteran Story #46 R.H. Searl Falaise, France Aug 1944" Footnotes [1] The MalmÃ©dy massacre was a war crime in which 80 American prisoners of war were murdered by their German captors. The massacre was committed on December 17, 1944, by members of Kampfgruppe Peiper (part of the 1st SS Panzer Division), a German combat unit that played a major role in the Battle of the Bulge. - To return to your place in the text click here: Additional Sources Many of the photos in this article are courtesy of the private collections of men of the 56th Signal Battalion. The full collection can be seen at pbase.com. Few of the photos in the collection are listed as copyrighted. Credit for all reproductions here are extended to the individuals who took and shared these photos of the men of the 56th Signal Battalion, a historic and heroic Signal unit. Hooah! TOUR THE BATTLEFIELDS OF NORMANDY
2080	dbpedia	3	1	https://defenceindepth.co/2015/05/06/forgotten-battles-gorlice-tarnow-may-june-1915/	en	Forgotten Battles: Gorlice-Tarnow, May-June 1915	https://defenceindepth.c…v-_mackensen.jpg	https://defenceindepth.c…v-_mackensen.jpg	[ "https://defenceindepth.co/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/bundesarchiv_bild_183-r11105_kaiser_wilhelm_ii-_august_v-_mackensen.jpg?w=800&h=400&crop=1", "https://1.gravatar.com/avatar/419a93a64907000655e663964195da8cdb9b5e8b59c021befb6f8bd7ce030b57?s=70&d=identicon&r=G", "https://2.gravatar.com/avatar/86156900aeb4d2b5393a23bb28f62c9fe677a4f609b3c1a88b1b733e902a0fec?s=70&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/6c205ffb971e2bf8bef3b1b7652f2fbb872908e7f7f5c1bb8dac4ee465a0af86?s=70&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/6c205ffb971e2bf8bef3b1b7652f2fbb872908e7f7f5c1bb8dac4ee465a0af86?s=70&d=identicon&r=G", "https://0.gravatar.com/avatar/60be07ea703a7666bde2e4b286223e9665a0a1fcd38ac0ec6c02becede34b100?s=70&d=identicon&r=G", "https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png", "https://s2.wp.com/i/logo/wpcom-gray-white.png", "https://pixel.wp.com/b.gif?v=noscript" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Robert T. Foley" ]	2015-05-06T00:00:00	by Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY Undoubtedly, the year 1915 has been largely ignored, if not forgotten, by British historians of the First World War. In part, this is because the year was one of success for Central Powers and failure for the Entente. In the West, the ‘Iron Wall’ of the German army repelled numerous…	en	https://s1.wp.com/i/favicon.ico	Defence-In-Depth	https://defenceindepth.co/2015/05/06/forgotten-battles-gorlice-tarnow-may-june-1915/	by Dr ROBERT T. FOLEY Undoubtedly, the year 1915 has been largely ignored, if not forgotten, by British historians of the First World War. In part, this is because the year was one of success for Central Powers and failure for the Entente. In the West, the ‘Iron Wall’ of the German army repelled numerous major Franco-British offensives with minimal losses. In the Dardanelles, Turkish forces had warded off all attacks by British and French naval and land forces and were poised to inflict a stinging defeat on the Entente. In Mesopotamia, the Turks had stopped a British advance and laid siege to this force at Kut-al-Amara. It was on the Eastern Front in 1915, however, that the Central Powers had their greatest successes. With the exception of a recent book by Richard DiNardo and one of my earlier books, these victories by the Central Powers in the east have been almost completely overlooked by Anglophone historians. The great Austro-Hungarian-German victories began in early May 1915. Responding to increasingly desperate cries for assistance from the Austro-Hungarian High Command, which was facing an imminent collapse of its defensive front in the Carpathians, the German Chief of the General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, transferred eight divisions to the Eastern Front. These divisions were formed into a new army – the 11th – which was initially formed to carry out a breakthrough on the Western Front. This new army had been given Hans von Seeckt as its chief of staff. Seeckt had been chosen for this role, in part, because of his success in the limited battles of Vailly and Soissons in January 1915; Falkenhayn had hoped that Seeckt would use this experience to conduct a larger, war-winning breakthrough with the reserves the German army had now collected. Seeckt would oversee a large and successful breakthrough battle in 1915, but on the Eastern, not the Western Front. In late April, the Central Powers collected some sixteen divisions and considerable heavy artillery southeast of Krakow. The German 11th Army was to join the Austro-Hungarian 4th Army in an attack on the Russian 3rd Army near Gorlice-Tarnow. The Austro-German force would be commanded tactically by General August von Mackensen, the 11th Army’s commander, with the Austro-Hungarian High Command directing the overall operation. The goal of what would become ‘Army Group Mackensen’ was to punch a hole through the Russian lines and threaten the flank and rear of the Russian forces advancing through the Carpathian Mountains further south. The offensive began on 2 May and was successful beyond expectations. By 3 May, the 11th Army had captured 17,000 Russian prisoners. By 10 May, the Russian 3rd Army had retreated to the River San and had been ‘bled white’ in the words of its commander, General Radko Dmitriev; only 40,000 of its 250,000 men made it to the new defensive position. The Austro-German offensive did not stop on the San, however, but continued to punish the Russians. When the offensive was brought to a halt on 22 June, the Central Powers had advanced some 300 kilometers, had retaken Lvov, the capital of Austrian Galicia, and had inflicted enormous casualties on the Russian army; the 11th Army alone captured more than 250,000 Russian prisoners and 225 guns. The costs had been relatively light; the 11th Army suffered some 87,000 casualties in the offensive. The Gorlice-Tarnow offensive was important to the Central Powers for a range of reasons. Strategically, the offensive relieved the pressure on the threatened Austro-Hungarian defensive positions in the Carpathians. Had the Russians broken through this line, they would have been on the Hungarian Plains with little between them and the Hungarian capital Budapest. The heavy casualties suffered by the Russians also did serious damage to the Russian army as a fighting force. In a report on 6 June Capt. J.F. Nielson, a British liaison officer, described the Russian army as a ‘harmless mob’ as a result of the offensive. The weakened Russian army would suffer even more later in the summer. The battle also had important tactical implications for the Central Powers. The German army believed several factors were crucial for its successes. The first of these was surprise. The offensive was agreed by Falkenhayn and executed by the 11th Army in the space of only 20 days. German troops only began arriving on 17 April, with their deployment finished on 29 April. German troops did not move into attack positions until 1 May, and any German officer who went into the frontline before this time had to wear Austrian uniform. With such short timeframes, the Russian defenders had little time to identify German units opposing them. This alone helped ensure that when the attack came, the Russian would be surprised. Second, the attacking force of the Central Powers collected over 1,000 guns, which overwhelmed the Russian artillery. The attackers also eschewed a long preparatory bombardment. The Central Powers began ‘harassing fire’ on the evening of 1 May, but only delivered a four-hour bombardment as a prelude to the infantry assault on 2 May. This bombardment was intensive, however, and designed to stun the Russian defenders rather than destroy their defenses. Drawing on the experiences of Vailly and Soissons, the artillery was assigned targets most appropriate to gun types; howitzers and mortars concentrated their fire on Russian trenches and wire, while flat trajectory cannon destroyed Russian bunkers and hit concentration areas. The 11th Army also made use of Feuerwelle, or fire periods, which saw different intensities of fire followed up by observation. Third, the 11th Army’s attack orders stipulated that momentum of advance was to be kept at all times until the final objectives were reached. The Austro-German attacking units were deployed in depth, rather than breadth. Each unit was to draw upon its own reserves keep the momentum of the attack and was to drive forward regardless of progress by its neighbors. Mackensen and Seeckt expected these deep penetrations would be mutually supporting, as they would keep the Russians off balance. The Central Powers would return to these tactical concepts and put them to good use later in 1915. They also reinforced the lessons of the German limited offensives on the Western Front in late 1914 and early 1915. While German soldiers recognized clearly that the Russians were a far less competent enemy than the French or the British and that the operations situation was far different on the Western Front, the success of the offensive at Gorlice-Tarnow stood in stark contrast to the Entente failures on the Western Front and on Gallipoli. It helped convince German soldiers that their tactical methods were superior to their enemies, even on the Western Front. The tactics employed by the Germans at Gorlice-Tarnow and elsewhere on the Eastern Front in 1915 would influence Falkenhayn heavily in his concept for the offensive at Verdun in early 1916.
2080	dbpedia	3	62	http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/2021/09/cadornas-strategic-vision-take-vienna.html	en	Roads to the Great War: Cadorna's Strategic Vision: Take Vienna	https://blogger.googleus…adornaplan_0.jpg	https://blogger.googleus…adornaplan_0.jpg	[ "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKKqjY7prF2SiPphkeMfP6KaRFzLKegdIDPuwX5pLFFbHYms1CvX-5HtgXjlzwBylfcfUoo-9esR0EA8wfvuocSSseA-q3K_CAHEmuRmN59kEPog_9cUlWWkfrcJNWiR0pMo9J7bpwDds/s1600/Roads+Masthead_3_brick.jpg", "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7yl4wxc141mNn75a3loObtyQab1-FGvaOLfbD9gqanknXDPMQ6Jpri80Zoqddx7k8gRRb1kCTWP5eh8D8omV8DO0vyO9ojYu1w2Vifop6ENvkLgmK9S6WssS77dDG3RyeatdjS_wfA-c/s16000/roads_cadornaplan_0.jpg", "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBQoTo1Y-VWwNz-Ka1iwuwkTIzvxQXrJsOdKqcyj5HBo8f0msogIqXmu5YTBmdmPILTkXJ1pgv3zfKUGgK0bqNgzhZC6R3rbHcrbpJFUQ8fpZsGPb1fVO8zySxDAZN5a0wNCxkey1DA2E/s16000/roads_cadornaplan_2.jpg", "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjlzfz0FWcqrNQVS9Weai3chypOps0FglaVb5n6VLovcmD_A3fHsjqlem6Hf2XMMIJ7tunOovRrzo2Ywa8GB0Zb-E4ArdFz4gwjIJ8e6ikH-58ThHjQVhz6xsMJGSkmpiSPdluzTAO6NvM/s16000/roads_cadornaplan_1.jpg", "https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgGb7Uf9RhyphenhyphenKZZevC0joWi8TOurLW0io4FgF3Wnz6MSepa1WdWNboriOZKD3fxlH80LGLpQyuRaF0eOeZZEXMPKiJ8xygVj_t9p1GB3qXK0TroPE3ugvPHy8lb0SQFbX-gjbR6jzbPch9M/s16000/roads_cadornaplan_3.jpg", "http://www.blogger.com/img/blogger_logo_round_35.png", "http://www.blogger.com/img/blogger_logo_round_35.png", "http://www.worldwar1.com/tripwire/gif/btn_newsltr.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Marker in the Village of Corno di Rosazzo Where the First Shot of the War on the Italian Front Was Fired Holger Herwig in his work The First...	en	http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/favicon.ico		http://roadstothegreatwar-ww1.blogspot.com/2021/09/cadornas-strategic-vision-take-vienna.html	Marker in the Village of Corno di Rosazzo Where the First Shot of the War on the Italian Front Was Fired Holger Herwig in his work The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary first introduced me to Italian General Liugi Cardorna's mad victory plan that was the operational "theory" behind Italy's entry into the war. His objective was the capture of Vienna to compel the Dual Monarchy to make the territorial concessions the Italian leadership was seeking. Cadorna proposed a main attack from Friuli across the Isonzo River, a defensive posture around the Austrian Trentino salient, and secondary attacks in the direction of Tolblach and Carinthia. . . [T]he first battles would take place two or three days' march inside the Austrian frontier, to be followed within 45 days by a decisive battle on the Ljubljana plain, from where he would launch his final assault on Vienna. In April 1915, Cadorna repeated his assurance that he would be in Trieste and threatening the heart of the Austro-Hungarian Empire within a month of the outbreak of war. . . What the military historian John Gooch has called Cadorna's "amazing strategic vision of a march on Vienna" and "complete disregard of the realities of trench warfare" were seconded by Victor Emmanuel III's Order of the Day on 27 May 1915. I haven't thought much about this hare-brained scheme that utterly failed at the start since reading Herwig's book, but I recently came across a U.S. Army staff study of the war on the Italian Front. It has some interesting insights on Cadorna that I thought were worth sharing. General Luigi Cadorna Italy ended its neutrality by signing the Treaty of London on 26 April 1915. The treaty stipulated that Italy would share in war indemnities, pressure the Pope not to initiate peace moves, and start hostilities within one month. The Allies promised Italy war loans, and strange as it might seem, protection from Austrian attack. A small group of men working in secret had brought Italy to war. Their war aim of acquiring territory was clear, but they did not know how to achieve that aim, or even if it was militarily possible. Prime minister Salandra gave the job of translating the national aim and his policy of sacro egoismo, (sacred egoism) into a workable military strategy to General Luigi Cadorna. General Cadorna had started on this translation when he rewrote the war plans in December of 1914. Italy had always planned a defensive war against Austria, but would now wage an offensive one. It would be offensive because Cadorna felt Italy had to defeat Austria-Hungary decisively enough to persuade her to give up parts of her empire. Cadorna saw Vienna as the only objective significant enough to cause the Austrians to lose the will to fight. His plan was to strike toward Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, and once on the Ljubljana plain to turn north toward Vienna." He assumed that the Austrians would not be able to reinforce the defensible terrain along the line formed by the Julian and Carnic Alps because of concentric actions by allies, particularly Russia. Cadorna's fixation on the geographical point of Vienna, something that was probably never realistically attainable, effectively closed off Italy's other options to win the war. By focusing on the defeat of the Austrians in the field, Cadorna ignored the lessons of Italian history that clearly favored other options over a decisive defeat of Austria on the battlefield. Cadorna's Road to Vienna on Modern Highways Except for the Ethiopia fiasco, Italy had reached her aims without decisive victories, and even in spite of defeats on the battlefield. Whatever the Italian failings on the field of battle, her success in war settlements was outstanding. By fixing on an independent defeat of Austria on the battlefield Italy closed off what historically had been her most successful option; let your allies win it for you. . . The desire for a decisive Italian defeat of Austria meant that Italy would pursue an independent course during the war. She would neither receive or give much support in the way of troops or materiel [until late in the war after the Caporetto fiasco]. In spite of these prewar difficulties, when Italy entered the war Austria-Hungary had over ten months of experience in working with her German ally under wartime conditions. mere were still many problems, but Austria-Hungary would practice a form of coalition warfare while Italy operated independently of her allies. Italian operations would often be hampered by concentric and parallel allied operations that would not happen as expected. Italy declared war on 23 May1915 against Austria-Hungary, but not against Germany. Cadorna's plan depended on speed, surprise, and the front staying mobile. Unfortunately for the Italians, the declaration of war before mobilization was complete alerted the Austrians. Even though the Austrians had started to reinforce the Italian Front as early as April 1915, by May they still had only 100,000 troops to Italy's 875,000. To compensate for this disadvantage, Archduke Eugene, the Austrian commander for the Italian theater, used his geographical advantage of holding the higher terrain to compensate for his smaller number of troops. Cadorna's plan was to defend in the Trentino while attacking toward the Ljubljana plain, but the first Italian offensive action took place in the Trentino. The Italian First Army attacked the southern sector toward Adige while the Fourth Army attacked toward Brenta in the Southeast. The Italian soldiers willingly pressed the attacks but were hampered by ineffective artillery fire and general ineptness. The Austrians watched, undoubtedly with amusement, as brass bands advanced with the attacker. The Austrians fell back to their fortified positions and held. Try as they might, the Italians could not dislodge them. While the First and Fourth Armies were experiencing the difficulties of fighting an uphill battle in the Trentino, the Italian Second and Third Armies moved toward the Julian Alps. For the first two to three days their advances were unopposed, but their slow movement gave the Austrians time to reinforce the front with forces from the Serbian and Russian fronts. The Austrian forces fell back from an indefensible line along the Judrio River to an excellent defensive line along the Isonzo. Italian attempts to force a bridgehead at Gorizia failed, setting the stage for a static front and attrition warfare. Terrain Along the Isonzo (10th Battle of the Isonzo Shown) The Isonzo front stretched along incredibly difficult terrain. Peaks towered 600 meters over the valley floors. The eastern end of the line was anchored on the sea. The western end of the line rested in mountainous terrain. Cadorna's plan did not anticipate a static front along this line, primarily because he counted on Allied action to prevent the Austrians from reinforcing the front quickly enough to prevent a breakout onto the Ljubljana plain; this did not happen. Russia was unable to launch simultaneous offensive operations because it was tied down by the Central Powers' Gorlice-Tarnow offensive. Serbia could have done something but literally let the Austrian troops march under her guns on their way to the Isonzo front. Another reason the plan failed was the slow-motion advance of the Italian corps commanders. The slow advances let the Austrians seize key positions that the Italians should have taken without loss."' Cadorna's initial plan failed, and unfortunately for 600,000 sons of Italy who would lose their lives in the next three-and-a-half years, he showed no flexibility in seeking alternative means for victory. The Italians and Austro-Hungarians were faced off along the Isonzo, and the stage was set for some or the worst attrition warfare of the war.
2080	dbpedia	2	79	https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/building/page/united-states-army-36th-infantry-division-lone-star	en	United States Army 36th Infantry Division (Lone Star)	https://www.cityofgroveo…pg?itok=pwbQ6PEL		[ "https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/sites/all/themes/aha_compass/logo.png", "https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/sites/default/files/styles/full_node_primary_extra_wide/public/imageattachments/building/page/16491/36th_infantry_1a.jpg?itok=pwbQ6PEL", "https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/sites/default/files/styles/full_node_additional/public/imageattachments/building/page/16491/36th_infantry.jpg?itok=HHBx2n68", "https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/sites/default/files/styles/full_node_additional/public/imageattachments/building/page/16491/36th_infantry_division.jpg?itok=Gv8YOz_x", "https://www.cityofgroveok.gov/sites/all/modules/print/icons/print_icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null	U. S. ARMY 36TH INFANTRY (LONE STAR DIVISION) - The 36th Infantry Division ("Arrowhead", also known as the "Panther Division" or "Lone Star Division,") is an infantry division of the United States Army, part of the Texas Army National Guard. It was organized at the (former) Camp Bowie (Fort Worth), Texas, July 18, 1917, from units of the Texas and Oklahoma National Guard during World War I. It was activated for service for World War II on November 25, 1940, and was sent to the European Theater of Operations in April 1943, and returned to the Texas Army National Guard in December 1945. A unit of the 36th Infantry, the 2nd Battalion, 131st Field Artillery, was detached and sent to the Pacific just before the outbreak of war in late 1941. Captured by the Japanese and forced into slave labor, its fate was unknown for most of the rest of World War II, resulting in the name of The Lost Battalion. The 36th Infantry Division was reconstituted in a May 2004 reorganization of the 49th Armored Division. The unit was sent to Europe during WWI in July 1918 and conducted major operations in the Meuse-Argonne Offensive. On 9–10 October, the unit participated in heavy combat near the village of St. Etienne. Following this victory, which included the capture of several hundred men and officers of the German Army, as well as artillery, the unit launched an assault near an area known as "Forest Farm." During World War I, the division suffered 2,584 casualties, 466 killed in action and 2,118 wounded in action. The unit was inactivated in June 1919. The 36th was called up again for active federal service on November 25, 1940, during World War II (although the United States was neutral at this stage), at San Antonio, Texas, departing for its mobilization station at Camp Bowie, Texas on December 14, 1940. The division first saw action, in the Italian Campaign, on September 9, 1943, when it landed by sea at Paestum and fought in the Battle of Salerno against intense German opposition. The Germans launched numerous fierce counterattacks on September 12–14, but the 36th, which at one stage during the battle was holding a 35-mile sector of the front (six times more than a full-strength infantry division was able to hold), repulsed them with the aid of air support and naval gunfire, and, with the help of paratroopers of the 504th Parachute Infantry Regiment, advanced slowly, securing the area from Agropoli to Altavilla. After sustaining over 4,000 casualties in its first major action, the division spent the next few weeks behind the lines, where it remained in the Fifth Army reserve, absorbing replacements and training for future combat operations. Despite the heavy losses, the 36th Division was considered to have fought well, and four men were awarded the Medal of Honor. The 36th Division returned to combat in mid-November, after six weeks of rest. It captured Mount Maggiore, Mount Lungo, and the village of San Pietro despite strong enemy positions and severe winter weather. This grueling campaign against the Bernhardt Line was marked by futile attempts to establish a secure bridgehead across the Gari River, erroneously identified as the Rapido on January 1, 1944, to February 8. The division attacked across the Gari River on January 20 but was harshly repulsed by the 15th Panzer Grenadier Division, and the 141st and 143rd Infantry Regiments were virtually destroyed and the attack was stopped on January 22. In 48 hours the 36th Division had sustained 1,681 casualties, 143 of them killed, 663 wounded, and 875 missing, out of almost 6,000 men who took part. Unit awards Presidential Unit Citation: 12. Personal awards Medal of Honor: 14 Distinguished Service Crosses: 80 Distinguished Service Medals: 2 Silver Stars: 2,354 Legion of Merit Medals: 49 Soldier's Medals: 77 Bronze Star Medals: 5,407 Air Medals: 88 WWII Casualties Total battle casualties: 19,466 Killed in action: 3,131 Wounded in action: 13,191 Missing in action: 494 Prisoner of war: 2,650 In 2005 approximately 100 soldiers of the 36th Infantry Division deployed to Bosnia for Enduring Mission 3 which was a continuation from previous IFOR and SFOR missions. When Task Force Strike left Eagle Base in Tuzla late 2006, it marked the end of an American military maneuver presence in Bosnia which had existed for almost a decade after the Dayton Accords. In 2005, over three thousand troops from the 56th BCT, 36th ID deployed to Iraq as part of the largest deployment of Texas troops since World War II.
2080	dbpedia	2	4	https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U51496	en	56th Australian Infantry Battalion	https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-mediaRELAWM13307.121	https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-mediaRELAWM13307.121	[ "https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RELAWM13307.121/screen/3828107.JPG", "https://s3-ap-southeast-2.amazonaws.com/awm-media/collection/RELAWM13307.121/screen/3828107.JPG", "https://www.awm.gov.au/sites/default/files/styles/homepage_fragments/public/21941/summaryimage/warchest.jpg?h=575a3de2&itok=4fhxYIjh", "https://www.awm.gov.au/sites/default/files/styles/homepage_fragments/public/32151/summaryimage/transcribe-promo_0.jpg?h=827069f2&itok=qgzJ6yWB", "https://www.awm.gov.au/sites/default/files/styles/homepage_fragments/public/32456/summaryimage/pop_header-image_01.png?h=b2edd669&itok=nix9okQt", "https://www.awm.gov.au/sites/default/files/styles/homepage_fragments/public/36999/summaryimage/family.jpeg?h=10d202d3&itok=duq91zd8", "https://www.awm.gov.au/themes/awm/images/disclaimerFooter.jpg", "https://www.awm.gov.au/themes/awm/images/staticmap.jpg", "https://www.awm.gov.au/themes/awm/images/building.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/themes/awm/favicon.ico		https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/U51496	The 56th Battalion was raised in Egypt on 14 February 1916 as part of the "doubling" of the AIF. Half of its recruits were Gallipoli veterans from the 4th Battalion, and the other half, fresh reinforcements from Australia. Reflecting the composition of the 4th, the 56th was predominantly composed of men from New South Wales. The battalion became part of the 14th Brigade of the 5th Australian Division. Arriving in France on 30 June 1916, the battalion entered the frontline trenches for the first time on 12 July and fought its first major battle at Fromelles a week later. The battle was a disaster, resulting in heavy casualties across the division. Despite these losses the 5th Division continued to man the front in the Fromelles sector for a further two months. After a freezing winter manning trenches in the Somme Valley, in early 1917 the 56th Battalion participated in the advance that followed the German retreat to the Hindenburg Line. It was spared the assault but did, however, defend gains made during the second battle of Bullecourt. Later in the year, the AIF's focus of operations switched to the Ypres sector in Belgium. The 56th's major battle here was at Polygon Wood on 26 September. With the collapse of Russia in October 1917, a major German offensive on the Western Front was expected in early 1918. This came in late March and the 5th Division moved to defend the sector around Corbie. The 14th Brigade, took up positions to the north of Villers-Bretonneux and held these even when the village fell, threatening their flanks. Once the German offensive had been defeated, the Allies launched their own offensive in August 1918. The 14th Brigade did not play a major role in these operations until late in the month, but its actions were critical to the capture of Peronne, which fell on 2 September. The 56th fought its last major battle of the war, St Quentin Canal, between 29 September and 2 October 1918. It was resting out of the line when the Armistice was declared on 11 November. Soon after, members of the battalion began to be returned to Australia for discharge. It ceased to exist as a separate entity on 10 April 1919, when the remnants of all of the 14th Brigade's battalions were merged into a single unit.
2080	dbpedia	0	17	https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/events/	en	The Western Front Association	https://www.westernfront…avicon-32x32.png	https://www.westernfront…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/Assets/img/loader.svg", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/Assets/img/ECMC.gif", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/Assets/img/JCB.gif", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/Assets/img/MAESTRO.gif", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/Assets/img/VISA.gif", "https://www.paypal.com/en_GB/i/scr/pixel.gif", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/assets/img/logo-second.png", "https://www.paypal.com/en_GB/i/scr/pixel.gif", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/olenxjvt/highland-soldier_reading.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133691976770970000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/hcpj4ze5/cwgc.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133668948189470000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/fg3nqfdf/screenshot-2024-08-05-at-09-48-50.png?center=0.35521266783040661,0.466173018014982&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133673252890600000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/38483/screenshot-2024-06-12-at-082933.png?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133626546084200000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/z3adhble/kevin-jepson-tank-1.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133686984666800000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/r24fv0hx/big-gun-going-in-cropped.png?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133648994800800000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/37965/bundesarchiv_bild_183-r29407-_westfront-_stellungskrieg.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133543732153000000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/38027/montgomery_first_world_war_v2.jpg?center=0.23373775806932956,0.53130934355544379&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133685346955270000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/38301/cwgc_story-2.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133594870978670000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/37323/spotlight_composers_in_the_great_war.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133475441613630000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/x14pj3sp/birks.jpeg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133656969633000000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/37375/800px-general_officers_of_world_war_i_by_john_singer_sargent.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133478303613600000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/38527/poppy-of-honour-1.png?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133633876545800000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/37422/africa.jpg?center=0.21956521739130436,0.49825783972125437&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133519411615130000", "https://www.westernfrontassociation.com/media/38490/sep-24.jpg?anchor=center&mode=crop&width=360&height=240&rnd=133627024262830000", "https://www.paypal.com/en_GB/i/scr/pixel.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/Assets/favicon-32x32.png		null	The Highland Soldier in the Great War - a talk by Tom Greenshields Scotland (South) Tom Greenshields studied at Oxford and Durham Universities. He work... Event Details Commonwealth War Graves Commission Wiltshire To start our September 2024-May 2025 season we welcome a speaker fr... Event Details 'The Battle of Nonne Bosschen 11 November 1914' with Vern Littley Lancashire (North) Vern' Littley's talk is about the Battle of Nonne Bosschen, and in... Event Details ‘Injustice at the Hohenzollern Redoubt – Loos 1915' with David Parmee Northumberland This presentation wil be a comparison of 9th Scottish and 28th Divi... Event Details "Project Fast Dog" - by Kevin Jepson Chesterfield In his presentation, Kevin will explain how he is now involved in... Event Details ‘Artillery Conquers, Infantry Occupies: British Artillery at the 3rd Bat... Norfolk Simon Shephard's talk will examine the impact of artillery on the l... Event Details ‘The perceived failure of Gough’s 5th Army against the German Spring Off... Cambridgeshire ‘The perceived failure of Gough’s 5th Army against the German Sprin... 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2080	dbpedia	0	40	https://dokumen.pub/the-first-world-war-the-war-to-end-all-wars-1782002804.html	en	The First World War: The War to End All Wars 1782002804	https://dokumen.pub/img/…s-1782002804.jpg	https://dokumen.pub/img/…s-1782002804.jpg	[ "https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-war-to-end-all-wars-the-american-military-experience-in-world-war-i.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/world-war-i-the-war-to-end-all-wars-1nbsped-9781627128636-9781627128612.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-war-to-end-all-wars-the-american-military-experience-in-world-war-i-0813120969-0813109558-9780813109558-9780813120966-9780813146430-0813146437-9780813146447-0813146445.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/anzac-sons-the-story-of-five-brothers-in-the-war-to-end-all-wars-illustrated-1922132799-9781922132796.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/world-war-i-and-the-end-of-the-ottomans-from-the-balkan-wars-to-the-armenian-genocide-9780755609093-9781784532468.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-first-world-war-and-the-end-of-the-habsburg-monarchy-1914-1918-9783205793656-9783205795889.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-first-world-oil-war-1487500734-9781487500733.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-first-world-war-retold-9781782819042.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/uniforms-first-world-war.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-first-world-oil-war-9781487511708.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/img/200x200/the-first-world-war-the-war-to-end-all-wars-1782002804.jpg", "https://dokumen.pub/dokumenpub/assets/img/dokumenpub_logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	...	en	https://dokumen.pub/doku…e-icon-57x57.png	dokumen.pub	https://dokumen.pub/the-first-world-war-the-war-to-end-all-wars-1782002804.html	Citation preview THE FIRST WORLD WAR THE WAR TO END ALL WARS Foreword by Hew Strachan Peter Simkins, Geoffrey Jukes & Michael Hickey THE FIRST WORLD WAR THE WAR TO END ALL WARS Peter Simkins, Geoffrey Jukes and Michael Hickey Foreword by Hew Strachan CONTENTS Foreword 7 Introduction 10 Chronology 15 Chapter I: The Western Front 1914–1916 Background to war: The road to war 30 Warring sides: The opposing armies 35 Outbreak: Countdown to war 42 The fighting: War on the Western Front 1914–1916 45 Portrait of a soldier: Private Archie Surfleet 101 The world around war: The home fronts 1914–1916 104 Portrait of a civilian: Winnifred Adair Roberts 108 How the period ended: No end in sight 110 Chapter 2: The Western Front 1917–1918 Background to war: Strategic choices for 1917 114 The fighting: War on the Western Front 1917–1918 119 Portrait of a soldier: Private Frederick ‘Fen’ Noakes 181 The world around war: The home fronts 1917–1918 184 Portrait of a civilian: Caroline Webb 189 How the war on the Western Front ended: The final month 190 Chapter 3: The Eastern Front 1914–1918 Background to war: Russian ambitions 196 Warring sides: Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary 198 The fighting: War on the Eastern Front 1914–1918 207 Portrait of a soldier: A trooper, an ensign and a sergeant 252 The world around war: The last days of Tsarist Russia 259 Portrait of a civilian: ‘Living on cereals and porridge’ 264 How the war on the Eastern Front ended: The Bolsheviks seize power 267 Chapter 4: The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 Background to war: The decline of the Ottoman Empire 276 Warring sides: The opposing armies 283 The fighting: War on the Mediterranean Front 1914–1923 289 Portrait of a soldier: Cecil, Harold and Noel Wright 328 The world around war: The loose ends of war 334 Portrait of a civilian: The village of Christleton 339 How the war on the Mediterranean Front ended: End of the tragedy 344 Conclusion and consequences: Aftermaths 346 Bibliography 352 Index 354 FOREWORD By Professor Hew Strachan The First World War was fought on many fronts intensively and simultaneously. In this respect it bears direct comparison with the Second World War. In the Second World War, the relationship between fronts, and the co-ordination of their efforts, would be called grand strategy. But this was not a phrase known or used in 1914–1918. Most of the campaigns described in this volume were self-contained in their origins and even in their conduct. They represented national efforts made in pursuit of national goals. In this respect the First World War became a world war because it conflated wars that had lives and directions of their own. It began in the Balkans. As such it was the third Balkan war fought in rapid succession since 1912, and in most respects the interests of the principal Balkan states in the war never ranged beyond the Balkan peninsula. Serbia, Bulgaria and Romania all sought local objectives. The exception was the most reluctant of the Balkan belligerents, Greece, which had eyes on territory in Asia Minor. But that conflict – the one fought over the Ottoman Empire – makes the same point: it too began before 1914 and it did not end in 1918. In fact its conclusion was reached with the establishment of modern Turkey in 1923. Only two powers, one on each side, fully confronted the fact that they were fighting a multi-front war. Britain was of Europe but not in it; moreover it had sprawling and vulnerable global interests. These included India and a network of colonial bases between Delhi and London. Their sizeable Muslim populations were intimately affected by the fate of Islam’s Holy Cities, which lay within the Ottoman Empire. The pursuit of grand strategy therefore found its most coherent form in the debates of the British cabinet as it weighed the priorities of competing commitments. These went to the most basic issues of war and peace. Should Britain introduce conscription in order to raise a mass army? Should it not concentrate on what it could do best, providing the arms and money for other powers on the European mainland to fight? The resulting discussions were frequently acrimonious, and after the 7 THE FIRST WORLD WAR war the memoirs of the participants flung accusations that made ‘easterners’ and ‘westerners’, ‘frocks’ and ‘brasshats’ terms of abuse rather than precise descriptions. In reality the categories were never that neat, and the vigour with which the various options were canvassed bore testimony to the strength, not the weakness, of democracies in effective decision-making. Germany was more genuinely divided between ‘easterners’ and ‘westerners’, but here the casualty was strategy itself. It stood at the physical heart of Europe, and it was the mainstay of the Central Powers’ alliance. Its armies could go east or west with comparable facility, but it never found a consistent policy with which to determine their deployment. Moreover, as Peter Simkins makes clear in his contribution to this volume, by 1918 Germany’s most important voice in the war’s direction, Erich Ludendorff, had lost his way. By then its allies were critically dependent on Berlin not only for weapons and money, but also for military advice and leadership. Germany could not stretch its resources that far. The First World War may in some respects have begun before 1914 and continued after 1918, but this does not mean that fighting was continuous in this period, however defined. Even in the middle of the war two fronts enjoyed periods of comparative quiet. Both fall within the purview of Michael Hickey’s section of this book. In the autumn of 1915 Serbia, the country for whose defence the Entente powers of Russia, France and Britain had – at least nominally – gone to war, was overrun. Confronted by Austria-Hungary and Germany from the north and Bulgaria from the east, its army fell back through Albania to the Adriatic Sea. From here it was evacuated via Corfu to Thessalonika. Throughout 1916, 1917, and much of 1918, the Macedonian front was quiet enough for the British troops there to be known as ‘the gardeners of Salonika’. Then in mid-September 1918 it roared into life, and the Allied forces, led by the Serbs, knocked Bulgaria out of the war and threatened what Churchill saw as the soft underbelly of Europe. Six months after the collapse of Serbia, in April 1916, a British division, besieged at Kut-el-Amara on the River Tigris in Mesopotamia, surrendered to the Turks. Here too the front went quiet. The British did not resume their advance on Baghdad until the following winter, taking the city on 11 March 1917. On the Turks’ other southern front, in greater Syria, there were similar pauses, the product not only of different priorities but also of the weather and of supply problems. Serbia, Macedonia, Mesopotamia and Palestine are all treated here as part of the Mediterranean theatre. And so they were for a power like Britain that waged economic war through its mastery of the world’s oceans and used the sea to project its forces overseas. But that was not how it seemed to Turkey. It had one front, in the Caucasus, which determined the forces 8 FOREWORD available for its other fronts, including in 1915 Gallipoli. However, here the Caucasus is treated by Geoffrey Jukes as part of the Eastern Front. That was precisely the context into which it fitted for Germany: a Turkish thrust into Georgia and Azerbaijan could draw Russian troops away from the Eastern Front. The latter ran from the Baltic states in the north, through Poland, to Galicia in the south. When Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente in 1916, the Eastern Front extended yet further, as Russia found to its cost. Romania managed to divert German and Austro-Hungarian troops from Russia, but then required Russia to send troops to help it. Geoffrey Jukes concludes that by the winter of 1916–1917 the defence of Romania had become the principal preoccupation of Stavka, the Russian high command. The message here is that no one theatre of war could in reality be treated in isolation from its neighbour. Romania was a Balkan power; the fighting in Serbia had implications for Russia; the frontiers of both Germany and Austria-Hungary straddled the compartments into which this book is logically divided. Much of Vienna’s war effort was directed against Italy, and so undermined its conduct of the war against Russia. But when in October 1917 it achieved one of the most spectacular victories of the war, at Caporetto on the River Isonzo, the response of Italy’s allies had repercussions for the war in the west, not the east. French and British divisions were despatched to Italy, and the Supreme War Council was created to coordinate the Allies’ efforts – a process which would culminate with the appointment of Ferdinand Foch as Allied Supreme Commander in March 1918. Peter Simkins acknowledges this interdependence, but still argues that the Western Front was the heart of the war. The fact that others agree with him is recognised by his being allowed twice as much space to discuss a smaller theatre of war (in geographical terms) as is each of his fellow contributors. And he is probably right. Germany was the mainstay of the Central Powers, and however many divisions they sent to other fronts, the total never exceeded that on the Western Front. Moreover, for Britain too the Western Front was an irreducible minimum, for two sensible strategic reasons. First, it had entered the war to secure the neutrality of Belgium. It could not afford to have an over-mighty continental power threatening its principal sea-lanes and imperial communications. Secondly, its chief ally in this endeavour was France. France had been invaded. The need to drive the Boche from its homeland, to recover its industries, to restore its frontiers and to liberate its peoples gave a dynamism and intensity to the Western Front probably unequalled elsewhere. There were no long pauses here, and when armistice came it meant victory for one side and defeat for the other. Hew Strachan 9 INTRODUCTION By Professor Robert O’Neill The focus of our authors moves from the origins of the war to the battles of the Western Front, then to the Eastern Front including the Russian Revolution, and finally to the war across the Mediterranean from Italy and the Balkans to the Dardanelles, Sinai, Palestine and Mesopotamia. The First World War challenged political and military leaders in a way in which no other conflict had since the Napoleonic Wars of a century earlier. It was the first truly global conflict among several major powers, ranging across Europe, Africa, the Middle East and East Asia, and hence over the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. Of course the principal instigators, Germany and Austria-Hungary, did not intend the war to be anything other than a European conflict, with later consequences for the wider world. But in threatening the interests of Great Britain in August 1914, the Central Powers brought into immediate play not only the full resources of the British Empire, but also those of Britain’s East Asian ally, Japan. Only one hour after hostilities had begun for Britain, the Royal Australian Navy was firing on and capturing the first of 24 German ships seized in Australian waters. On 23 August Japan declared war on Germany and began to eliminate the German presence in China and the northern Pacific. The German colonial empire in Africa soon became the theatre for a protracted struggle. The Ottoman Empire, despite its strong naval links with Britain, chose to side with the Central Powers, whose armies the Turks rated the more highly. For Britain, whose navy was converting from coal to oil as its principal fuel, control of the Persian Gulf region at the south-eastern end of the Ottoman Empire was vital and this need set a wider dimension to the conflict. The fact that France’s principal ally, Russia, shared a border with the Ottoman Empire meant that soon the armies of both Russia and Turkey were engaged in and around the Caucasus. Thus the direct clashes of the German and French armies in Western Europe, 10 INTRODUCTION and of the German, Austrian and Russian armies in Eastern Europe, while being potentially of decisive importance, have to be understood as two campaigns in a global engagement. Because success eluded the Central Powers on these two key European fronts, the resources of the world beyond Europe became increasingly important in inclining the balance of force in Europe in favour of Britain, France, Russia and their allies. The opening of the war did not directly touch the United States, and the US Government attempted to remain aloof from what it saw as a war between European powers. But American commerce needed the freedom of the seas and from 1915 this liberty came into jeopardy. Also the balance of American interests made its technological and industrial resources more readily available to Britain and France than to Germany. It was only a matter of time before the increasingly hard-pressed Germans were to attack American shipping and draw the United States into the war on their opponents’ side. By 1914 the technological revolution in armaments, and hence in tactics and strategy, had reached the point at which the total resources of the belligerent powers became essential elements in the conflict. Human resources in Europe soon became fully stretched. Political leaders, where they were wise, paid heed to the needs, aspirations and opinions of their citizens and subjects. Societies which had moved towards becoming representative democracies had more effective ways of bearing the strains of the conflict than had the more autocratic structures of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Britain and France endured the war much more cohesively than did the other four, all of whose empires were to collapse either during the war or as immediate consequences of it. When Russia was plunged into revolution in 1917, it withdrew from the war and virtually allowed the Central Powers to command resources and territory from the Baltic to Ukraine. The German high command drew fresh hope for a decisive victory in Western Europe in 1918. While Lenin consolidated his authority in the Russian heartland, General Ludendorff moved forces to the west for his great gamble, Operation Michael. But the strain of war was telling on every German family and when Michael failed, a crisis of morale at home and in the trenches set a limit on what German soldiers, workers and women were prepared to tolerate. Acceptance of defeat in 1918 brought with it the end of the German monarchy and initiated the experiment in democracy that we now call the Weimar era, which in turn was to collapse under the impact of Nazism. The role of women was extended into new domains by the pressures of war. They played an increasing part in industrial production. Their responsibilities as carers for families and homes became heavier under 11 THE FIRST WORLD WAR NORWAY Central Powers The Allies Neutral countries SWEDEN St Petersburg (Petrograd) BALTIC SEA DENMARK NORTH SEA HO Rhin e BE LG IUM RUSSIA tula Vis L LA ND GREAT BRITAIN GERMANY 0 Dn iep nube Da AUSTRIA-HUNGARY SWITZERLAND DITERRAN ME E TUNISIA ALGERIA (Fr) The opposing sides, 1914–1918. MONTENEGRO IA ALB A N SARDINIA (It) SPAIN IA SERB (1915) CORSICA (Fr) (1916) PORTUGAL SP I A N S E ROMANIA ITALY 12 500 km 0 er CA FRANCE ATLANTIC OCEAN 250 miles (Fr) Danube(1916) BULGARIA (1915) O T T O M A N ( GREECE (1917) A N Malta S E A A BLACK SEA 1 9 1 4 E M P ) CRETE CYPRUS (Br) IR PERSIA E the impact of war-induced shortages, the absence of their men and the burden of bereavement. Their demands for political power through having the right to vote could no longer be resisted by those democracies that had refused it in the face of the Suffragette movement of the pre-war years. While women in even the most advanced democracies did not gain equality with men in the sense that we now understand the term, the First World War was a powerful catalyst of the social change which was to lead to an era in which women now share the highest political (but not military) offices with men. The period of the First World War was one of the most fruitful in terms of technological development and application. Aviation, developed only just before the war, became a major asset for the belligerents. Tens of thousands of aircraft were produced by the major powers. Strategic bombing began and civilians learned to recognise warning alarms and the ‘all clear’ signal. Chemical warfare was introduced to the battlefield in a major way. The submarine became a potent threat to the mercantile and naval shipping of the INTRODUCTION powers that controlled the surface of the sea. The range and destructive power of artillery increased immensely. The development of radio communications allowed senior commanders to control their forces directly and immediately over distances unimagined before, from the continental theatres of action in Europe to the oceans of the world. The firepower of the machine gun and the now more accurately made rifle increased the defensive capabilities of infantry in trenches. The challenge to the feasibility of attacking such defences forced military leaders to develop new tactics and new ways of devolving initiative to front-line commanders when in action. It took all too long before these new approaches were developed and tested to the point at which they began husbanding the lives of the hapless infantry who had to make attacks across open ground. Both sides proved adept in inventing new methods of combat, so lengthening the war and adding to its huge costs in human life and resources. But finally the weight of Allied numbers and firepower eroded the capacity of the armies of the Central Powers to hold their ground, and their collapse followed shortly. The length and heavy human toll of the war inclined both mass opinion and practically minded politicians towards placing a ban on the offensive use of military power and requiring nations to settle matters in dispute by negotiation or arbitration. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States took the lead in drawing up the Covenant of an association to achieve these ends: the League of Nations. Although it was to fail and be discarded in the 1930s, the League did much good work in the 1920s and provided many lessons, positive and negative, which influenced the foundation and shaping of its successor, the United Nations. The scope of this conflict, the new developments it fostered and its costs and consequences have made the First World War one of the most rewarding passages in human history for study and contemplation. This study of that war is brought to you by three authors who know their fields well, have studied and written about them with distinction over many years, and most importantly have interesting and important new things to say about their respective topics. Peter Simkins, formerly Senior Historian at the Imperial War Museum, London, has pioneered new approaches to the history of events on the Western Front, especially the ingenuity and intelligence of the men involved, leavened by their sense of humour and the capacity to care for their comrades. Geoffrey Jukes, a modern Russian historian and linguist, was a Senior Fellow in International Relations at the Australian National University, Canberra. He has studied his subject deeply, walked the key battlefields and visited Russia many times to draw on and appraise the work of its scholars. Michael Hickey has seen war as a soldier in Korea, in East Africa, at Suez and in Aden in the 1950s and 60s. His books include a major study of the Dardanelles Campaign. He has also walked many a mile over the 13 THE FIRST WORLD WAR battlefields of Europe and the Middle East, testing his ideas in terms of what the war was like for the men on the ground there in 1914–1918. This book is but an introduction to a vast and fascinating topic. Knowledge of the problems men and women faced during the First World War, and of the solutions they developed, from the tank to the League of Nations, is a good foundation for the understanding of international events, especially wars, in the 21st century and how their destructive effects might be avoided or minimised. 14 CHRONOLOGY 1908 Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina 1912–1913 Balkan Wars Loss of Turkish North African provinces to Italy 1914 28 June Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife at Sarajevo 5/6 July Germany gives Austria-Hungary blank cheque of support against Serbia 23 July Austro-Hungary issues ultimatum to Serbia 25 July Serbia mobilises 26 July Austro-Hungarian mobilises against Serbia; Russia enters ‘period preparatory to war’ 28 July Austrian Emperor Franz Josef signs declaration of war against Serbia 29 July Germany demands immediate cessation of Russian mobilisation preparations 30 July Russia decrees full mobilisation in support of Serbia 31 July Russian mobilisation begins; Germany 15 THE FIRST WORLD WAR proclaims ‘threatening danger of war’ and issues ultimatum to Russia 16 1 August Germany declares war on Russia and orders general mobilisation; France orders general mobilisation 2 August Germany issues ultimatum to Belgium demanding right of passage through its territory; German troops invade Luxembourg 3 August Germany declares war on France; Germany invades Belgium; Turkey declares ‘armed neutrality’; Italy declares neutrality 4 August Britain declares war on Germany; United States declares neutrality 5 August France asks Russia to attack Germany; Montenegro declares war on Austria 6 August Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia; Serbia declares war on Germany; French troops move into Upper Alsace 7 August Germany captures citadel at Liège 10 August France declares war on Austria-Hungary 12 August Austria-Hungary invades Serbia; Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary 12–13 August Russia invades East Prussia 14 August Battle of the Frontiers begins 17 August Battle of Stallupönen 20 August Battle of Gumbinnen 23 August Battle of Mons; British Expeditionary Force begins retreat 26 August Battle of Le Cateau 26 August–2 September Battle of Komarów 27–31 August Battle of Tannenberg 31 August Greece formally declares neutrality CHRONOLOGY 3 September Battle of Lemberg 5–10 September Battle of the Marne 7–17 September Battle of the Masurian Lakes 11 September Battle of Grodek 13–27 September Battle of the Aisne 14 September Falkenhayn takes over control of German operations from Moltke 17 September ‘Race to the sea’ begins 1 October Turkey closes Dardanelles 10 October Antwerp falls to Germany 18–30 October Battle of the Yser 19–30 October First battle of Warsaw 20 October–22 November First Battle of Ypres 1 November Turkey declares war on Anglo-French Entente 2 November Russia and Serbia declare war on Turkey 3 November Falkenhayn succeeds Moltke as Chief of the German General Staff 5 November Britain and France declare war on Turkey 7–17 November Second battle of Warsaw 11 November Ottoman Sultan, as Caliph of Islam, proclaims jihad against Britain and France 11–12 November Battle of Wloclawek 13–16 November Battle of Kutno 19–25 November Battle of Lódz 3–12 December Battle of Limanowa-Lapanów 8 December Austrian Third Army retakes Carpathian passes 17 December French winter offensive begins in Artois 17 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 20 December French winter offensive begins in Champagne 29 December Battle of Sarikamis begins 1915 18 2 January Russia appeals to London for a diversionary attack to be made against Turkey 4 January French offensive in Artois ends 17 January Russians finish mopping up operations at Sarikamis 3 February Turks fail to cross Suez Canal 19 February Allied fleet begins bombardment of outer forts at the Dardanelles 10–12 March Battle of Neuve Chapelle 18 March Anglo-French naval attack on the Chanak Narrows repulsed with loss of three battleships 22 March Russians capture Przemysl, taking 100,000 prisoners 22 April Germans use poison gas for the first time on the Western Front 22 April–25 May Second battle of Ypres 25 April Allied attack on Gallipoli begins 2–10 May Battle of Gorlice-Tarnów 9 May Allied offensive begins in Artois; battle of Aubers Ridge 9–10 May Battle of Sanok 13–18 May Battle of Jaroslaw 15–27 May Battle of Festubert 23 May Italian Government declares war on Austria-Hungary CHRONOLOGY 25–26 May Formation of a coalition cabinet and creation of Ministry of Munitions announced in Britain 20–22 June Austrians retake Lemberg July Russians withdraw from Galicia 4 August Allied reconnaissance party arrives at Salonika to assess port and railway facilities 5 August Third battle of Warsaw; Germans take Warsaw 6 August Allied landings made at Anzac and Suvla Bay 7 August Tsar appoints himself Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army 10 August Turkish counter-attack at Gallipoli drives British and New Zealanders off high ground 20 August Italy declares war on Turkey September Zimmerwald conference of Socialist Internationals; Germans capture Vilnius 21 September Greek premier Venizelos calls for massive Allied reinforcement of Salonika as condition for Greek entry into war 25 September Allied offensive in Artois and Champagne; first use of poison gas by British at battle of Loos 27 September Greek King Constantine consents to Allied force landing at Salonika October Battle of Dunaburg 1 October British advance party arrives at Salonika 5 October Combined German-Austrian attack on Serbia begins; British and French forces land at Salonika 9 October Belgrade falls; Austrians invade Montenegro 11 October Bulgarian troops invade Serbia 14 October Mutual declaration of war between Serbia and Bulgaria 19 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 19 December Evacuation of the Anzac and Suvla beach heads at Gallipoli in one night without casualties; Haig replaces Sir John French as Commander-in-Chief of the British Expeditionary Force 1916 20 8 January Successful completion of Gallipoli evacuation at Helles 10 January Completion of Allied ‘Entrenched Camp’ at Salonika 14 January Battle of Köprüköy; Russians advance on Erzerum 27 January First Military Service Act becomes law in Britain, introducing conscription for men aged between 18 and 41 11–16 February Battle of Erzerum; Russians take Erzerum and Mus 21 February Battle of Verdun begins 25 February Germans capture Fort Douaumont at Verdun 18 March Unsuccessful Russian Vilnius offensive begins; ends 14 April April International Socialist Conference held at Kienthal (Second Zimmerwald Conference) 24 April Easter Rising in Dublin 29 April In Mesopotamia, Kut falls with 13,309 British and Indian prisoners plus over 3,000 non-combatants 25 May Second Military Service Act becomes law in Britain, extending conscription to married men 31 May/1 June Naval battle of Jutland 4 June Opening of Brusilov’s offensive CHRONOLOGY 5 June Sherif Hussein starts Arab revolt at Medina, proclaims independence of Hedjaz 1 July Battle of the Somme begins 3–9 July Unsuccessful offensive by Russian West Front 7 July Lloyd George succeeds Kitchener (drowned en route to Russia) as War Minister 28 July Opening of second phase of Brusilov’s offensive 27 August Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, invades Transylvania 29 August Hindenburg succeeds Falkenhayn as Chief of German General Staff, with Ludendorff as ‘First Quartermaster General’ 1 September Britain and France secretly sign the Sykes– Picot agreement on post-war partition of the Ottoman Empire 6 September Romanians complete occupation of Transylvania 15 September British use tanks for the first time at Flers-Courcelette on the Somme 19 September German-led forces invade Transylvania 3 October German victories in Transylvania and Dobrudja 10 October Tsar terminates Brusilov’s offensive 11 October Allies disarm Greek forces; riots in Athens in protest at Allied action 16–17 October Final unsuccessful Russian effort to take Vladmir-Volynski 24 October French counter-attack at Verdun; Fort Douaumont recaptured 21 November Emperor Franz Josef dies, aged 86; succeeded by his great-nephew Charles 23 November Greek Provisional Government at Salonika declares war on Germany and Bulgaria 21 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 25 November Battle of the Somme ends 1 December Fighting in Athens between royalist troops and Anglo-French detachments 7 December Lloyd George becomes Prime Minister, succeeds Asquith 12 December Nivelle replaces Joffre as French Commander-in-Chief 1917 22 5–7 January Allied conference in Rome to discuss priorities for campaigns in Italy and Salonika February Cold weather disrupts food and fuel supplies to Russian cities 1 February Germany begins unrestricted submarine warfare 18–22 February German forces commence preliminary withdrawal from Ancre sector 20 February First attack on Hedjaz railway by Arab irregulars 8–12 March Food riots in Petrograd; garrison troops mutiny 11 March Baghdad falls to General Maude 12 March Russian Revolution begins; Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet formed 14 March Petrograd Soviet Order No. 1 claims control over garrison 15 March Tsar abdicates 16 March Germans begin main withdrawal to the Hindenburg Line 26 March First battle of Gaza 6 April United States declares war on Germany CHRONOLOGY 9 April Opening of British Arras offensive; Canadians storm Vimy Ridge 16 April Lenin arrives in Petrograd; French spring offensive begins on the Aisne 17 April Second battle of Gaza; despite use of tanks, momentum is lost and attack stalls 5 May Allies launch major offensive in Serbia but fail to get Serb co-operation 15 May Pétain succeeds Nivelle as French Commander-in-Chief 16 May Kerensky becomes Russian Minister of War 22 May Kerensky appoints Brusilov as Commander-in-Chief 7 June British attack on Messines Ridge 12 June King Constantine of Greece abdicates after Allied ultimatum, succeeded by younger son Alexander; British and French troops arrive at Piraeus 18 June Russian South–West Front offensive begins 26 June Venizelos confirmed by Allies as Greek Prime Minister 2 July Russian South–West Front offensive stalls; Greece declares war on Central Powers; in Arabia, Colonel Lawrence and Arab irregulars attack Turkish garrisons 6 July Central Powers counter-attack on Eastern Front; South–West Front retires to River Seret 10 July North and West Front troops refuse to attack 13 July Kornilov replaces Brusilov, calls off offensives 31 July Third battle of Ypres begins 27 August Failure of Kornilov’s attempt to seize power 1–5 September German Riga campaign 23 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 12 September In Italy new German Fourteenth Army under General von Below deploys on Isonzo front 24 October Battle of Caporetto; Austro-German attack breaks Italian Second Army 29 October General Cadorno orders retreat to line of River Piave 31 October Italians back behind River Tagliamento; in Palestine, Allenby opens third battle of Gaza 5 November Allies confer at Rapallo as Italians ask for 15 Allied divisions 6 November Passchendaele captured by Canadians 7 November Bolsheviks seize power 8 November Lenin proposes peace: ‘no annexation and no indemnities’ 9 November General Diaz replaces Cadorna as Italian Commander-in-Chief 16 November Allenby resumes advance on Jerusalem; Clemenceau becomes French Prime Minister 20 November Battle of Cambrai begins 9 December Jerusalem falls to Allenby 10 December Armistice between Romania and Central Powers 17 December Armistice between Russia and Central Powers 22 December Russo–German peace negotiations begin at Brest-Litovsk; in Salonika, General Guillaumat replaces Sarrail as Allied Commander-in-Chief; Austrians fail to break through River Piave as astonishing revival in Italian national morale takes place 1918 24 1 February Austrian Navy mutinies at Cattaro 9 February Germany signs separate peace with Ukraine CHRONOLOGY 10 February Trotsky ends negotiations 19 February Germans advance to within 80 miles of Petrograd 3 March Treaty of Brest-Litovsk; Russia leaves the war 21 March German Operation Michael offensive begins in Picardy 26 March Foch appointed to co-ordinate Allied operations on Western Front 9 April German Georgette offensive begins in Flanders 27 May German Blücher offensive begins on the Aisne 9 June German Gneisenau offensive begins 15 July Last German offensive begins near Reims 18 July Allied counterstroke on the Marne 8 August Battle of Amiens begins 14 September Final Allied offensive starts in Macedonia with battle of the River Vardar; mutinies break out in Bulgarian Army 19 September Allenby fights and wins battle of Megiddo 20 September RAF aircraft destroy the Turkish Seventh Army in defiles of Wadi Fara 23 September British capture Acre and Haifa 26 September Start of Franco-American offensive in Meuse–Argonne sector; Bulgaria seeks peace terms as mutinous troops March on Sofia to declare a republic 28 September Start of Allied offensive in Flanders 29 September British, Australian and American troops open main offensive on Hindenburg Line; Bulgaria signs armistice after talks at Salonika 1 October Allenby and Lawrence arrive simultaneously at Damascus 25 THE FIRST WORLD WAR 24 October Allies attack on wide front and win battle of Vittorio Veneto, followed by rout of Austrian Army with mass desertions of Czech, Serb, Croat and Polish troops 26 October General Ludendorff resigns 30 October Ottoman Empire sues for peace 3 November Austria-Hungary signs armistice 9 November Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates 11 November Armistice between Allies and Germany ends hostilities on the Western Front 1919 8 January General Milne appointed Commander-in-Chief at Constantinople with garrison of 35,000 troops 3 February Venizelos outlines Greek claims to Smyrna at Versailles 13 May Greek troops land at Smyrna 22 May In Turkey Kemal issues his ‘Amasya Decisions’, calling for new national government 28 June Treaty of Versailles signed 11 July Ottoman Government outlaws Kemal, who is elected President by new Turkish National Congress on 23 July 27 November Kemal sets up National Council of Representatives at Angora (renamed Ankara) 1920 26 16 March Allies tighten occupation of Constantinople; massacres of Armenians by Turks continue 18 March Last meeting of Imperial Ottoman Parliament CHRONOLOGY 23 April In Turkey, the Grand National Assembly convenes at Ankara and forms new government 25 April League of Nations mandates for Palestine and Mesopotamia announced; Palestinian Arabs attack British troops and Jewish settlers 22 June Greeks launch offensive in Anatolia against Turkish Nationalist forces and advance to Usak, 120 miles east of Smyrna 25 July Greek forces occupy Adrianople in Turkish Thrace 10 August Treaty of Sèvres; Turkish nationalists refuse to accept it and go to war with Greece 1923 23 August Following the Treaty of Lausanne, replacing the Treaty of Sevres, Allies evacuate Constantinople 27 Chapter 1 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914–1916 THE FIRST WORLD WAR BACKGROUND TO WAR: THE ROAD TO WAR Previous page: Belgian troops during the withdrawal to Antwerp, 20 August 1914. Note the dog-drawn machine guns. (IWM Q81728) Below: British recruits at Aldershot in 1914. Many of those who volunteered at the outbreak of war would not see action until 1915 or 1916. 30 The route which led the major powers of Europe to war in 1914 was long and tortuous, with many complex and interwoven factors eventually combining to drive them into a protracted and cataclysmic struggle. Among these factors were new naval and military technology, colonial rivalries, economic competition and irreconcilable national ambitions. However, perhaps the most important and obvious turning point towards a general European conflict was the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. That limited confrontation had seen the humiliating defeat of France and the unification of Germany under Prussian leadership. The sudden emergence of the German Empire, which as part of the spoils of victory took the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine from France, brought about a fundamental shift in the European balance of power. Germany’s subsequent and accelerating progress towards economic ascendancy only intensified the anxieties of her neighbours and competitors. For the best part of two decades, between 1871 and 1890, the new European status quo was not seriously challenged, thanks to the diplomatic dexterity and deviousness of Otto von Bismarck, the German Chancellor, THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 in keeping France isolated. When Bismarck left office in 1890 it was not long before a fresh series of unpredictable currents began to erode the foundations of his carefully constructed Continental system. A rapid deterioration in Russo-German relations and a rapprochement between Tsarist Russia and Republican France compelled Germany to strengthen its existing links with the Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy, so ensuring that it possessed an ally to the east. While Germany was undeniably the dominant partner in this particular alliance, it would pay a heavy price for a policy that tied it more closely to a dilapidated empire that was itself finding it increasingly difficult to curb the nationalist aspirations of its diverse subject peoples in south-eastern Europe. The potentially explosive situation in the Balkans was made more dangerous by the decline of Turkish influence there, offering both Austria and Russia (the self-proclaimed protector of the southern Slavs) tempting territorial and political prizes in the region. In seeking to exploit such opportunities, Austria and Russia each embarked upon a course which could only end in confrontation. The rise of Serbia added yet another hazardous element to an unstable regional mixture. Serbia had been infuriated by Austria’s annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908 but had itself gained influence and territory as a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913, giving Austria, in turn, mounting cause for disquiet and irritation. With the departure of Bismarck, the belligerent and erratic Wilhelm II – who had become Kaiser (Emperor) in 1888 – soon spurred Germany to follow a more aggressive path in international relations. France, already determined to avenge the disaster of 1870–1871 and win back its lost provinces, was further alarmed by Germany’s developing industrial and military muscle; Russia too had grounds for concern about an Austro-German alliance that not only threw an ominous shadow along its western frontier but was likely to counteract Russian interests in the Balkans. The first, and probably the most significant, crack in the edifice erected by Bismarckian diplomacy came in 1892 with the removal of its cornerstone – the isolation of France. That year, Russia and France concluded a military agreement – reinforced by additional talks in 1893 and 1894 – under which each promised to come to the other’s aid if either were attacked by Germany. Kaiser Wilhelm II, Emperor of Germany 1888–1918. (Topfoto) 31 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Moreover, the change from Bismarck’s Realpolitik (politics of realism) to the Weltpolitik (world policy or politics) of Kaiser Wilhelm II ultimately forced Britain to review its relations with other leading players on the European and world stage. Admittedly, Germany was not the only power that made Britain uneasy. Recurrent tension in its relations with France and Russia, previously its chief naval competitors, had caused Britain to pass the Naval Defence Act in 1889 in order to safeguard the supremacy on which its national security and prosperity rested. The Act embraced the doctrine that the Royal Navy’s establishment should, at any given time, match the combined naval strength of any two other countries. The maintenance of this ‘Two Power Standard’ became more difficult as the United States and Japan also began to overtake Britain industrially and to build ocean-going fleets. Britain was, however, content to stick largely to its policy of ‘splendid isolation’ so long as the balance of power in Europe was not imperilled and no single nation became too dominant or threatened Britain’s security by making a hostile move into the Low Countries towards the Channel ports. Britain was, in fact, relatively friendly with Germany for much of the last quarter of the 19th century, not least because Queen Victoria’s eldest daughter was married to the German Crown Prince, Frederick, who succeeded to the imperial throne in March 1888. Frederick died from cancer after reigning for barely three months, and the accession of his estranged and impulsive son, Wilhelm II, heralded fresh competition with Britain for colonies and overseas markets as the new Kaiser sought world power status for Germany. Even so, it was the German Navy Laws of 1898 and 1900 that did most to alienate Britain. Shaped by the German Naval Secretary, Rear Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, with the Kaiser’s enthusiastic support, these measures disclosed Germany’s intention to construct a fleet, including 38 battleships, within 20 years. Regarding Britain as Germany’s ‘most dangerous naval enemy’, Tirpitz envisaged the German fleet as a political pawn which would strengthen his country’s hand in world affairs. To this end he wished to provide Germany with sufficient capital ships to mount a genuine challenge in the North Sea and give it the capability of inflicting such damage on the Royal Navy that the latter would fall below the ‘Two Power Standard’. The launching of 14 battleships in Germany between 1900 and 1905 inaugurated a naval arms race that would enter an even more menacing phase when Britain launched the revolutionary turbine-driven ‘all-big-gun’ battleship HMS Dreadnought in 1906. German backing for the Boers during the South African War of 1899–1902 hastened the demise of Britain’s earlier isolationist policy. Since the United States Navy was not obviously aimed directly at its interests, Britain, in 1901, deliberately abandoned any attempts to compete with growing 32 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 American naval power. The following year an Anglo-Japanese treaty was signed, considerably reducing British anxieties in the Far East and enabling Britain to concentrate more warships in home waters. In 1904 the Entente Cordiale greatly strengthened British diplomatic and, later, military ties with its traditional rival, France. A similar understanding was reached with Russia in 1907, once Japan’s victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905 had all but removed the long-standing Russian threat to India. Thus before the end of the first decade of the 20th century Britain had swung noticeably towards the Franco-Russian alliance. The understandings with France and Russia did not constitute formal agreements and neither did they commit Britain irrevocably to go to war in support of either power, but it was now at least morally bound to France and Russia in opposition to the Central Powers, Germany and Austria. Any unforeseen incident involving one or more of these countries might well ignite a general conflagration which, because of the rival alliance systems, could engulf them all. In these circumstances it would certainly not have served Britain’s interests to stand aside and allow Germany to conquer France and occupy the Channel ports. Therefore, despite all the contradictions in Britain’s new international stance, the possibility of its participation in a European war on the side of France and Russia was – as Germany should have been well aware – far from remote. Diplomatic manoeuvres, opposing alliances and naval rivalries were not the only ingredients which rendered the European powder keg more explosive and conditioned nations and peoples for armed conflict. The spread of education and adult literacy in the decades before 1914 also saw the rise of a popular press ready to glamorise deeds of military valour or take an unashamedly jingoistic line when reporting foreign affairs. Chauvinism and aggressive imperialism were similarly encouraged by capitalism. Fashionable ideas about ‘national efficiency’ and concepts such as ‘Social Darwinism’ emphasised the survival of the fittest and fostered the belief that war was a purifying ordeal necessary to counter any signs of national decadence and moral degeneration. As most political and military leaders erroneously thought that should war come, it would be short, statesmen were generally more willing to solve international disputes by military rather than diplomatic means. All the individual national motives for conflict and collective failures to halt the slide into the abyss cannot, however, conceal the primacy of Germany’s responsibility for war in 1914. In the often savage debate that has raged since the work of Professor Fritz Fischer in the 1960s, historians have disagreed about the extent to which Germany positively sought and planned the conflict in advance; but few have denied that Germany was its 33 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Central Powers, August 1914 Allies, August 1914 NORWAY Neutral countries subsequently aligned with Central Powers Neutral countries subsequently aligned with Allies Countries originally aligned with Central Powers, declared neutrality at the outbreak of war, then later joined Allies Countries which remained neutral BALTIC SEA ND L LA IUM GERMANY LUX nube Da FRANCE SI A RUSSIAN EMPIRE Kiev Dn Prague iep er Vienna Paris ATLANTIC OCEAN RUS tula Vis LG Riga Copenhagen Königsberg Berlin e BE Stockholm E A ST P Rhin London HO Dublin SWEDEN DENMARK NORTH SEA GREAT BRITAIN FINLAND AUSTRIA-HUNGARY Don Budapest SWITZERLAND ROMANIA Belgrade 250 miles 500 km European alliances before and during the First World War. 34 Crete Cyprus (British) S E A Suez Canal LIBYA (Italian) Cairo EGYPT SYRIA EST INE Tripoli OTTOMAN EMPIRE Damascus PA L Sicily M E D I T E Tunis R R A N E A TUNISIA N (French) (French) (French) 0 Constantinople GREECE ALGERIA MOROCCO Sofia Jerusalem Nile PORTUGAL SPAIN BLACK SEA BULGARIA IA Sardinia Algiers 0 Rome Madrid SPANISH MOROCCO N MONTENEGRO A LB A N Lisbon IA SERB ITALY Corsica Danube Bucharest (British protectorate) mainspring. For Prussian aristocrats, the officer class and industrialists, war held great attraction as a means of negating or diverting attention from the increasing internal influence of the Social Democratic Party. It would also enable Germany to forestall the modernisation and improvement of the Russian Army, expected to be complete by 1916–1917. Since Germany’s impressive economic expansion had not yet been rewarded by world power status, a successful war would simultaneously end its diplomatic and military encirclement and bring it the geopolitical influence it felt it deserved. THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 On 8 December 1912, the Kaiser summoned his senior military advisers to a war council. The fact that some of the conclusions reached on this occasion coincided with the actual events of 1914 has led Fischer and other historians to view the meeting as evidence that Germany’s leaders took a conscious decision there and then to go to war within 18 months. The importance of the meeting in this respect may have been exaggerated, but there is no doubt that the Kaiser and the military-political-industrial élite wanted hegemony in Europe and were fully prepared to contemplate war, with all its attendant risks, as the quickest way of realising their ambitions. This in itself represented a serious enough threat to European peace but the situation was made infinitely more hazardous by the iron grip which the Kaiser and his circle maintained on the reins of power in Germany. Whereas considerable checks and balances were imposed upon the political and military leaders of Britain and France by their respective parliamentary systems, the German Army was essentially beyond civilian control. Its senior officers were directly responsible to the Kaiser, and neither the Chancellor nor the state secretaries (or ‘ministers’) were ultimately answerable to the Reichstag, the German parliament. In other words, those in Germany who were most willing to plunge Europe into war in order to deal with their own internal and external difficulties, and to assure Germany’s standing in the world, were subject to the fewest effective restraints. WARRING SIDES: THE OPPOSING ARMIES Germany’s strategic ambitions and the unique status its armed forces enjoyed within society helped to ensure that, until 1916 at least, the Imperial German Army would be the dynamo of the First World War. It was Germany’s war plan that did most to determine the course, if not the nature, of the conflict. The plan itself had been shaped originally, between 1897 and 1905, by Count Alfred von Schlieffen, then Chief of the German General Staff. Schlieffen’s overriding aim had been to enable Germany to deal successfully with the strategic nightmare of a two-front war against Russia and France, should such a situation arise. However, by appearing to offer a feasible solution to this problem, the plan reduced the army’s fears of a two-front war and, correspondingly, strengthened its willingness to accept the risks of such a conflict. In these respects, one could argue that the Schlieffen Plan, instead of being a mere precautionary measure, actually increased the likelihood of a general European struggle. Schlieffen estimated that, should Germany have to face both France and Russia, the latter would be slower to mobilise and deploy, giving Germany a vital margin of some six weeks in which to overcome France by means of 35 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Count Alfred von Schlieffen, Chief of the German General Staff 1891–1905. His war plan, with modifications, largely shaped German strategy in 1914. (Mary Evans Picture Library) 36 a massive and rapid campaign in the west. As soon as France was defeated, Germany could then transfer the bulk of its forces to the east to tackle Russia. There was a danger, nonetheless, that the fortresses along France’s north-eastern frontier might fatally delay the German Army’s lightning western offensive. Accordingly Schlieffen resolved that German forces must cross a narrow strip of Dutch territory known as the ‘Maastricht Appendix’, then sweep through neutral Belgium before driving into north-western France. The pivotal role in the campaign was given to five armies deployed between Metz and Holland, totalling 35 corps in all. The most powerful forces were allocated to the extreme right wing of the offensive. One army here was expected to swing round to the west of Paris, on the outer flank of a colossal wheeling movement which was intended to take the opposing French armies in the rear before trapping them up against their own frontier. It was anticipated that, on the outbreak of war, the French would advance immediately into Lorraine, so two weaker German armies were assigned to the left, or eastern, wing. Their task was to contain the French movement and even fall back slowly, if required, in the hope of luring the enemy forces beyond any point from which they could seriously interfere with the planned German encirclement. Helmuth von Moltke, Schlieffen’s successor, made several key alterations to the original plan between 1906 and 1914. Though a diligent and painstaking officer, Moltke was also introspective and suffered from bouts of low self-confidence. He was especially anxious about the potential threat to German communications which the expected French thrust into Lorraine would pose. Consequently, most new divisions created after 1906 were assigned to the German left wing rather than the crucial right. Once seven times stronger than the left, the right wing became only three times stronger as a result of Moltke’s changes. Of equal significance was his decision to abandon the projected movement through Holland while sticking with the planned advance through Belgium. This decision was doubly unfortunate for it not only complicated the problems of deployment – squeezing the right-wing armies into a tighter initial bottleneck – but also failed to eliminate the considerable diplomatic and strategic disadvantages almost certain to ensue from any German violation of Belgium’s neutrality. Historians have THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 rightly observed that, even as originally conceived, the Schlieffen Plan was unworkable, as it paid insufficient heed to the problems of over-extended supply lines, inadequate communications systems, the fatigue of troops and the unpredictability of battle. It also miscalculated the speed of Russian mobilisation and the level of resistance that Belgian forces and civilians would offer. However, it is equally true to say that the changes wrought by Moltke did little or nothing to improve it and further undermined its already tenuous prospects of success. Conscription, the bedrock of the German military system, permitted Germany to increase the size of its army swiftly, from a peacetime strength of around 840,000 to more than 4,000,000 trained soldiers when war was declared. Able-bodied young German males first joined the Landsturm at the age of 17; at the age of 20 they were called to the colours for full-time military training, which lasted two or three years, depending upon their arm of service. Thereafter they would pass into the reserve for four or five years and then carry out additional spells of service with the Landwehr and Landsturm until they reached 45. The Landwehr and German infantry photographed on manoeuvres before the First World War. (Getty Images) 37 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Opposite: The rival war plans. 38 Landsturm, upon mobilisation, would undertake defensive duties on lines of communication, and the reservists were alternatively recalled to regular units or formed new reserve corps and divisions that could confidently be used as front-line formations. The system, especially the employment of reservists, was to give the Germans a significant advantage over the French Army in some critical sectors along the front in the opening weeks of the war. In the summer of 1914 German infantry training was in the midst of a transition from close-order to open-order tactics – a factor that would cost their infantry dear. However, the army as a whole was excellently trained, had a solid nucleus of highly capable non-commissioned officers and could claim a clear superiority in its light, medium and heavy howitzers – weapons which would quickly prove their worth in the operations to come. The French military system was likewise based upon conscription. In 1913 compulsory service had been extended to three years with the colours, then 14 in the reserve. Because its population was smaller, France had to call up a bigger proportion of the nation’s men, including colonial recruits, to attain even a semblance of parity with Germany. At the outbreak of war, France was able to muster approximately 3,680,000 trained soldiers but had fewer reserve formations than the Germans mobilised. In the wake of the humiliation of the Franco-Prussian War French military doctrine had been recast. The most important figure in this process was Lieutenant-Colonel (later Marshal) Ferdinand Foch. His teachings as Chief Instructor (1896–1901) and Commandant (1908–1911) of the Ecole Supérieure de Guerre placed the ‘will to conquer’ firmly at the core of the French Army’s creed and inspired an almost mystical faith in the primacy of the offensive à l’outrance (attack to the limit). The same gospel was preached by one of Foch’s disciples, Colonel Louis de Grandmaison, who between 1908 and 1911 headed the War Ministry’s important Operations Branch. It was reflected too in the army’s superb, quick-firing 75mm field gun, which more than matched its German 77mm equivalent, although medium and heavy artillery were given a lower priority. The plan with which the French went to war – known as Plan XVII – was prepared under the guidance of General Joseph Joffre, the Chief of the French General Staff from 1911 and the Commander-in-Chief designate in the event of hostilities. The imperturbable Joffre, a follower of the Foch–Grandmaison philosophy, rejected a previous scheme for a defensive concentration along the Belgian border and instead announced his intention to ‘advance with all forces united to attack the German armies’. Five French field armies would be deployed under Plan XVII. Of these, the First and THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 HOLLAND The Schlieffen Plan Rhi ne Calais S c h e l dt s Ly Brussels xxxx BELGIUM Lille Mons S am First xxxx Liège M eu bre Cologne se Second xxxx Coblenz Fourth St Quentin Amiens os e ll e e Third xxxx Som m Mainz M LUXEMBOURG GERMANY Meu Sedan e s Ai sne xxxx e Ois Ourcq Verdun Sa Fifth Metz in e Paris ar xxxx Châlons rne Ma Sixth Nancy Strasbourg e Sein le 0 Mt ges 25 miles Seventh Vo s 0 Epinal s s el FRANCE ne xxxx Mo N Rhi Se Reims 50 km Planned direction of German advance Belfort SWITZERLAND Liège Liège Mons Mons Namur Coblenz BELGIUM Maubeuge e Ard xxxx Mézières nn es LUXEMBOURG Mézières Trier 5 xxxx Verdun Epernay xxxx Fifth GERMANY xxxx 5 Reims Metz 3 Fourth 4 Nancy 25 miles 0 50 km LUXEMBOURG Trier xxxx 4 GERMANY Fourth xxxx Metz Third 3 Sarrebourg xxxx Second Strasbourg FRANCE 2 xxxx Strasbourg 2 xxxx Epinal First 1 0 es Nancy Second Epinal nn Sedan Sarrebourg xxxx FRANCE e Ard Verdun Epernay Third Coblenz BELGIUM Sedan Fifth Reims Namur Maubeuge First 1 xxxx Belfort Groupe d’Alsace Plan XVII, as approved in May 1913 and issued to prospective Army commanders in May 1914 0 25 miles 0 50 km xxxx Belfort Army of Alsace (from 11 Aug 1914) Plan XVII, as amended on 2 August 1914 following the German invasion of Luxembourg 39 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Recruits from Bermondsey line up for an inspection. (Corbis) 40 Second Armies on the right wing were to advance into Lorraine, exactly as Schlieffen had hoped. In the centre, the Third Army would attack towards Thionville and Metz. The Fifth Army, situated on the left between Mézières and Montmédy, had a more flexible role and, depending upon the route the Germans took, would either follow the Third Army’s general direction or thrust north-east through the Belgian Ardennes and Luxembourg. The Fourth Army would be kept in semi-reserve, ready to reinforce the left or centre as required. While more adaptable than the Schlieffen Plan, the French Plan XVII had a fundamental weakness. In grossly underestimating the extent to which German reserve troops would be employed alongside regular formations, the French, from the outset, were badly wrong-footed by the breadth and strength of the German sweep through Belgium. The Belgian Field Army was not expected to be a major player in the unfolding drama. Belgium had introduced conscription in 1913 but, when the crisis came, mobilised only 117,000 officers and men. The outbreak of war also found the Field Army divided by strategic disputes and in the middle of reorganisation. THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 Joffre also accorded relatively little weight to a possible British contribution when drawing up Plan XVII. Traditionally shielded from invasion by the Royal Navy, Britain still had a small, long-service professional army, raised by voluntary enlistment and regarded as sufficient to police and garrison its world-wide empire and protect British interests overseas. Five separate compulsory-service Bills had been placed before Parliament between 1908 and 1914 but all had been defeated. The underlying problem was that, in peacetime, no political party was prepared to risk the wrath of the taxpayer or commit electoral suicide by shedding the voluntary system and supporting a financially costly expansion of the army. The reforms of R. B. Haldane, as Secretary of State for War from 1905 to 1912, had thus to be achieved within an agreed military budget which, during most of his term of office, was limited to around £28,000,000. Even after Haldane’s reforms – and including its Regular Reserve, Special Reserve and part-time Territorial Force – the British Army, on mobilisation, only totalled some 733,000. There was the possibility of receiving reinforcements from India and the Dominions, although India’s security could not be jeopardised and Dominion manpower was as yet of uncertain quantity and quality. A battery of French 75mm quick-firing field guns in action in 1914. The barrel of the gun nearest the camera is at full recoil. (Mary Evans Picture Library) 41 THE FIRST WORLD WAR The principal offensive component of the army was the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of six infantry divisions and one cavalry division, numbering approximately 120,000. Behind this were the ‘Saturday Afternoon Soldiers’ of the Territorial Force, formed from the old Volunteer Force in 1908. Some 269,000 strong in July 1914, the Territorial Force had been created chiefly for home defence but could provide a framework for future army expansion if necessary. Both the Regular Army and the Territorial Force lacked heavy artillery in 1914 and were below strength. However, individually the men of the BEF were better trained than any of their European counterparts and had unrivalled standards of rifle-shooting, with many infantrymen capable of firing 15 aimed rounds per minute. No agreement existed which irreversibly bound the BEF to fight on the European mainland if war came. However, Anglo-French staff talks since 1906 made this probable. As no one – least of all the Admiralty – had succeeded in putting forward a compelling and realistic alternative, the only cogent plan for the deployment of the BEF likely to be implemented, if only by default, was one that had been prepared after 1910 by the Director of Military Operations, Brigadier-General Henry Wilson, an ardent Francophile and friend of Foch. Under this scheme the BEF, on mobilisation, would assemble on the French left, in the Hirson–Maubeuge–Le Cateau area. Minimal consideration had been given to the long-term ramifications of this deployment. The logical corollaries to any meaningful continental commitment were the possible need to raise a mass army and the related necessity for industrial mobilisation to ensure that these much larger forces would be properly supplied. Britain’s experiences in the first half of the coming war would be all the more painful because the country was permitted to enter a major conflict without any blueprint for military or industrial expansion or, indeed, any clear idea of the scale of effort that might be required. OUTBREAK: COUNTDOWN TO WAR The incident that finally ignited the flames of war in Europe occurred on 28 June 1914, when, during an official visit to Sarajevo, capital of the newly annexed Austrian province of Bosnia, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, was assassinated with his wife. The assassin, Gavrilo Princip, was one of a group of conspirators recruited and despatched to Sarajevo by the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist group, with the connivance of the chief of Serbian military intelligence. The Serbian Government itself did not inspire the assassination but certainly knew of the plot and made well intentioned, if feeble, attempts to warn Austria about it. Austria 42 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 eagerly exploited the opportunity to humble Serbia and thereby snuff out its challenge to Austro-Hungarian authority in the Balkans. First, however, Austria sought Germany’s backing for its proposed course of action. Germany, in turn, saw in the Austro-Serbian confrontation a golden chance of securing hegemony in Europe, achieving world status while splitting the encircling Entente powers, forestalling Russian modernisation, eradicating the dangers to Austria-Hungary and suffocating domestic opposition. Even though it might drag the whole of Europe into armed conflict, Germany was prepared to take this calculated risk to achieve its ends. Therefore, on 5 and 6 July Germany gave Austria a ‘blank cheque’ of unconditional support against Serbia. Having obtained Germany’s endorsement, on 23 July Austria issued a ten-point ultimatum to Serbia. The latter accepted nine of the points but rejected, in part, the demand that Austrian officials should be involved in the investigation of the assassination, regarding such interference as a challenge to its sovereignty. On 25 July Serbia mobilised its army; Russia also confirmed partial mobilisation before entering, on 26 July, a ‘period German conscripts are given a rousing send-off as they leave Berlin by train for the front, August 1914. (Topfoto) 43 THE FIRST WORLD WAR preparatory to war’. Austria reciprocated by mobilising the same day and then, on 28 July, declared war on Serbia. Up to this point it might still have been possible to isolate the problem, but Germany continued to act in an uncompromising manner which only served to heighten tensions and gave the crisis international dimensions. On 29 July Germany demanded an immediate cessation of Russian preparations, failing which Germany would be forced to mobilise. Russia could not afford to acquiesce meekly in the destruction of Serbian sovereignty, or increased Austrian influence in eastern and south-eastern Europe. Consequently, on 30 July Russia ordered general mobilisation in support of Serbia. Russian mobilisation began the following day but was not the inevitable precursor to war: its forces could, if necessary, have stayed on their own territory for weeks while negotiations proceeded. Germany, however, proclaimed a Kriegsgefahrzustand (threatening danger of war) on 31 July and presented Russia with an ultimatum. Russia’s failure to respond led Germany to order general mobilisation and declare war on Russia on 1 August. This action caused France to mobilise and set in motion the remaining cogs in the intricate machinery of European alliances and understandings, for the Schlieffen Plan required, from the outset, a violation of neutral Belgium and an attack on France, quite independent of any action the Russians might take. On 2 August Germany handed Belgium an ultimatum insisting on the right of passage through its territory. This was firmly rejected and the next day Germany declared war on France. Early on 4 August German forces crossed the frontier into Belgium. The strength of the German armies on this flank was awesome. Colonel-General Alexander von Kluck’s First Army, on the extreme right, numbered 320,000 troops. The neighbouring Second Army, under Colonel-General Karl von Bülow, and the Third Army, commanded by General Max von Hausen, respectively totalled 260,000 and 180,000. The invasion of Belgian territory brought Britain into the conflict. Though it had no formal agreements with France and Russia, Britain was committed in principle, by a treaty concluded in 1839, to guarantee Belgian independence and neutrality. In 1906 the Foreign Office had observed that this pledge did not oblige Britain to aid Belgium ‘in any circumstances and at whatever risk’ but, realistically, the huge threat posed by Germany to the balance of power and the Channel ports had to be resisted. Moreover, it proved much easier for Britain’s Liberal Cabinet to rally the nation behind a war for ‘gallant little Belgium’ than behind an abstract concept such as the preservation of the status quo or the balance of power. Britain’s own ultimatum expired without reply at 11pm (London time) on 4 August and she declared war on Germany. 44 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 THE FIGHTING: WAR ON THE WESTERN FRONT 1914–1916 The invasion of Belgium The changes to the Schlieffen Plan wrought by Moltke dictated that the German right-wing armies must pass through the Meuse Gap between Holland and the Ardennes, a narrow corridor dominated by Liège. Failure to capture Liège and its ring of 12 forts quickly would wreck the complex German timetable at the start. A force of six brigades had the task of reducing Liège. Attached to this force was Erich Ludendorff, who as head of the General Staff’s mobilisation and deployment section from 1908 to 1913 had been largely instrumental in planning the operation. The forts could withstand 21cm shells but the Skoda works at Pilsen and the Krupp works at Essen had produced huge 30.5cm and 42cm ‘Big Bertha’ howitzers capable of firing armour-piercing shells over 7 miles. A German 42cm ‘Big Bertha’ howitzer of the type used to bombard Liège in August 1914. (Mary Evans Picture Library) 45 THE FIRST WORLD WAR German reservists travelling to the Western Front, August 1914. The train bears the inscription ‘A trip to Paris – see you again on the boulevard’. (Topfoto) 46 A flawed deployment also impaired the Belgian defence. King Albert, as Commander-in-Chief, advocated a concentration on the Meuse, between Namur and Liège, so that the Belgian Army could delay the Germans further forward until Franco-British support arrived. However, the Chief of Staff, General de Selliers de Moranville, cautiously stationed most of his forces centrally behind the River Gette, where they could cover Brussels and, if necessary, fall back on Antwerp. Consequently, when the crisis came King Albert barely had time to send one division to Namur and another, plus one brigade, to reinforce Liège. The assault on 5 August began badly for the Germans. As casualties grew, Ludendorff himself assumed command of the attack in the centre. By 7 August the Germans had penetrated the ring of forts and entered Liège, where Ludendorff audaciously secured the surrender of the citadel. The forts held out until the huge howitzers materialised on 12 August, then within four days all were battered into submission, allowing the German right-wing armies to advance. Ludendorff, now a national hero, went to the Eastern Front as Chief of Staff of General Paul von Hindenburg’s Eighth Army. THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 The non-appearance of French and British forces persuaded the Belgian Field Army to withdraw towards Antwerp on 18 August. Two days later the Germans entered Brussels. Bombarded by the German super-heavy howitzers, the city of Namur fell on 23 August, followed swiftly by the last of its forts. To maintain their schedule and avoid leaving substantial rearguards, the Germans implemented a policy of Schrecklichkeit (‘frightfulness’), attempting to subdue the population by executing civilians or destroying property. Alleged civilian resistance against the rearguard of the First Army led, for example, to the burning of Louvain and its library of irreplaceable medieval manuscripts. One can question whether the defence of Liège and subsequent resistance did much to delay the German advance. The Germans might actually have gained four or five days if Belgian opposition had been weaker but they still managed to cross Belgium more or less on time. What really harmed their plan was the need to detach some five corps from their right wing to invest Namur, Maubeuge and Antwerp. Battle of the Frontiers The French Plan XVII was first put to the test on 6 August, when Bonneau’s VII Corps advanced into Upper Alsace. Bonneau was soon obliged, by German troops from Strasbourg, to retire but the Army of Alsace, under General Pau, tried again on 14 August, retaking Mulhouse. However, as threats to the Allied left and centre developed, Joffre had to withdraw Pau’s formations for use elsewhere along the front. These opening moves left the French with only a small corner of Alsace in the eastern foothills of the Vosges. The principal thrust into Lorraine by Dubail’s First Army and de Castelnau’s Second Army also began on 14 August. Schlieffen had intended the German left-wing armies to give ground, enticing the French forces away from the decisive right wing, but when Crown Prince Rupprecht of Bavaria proposed a counter-attack by his own Sixth Army and Heeringen’s Seventh Army, Moltke – seduced by the prospect of enveloping both French flanks – let them proceed. The subsequent actions at Sarrebourg and Morhange on 20 August rapidly revealed that, for the French infantry, offensive spirit would not by itself triumph over modern artillery and machine guns. The French, suffering enormous losses, were pushed back on their own frontier fortifications. Here, however, they mustered sufficient strength and resolve to organise a successful defence of Nancy and the Moselle line. The modifications to their original plan had not, in the event, enabled the Germans to deal the French right a mortal blow, and as the fighting in this region became less intense Joffre could again transfer troops to buttress the Allied centre and 47 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Crowds gather to cheer on ANZAC troops as they march to Westminster Abbey in London. The photograph illustrates public enthusiasm for the war at that time. (Corbis) 48 left. On the other hand, having vastly underestimated the extent to which the Germans would employ reservists, and still unaware of the real width of the German drive through Belgium, Joffre misjudged the strength of the German centre. On being ordered to advance north-east into the Ardennes, Ruffey’s Third Army and de Langle de Cary’s Fourth Army blundered into German forces around Neufchâteau and Virton on 21–22 August and were bloodily repulsed. Moltke’s overall handling of operations was even less certain than that of the French. On 17 August he made a misguided effort to improve the co-ordination of the German right wing, placing Kluck under the orders of the more cautious Bülow. This irritated the pugnacious Kluck and also inhibited him from swinging the First Army as far west as was necessary to turn the Allied left. Nevertheless, the true scale of German strength and movements began to dawn upon Lanrezac, the French Fifth Army commander, as he approached the Sambre and Meuse between Charleroi and Givet and found the German Second and Third Armies advancing towards him from the north and east through Belgium. His warnings caused some at French General Headquarters to brand him a defeatist, but as Bülow’s forces crossed the Sambre on 21 August and French THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 counter-attacks failed the next day, all hopes of a French offensive to the north-east evaporated. On 22 August, displaying untypical impetuosity and without waiting for Hausen’s Third Army, Bülow pressed the French back an additional 5 miles. This counteracted the planned effect of Hausen’s Meuse crossing on 23 August for, with the French Fifth Army further south than expected, it was correspondingly harder to attack its rear. Even so, when Hausen appeared on his right, Lanrezac felt that he must act immediately to avert disaster. Battle of Mons By this time the BEF, under Field-Marshal Sir John French, had reached the Maubeuge–Le Cateau area, on the Allied left. Field-Marshal Lord Kitchener – who had been appointed Secretary of State for War on 5 August – feared that this forward concentration might lead to the BEF being overwhelmed by the German forces massing north of the Meuse. He could not change the assembly area but the perceived threat of a German invasion caused him to delay the embarkation of two Regular divisions. Thus at the start of the campaign the volatile Sir John French only had four infantry divisions and one cavalry division to hand. His problems, and his temper, worsened when the commander of II Corps, Grierson, suffered a fatal heart attack and Kitchener chose to replace him with General Sir Horace Smith-Dorrien, whose relations with French had long been tense. Nevertheless, after an otherwise smooth assembly, the BEF moved up into the industrial region near Mons on 22 August, expecting to participate in an Allied offensive into Belgium. Instead it speedily became evident that the BEF was directly in the path of the German First Army sweeping down from the north-east, Lanrezac having failed to stop the Germans on the Sambre. Despite his exposed position, Sir John promised to cover Lanrezac’s left by standing at Mons for 24 hours. II Corps manned the line of the Mons-Condé Canal and a small salient around the town, while Lieutenant-General Sir Douglas Haig’s I Corps was to its right. For a time Kluck was ignorant of the British deployment across his axis of advance. During the morning of 23 August his leading corps – running headlong into the BEF – made a succession of piecemeal, badly co-ordinated assaults against Smith-Dorrien’s positions in the salient and along the canal. The BEF’s incomparable musketry exacted a terrible toll from the dense German formations but the British quickly became acquainted with the power and accuracy of the German artillery. Although Haig’s I Corps was not heavily engaged, Smith-Dorrien’s troops largely held on until the late afternoon, when relentless German pressure and numerical superiority finally told. Accordingly II Corps fell back about 2 miles to pre-selected positions. 49 THE FIRST WORLD WAR The BEF had performed well in its first important battle, keeping Kluck’s First Army at bay for the best part of a day. Most of the 1,600 British casualties were in II Corps. That night, however, the threat to the French Fifth Army’s right near Dinant prompted Lanrezac to withdraw without consulting Joffre or the British. The BEF had no alternative but to conform with Lanrezac. In some respects this proved a blessing in disguise, as the rearward move coincided with renewed German efforts to turn the vulnerable British left flank. Allied retreat Men of the 4th Battalion, Royal Fusiliers, resting in the Grand Place, Mons, on 23 August 1914. (IWM Q70071) 50 In the last week of August, the Allied armies everywhere were in retreat, though they retained enough resilience to organise determined rearguard operations. It was at this point, with Plan XVII in tatters and the truth about the German use of reservists becoming frighteningly apparent, that the impassive Joffre displayed his best qualities. Refusing to abandon all thoughts of an offensive, he created a new Sixth Army, commanded by General Maunoury, on the endangered Allied left, having coolly taken troops from his own reserves and the French right for this purpose. Joffre’s calmness under pressure was in total contrast to the increasing nervousness of his opponent, Moltke. As Falkenhayn and Ludendorff would show in years to come, the German General Staff often allowed fleeting operational opportunities to obscure its original strategic aim. Moltke was no different in this regard. The dazzling prospect of achieving a double envelopment THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 of the Allied armies had already persuaded him to give the commanders of his left-wing armies their head, and on 25 August he further dismantled the Schlieffen Plan by releasing two corps from the key right wing to help block the Russian advance in East Prussia. Given that formations had also been detached to deal with various fortresses, the three German right-wing armies had by now lost more than a quarter of their strength and had still not fulfilled their principal task. The battle of the frontiers and the Allied retreat to the Marne, 22 August– 5 September 1914. 0 Rhi 0 ne Calais 25 miles 50 km Sch eldt s Ly N xxxx von KLUCK Brussels St Omer First xxxx mb P I C A R DY St Quentin Montdidier e Soissons Ois xxxx Sixth MAUNOURY Ourcq Meaux xxxx E Reims Epernay Se Ninth FOCH Fifth LANREZAC ell Metz RUPPRECHT Third SARRAIL Sixth LOR St Mihiel Nancy xxxx xxxx Fourth De LANGLE de CARY Second CASTELNAU RA IN s el Vo s First ges le xxxx Châtillon sur Seine Strasbourg xxxx Epinal DUBAIL Front line on 22 August 1914 Front line on 30 August 1914 Front line on 3 September 1914 Front line on 5 September 1914 Direction of German advance Sarrebourg E Seventh von HEERINGEN Mo FRANCE ar xxxx Châlons Aub e Crown Prince WILHELM Sa Vitry Le François xxxx GERMANY xxxx Fifth Verdun xxxx xxxx FRENCH BEF i n e Melun A is n e rne Ma Château Thierry Craonne CHA MPA GN Compiègne Luxembourg use Me Beauvais Paris Mézières Sedan Rethel Noyon e s n e n d e A r LUXEMBOURG Guise os Péronne Givet re Sa ine Maubeuge s Cambrai Le Cateau Abbeville Som me Amiens Rh Namur Dinant CE Charleroi Arras von BÜLOW Second xxxx von HAUSEN Coblenz Third xxxx ALBRECHT Fourth M ARTOIS M e e us Mt Lens Liège BELGIUM Mons ALSA Lille La Bassée Mulhouse Belfort 51 THE FIRST WORLD WAR For the Allied and German troops who had to march some 20 miles a day in the searing late August heat, thirst, fatigue, hunger and blistered feet were of much greater concern than the grand designs of their commanders. After the battle of Mons, the BEF’s two corps had become separated by the Forest of Mormal. On 26 August, Smith-Dorrien judged that the Germans were so close to II Corps that he could not disengage without fighting another battle. Contrary to the wishes of Sir John French, he conducted a determined holding action at Le Cateau, where the Germans again suffered severely in the face of the BEF’s musketry. II Corps itself lost 7,182 officers and men, but because of its timely stand was able to continue its retreat in relatively good order. Smith-Dorrien’s strained relations with Sir John French deteriorated beyond repair after Le Cateau. However, the stand by II Corps achieved its objective, for it not only led the Germans to overestimate British strength but also deterred Kluck from immediate pursuit. Moreover, Kluck’s mistaken conclusion that the BEF was falling back south-west rather than to the south gave the British formations an unexpected breathing space, permitting them to retreat comparatively unmolested over the next few days. Yet the respite did not dispel Sir John French’s gloom. Feeling let down by the French and disheartened by the BEF’s casualties, he now believed that he could only save the BEF by taking it out of the Allied line of battle and retiring behind the Seine. It took the personal intervention of Kitchener, in a hastily arranged visit to France on 1 September, to prevent Sir John from following this course. The Marne miracle After the BEF had escaped his clutches, Kluck was freed from Bülow’s direct command on 27 August and at first headed south-west towards Amiens. By 28 August the BEF was less of a priority to him as he began to consider wheeling inwards, a move which might enable him to push Lanrezac away from Paris and to roll up the French Fifth Army’s left. At this juncture Joffre ordered an unenthusiastic Lanrezac to turn his face to the west and counter-attack between Guise and St Quentin. Lanrezac, in fact, handled the operation with great skill. On 29 August, the prestigious Guard Corps of the German Second Army was checked at Guise by the French I Corps, commanded by the energetic Franchet d’Esperey. This blow caused an apprehensive Bülow to call for Kluck’s support, so presenting the latter with the pretext he required to change direction. Without seeking Moltke’s prior agreement, on 30 August Kluck ordered his First Army to execute the wheel inwards. Instead of passing west of the French capital as planned, First Army would move north-east of it, exposing Kluck’s flank to attack by Maunoury’s French Sixth Army, now positioned north of Paris. With both events and his subordinates rapidly slipping beyond his control, Moltke tamely gave his blessing to Kluck’s manoeuvre. 52 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 The glittering opportunity offered by Kluck’s swerve inwards was not immediately appreciated by the Allies. One effect of the move, however, was to bring Kluck back into contact with the BEF. Some spirited rearguard actions ensued, such as that at Néry on 1 September, when ‘L’ Battery, Royal Horse Artillery, won three Victoria Crosses while helping to hold off the German 4th Cavalry Division for four hours. Having retreated 200 miles, the BEF crossed the Marne on 3 September but aerial reconnaissance revealed the vulnerability of Kluck’s left flank. On 4 September, as Kluck drew ahead of Bülow across the Marne, the Military Governor of Paris, General Galliéni, persuaded Joffre to halt the retreat and order the Allied left to deliver a general counter-attack. At almost the same time Moltke tacitly acknowledged the failure of the German right wing’s offensive by stopping Kluck and Bülow and directing them to swing round to face the eastern side of Paris. On 6 and 7 September Kluck coped brilliantly with the French Sixth Army’s initial attacks against his flank and communications, reversing his own First Army, pivoting to the west and sending three corps by forced marches to confront Maunoury along the Ourcq. Troops rushed from Paris in taxicabs could not prevent Maunoury’s units from being pushed back, but Kluck’s further movement westwards again extended the gap between the German First and Second Armies. Bülow too had responded capably to the pressure exerted by the French Fifth Army (now commanded by Franchet d’Esperey) and the newly created Ninth Army, under Foch. By its third day the Allied counterstroke was faltering; in several places it had been repulsed with heavy losses. At the crisis of the battle, on 9 September, it was the Germans who lost their nerve. As the BEF recrossed the Marne and advanced cautiously into the gap between the two German right-wing armies, an anxious and exhausted Bülow ordered a retreat. His decision was endorsed by Lieutenant-Colonel Hentsch, a hard-working but impressionable staff officer sent to the front to represent the utterly demoralised Moltke. Kluck was left with no option but to retire northwards to the Aisne, with Bülow. The ‘Miracle of the Marne’ saved Paris and dealt the final blow to German plans for a swift victory in the west. In many respects the Marne fighting had boiled down to a battle of wills between the opposing commanders. While the nerves of Moltke and Bülow had given way, the stolid Joffre had retained his grip; his reputation and his authority, as the saviour of France, would become unshakeable in the following months. Moltke, on the other hand, did not survive long in office. On 14 September General Erich von Falkenhayn was given control of operations, although to preserve appearances and morale Moltke kept his post, in name only, until 3 November. However, if the Allies had gained a momentous strategic success on the Marne, they were still a very long way from defeating the German armies. 53 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Deadlock Despite their reverse on the Marne, the German right-wing armies fell back to strong positions, especially the Chemin des Dames ridge, some 4 miles north of the River Aisne between Craonne and Soissons. Deriving its name from a road built along its crest for Louis XV’s daughters, this steep, wooded ridge had a series of finger-like spurs extending down towards the Aisne. It was here, on the BEF’s line of advance, that a significant gap remained between the German First and Second Armies, but unhappily for the Allies, neither the BEF nor neighbouring French formations could push on quickly enough to exploit the situation. The BEF’s commanders have since been criticised for lack of drive and unnecessary concern about their flanks, yet the troops were tired after three weeks of marching and fighting. Moreover, the BEF was advancing through countryside intersected by rivers; many bridges had been demolished by the Germans; poor weather restricted aerial reconnaissance; and a shift of front on 11 September increased congestion on roads. Upon reaching the Aisne, the BEF again found that most bridges had been destroyed and that the Germans had a considerable concentration of artillery on its northern side. Nonetheless, the bulk of the BEF’s three corps – the third having been formed on 30 August – managed to cross the river on 13 September and probe forward up the valleys and spurs. The delays cost the Allies dear, for the British were just too late in assaulting the heights north of the Aisne. The fall of Maubeuge on 7–8 September released German troops for other tasks and the VII Reserve Corps, under Zwehl, rushed to plug the gap on the German right. Following a forced march of 40 miles in 24 hours, during which almost a quarter of its infantry dropped out, leading elements of the corps reached positions along the Chemin des Dames by 2pm on 13 September, two hours before the vanguard of Haig’s I Corps, on the British right, approached the crest. Though few recognised it at the time, this was one of the defining moments of the war. The next day, in a true ‘soldier’s battle’ of confused, close-quarter fighting, British attempts to take the ridge met heavy artillery fire and entrenched German infantry. Some battalions of I Corps managed to pierce the German line and cross the Chemin des Dames to look down into the Ailette valley beyond. They were subsequently forced back but gallantly maintained a foothold near the crest. II and III Corps to their left had failed to make much progress, with the result that by dusk the British line stretched south-west from the Chemin des Dames on the right, down towards the Aisne near Missy and Chivres and thence westward to Crouy near Soissons. Over the following fortnight German efforts to drive the British back across the Aisne were thwarted by the BEF’s superior musketry, and a defensive stand-off – dominated by machine guns, rifles and artillery – descended on 54 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 the Aisne battlefield as both sides dug in. The stalemate of trench warfare had arrived on the Western Front. Race to the sea With deadlock gripping the front from the Aisne eastwards, each side tried to turn the other’s open flank to the west and north in what became known as the ‘race to the sea’. Maunoury’s French Sixth Army struck first astride the Oise on 17 September but was blocked near Noyon by the German IX Reserve Corps, moving down from Antwerp. Two days later another German corps, coming from Reims, stopped an advance over the Avre by de Castelnau’s Second Army, itself brought from Lorraine to bolster the Allied left. Joffre formed a new French Tenth Army, under General de Maud’huy, which attempted to get round the German right flank further north but subsequently struggled, early in October, to hold Arras against a thrust by three German corps. These operations between the Aisne and Belgium did not, however, lead to a cessation of fighting elsewhere. In late September the French beat off repeated assaults at Verdun, although the German Fifth Army, under Crown Prince Wilhelm, gained ground in the Argonne forest and a troublesome German salient was established on the western bank of the Meuse, at St Mihiel. The shape which the Western Front would largely retain until 1918 was fast being moulded. Worried about becoming enmeshed in the Aisne stalemate, Sir John French urged Joffre to allow the BEF to disengage and resume its former position on the Allied left. Tactically the BEF – lacking heavy artillery but possessing effective cavalry – would be of greater value on the open left flank while, strategically, it seemed sensible to shorten its lines of communication with the Channel ports. Despite the problems which would arise from the passage of British divisions across French lines of communication, Joffre sanctioned the move. On 1 October the BEF began a side-step to the Flanders plain, a region which would become one of its main fields of sacrifice for the remainder of the conflict. In the first three weeks of October Smith-Dorrien’s II Corps pushed towards La Bassée while, to the north, Major-General Pulteney’s III Corps advanced towards Lille. The Cavalry Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Edmund Allenby and operating on Pulteney’s left, occupied Messines and Wytschaete, linking with the recently formed IV Corps which, after the surrender of Antwerp, was ordered to Ypres. The co-ordination of operations between the Oise and the sea was entrusted by Joffre to Foch, who was appointed to head a new Northern Army Group. There were no formal arrangements for unity of command and Foch had no direct powers over the British and Belgians, but in practice his allies 55 THE FIRST WORLD WAR – wherever possible – acted upon his proposals rapidly and without friction at this stage of the war. Such co-operation was essential, for Falkenhayn was currently displaying a deft strategic touch, using railways cleverly to gain a vital edge in redeploying and reinforcing his armies. With the Germans setting the pace, the Allies were at greater risk of being outflanked in late October and early November. The German Sixth Army, which had moved across the front from Lorraine, strove to dislodge the Allies from their positions between La Bassée and Menin, and a reconstituted Fourth Army, under Duke Albrecht of Württemberg, closed in on Ypres. The latter formation included four new reserve corps with a large proportion of highly motivated young volunteers from universities and technical colleges who, although hurriedly trained, offered Falkenhayn a potentially decisive advantage as he sought to outflank the Allied left and drive down the Channel coast. Antwerp falls Once the ‘race to the sea’ gathered speed, the Germans knew that they must finally deal with the problem posed by Antwerp, to which the Belgian Field Army had withdrawn in August. The Belgians had made sorties from Antwerp on 24 August and 9 September, trying to disrupt German communications, but these efforts had merely exacerbated the exhaustion and low morale of their own troops. King Albert’s objections notwithstanding, Joffre spurred him into ordering a third sortie. This had hardly begun when, on 28 September, the Germans opened a bombardment against Antwerp’s outer forts. The Germans had few spare formations available and the force they assembled, under General von Beseler, mostly comprised Reserve, Landwehr or Ersatz units. However, the 80,000 garrison troops supplementing the Belgian Field Army were of indifferent quality and Antwerp’s 48 forts and redoubts were obsolete and outgunned. Hence, although numerical weakness restricted Beseler to an assault on the city’s south-eastern defences, five days of infantry attacks and bombardment by super-heavy siege artillery were enough to breach the outer ring of forts. The Belgians were now convinced of the need to evacuate Antwerp. Warned of their intentions by the British Minister in Belgium, the British Government belatedly intervened. In a personal visit to Antwerp on 3 October the First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, persuaded the Belgians to continue their resistance provided that, within three days, the British could guarantee relief forces would be sent. The French offered the 87th Territorial Division and a Marine Brigade while the British promised a contingent, commanded by Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Rawlinson, which contained the Regular 7th Division and 3rd Cavalry Division. 56 THE WESTERN FRONT 1914 – 1916 In actuality the only reinforcements to arrive were from the newly formed Royal Naval Division, which reached Antwerp between 4 and 6 October. Their presence did not prevent the Germans from extending a bridgehead across the River Nethe, thereby hastening the city’s fall. The greater part of the Belgian Field Army duly carried out a further retirement to the Nieuport–Dixmude line along the River Yser. Rearguards, including the Royal Naval Division, left Antwerp during the night of 8–9 October and on 10 October the city formally surrendered. Rawlinson’s force, designated IV Corps, had landed at Zeebrugge and Ostend but could do no more than concentrate at Ghent to cover the withdrawal of the Royal Naval Division and Belgians before moving south-west to join the French 87th Division in protecting Ypres. The eleventh-hour British contribution to Antwerp’s defence had been too small to save the city; however, it did help to delay the surrender for some five days, winning precious time for the main BEF to reach Flanders. The true value of British intervention at Antwerp, within the wider context of the whole 1914 campaign, would become clear over the next six weeks. The 2nd Battalion, Royal Scots Fusiliers, digging trenches north of the Menin Road, near Ypres, on 20 October 1914. (IWM) 57 THE FIRST WORLD WAR Fighting on the Yser Having abandoned Antwerp, the Belgian Field Army, with the French Marine Brigade, consolidated its positions between Dixmude and the coast near Nieuport. King Albert’s decision to stand there, rather than help his allies inland, proved sensible. On 14 October Falkenhayn ordered the German Sixth Army to remain temporarily on the defensive south of Ypres while the Fourth Army – incorporating the four Reserve Corps of young volunteers – made the potentially decisive thrust between Menin and the sea, towards Calais. Its right, on the coast, would be covered by Beseler’s III Reserve Corps, including units from the Antwerp operations. Beseler’s attack on 18 October – augmented the following day by XXII Reserve Corps – pushed back Belgian outposts east of the Yser, but further assaults on 19–20 October were repulsed at Dixmude and at Nieuport, where the Germans were shelled by Allied warships. Foch sent the French 42nd Division to stiffen the Nieuport sector, but on 22 October the Germans established a bridgehead across the Yser, at Tervaete. Once again employing their super-heavy guns, the Germans delivered repeated blows at Dixmude – now perilously close to being outflanked. As their losses grew it became progressively more difficult for the Belgians to continue their stubborn defence. Consequently, on 28 October they opened the gates of the Furnes lock at Nieuport and flooded the low ground east of the embankment carrying the Nieuport–Dixmude railway. At first this desperate measure did not stop the Germans who, by noon on 30 October, had seized Ramscapelle and reached Pervyse. However, that night the rising water forced Beseler to pull III Reserve Corps back across the Yser, followed, two days later, by XXII Reserve Corps. Frustrated near the coast, Falkenhayn and Duke Albrecht were obliged to turn their attention inland again and launch their next major attack in the Ypres area. First battle of Ypres While the struggle on the Yser raged, the BEF had largely clung to its positions at Messines, Ploegsteert and La Bassée. The farmland surrounding the Belgian town of Ypres was now the only sector where either side had a real chance of outflanking the enemy. Arriving from the Aisne on 20 October, Haig’s I Corps advanced north of Ypres, near Langemarck, but ran head-on into the German XXIV and XXVI Reserve Corps approaching from the north-east. Far from striking a decisive blow, the Allies became embroiled in a fluctuating encounter battle during which they were compelled to feed in units piecemeal simply to hold their ground. On the German side, the patriotism of the young volunteers could not disguise their limited training and they fell in thousands at Langemarck, attacking in dense skirmish lines. Remembered by 58 THE WESTERN FRONT
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/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.datocms-assets.com%2F120590%2F1709944331-35524138-dcee-4278-92ff-9006675c1c48_kokuras_sword.png&w=2048&q=75 2048w, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.datocms-assets.com%2F120590%2F1709944331-35524138-dcee-4278-92ff-9006675c1c48_kokuras_sword.png&w=3840&q=75 3840w", "https://www.kards.com/static/images/logo1939.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		de	/favicon.ico	KARDS - Das Card Game zum Zweiten Weltkrieg	null	Check out the image below for an overview of all cards revealed so far in the Brothers in Arms expansion! This image is updated on a weekly basis. To ensure that you get the newest information about the latest card reveals, join us on Discord, and follow us on social media: Facebook Twitter YouTube Twitch Week 1 Reveals 50. Infantry Regiment The 50. INFANTRY REGIMENT is a German Infantry unit of Standard rarity with the Veteran ability. It costs 2 Kredits to play, 1 Kredit to operate, has 3 attack and 2 defense. The 50. INFANTRY REGIMENT becomes Veteran when it moves into the frontline. When it's Veteran, it has 4 attack, 3 defense, and gains the Ambush ability. Historical Context At the start of WWII the 50th Infantry Regiment was part of the 3rd Infantry Division of the Wehrmacht which took part in the invasion of Poland in 1939 and the invasion of France in 1940. In 1941 the regiment was transferred to the 111th Infantry Division to participate in Operation Barbarossa as part of Army Group South. The division fought around Kiev where it helped to trap and destroy the Soviet 37th Army before pushing eastwards. After the capture of Russian city Rostov-on-Don in 1941 they were forced to retreat and take up defensive positions. After some rest the 111th Infantry Division joined operation Case Blue with the 17th Army, which was a German summer offensive in 1942 with the goal of securing the Soviet oil fields in the Caucasus. Case Blue was a failure and ended with the withdrawal of the German forces and the 111th Division took up defensive positions which lasted until July 1943. After the German defeat at the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943 the division gradually rolled back to the west, defending various areas until it was eventually destroyed while defending Crimea. The last remnants were evacuated by ship in May 1944, and the division was disbanded. 327th PATHFINDERS An Elite US Infantry unit, the 327th PATHFINDERS has 2 attack, 2 defense, costs 3 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. Its deployment effect deals 2 damage to a unit and, if this destroys it, the 327th PATHFINDERS becomes Veteran. In its Veteran form, this unit has Blitz and the effect that at the start of your turn, a random enemy unit Retreats. Historical Context The Pathfinders of the 327th Glider Infantry Regiment were a specialized unit within the US Army during WWII. They were responsible for landing ahead of the main airborne forces to prepare and mark the landing zones for subsequent paratrooper drops or glider landings. The Pathfinders were trained to jump from aircraft or gliders and make their way to the designated landing zones. They would then set up beacons, signal lights, and other markers to guide the incoming aircraft. This was a crucial task, as accurate and timely delivery of troops and equipment was essential for the success of airborne operations. The 327th Glider Infantry Regiment played a vital role in several important operations during WWII, including the D-Day invasion of Normandy, the airborne assault during Operation Market Garden, and the Rhine River crossing during Operation Varsity. Additionally, in December 1944, the 327th was part of the 101st Airborne Division, which was hastily deployed to the Ardennes during the German offensive, known as the Battle of the Bulge. One of the most notable actions of the 327th Pathfinders during the battle was the defense of the town of Bastogne. For its action during the defense the regiment got its nickname “Bastogne Bulldogs”. After the Battle of the Bulge, the 327th Infantry fought in the Rhineland and Berchtesgaden offensives. Following the end of WWII, the regiment was deactivated on 30 November 1945. STRONG BOND The British Order STRONG BOND has the effect that a friendly ground unit gets Guard and: "Add a US 3-cost unit to your support line at the start of your turn". It costs 4 Kredits and is Standard rarity. Historical Context After the American Revolution in 1783 the UK recognized American independence and the two countries established diplomatic relations in 1785. Ever since the UK and the US have remained close partners. The UK-US relations at the start of WWII were complex as the Americans were divided on what the role of the nation should be in the war, or if it should interfere at all. However, public opinion changed, especially during the Battle of Britain, as it showed that the German war machine was not invincible, and by April 1941 a public poll showed that the majority of Americans were in favor of joining the war against the Axis. Finally the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, ended the debate once and for all and shortly after the US was at war with the Axis powers. 6th AIRLANDING BRIGADE An Elite British Infantry unit, the 6th AIRLANDING BRIGADE has the Fury ability and the effect that when a friendly unit would deal 1 combat damage, it deals 3 instead. It has 1 attack, 4 defense, costs 2 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. Historical Context The 6th Airlanding Brigade was an airborne infantry brigade of the British Army during WWII. The brigade was created in 1943 and was assigned to the 6th Airborne Division, nicknamed Red Devils, along with the 3rd and 5th Parachute Brigades. The 6th Airlanding Brigade was unique among British airborne units in that it was composed entirely of glider-borne troops. The brigade consisted of three battalions of infantry, as well as supporting units such as engineers, medics, and anti-tank troops. The brigade saw action in several major operations during the war, including the Normandy landings in June 1944 and the Battle of Arnhem in September 1944. During the Normandy landings, the brigade was tasked with securing the eastern flank of the invasion area and capturing several key bridges. At Arnhem, the brigade was tasked with securing the landing zones and holding bridges over the Rhine River. The 6th Airlanding Brigade suffered heavy losses during both operations, with many of its troops killed, wounded, or captured. However, the brigade's actions were critical in the success of these operations. After the war, the 6th Airlanding Brigade was disbanded. 49th KARACHEV A Soviet Infantry unit of Limited rarity, the 49th KARACHEV has the Guard ability and, when an enemy unit becomes Veteran, deals 2 damage to it. It has 3 attack, 4 defense, costs 3 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. Historical Context During WWII the 49th Guards Rifle Regiment was part of the 16th Guards Rifle Division, which was a highly decorated and elite infantry division of the Red Army during Great Patriotic War. It was formed in February 1942 and served in various fronts throughout the war. It was initially assigned to Kalinin Front and later transferred to Western Front's 30th Army where it took part in the struggle for the village of Polunino. It then fought in various battles and operations and was eventually reassigned to the 11th Guards Army, with which it served for the rest of the war. During the summer offensive against the German-held salient around Oryol, it assisted in the liberation of Karachev and received its name as an honorific. The division participated in the liberation of key cities like Orsha, Minsk, and Königsberg (today known as Kaliningrad), and was highly decorated for its actions. It remained in the Kaliningrad Oblast well after the war until it was finally disbanded in September 1960. THE MIGHTY FALL THE MIGHTY FALL is a Soviet Order of Limited rarity. It costs 3 Kredits to play and has the effect "Destroy target Veteran unit". Historical Context At the start of Operation Barbarossa (the German invasion of the Soviet Union), the Soviet Union and the Red Army had a huge disadvantage, militarily, productionally and technologically. However, at the start of 1943 they started gaining the upper hand in a series of significant turning points. This started with their victory in the Battle of Stalingrad in February 1943, followed by The Battle of Kursk in July 1943, and finally the Operation Bagration (June-August 1944). It's also important to note that the Soviet Union's ability to produce weapons and equipment on a massive scale, combined with its vast resources and manpower, was a crucial factor in their overall success. While Germany initially had the upper hand in certain technological aspects, the Soviet Union's determination, industrial capacity, and strategic planning allowed them to catch up and ultimately overcome Germany's technological and military advantages. BATTLE VALOR BATTLE VALOR is a Standard US Order that costs 5 Kredits to play. It has the effect that a target unit becomes Veteran if able, then gets +2 +4. Historical Context While it is difficult to provide precise numbers, machine gunners in bombers did contribute to shooting down enemy aircraft, especially when engaged in defensive actions. The primary objective of bomber gunners was to deter and suppress attacks rather than achieving high numbers of aerial victories. The role of bomber machine gunners was essential for the survival of the bomber crews and the success of their missions, even if their individual success rates in shooting down enemy planes were relatively modest. However, heroic actions of USAF machine gunners during WWII are numerous and what follows is an example. Staff Sergeant Maynard Harrison Smith served as a ball turret gunner on a B-17 Flying Fortress during World War II. On May 1, 1943, his aircraft was attacked by numerous German fighters during a mission over France. Smith's aircraft sustained heavy damage, and the tail section was severed, leaving the plane in imminent danger of breaking apart. Despite this, Smith remained at his position, providing covering fire and protecting the crew. He refused to abandon his post until ordered to do so as the aircraft began to disintegrate. Smith's dedication and selflessness earned him the Medal of Honor. FIELD HOSPITAL FIELD HOSPITAL is a Special US Order that costs 5 Kredits to play. When played, you fully repair each friendly unit and draw a card for each unit repaired. Historical Context During WWII, US field hospitals played a crucial role in providing medical care to wounded soldiers on the front lines. These field hospitals were mobile units designed to provide emergency medical treatment and stabilize injured personnel before they could be transported to more extensive medical facilities. The United States made several notable contributions and innovations in the field of military medicine during the war. For example the first trials of Mobile Army Surgical Hospitals (MASH) were established by the U.S. Army, which was a significant innovation. These mobile surgical hospitals brought advanced surgical capabilities closer to the front lines, reducing the time between injury and surgical intervention. Another innovation was Blood Plasma and Component Therapy which the US military played a crucial role in developing and implementing during the war. This development significantly improved the management of casualties and contributed to better outcomes. It's important to note that while the United States made significant contributions in these areas, other nations also made important advancements in military medicine during WWII. Also note that many medical professionals and researchers from various countries worked together and independently to improve the care and outcomes for wounded soldiers. MATSUMOTO REGIMENT The MATSUMOTO REGIMENT is a Special Japanese Infantry unit that costs 3 Kredits to deploy and 0 Kredits to operate. It has 3 attack, 4 defense, and deals 1 damage to the enemy HQ when a Destruction effect triggers. Historical Context The 50th Infantry Regiment (Matsumoto) was a unit of the 29th Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, which was active from 1941-1945. From 1941 the 29th division was tasked with the defense of the Liaoyang area in Manchukuo state of Manchuria, but in 1944 the majority of the division, which consisted of the 18th and 38th infantry regiments, was deployed to Guam island along with the 48th Independent Mixed Brigade. Meanwhile, smaller units were dispatched to Tinian and Rota islands. The Japanese garrison on Tinian consisted of approximately 9,000 soldiers, including the 50th Infantry Regiment and the 29th tank company, who were well-fortified and prepared for the American invasion. The Battle of Tinian began on July 24, 1944, with a massive bombardment of the island by the US Navy and Army Air Forces. The Japanese defenders, however, remained dug in and refused to surrender despite overwhelming odds. By 30 July the remnants of the defenders were holed up in caves and ravines on the south portion of the island. Realizing the futility of further resistance, Colonel Ogata ordered his forces to launch a massive banzai charge. This desperate attempt resulted in heavy casualties for the Japanese, but the battle continued for a few more days until organized resistance was effectively crushed on 3 August 1944. Only about 200 men of the Japanese garrison survived the fighting. 56th RECON 56th RECON is a Japanese Infantry unit of Limited rarity. It has 2 attack, 1 defense, costs 1 Kredit to play and 1 Kredit to operate. It has Intel 1 and the Destruction effect to deal 1 damage to each enemy unit. Historical Context The 56th Reconnaissance Regiment was a motorized unit of the 56th Division of the Imperial Japanese Army, which was active 1940-1945. Initially, the 56th Division was intended as reinforcements for the Japanese invasion of Malaya but was attached to the 25th Army and sent to Burma in March 1942. The Division played a significant role in the Battle of Toungoo, where it linked with the 55th Division, and forced the Chinese to evacuate the city, paving the way to the east. The 56th Division defeated the Chinese 6th Corps in several battles, including Mawchi, Bawlake, Bato, Taunggyi, and Loikaw. It advanced north through the Shan States, took the city of Lashio, and cut off much of the local Chinese Army from China, forcing the Allies to evacuate Burma. After May 1942, the 56th Division mostly performed garrison duties on the Yunnan border. In January 1944, the division participated in the Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan campaign, where it played a significant role in shattering Merrill's Marauders in the Siege of Myitkyina and delaying the Chinese forces during the Battle of Mount Song. The Division suffered heavy losses and was removed from the front line in October 1944. On the day of the surrender of Japan, August 15, 1945, the division was stationed on the border between South Burma and Thailand. YAK 9 PL The YAK 9 PL is a Special Polish Fighter with Exile and Blitz abilities and grants Blitz to your Exile units. It has 3 attack, 5 defense, costs 4 Kredits to play and 2 Kredits to operate. Historical Context The Yakovlev Yak 9 was a Soviet fighter aircraft that played a significant role in the Soviet Air Force during WWII. It was a development of the earlier Yak 7 and Yak 1 fighters, incorporating improvements and modifications based on combat experience.The Yak 9 was designed by Alexander Yakovlev and entered service with the Soviet Air Force in 1942. It was a versatile aircraft that saw action in various roles, including air superiority, ground attack, and escort missions. The aircraft was known for its agility, robustness, and adaptability. While the majority of the Polish Air Force was disbanded or incorporated into foreign air forces after the German and Soviet occupations of Poland, a significant number of Polish pilots managed to escape and join Allied air forces. Some of these Polish pilots, while serving in Soviet-controlled units, flew Soviet aircraft, including the Yak 9. The most notable example is the Air Force of the Polish Army which was created alongside the Polish People's Army, a subordinate to the Red Army. It was the primary Polish air force formation within the Polish Armed Forces in the East during WWII. FIAT CR.32 The FIAT CR.32 is a Limited Italian Fighter that costs 2 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. It has 1 attack, 3 defense, and the effect that when your HQ gains defense, you fully repair a random friendly unit. Historical Context The FIAT CR.32 was an Italian biplane fighter aircraft that saw significant use during the interwar period and the early years of WWII. It was designed by the Italian manufacturer FIAT and entered service with the Regia Aeronautica (Italian Royal Air Force) in 1933. During the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), the FIAT CR.32 gained its reputation as one of the best biplane fighters of its time. It demonstrated excellent maneuverability and agility, making it highly effective in aerial combat. Its robust construction and good diving capabilities also added to its combat ability. However, by the outbreak of WWII in 1939, the FIAT CR.32 was already becoming outdated compared to the monoplane fighters that other nations were deploying. It was gradually phased out of frontline service in the Regia Aeronautica, being replaced by more modern aircraft like the Macchi C.200 and C.202. During the early stages of the war, the FIAT CR.32 continued to see limited use by Italy and its allies and it was used in various combat theaters, including North Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Balkans. By the mid-1940s, the FIAT CR.32 was mostly relegated to secondary roles, such as training, reconnaissance, and ground-attack missions. It was gradually phased out of service as more advanced aircraft became available. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that a few CR.32s remained in use until the end of the war in 1945. HURRICANE Mk II-C TROP HURRICANE Mk II-C TROP is a Limited British Fighter. It has 3 attack, 3 defense, costs 3 Kredits to play and 2 Kredits to operate. It is a Veteran unit, which becomes Veteran when it survives combat. In its Veteran form, it has 5 attack and 5 defense. Historical Context The Hurricane Mk II variant first saw service in 1940, with a more powerful engine and gradually improved armament. The Hurricane's main advantage over the Spitfire was that it was easier to fly, which was useful because squadrons were full of inexperienced pilots, and its gun platform was easier to handle than the Spitfire's. The unprotected fuel tank in front of the cockpit, on the other hand, could rupture and cause serious burn injuries to the pilot if hit. The wooden and fabric rear fuselages were also more prone to catching fire than metal fuselages. Despite its flaws, the Hurricane shot down the vast majority of enemy aircraft claimed by the RAF. The Hawker Hurricane and other aircraft were tropicalized, or "trop" for use in North Africa. They were given engine dust filters as well as a desert survival kit for the pilots. Ki-45 DRAGON SLAYER The Ki-45 DRAGON SLAYER is a Limited Japanese Fighter. It has 4 attack, 3 defense, costs 4 Kredits to deploy and 2 Kredits to operate. Its deployment effect makes it become Veteran if this is the first DRAGON SLAYER you deploy in the battle. When it's Veteran, the Ki-45 DRAGON SLAYER has 6 attack and 5 defense. Historical Context The Ki-45, also known as "Nick" by the Allies, was a twin-engine fighter aircraft developed by the Japanese during WWII. Its official name was "Toryu," which means Dragon Slayer in Japanese. The Ki-45 was initially designed as a heavy fighter for the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service, intended to serve as both an interceptor and a bomber destroyer. It first flew in January 1939 and entered service in 1941. The usual weaponry of the Kawasaki Ki-45 Toryu included a 20mm cannon located in the nose, a 37mm cannon firing forwards from the fuselage, a 7.92mm machine gun that fired from the rear, and the capability to carry drop tanks or bombs under the wings. Other experimental armaments were also tested, such as the use of a 75mm cannon for assaulting ships. The Ki-45 was used in a variety of roles during the war, including as an night fighter, interceptor, bomber escort, and fighter bomber aircraft. It was involved in many major battles, including the defense of the Japanese homeland during the Allied bombing campaign, as well as in the Pacific and Southeast Asia. Despite its formidable armament and performance, the Ki-45 suffered from a number of design flaws that limited its effectiveness and the aircraft's heavy armament and armor made it less maneuverable than other contemporary fighters. A total of 1,701 Ki-45 were manufactured, including a few variants. SEABEES SEABEES is a Standard US Infantry unit with 1 attack and 3 defense. When a friendly unit is repaired, you reduce its operation cost by 1 and give it +1 attack. It costs 2 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. Historical Context The Navy Seabees, officially known as the United States Naval Construction Battalions, were formed in 1942 during WWII. Composed of skilled workers enlisted or drafted into the Navy, they played a vital role in constructing and maintaining military bases, airfields, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure in support of Allied operations. In the Pacific theater, the Seabees were crucial in the island-hopping campaign, building facilities in hostile environments like Guadalcanal, Tarawa, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. They rapidly constructed airfields and bases, often under enemy fire. In Europe, they built temporary harbors and ports to support the Normandy invasion, including the innovative Mulberry harbors. The Seabees were known for their speed, efficiency, and motto "We build, we fight." They completed over 30,000 construction projects, including more than 400 advanced bases and airfields. Despite their primary construction role, they also engaged in combat, defending their sites and participating in offensive operations. NAVAL ENGAGEMENT NAVAL ENGAGEMENT is a Special Italian Order that repairs all units in your support line and destroys all units in the enemy support line. It costs 9 Kredits to play. Historical Context Although the Italian Navy (Regia Marina) was outmatched by the British fleet in the Mediterranean during WWII, there were a few instances where they achieved success. In the Second Battle of Sirte, which took place in March 1942, the Italian Navy, once again under Admiral Angelo Iachino's command, protected a convoy of supply ships en route to North Africa. Engaging British warships, the Italian fleet damaged the cruiser HMS Cleopatra and sank the destroyer HMS Kingston. In the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November 1940, Admiral Inigo Campioni led the Italian Navy in a confrontation with the British Mediterranean Fleet. Italian cruisers and destroyers successfully defended a convoy bound for North Africa, causing damage to British ships. The Italian Navy managed to escape without significant losses. However, during the Allied Invasion of Sicily in 1943, the Italian Navy was overwhelmed by the superior Allied naval forces. The Italian fleet was largely neutralized, with several ships being captured or scuttled by their own crews to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. This led to the eventual surrender of the Italian Navy to the Allies in September 1943. Subsequently, the Italian fleet was either disarmed or incorporated into Allied naval operations for the remainder of the war. ME BF 110 C-3 The ME BF 110 B-2 is a German Fighter of Limited rarity. It has 4 attack, 4 defense, costs 4 Kredits to play and 2 Kredits to operate. It has the deployment effect that it gets the Blitz ability if you control the frontline. Historical Context The Messerschmitt Bf 110, also known as the ME BF 110, was a twin-engine heavy fighter and fighter-bomber aircraft used by the Luftwaffe during WWII. The Bf 110 B-2 was one of its early variants and was mainly used for reconnaissance roles and had a reduced armament compared to other variants. It was equipped with two 7.92mm MG 17 machine guns in the nose and two 7.92mm MG 15 machine guns in the rear cockpit for defensive purposes. The Bf 110 B-2 had a range of up to 2,000 km (1,240 miles) thanks to its long-range fuel tanks and was equipped with a variety of cameras and other sensors to gather intelligence on enemy positions, movements, and activities. Later variants of the Bf 110, such as the C and D models, had improved armament and were used in a variety of roles including as bomber destroyers, night fighters, and ground attack aircraft. However, the Bf 110 B-2 variant remained in use for reconnaissance missions throughout the war. ASW PATROL ASW PATROL is a Limited US Order which costs 7 Kredits to play. When played, gain 3 extra Kredit slots. If US is Ally, destroy a random enemy unit also. Historical Context During WWII, ASW Patrol (Anti-Submarine Warfare Patrol) operations were crucial in countering the threat of German U-boats. Their mission was to protect convoys, naval vessels, and supply lines from submarine attacks. ASW Patrols utilized a variety of assets such as destroyers, frigates, corvettes, patrol boats, and aircraft equipped with sonar systems, depth charges, and other anti-submarine weapons. Tactics included using sonar to detect underwater contacts, employing depth charges for attacks, and coordinating assaults with multiple vessels. ASW Patrols also provided escort duty to merchant convoys, deterring U-boats from attacking. Close cooperation between naval vessels, aircraft, and shore-based command centers was crucial for intelligence gathering and coordinated attacks. Technological advancements improved ASW capabilities, with more sophisticated sonar systems and weapons like hedgehog mortars and squid mortars. Allied success in countering U-boats turned the tide in the Battle of the Atlantic and secured vital supply lines which allowed for the transport of troops, equipment, and supplies to their military campaigns. Week 2 Reveals 185th BRIGADE The 185th BRIGADE is a British Infantry unit of Standard rarity. It has 1 attack, 8 defense, costs 4 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. The 185th BRIGADE has the Guard ability and, additionally, deals +3 damage to HQs. Historical Context The 185th Infantry Brigade of the British Army was formed in September 1942 and started as a Home Defense formation in the northern part of the UK. In 1943 it was assigned four frontline battalions: 2nd Battalion - Royal Warwickshire Regiment, 1st Battalion of the Royal Norfolk Regiment, 2nd Battalion of the King’s Shropshire Light Infantry and the 1st Battalion of the Highland Light Infantry. At first the brigade was a part of the 79th Armored Division, but as of April 1943 it was transferred to the 3rd Infantry Division and started training for Operation Overlord. On D-Day, June 1944, the 3rd Infantry Division was set to land at Sword beach which was the responsibility of the British Army and a naval bombardment force provided by the British Royal Navy plus Polish, Norwegian and other Allied navies. Sword beach was the smallest of the D-Day landing beaches and only wide enough for a brigade sized landing (ca. 20 men). The goal was to get enough troops ashore and link up with the Canadians at Juno, and from there they were supposed to push inland and capture Caen. By the end of D-day, 29,000 men had been successfully landed at the beach, and 630 casualties had been taken in the fight, mostly during the only German counteroffensive that was made on June 6. However, the major objective which was the capture of Caen was still out of reach and what followed was 6 weeks of fierce fighting for the city known as the Battle for Caen. After that, the 185th Brigade engaged in combat at Bourguebus Ridge, Mont Pincon, the Nederrijn, the Rhineland, and on the other side of the Rhine. By the end of the war the 185th Brigade had lost more soldiers than the other two infantry brigades of the 3rd Infantry Division and received two Victoria Crosses for its act of bravery during the conflict. 35th INFANTRY REGIMENT The 35th INFANTRY REGIMENT is a Polish Infantry unit with the Guard ability and, when an enemy unit moves into the frontline, your units get +1 +1. It has 1 attack, 5 defense, costs 3 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. Historical Context At the outbreak of WWII 35th Infantry Regiment was part of the 9th Infantry Division, also known as the 9th Infantry "Wielkopolska" Division, and was one of the major divisions of the Polish Army during the war. The division was formed in 1919 and played a significant role in the defense of Poland during the German invasion in September 1939, including the Battle of Bzura, where it was defeated by the German forces.After defeat, the 9th Infantry Division gathered but was attacked by the Luftwaffe. The division scattered and ceased to exist, except for the 35th Infantry Regiment which broke out of the German encirclement. Later in the war, the 9th Infantry Division was reconstituted as part of the Polish Armed Forces in the West and participated in the Italian Campaign, contributing to the liberation of Italy. BLENHEIM Mk I The BLENHEIM Mk I is a Limited British Bomber unit. It costs 4 Kredits to play, 2 Kredits to operate, has 3 attack and 3 defense. It deals double damage of the frontline is empty. Historical Context The Bristol Blenheim was a British light bomber, heavy fighter and night fighter and it first came into service in 1937 as the first British aircraft with an all metal skin construction. By the outbreak of WWII the Blenheim had become more or less obsolete, but was used during the Battle of France for shorter bomber missions against German targets where it performed poorly and many aircraft were lost to enemy aircraft and anti aircraft artillery. The Blenheim’s saw more success as an early type of night fighter, but by 1941 the Blenheim was deemed inadequate for current operations and was phased out by more capable aircraft such as the Beaufighters and later the De Havilland Mosquitos. By 1944 a total of 4,422 aircraft had been built, including variants. HMS HERMES A British Order card of Limited rarity, the HMS HERMES costs 6 Kredits to play and, when played, fills your support line with SWORDFISH. Historical Context HMS Hermes was a British aircraft carrier and the first ship to be designed as an aircraft carrier, although it took so long for it to be built that during its construction that in the meantime the Japanese Navy built and launched the Hōshō. HMS Hermes was commissioned in 1924, and at the time of her launch was the largest aircraft carrier in the world. During the interwar years, she was involved in a number of operations and was often used to showcase British naval power around the world. When WWII broke out, HMS Hermes was immediately put to use. In 1939, she operated in the western Atlantic, where she helped to prevent German U-boats from attacking British shipping. In 1940, she was sent to the Indian Ocean, where she continued to support British and Allied operations. Despite being outdated and vulnerable, HMS Hermes performed admirably well and her aircraft were able to inflict significant damage on Japanese troops and shipping, and helped to slow the Japanese advance. However, on April 9, 1942, she was caught by surprise and attacked by Japanese carrier-based aircraft in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). The attack was devastating, and within minutes HMS Hermes was hit by several bombs and torpedoes. The damage was catastrophic, and the ship quickly sank, taking over 300 men with her. Her loss was a major blow to the British war effort in the Far East, and marked the first time in history that an aircraft carrier had been sunk by enemy aircraft while at sea. 39. PANZERGRENADIER The 39. PANZERGRENADIER is a Limited German Infantry unit with 4 attack and 3 defense. It costs 3 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. While in the frontline, it has +2 attack. It also has the following deployment effect: swap a position with a friendly unit. GAMBIT An Elite Soviet Order, GAMBIT costs 5 Kredits to play and has the effect, that both players add the unit with the highest cost in their hand to their support line. CLOSE CALL CLOSE CALL is a Standard British Countermeasure. It costs 2 Kredits to activate and has the following effect: when a friendly unit is targeted by an Order or deployment effect, counter the effect. URBAN FIGHTING URBAN FIGHTING is a Special Soviet Order. It costs 4 Kredits to play and has the effect, to set the operation cost of target unit to 4, and destroy adjacent damaged units. BM-13N US6 The BM-13N US6 is an Elite Soviet Artillery unit with 2 attack, 2 defense, the Blitz ability and the effect: "Retreat this unit before damage is applied when it is attacked". It costs 3 Kredits to play and 1 Kredit to operate. KOKURA'S SWORD KOKURA'S SWORD is en Elite Japanese Infantry unit with 6 attack and 6 defense. It costs 5 Kredits to deploy and 2 Kredits to operate. It has a destruction effect where, if it's the enemy's turn, you add a Japanese unit to your support line and give it this ability.
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also known as the Armistice train car	en	https://war-documentary.…n-navy-32x32.png	Maksym Chorny's personal blog on WWII	https://war-documentary.info/armistice-memorial-compiegne/	THE FALL OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE: 1918 Toward September 1918 and the fifth Fall of the ‘Great War’, former cultural Europe with all its multi-national history, gastronomy, and classic music was a bleeding land. Every year of that devastating World War would be later characterized, sometimes with more than one attribute. The combat action of 1918 was to be known as the ‘war of movement’. While back in August 1914 and the first months of the conflict, fifty-four German divisions were making their move on the Belgian–Dutch frontier and the French town of Metz, now the Germans had more than 200 divisions on the front around 500 km: an enormous force concentration in world military history. In contrast to such imposing figures on paper, the last big German offensive, which had been initiated in July, was now drowning in mud and blood by superior Allied forces. General Erich Ludendorff, though under the formal submission to German Kaiser Wilhelm II, in 1918 was practically the military ruler of the giant Empire, since the actual governance had been under the army. In vivid contrast to the after-war myth (one of the cornerstones of the later Nazi and Hitler’s rhetoric) about the ‘Stab in the back’ strictly in Berlin, the actual situation was much more complex. As early as August 13, 1918, Erich Ludendorff, First Quartermaster General of the Great General Staff, and Paul von Hindenburg, Chief of the German General Staff both held a military briefing. The main issue of the discussion was to be a confirmation that it would be highly unlikely to force the enemy to accept peace through the German offensive, and the strategic defense may weaken the French, British, and Americans. The decision was a pure military conclusion as both Hindenburg and Ludendorff were no politicians and made their conclusions as soldiers. On September 26, 1918, the Allied forces mounted a new massive offensive on the Western front and the date would be later known as ‘Z-Day’ (the less known and rarely mentioned predecessor of D-day in WWII in 1944). In the course of the first forty-eight hours, the American units succeeded in liberating more than 200 square kilometers of the occupied French territory. The outbreak of the attack was pronounced as a triumph, though more than 7000 lives were lost, thus more than 4000 in every day of the combat. Such a devastating figure for the year 1914, was now trivial. In those late days of September 1918 around half a million Americans, 250 000 French, and 90 000 horses massed a small section of the front between Meuse and Argonne. In the same period, the British 1st and 4th Armies advanced toward the positions south of the Arras–Cambrai road. Apart from purely military events of late September 1918, the end of the First World War was made possible by the speeches of two political leaders. On September 17 Georges Clemenceau, the French Prime Minister, delivered his address from the rostrum of the Senate in Paris. The leader of the French government accented to the events of the 1789 revolution and the German siege of Paris in 1870, and once again openly blamed the German Empire for drawing the world into a War. Clemenceau spoke about the devastated towns, millions of dead, and slave labor within the occupied territories of his country. On September 27, 6000 kilometers from Paris, American President Woodrow Wilson delivered his own speech inside the New York Metropolitan Opera House. He once again stressed the importance of finding a compromised peace without discrimination toward the defeated. The US president mentioned the planned ‘League of Nations’, an instrument of peace, that should not be dominated by inner alliances. Wilson proclaimed that ‘after the final triumph of justice and fair dealing’ there would be no secret diplomacy. In narrow means, the September 19 speech was a reference to Wilson’s address on January 8 the same year with the well-known ‘Fourteen Points’ for settling the War. The very next day after President Wilson’s speech, on September 28 1918 Ludendorff shared his conviction with Hindenburg, that it is obligatory to seek an armistice with the Allied forces. At 10:30 am, Ludendorff telephoned his representative in Berlin and asked to inform the German chancellor that the military situation leaves no other option than seeking peace. Not only the German army itself was no more capable of conducting an effective war: but her allies were now leaving the War. As early as September 14, the Austrian-Hungarian Empire, the country which had started the War in 1914, sued for a separate peace (separate in contrast to her obligation toward Germany) with her yesterday enemies. On September 29, Bulgaria, a weak ally in the Balkans, signed an armistice with the Allies and Turkey was on the edge of collapse. On that same day during the military briefing held at Spa, Hindenburg, Ludendorff, Kaiser Wilhelm II, and Foreign Minister Von Hintze decided upon a necessity to contact US President Woodrow Wilson and to seek negotiations based on his January points. A moderate Prince Max of Baden was chosen to become a new chancellor and in the course of the next six weeks, while the German army was bleeding on the front, the life of the remaining millions depended on the balance between diplomacy and defensive military means. On Thursday, November 7, 1918, after six weeks of political maneuvers to gain an acceptable peace treaty, the German trenches were filled with incredible news, that the anticipated peace was now a fact. Though the rumors were incorrect and premature on that day, the issue was not far from the truth. One day before, on November 6, German Emperor Wilhelm II gave his permission to seek direct contact with the enemy to get the actual conditions of the possible armistice. General Wilhelm Groener, the successor of Ludendorff since October, stressed that the receiving of the conditions does not automatically mean a complete fulfillment and they still have chances to create a new defense line on the Rhine, in fact, an illusory one. General Groener also opposed Kaiser’s abduction at such an important moment. On the same day, the Germans received the Allied message, that the ‘Fourteen Points’ of President Wilson may be in general a basis for the armistice. French Marshal Foch was authorized to receive properly authorized representatives of the German side to communicate on the terms of the armistice. THE ARMISTICE: NOVEMBER 1918 Though the German High Command sued for negotiations on the possibility of signing an armistice on November 6, 1918, the first crew of the German ‘Armistice Commission’ had been written down a month before, in early October. Initially, the commission was composed strictly of military men, but since the worsening of the situation in the front, the composition of the delegation was to be remodeled and included civil representatives. It is worth mentioning, that after four years of a devastating war, the German high command was to take away the responsibility concerning the upcoming armistice negotiations based on the enemy conditions. Matthias Erzberger was to become that civil servant to take such a humiliating mission and his name would be so often recalled in the summer days of 1940. In his post-war memoirs called ‘Erlebnisse im Weltkrieg’ (Experience of the World War, 1920), Erzberger would later describe the call in the late hours of November 6 as a complete surprise, not to say about the offer to lead the negotiations. On that day the German side created unprecedented documents for Erzberger with all necessary powers and authority on behalf of the Empire. Matthias Erzberger was asked to take a train from Berlin to Spa, a Belgian resort town occupied since 1914, the same evening. The town now accommodated ‘Oberste Heeresleitung‘ (Supreme Army Command). By taking a train to Spa, Erzberger already faced a fait accompli with his mission, yet he had no idea of his final destination. In the early hours of the next day November 7, an army radio operator in the heart of Paris, who had his post at the Eiffel Tower for better receiving, picked up an unprecedented message from Spa, particularly from the headquarters of the German Supreme Command. As the Germans already knew Marshal Ferdinand Foch to be an authorized representative, the message was for him. In this message ‘Oberste Heeresleitung‘ (Supreme Army Command) informed the French, that five German representatives were authorized to take part in the armistice negotiations and they are in wait to hear the instructions. The message was immediately transmitted further to the town of Senlis in Northern France, Marshal’s Foch headquarters at that time. The old Marshal was awakened and in a short time, a reply was sent to the German headquarters in Spa. The German representatives thus should be present at a French military post on the Chimay–Fourmies–La Capelle–Guise road. Upon arrival, they would be received and driven to the place of the meeting with the Marshal. Concerning the choice of the place for negotiations, the French initially denied the idea of inviting the German delegates to Foch headquarters in Senlis. Back in September 1914, when Kaiser’s troops were seizing the town, they were fired at. In retort to such an act, the Germans conducted an act of vengeance by setting on fire more than one hundred buildings in the town center, killing six hostages, including the local mayor. Leaving the idea of Senlis behind from the very beginning, the French High Command was to consider alternative locations for the meeting. The site was to be close to the frontlines and isolated at once, being located next to the sophisticated railway system, allowing two separate trains to arrive in one place: one for the Allies and one for the Germans. Eventually, the High Command favored an unremarkable nondescript section of the railway line next to the village of Rethondes to the East of the large city of Compiegne. There was an open site in the woods, which had been once cleared for storing artillery shells. Concerning the purpose of the artillery clearing, it included two parallel railway spurs: the one to deliver the munition to the site and the second one to transport the shells and the guns, including the cannons, using the railroad rolling stocks. The two parallel tracks spurs from the main Compiegne line, were established approximately 100 meters from each other. In those early hours of November 7, 1918, Marshal Ferdinand Foch was not the only man, being awakened by an immediate message. Louis Roux-Durfort, an inspector of the ‘Chemin de Fer du Nord’ (full naming: ‘Compagnie des Chemins de Fer du Nord or CF du Nord’), a railway transport company created back in 1845, was also set on his feet by a call, this one from Senlis. The inspector was ordered to find a vintage railway train of the times of the French Second Empire. The French had an idea to find a carriage of the Emperor Napoleon III era to somehow erase one’s humiliation of defeat in 1870 by the Germans. While the issue sounded challenging, ‘Chemin de Fer du Nord’ sought out the train the same day. In consideration of the fact that Compiegne was one of the favorite residences of Napoleon III, ‘Chemin de Fer du Nord’ possessed authentic carriages of the Emperor, including a saloon wagon, two sleeping ones, two second-class carriages, and a restaurant carriage. The highlight of the trains was of course the salon wagon, built as far back as 1860 during the Second Empire. It had a luxury interior with green satin cloth and some symbols of the Napoleon III era, including the ‘N’ capital. The carriage would be destined to live through the century until our times and it is now exhibited within ‘Chateau de Compiegne’. At the request of the French command, Napoleon III’s carriage was driven first to the town of Chantilly, halfway between Paris and Compiegne, in the late hours of November 7. Apart from doing some cleaning, the carriage was loaded with supplies, including a vintage cognac and Bordeaux wine from 1870: another try to erase the defeat of the past war with Germany. After initial preparations, the train left Chantilly and moved toward Senlis, being welcomed by Marshal Foch in person. As for the German delegation and their way to the site of the meeting, they had to take some time near Chimay, while the engineering unit was to clear the railway line further to the West. The representatives led by Erzberger finally crossed the frontline at 9 p.m. on November 7. At 3 a.m. the next day, the Napoleon III train with closed windows took them to Ternier in the unclosed direction. In the early hours of November 8, the German delegates finally reached an unremarkable open clearing amid the forest. The Erzberger’s delegation was now to see another train approximately in the distance of 100 meters, with a narrow path between the two. While no journalists or cameramen were allowed to be present during the armistice meeting itself, some general photos of the sites were taken and later preserved for history. Regarding the second train, the French-British delegation arrived at the forest clearing the previous evening using Marshal Foch’s personal transport, which included the former restaurant carriage with the 2419D number on its side. Soon after the arrival of the Germans (approximately at 7 a.m.) at the site, they were visited by General Weygand, French Chief of Staff, and informed that Marshal Foch would accept them at 9. am. within his train nearby. Помимо Erzberger, the German delegation to Rethondes included: Major General Detlof von Winterfeld, a son of a Prussian general, was now a representative of the German High Command under the Chancellor. He would outlive the 1940 Armistice for only two weeks, passing away on July 3, 1940, peacefully at the age of seventy-three. Ernst Vanselow, a representative of the German Royal Navy. For two months between September and October 1918, he was the captain of the ship called ‘Kaiser’. He Was now wearing his uniform with a golden braid, thus indicating the representation of the Admiralty. Count Alfred von Oberndorf, had been working on ‘Foreign’ ministry posts since 1900 in Madrid and Brussels, Vienna, Oslo, and Sofia and was a friend of Erzberger. In Compiegne, wearing civilian clothing, he was now representing the government regarding the questions of foreign policy, thus indicating the presence of the German Foreign Ministry. He would live a long life until he passed away in 1963. Ferdinand Graf von Helldorff, a son of a landlord, was now a Hauptmann (captain) and served as Erzberger’s personal interpreter to French. Since the mid-1920 he would devote himself to the far-right movement and would join the Nazi party in 1930. During the Third Reich, he would occupy several high posts, including the chief of the Berlin police. He participated in the 1944 July plot and was later hanged. Hauptmann (captain) Hermann Geyer, an army man since 1900. After the outbreak of the World War, he was an officer in the German General Staff. He would start the Second World War as the commander of the Army Corps in the West campaign against France and retire in 1943. The post-war life of a mayor of a tiny German municipality would not last long until the suicide of the former general in 1946. The French and British Allied delegation was not very numerous and, apart from Marshal Ferdinand Foch, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies, included: FRENCH: General Weygand, French Chief of Staff Commander Riedinger, Head of the French Intelligence Second Bureau (Deuxième Bureau) Captain Mierry, another intelligence officer Captain Boutal, Marshal Foch’s personal assistant Lieutenant Laperche, Interpreter BRITISH Admiral Sir Rosslyn Wemyss, First Sea Lord Admiral Sir George Hope, Deputy First Sea Lord Captain Jack Marriott, Naval Assistant to the Chief of Naval Staff General Desticker Walter Bagot, Interpreter. While the so-called ‘Fourteen Points’ of American President Woodrow Wilson was to become a basis for the armistice in Europe, no American, neither military nor civilians, was present at the Rhetondes clearing that day. When the German plenipotentiaries covered the short distance between two trains within the former artillery clearing, moving close file march toward Foch’s train, they saw a long table with four seats with the inscriptions of the names: Erzberg, Winterfeld, Vanselow, Oberndorf. Marshal Foch was polite but severe in his statement that he had nothing to say to the delegates unless they had come to seek peace and were ready to receive the Allied conditions for the armistice. In wider means, the French Marshal humiliated the Germans by understanding that what is at issue here is not negotiations, but the previously approved conditions of the triumphant. We should pay attention to this detail to have a better understanding of the 1940 events. By listening to the conditions at the table, including points regarding future reparations, the German delegation asked for the cessation of fire to stop the bloodbath on the front. Marshal Foch underlined, that the cessation would be possible only after signing the armistice documents and the plenipotentiaries had 72 hours either to agree or to continue the war. The whole scene in Foch’s Armistice wagon took nearly half an hour and the Germans left the train for their own one, in fact, the Napoleon III historical piece. A few hours after the encounter inside the 2419 D wagon, one among the German delegates, Ferdinand Graf von Helldorff, Erzberger’s personal interpreter, left for Spa to deliver the terms of the armistice to the German headquarters, particularly personally to Paul von Hindenburg. Despite the technical discussions in the course of the next three days and an attempt to produce their own version of the armistice treaty, the German delegation was all present at the location toward 2 a.m. November 11. On the previous evening, the Allied High Command already received a German provisional agreement with the armistice conditions. In the course of these three days between November 8 and 11, German Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated the throne and left for Holland. He was invited by General Groener to go to the frontline and die with his men, but the abandoned Emperor refused, and a provisional government with the provocative title ‘Council of People’s Commissars’, was elected in Berlin. As soon as the negotiations resumed inside Foch’s Armistice train car, the full version of the armistice agreement was read off, translated, and agreed, clause by clause, which took a few hours. Regardless of the official German note in virtue of the harshness of some points (which could lead to chaos in Germany), the final signing was finalized at 5 a.m. November 11, 1918. With the inks on paper still fresh, the Allied representatives issued the cessation of fire on all fronts starting at 11 a.m. French time November 11. The period of validity of the armistice was now 36 days, an agreed time to create the armistice commission for further procedures. Minutes after the signing, all present were served a light meal, alcohol, and desserts and the Allied plenipotentiaries raised a toast for such an event. At 6:20 a.m. Marshal Foch and Admiral Wemyss both left for Paris to present the signed armistice agreement to the French Government and the other members from the French side left as well later toward midday. Concerning the German delegates, they left the forest clearing near Compiegne around 11 a.m. in the same vintage train of the times of the French Second Empire and made the same route to Tergnier as three days before, this time with open windows. The final document, which was signed in the early hours of November 11, 1918, in the refurbished former restaurant wagon amid the forest clearing near a small French village, included eighteen clauses (articles), for more than Wilson’s agenda. Among obvious clauses like the cessation of hostilities, the German side was obliged to evacuate their troops from the territory of France, Belgium, Austro-Hungary, Turkey, Romania, and Alsace-Lorraine (the latter was one of the main apples of discord in the war). Apart from the obvious clauses, the Allied forces were now allowed to seize Cologne, Koblenz, and Mainz. The German army was obliged to give or to destroy (under the supervision) the larger part of their heavy artillery, and to give 2000 planes (they would fulfill 1700), 30000 machine guns (the German side would fulfill 25 000), 3,000 flamethrowers, and the greater proportion of the railway trains and carriages: in total 10 000 locomotives and 150 000 carriages, also 10 000 trucks (they would give 5000). Regarding the fleet, the collapsed empire was now obliged to deliver 10 battleships, 6 battle cruisers, 8 cruisers, and 160 submarines. All prisoners of war and civilians should be freed from German captivity. The 72 hours for the final coordination of the armistice agreement, which was given to the German delegates on November 8, claimed the lives of thousands of men on the West front. Eventually, the one day of November 11 left behind 11,000 killed in action, wounded, or missing on all sides. In contrast to the news of the cessation of fire starting from 11 a.m., some officers purposely conducted the last local attacks. The most well-known occurrence was related to the American attack on the village of Stenay, which was initiated after the news of the armistice and finally claimed 300 lives. It is worth mentioning that the official time of the cessation of fire in WWI as 11 a.m. November 11, 1918, modern historiography knows the names of the last ‘official’ victims by name. ‘Officially’ the last known French soldier, who lost his life in the First World War was Augustin Trébuchon, a shepherd from Lozere and now a Private First Class and a messenger of the 415th Regiment. He got a bullet in his head at 10:45 while delivering a message. In historical contrast to the well-known iconic status of this warrior, there was evidence of more late victims on the French side: Auguste Joseph Renault is considered to have died at 10.58 a.m. George Edwin Ellison, a miner born in the same year 1878 as Trébuchon, was the last British soldier killed in WWI around 9:30. He was killed near the city of Mons in Belgium, a location of the first battle for the British in August 1914, and buried at the local cemetery just next to John Parr, the first British soldier killed in 1914 and also at arm’s end from the grave of George Lawrence Price, the last Canadian soldier (among 60,661 Canadians killed in WWI) killed at 10:58. Marcel Toussaint Terfve, born in Liege in 1893, died of machine-gun fire around 10:45 and is known to be the last Belgian soldier killed. Henri Gunther of American-German origin from Baltimore is considered to be both the last American and the last soldier killed in WWI at 10:59. THE COMPIEGNE WAGONG: 2419 D ARMISTICE TRAIN CAR In contrast to the historical authenticity of the Napoleon III train, it was the second railway transport of the armistice negotiations between November 8 and 11, 1918 which was destined to become a historical landmark. While the saloon carriage with a green satin interior harkens back its history to 1860, the personal train of Marshal Ferdinand Foch was brought into existence as early as 1913. only five years before the event within the artillery clearing near Rethondes. This wooden carriage with a steel frame was only one among 22 roughly identical restaurant cars. Every car in the series was numbered from 2403 to 2424 and only the one among them, number 2419 D, was fated to become known worldwide. The 2403-2424 series of carriages was the creation of ‘Compagnie générale de construction’ (in English: General Construction Company’ or simply ‘CGC’, a mechanical construction company from 1879 with the headquarters and productions facilities at Saint-Denis, a commune neighboring Paris. In wider means, the company was owned by another larger manufacturer known as ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’ (in English: International Sleeping Car Company), a service provider for the railway sector since 1872. Founded by a Belgian businessman, the latter was known for creating railway hotels (sleeping and restaurant cars), and buffets within the stations. ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’ was not only the creator of the first sleeping and restaurant car in Europe but also the initiator of the well-known ‘Orient Express’ from Paris to Constantinople. ‘Compagnie générale de construction’ was one of the CIDWL contractors assigned to produce railway cars, which was well-known that as late as the last quarter of the XIX they were exported to the United States. In 1902 ‘Compagnie générale de construction’ finished the construction of the additional depots in Saint-Denis to expand the production of railway cars and carriages for trams. The production of a 2403-2424 series of wagons had been a made fact on paper already in 1913, though the actual manufacturing was conducted as early as May 1914. In the same time between 1913 and 1914, the same construction facilities witnessed the production of another series of fifteen railway cars. Summing up, toward May 19141 ‘Compagnie générale de construction’ succeeded in manufacturing two series of carriages, 37 in total with 22 among these restaurant cars and 2419 D just one among them, without any distinguishing features. Furthermore, the 2419 D had little dissimilarities from the common practice of railway car production of that time. A metal frame with tie rods for better rigidity was added with a varnished teak wood: a usual practice in the early XX century. The actual production of the series was finished on May 20 and as early as June 4, 1914, the carriages of this family were permitted for use. As early as June 1914 the 2419 D carriage was sent to the Paris ‘Gare Montparnasse’ station. It was assigned to be used as a restaurant car on the Paris-Saint-Brieuc line. Saint-Brieuc is a town in North-West France in Brittany at the coast of the English Channel and a 350 km distance from Paris. The line between Paris Montparnasse and Saint-Brieuc served by ‘Compagnie des chemins de fer de l’Ouest’ (Western Railway Company) had been in use since 1863. It was a common practice to transfer particular wagons from one line to another and in 1915-1916 the 2419 D was used within the line between Paris (the same ‘Gare Montparnasse’ station) and the town of Le Mans, 180 km to the South-West from the capital. A line between Paris and Le Mans is even older than Saint-Brieuc and was put into service in 1854 as one of the first in France. With the outbreak of the First World War, civil transport communication lost its priority and in the course of the next two years between 1916 and 1918, the 2419 D carriage was stored in Clichy in the Northern part of Paris. Later, the restaurant wagon, still unremarkable among the others of its time, was put into operation at the Saint-Lazare station, the third busiest in the capital, in the direction of Normandy. The 2419 D carriage was used on the line between Paris and Deauville-Trouville to the East of the Normandin city of Caen. The Saint-Lazare-Deauville-Trouville line was in service since 1863. The station was planned for reconstruction in 1913, yet the outbreak of the Great War abandoned the ambitious plans. After a brief service at the line to Normandy, as early as October 7, 1918, the 2419 D carriage was requested by the army according to the ‘order of military authority’ issued by the 4th office of the Ministry of War. ‘Le 4e bureau’ (the 4th Office), designated to perform Intelligence service, was responsible for the transport and supplies and operated practical issues related to the orders of the French Chief command concerning traffic, infrastructure, and cartographic issues. It would be officially dissolved after the 1940 Armistice with Germany. As a part of the wartime requisitions, the 2419 D was assigned to be used as a carriage for officers. In this respect, the interior of the initial restaurant car was to be transformed to fit the new role. Therefore, in October 1918, after a little more than four years of civil transport service, the car was put back to the facilities of ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’ to Saint-Denis, the site of its origin, to be reshaped. Under the requests of the military men, the carriage was divided into two rooms. The one was furnished with a long table for the maps in the middle of the space and another two smaller tables on either side. The second premise was added with another two side tables. The former restaurant kitchen was now remodeled to become a room for the typists with their own small tables. As early as October 28, 1918, after the renovations were finished, the 2419 D Armistice wagon was transferred to be used as a part of the personal train of Marshal Ferdinand Foch. The famous French warlord was promoted to Marshal on August 7, 1918, two months before getting his own train. Apart from 2419 D, the new Foch train included a) another car from the same series 2418 D; b) a sleeping car built as far back as 1888; c) a lounge car from another series with the number 2443 d) two additional cars. The train was tracked by a locomotive 3.843 type of the 232T. The 232-type of steam locomotive, also known as the ‘Hudson’ type named after the US company, had been used in France, particularly by ‘Compagnie des Chemins de Fer du Nord’ (Northern Railway Company, established in 1845). The 3843 type was part of a series between 3841 to 3860 produced in 1911 by ‘Société française de constructions mécaniques’ (French Company of Mechanical Construction, established back in 1898). The locomotive weighed 87 tonnes, was 13.5 meters in length, and had a maximum operating speed of up to 105 kilometers per hour. In the late hours of November 7, 1918, the delegation of French and British representatives used this train to cover the distance between Senlis and the open site in the woods near Compiegne to meet the German delegates the next morning. As 2419 D had been previously turned into an officer’s car, it was the one to be used as a primary place of meeting within the Foch’s train in the middle of the forest clearing near Rethondes (previously extensively used for ‘Artillery Lourde Sur Voie Ferrée’ or ‘Heavy artillery on railway trucks’) during the negotiations between November 8 and 11. On the morning of November 11, Marshal Foch departed for Paris on this very train. It is worth knowing that the 2419 D role in peace-making in Europe was not limited to these three days in November 1918. The point was, that the armistice agreement and the cessation of fire in Western Europe had a limited validity of 36 days, and the period was supposed to further negotiations and prolongation. In the course of the next three months, another three meetings between the Allied and German plenipotentiaries took place in the German city of Trier, 300 km to the East of Compiegne. The city is considered to be the oldest in Germany: it was founded by the Celtic tribes as far back as the IV century B.C., and three centuries later was captured by the Roman Empire and renamed ‘Augusta Treverorum’. In 1512 the city was known for some time as a seat for the German parliament. Trier was captured by either side (France and Germany) several times until the seizing by the German Empire in 1871. In 1918 the American troops seized the city as early as December 1 and it would be left a part of the so-called ‘Demilitarized Zone’ until the German annexation in 1936. The last of the three meetings in Trier was also not the final act of the 2419 D service for the state, yet the major part of the year 1919 was not in use. As early as August 4, 1919, General Gaston Gassouin, nominally the Chief of the French transport system of wartime in France sent an appeal to André Noblemaire, president of the ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’. The General asked the company president to grant the 2419 D wagon to the state for the planned exhibition in Paris. The board of directors of the CIWL company decided to grant the carriage to the state free of charge, though the carriage could be still used for civil transportation as the ‘demobilized’. On October 1, 1919, the owning company and the state signed an agreement, that the wagon, which was for a short time back in the ownership of the ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’, was to serve for the sake of France as a museum unit. It would take another year for the government to make the final decision regarding the fate of the now-famous train car, which had been already assigned to become an exhibition unit in the main courtyard of the Hôtel des Invalides in the heart of Paris. Throughout 1920 the former 2419 D restaurant car nevertheless participated in less important political events. For some time, the carriage was assigned to Alexandre Milllerand, the President of the French Republic as a part of his personal train. Relatedly, it made only one trip with the President to Verdun on December 8, 1920, and apart from this, was used by the French during the Spa Conference in July 1920. After the final settling of the future of the museum exhibition in Paris, the now-iconic Marshal Foch carriage was once again sent to the workshops of ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’ In Saint-Denis to be once again reconfigured for a museum prop, resembling the interior of November 1918. In the early morning of April 27, 1921 (one alternative source claims April 28) the Armistice Compiegne wagon finally entered the capital, dragged by the so-called TAR truck (Tracteur d’Artillerie Roulante) of «Compagnie des automobiles industrielles Latil». The company was a wartime specialist in transporting heavy artillery, particularly when dealing with the foul bottom. Its transportation across the streets of Paris caused no trouble. The same can’t be said regarding the destination point: the entrance porch of the main courtyard at Hotel des Invalides was narrower than the Compiegne wagon. To make the entrance wider, the engineers of the 5th Regiment of the Engineers of Versaille were brought, which was, of course, a matter of concern for the Department of Historical Monuments. Fortunately, the issue was only a few dozen centimeters and the engineers used only mattocks without any explosion. Followed by the tow truck dragging the carriage into the courtyard of Hotel des Invalides, a few dozen workers set the new exhibition piece on the previously assembled railway spur. As many of the preserved historical photos reveal, the car was accompanied by guns and cannons: the symbol of the ‘Great War’. Among those units, one could find 21 cm Mörser 10 and 25 cm Schwerer Minenwerfer. The latter was one among 1234 guns of such kind designed by the German company ‘Rheinmetall’ and produced until the end of the War. Another authentic showpiece of wartime was an old gun of the times of the Franco-Prussian war. All guns were placed to create an image of the guard of honor in front of the train car. On that warm day in April 1921, the carriage was put in the inner courtyard of the Hotel des Invalides for the next six years and was to become a desirable place of interest among the Parisians, veterans of the War, and foreigners, including some from Germany. In contrast to its already legendary status, the condition of the carriage, which had been left outside without proper care, was slowly deteriorating. As early as 1926 the open-air museum exhibition at Hotel des Invalides was visited by Arthur Henry Flemming, a Canadian-American billionaire, and a well-known philanthropist. He noticed the poor condition of the historical landmark and agreed to grant 10,000 gold francs (one version claims that the French press appealed to Flemming to make such a contribution) for the restoration of the carriage and the opening of a unique museum devoted to the 1918 armistice within the clearing near Rethondes and Compiegne. Another fateful figure, who participated in the fate of the legendary Compiegne wagon was Robert Fournier-Sarlovèze (1869-1937), a professional French polo player, 1st place Olympic champion of 1900, a politician, and a resident of the city of Compiegne. Fournier-Sarlovèze was an elected mayor of Compiegne since 1904 and himself a painter of historical frescoes, who had previously contributed a lot to the preservation of the historical heritage of the city. With his political will and Arthur Henry Flemming’s donation, the famous 2419 D carriage was for the fifth time returned to the workshops in Saint-Denis to be once again restored. A group of women at the workshops spent enough time to restore the historical landmark, while dozens of workers were assigned to build a concrete museum building for the carriage itself within the clearing near Rethondes. It is worth noting, that the building up of the shelter for the carriage was not a staging ground for the memorial on the site of the 1918 armistice. Paying regard to the official statistics, 469 citizens of the city of Compiegne lost their lives in the Great War (First World War) and for their families, the news of the end of the hostilities was only an epilogue of the grief. Along with that, a site in the forest near Rethondes had already become a site of pilgrimage among the locals. Hundreds of citizens visited the location on foot already in November 1918. For the first little while after the end of the War, the visitors could still see two parallel railway spurs and a wooden table with an inscription: “Tram du maréchal Foch” (Carriage of Marshal Foch) and “Train des Plénipolenliaires” (Train of the assigned delegates) respectively on the sites of the train’s location in November 1918. As early as June 1919 the same Robert Fournier-Sarlovèze, a city mayor of Compiegne, signed a decree for the preservation of the site of the Armistice within the crossroad near Rethondes, which was to include the erection of a memorial, a site of remembrance. For decades since that, the local people would call the memorial site ‘Clairière de l’Armistice’ (Armistice clearing) or ‘Clairiere de Rethondes’ (Rethondes Clearing), though the greatest proportion of them was from the city of Compiegne. The inauguration of the memorial took place on November 11, 1922, on the fourth anniversary of the armistice signing, in the presence of the French combat veterans, and politicians, with Marshal Ferdinand Foch and the President of France Alexandre Millerand the two VIP guests. On their way from Compiegne, the visitors were to face the ‘Alsace-Lorraine Monument’ made of pink granite, which had been excavated within the French Vosges mountains. The sculpture depicting the sword (The Allies or ‘Antanta’) hurting the German Eagle (The German Empire) was designed by a sculptor and ironworker of Alsace origin Edgar Brandt, the future world-recognized master of art-deco. The Monument has been donated by ‘Le Matin’, a daily newspaper since 1884. The monument was located at the start of the alley 250 meters in length, which led in the direction of the open clearing. The open-air memorial site included two sections of railway tracks with the signs for the trains of two 1918 delegations: the Allied and the German ones respectively. The whole site was dominated by a large granite slab in the center of the clearing with the inscription: ICI LE 11 NOVEMBRE 1918 LE CRIMINEL ORGUEIL DE L’EMPIRE ALLEMAND VAINCU PAR LES PEUPLES LIBRES QU’IL PRÉTENDAIT ASSERVIR (Here, on 11 November 1918, the criminal pride of the German empire was vanquished by the free peoples it had sought to enslave). Summing up the history of the ‘Clairière de l’Armistice’ (Armistice clearing), toward the Spring of 1927 when the famous Foch carriage was finally assigned for restoration and transportation to a new museum in the Western part of the Armistice clearing, the memorial site had been a landmark for four and a half year. Similar to the event back in April 1921 with the arrival to Paris, on April 8, 1927, the iconic carriage was taken out from the courtyard of the ‘Hotel des Invalides’ to be transported to Compiegne and the site next to the Rethondes station. As I have stated above, it made its way once again to the workshops of Saint-Denis for half a year. The famous 2419 D railway car reached the site of its future exposition as early as October 19, 1927. The official opening of the carriage shelter was set on November 11 to commemorate the ninth anniversary of the Armistice agreement, and the fifth year of the memorial. Marshal Foch was once again the VIP guest of the ceremony, accompanied by his November 1918 companions and Georges Leygues, a man of different political positions, in 1927 a ‘Ministres Français de la Marine et des Colonies’ (French Minister of the Navy and the colonies). The iconic carriage since that day was to be exhibited within the concrete shelter-like museum next to the clearing itself. Ferdinand Foch passed away peacefully on March 20, 1929, one and a half years after the inauguration ceremony in Compiegne, and was buried within the ‘Hotel des Invalides’ close to Napoleon Bonaparte. Adolf Hitler would visit the site during his one-day visit to Paris in June 1940. In 1937 a statue of the Marshal was erected on one side of the famous Armistice clearing. HITLER’S AMBITIONS AND THE GERMAN TRIUMPH IN THE WEST IN 1940 None among the key players of the 1918 armistice knew at that time the story of a twenty-nine-year-old ‘Gefreiter’ (corporal) of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment of Austrian origin. For Adolf Hitler, the war was de facto over as early as October 1918, when a hospital train full of wounded and half-blinded German soldiers took him far from the frontline to a military hospital on Schützenstrasse street in the Pomeranian city of Pasewalk. On November 9, 1919, the day Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated, an elderly pastor announced to the soldiers the news about the fall of the Emperor and the revolution. In decades to come, Hitler, whose blindness after the gas attack near the French commune of Wervicq-Sud, was of a psychological, not physical nature, would make a political production of his staying in the hospital. His so-called revelations and the understanding of his predestination, followed by the news of the armistice, would become a part of Nazi mythology. Despite the fact, that since being eleven-year-old, Hitler had been absorbed by illustrated books about the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871 and built his political career and the foundations of the Nazi Party on criticizing the German loss of the War and the ‘Treaty of Versailles’, Hitler never looked at the West as the aim of his expansion of the ‘Lebensraum’ (living space). He indeed had the desire to eliminate the ‘injustice’ of 1918 (according to his crooked philosophy), yet he had always had a focus on the East for expansion. The conflict with France and particularly with England emerged because of the refusal of the Western democracies to give Nazi Germany a free hand in the East. The political victories, the 1935 Naval Agreement with England, annexations both in the West and East, ambitions in Czechoslovakia, and a seizure of Austria did not prevent the declaration of War toward Germany regarding Poland in September 1939. By not leaving the idea of a union with England for a while, Hitler saw his victory in Poland as a prelude to possible cooperation with England, which would never become true. As early as January 1939 in addressing his high-ranking officers, Hitler underlined that the ‘stab-in-back’ was impossible in contrast to 1918, as Hitler had united all the state and military functions under himself. Throughout the four years and three months of the First World War between 1914 and 1918, the German army lost 1.8 million lives without getting a victory in the West. In contrast to that and the defeat of the Kaiser’s Empire in November 1918, the army of the Third Reich now got its decisive victory. Starting from April 9, 1940, and the invasion of Norway, the German armed forces conquered not only the Scandinavian country, but also Luxembourg, Holland, Denmark, and what is more important, Belgium and France. The British expeditionary forces were forced to evacuate from Dunkirk and the Royal Navy was not the dominant force in the Mediterranean anymore (which was an illusion). At the cost of 27,000 dead and 120,000 wounded soldiers, Germany conquered Western Europe and demanded the lives of 90,000 Allied soldiers with 200,000 wounded and more than 2 million missing or captured as POWs. In wider means, the fall of France and the humiliation of the British expeditionary forces in the West since May 10 marked the peak of Hitler’s military and political career at the time, even regarding the pre-war (European annexations) triumphs. Starting from 1933 and Hitler’s chancellorship, the German high command, many of the officers were combat veterans of the First World War, had been repeating that France was still the dominative force on the continent. Hitler, in contrast to these precautions, had been pursuing his own vision by remilitarization of the Rhineland without French interference, by Anschluss of Austria, and the seizure of Czechoslovakia, the strongest French Ally on the continent. Hitler had made up his mind that Germany should not fear France in the West and be the first to attack. Following the results of the six-week campaign in the West, Hitler had reached a triumph, which threw the glory of the military leader of the previous war in the shadow: Moltke, Hindenburg, and Ludendorff during their fifty-two months of fighting. Adolf Hitler was now pleased to hear the comparison of himself with Bismarck, Napoleon, and Frederick the Great, the three warlords Hitler admired. The rhetorics of Napoleon were used by Nazi Germany in the aspects of national military policy, including the necessity of a decisive quick battle of annihilation to win dominance in Europe. By still having an inferior number of soldiers and military equipment in 1940, Germans new tactics of combined involvement of tanks and aircraft, artillery, and infantry all simultaneously in the battle, accompanied by modern means of communication, allowed them to win the initiative. The new way of military thinking made it possible for the Wehrmacht, once again after the exhausting trench war of 1914-1918, to mastermind the War using fast decisive attacks, which could crush the enemy both by force and on a psychological level. Along with that, Napoleon’s emphasis on battles for annihilation now meant rather forcing the enemy to stop fighting in local fights than employing large battles such as Verdun, Somme, and Ypres in the previous War. For Adolf Hitler personally, the flash-like victories in Poland, Norway, and the West were also the triumph of his regime inside Germany, where he already was a solo undisputed ruler. The German propaganda with Joseph Goebbels atop, was now to describe the War from the point of the personal involvement of the Fuhrer. Walther Heinrich Alfred Hermann von Brauchitsch, nominally Supreme Commander of the German Army since February 1938, now called Adolf Hitler ‘The first soldier of the Reich’ and Wilhelm Keitel, often called by the high-ranking officers ‘laKeittel’ (from lackey) called Hitler ‘The greatest war mind of all times’. The German dictator was now leveling in testimonials as the author of the Blitzkrieg (lightning war) strategy, which of course was an exaggeration. In these fateful weeks of May-June 1940, the propaganda was used to underline the importance of unification of both political and military command, thus once again referencing Napoleon and Frederick the Great. To strengthen his own image as the key person, who had made the triumph in the West possible, Hitler degraded the involvement of his generals. In wider means, no high-ranking officer was to be identified with the victory against France and Britain. It was during this period, that Hitler used to distance himself from the opinion of professional military men: a destructive use case. Adolf Hitler fully acknowledged the fact that he had been only a corporal, a dispatch runner in the Regiment headquarters without a military or college education, and without experience in commanding even the smallest army unit in the Great War. In his well-known post-war memoir, Walter Warlimont claimed that it was the lack of combat experience that made Hitler nervous when something might go wrong, not according to his expectations. As a result of the campaign in Poland and the West, dozens of German generals received promotions, including the titles of field marshal, the new social status, and even materials awards. Toward June 1940 the great majority of Hitler’s critics in High command were now satisfied with the achievements of the army and grew to believe in the superiority of the Wehrmacht. On the other side of the issue of Hitler’s competence as a military commander, one should not ignore his contribution to the victory in the West in 1940, beyond the boosted propaganda image. From the date of Hitler’s ascent to power in Germany and since the start of the tournament, it was a new chancellor who was a big believer in the lack of French military dominance, a man who did all in his power to turn this vision into reality. In a broader sense, Adolf Hitler was the man who had taken full advantage of the weaknesses of France and England, in particular regarding the military thinking from the previous War. It is well-established that Erich Von Manstein, a brilliant German officer, was the creator of the campaign plan of attack against France through Ardennes, yet it was Hitler who decided to take advantage of it (Hitler later, of course, tried to highlight his own involvement). It was Hitler who backed the idea of creating panzer divisions following the new military thinking of such men as Liddell Hart and Heinz Guderian. He lacked military education or commanding experience from the previous War, yet Hiler countervailed this with an aggressive obstinacy, hundreds of hours of reading military books, including those of foreign authors. In wider means, to the extent Hitler would be responsible for the collapse of Germany later, he was responsible for the 1940 triumph. FELSENNEST- WOLFSSCHLUCHT-COMPIEGNE: MAY-JUNE 1940 Hitler spent the greater proportion of the Western campaign in May-June 1940 outside his accustomed places of residency such as Berlin, Obersalzberg, or Munich. At 4:35 p.m. on May 9, half a day before the Wehrmacht advance into France, Belgium, and Holland, Hitler was present at the small Finkenkrug railway station in Berlin. Located to the West of Berlin next to the town of Falkensee, the station was an ideal choice for the secret departure of the German Fuhrer. His personal security, as well as the secretiveness of the departure of his adjutants, secretaries, officers of the OKH, and close surroundings, all were to guarantee the success of the unprecedented military offensive to the West. Finally, exactly at 5 p.m. the Führersonderzug (Fuhrer special train, his mobile wartime headquarters since the start of the campaign in Poland) left the station of Finkenkrug. Only a few men among the adjutants, personal security battalion, as well as Martin Borman, and Wilhelm Keitel, were aware of the final destination of the train. The civil entourage, including Hitler’s personal photographer Heinrich Hofmann and Christine Schroeder, were in intriguing unknowing. In the late hours of the same day, Colonel Rudolf Schmundt, “Chief Adjutant of the Wehrmacht to the Führer and Reich Chancellor”, made a joke that women secretaries may need sea-sick pills, a hint to Norway, occupied since April. Regarding the actual route, the train charted a course toward Hannover, though at the threshold of June 10 changed the course toward the South-West in the direction of Bonn, then passed Frankfurt and Mainz in the East direction, and finally at dawn of a new day reached a small station at the town of Euskirchen, an old German country land with seven centuries of History. The whole entourage then was taken to form a motorcade. In his three-axle Mercedes car, Hitler was accompanied by Nicolaus von Below (Luftwaffe adjutant), Martin Bormann (Secretary of the Deputy Führer under Rudolf Hess), Wilhelm Keitel (Chief of the German Armed Forces High Command). The second small convoy of cars took Heinrich Hoffmann (Hitler’s personal photographer), Rudolf Schmundt (adjutant), Christina Schroeder (secretary), and Otto Dietrich (Nazi Party Press Chief since 1931) and the last one included extensive luggage. They were taken from Euskirchen to a small hilly village of Rodert, 12 km to the South, surrounded by woods and mountains. Hitler finally disclosed to those in the shade that they had just reached his new military headquarters near Bad-Münstereifel in the Eifel Mountains. At 5:30 a.m. when the German army had initiated its conquest in the West, Hitler and his military entourage took their seats at the table in the conference room in the bunker. 30 km from the Belgian border, they could now hear glimpses of the artillery fire. Hitler declared that the anticipated offensive against the Western Powers had just begun. The very same day Winston Churchill would become Prime Minister of Great Britain. The secret operation of Hitler’s journey from Berlin to his new headquarters called ‘Felsennest’ (The Rocky Nest) was codenamed ‘Pfingsturlaub Genehmigt’, which can be translated as ‘Whitsunday Holiday approved’ referring to the Christian holiday, which was to be celebrated in Europe on Sunday, May 12, two days after Hitler’s arrival to the town of Rodert. The ‘Felsennest’ HQ was codenamed after the surrounding area, in particular after the hill 300 meters high. above which it was located. The choice of the location was not based on the picturesque panorama, which made everyone admire it. The area was included in the Luftverteidigungszone West (West Air Defense Zone) since the construction of the ‘Westwall’ in 1938 and since then has accommodated anti-aircraft bunkers and premises. Euskirchen train station, as well as the airfield, was close enough (12 km) and a good highway connection of the region was of importance when Fritz Todt and Rudolph Schmundt had chosen the location for Hitler’s wartime headquarters back in September 1939. Hitler made up his mind to use the HQ at Rodern for the Western campaign back in February 1940. Now the area with four concrete bunkers and fortified blockhouses was fenced and guarded with wooden watchtowers. Regarding Hitler’s personal bunker, it included the main conference room, a sleeping room, a kitchen, a bedroom, and two small rooms for his valet Heinz Linge, and personal adjutant Julius Schaub respectively. The other half of the erection was accommodated by Wilhelm Keitel and Alfred Jodl, Rudolf Schmundt, and Karl Brandt (Hitler’s personal physician). The bunker had air conditioning and good acoustics. In the early hours of May 10, the day of the great offensive in the West, Hans Georg Von Mackensen, the German Ambassador to Italy, asked for Benito Mussolini to be woken up for reading Hitler’s note about the whole Western campaign. Count Galeazzo Ciano would describe it as ‘the large package of papers’ in his wartime diaries. On May 14 the special train of Heinrich Himmler delivered himself, Joachim von Ribbentrop (The foreign Minister), Hans Heinrich Lammers (Chief of the Reich Chancellery since January 30, 1933), and SS officer Karl Wolf to the ‘Felsennest’ HQ (to the Euskirchen train station and then by cars) to meet Hitler. Apart from making a few short flights from the Odendorf airfield near Euskirchen, Hitler would stay at the new headquarters until June 6. He conducted his first trip to the front on May 17 by flying to the Belgian city of Bastogne, visiting it, and meeting with General Herd von Rundstedt, the commander of Army Group A at that time. On May 31 made a journey to Bad Godesberg, historically known since the VIII century to meet Dino Alfieri, Italian Minister of Popular Culture, and get Mussolini assurances that Italy was ready to declare war against France and Britain. On June 1-2 Adolf Hitler, accompanied by his entourage and backed by Fuhrer-Begleit-Bataillon (FBB) made a tour to inspect his troops. Hitler got back to ‘Felsennest’ for the next few days, though on June 4, 1940, the greater proportion of OKH staff, as well as the part of Stab/Fuhrer-Begleit Bataillon security forces, would be transferred to a new HQ near Bruly-de-Pesche in Belgium, 175 km to the West from Rodert. The new military headquarters was named ‘Wolfsschlucht’ (Wolf’s Gorge) regarding Hitler’s habit of calling himself a ‘wolf’ during the years of political struggle in the 1920-1930s. Apart from this, he considered his name Adolf to be a variation of the old German name ‘Wolf’. Being confident in the success of the German offensive in the West, Hitler neglected some obvious security measures in ‘Wolfsschlucht’ by spending a greater proportion of time open air outside the concrete bunkers. Heinrich Himmler, the SS-Reichsführer and the man, who toward that moment in time in 1940 had already been alive to the importance of being next to Hitler, visited the new headquarters on June 8. On June 10, 1940, Italy finally declared war against France and England. On the one hand, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was now almost confident in the outcome of the War in favor of his ally. On the other hand, he had previously made up his mind to declare war and attack earlier as a response to Hitler’s lightning war. As early as June 13 the headquarters near Bruly-de-Pesche were visited by a rare visitor. Henry von Wiegand was a German-born American journalist, well-known since the Great War as the only US journalist, who was permitted to stay in Berlin from 1914 to 1918. Wiegand was since known as a pro-German author, who had taken the first interview with Adolf Hitler as far back as 1921 when the Nazis were still a minor party even in Bavaria. Now in 1940, Hitler was concerned about keeping the US out of the war in Europe as long as possible and an interview with a trusted journalist was important. This meeting resulted in Wiegand’s later articles called “Europe for the Europeans: Adolf Hitler on the international situation during the War in France”. The next day, June 14 the German troops entered Paris for the first time since 1871. Hitler issued a war directive on this occasion and ordered the churches in Germany to ring the bells for three consecutive days. The seizure of Paris was then followed by another symbolic triumph for the Germans: on June 15 they took Verdun, a site of the fierce battle in the previous World War. On June 17, 1940, on the day of his appointment as a Prime minister of France, Marshal Philippe Petain, the war hero of WWI, used a radio to deliver a speech to the people of France. In his ‘capitulating’ speech the elderly leader of the government called the continuing struggle aimless and on the same day, an appeal for signing an armistice agreement reached Hitler’s headquarters in Belgium. This moment with a German dictator laughing and almost dancing on the road at ‘Wolfsschlucht’, was depicted by a camera and preserved, and later mentioned in the recollections of Christa Schroeder and Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day June 17, Hitler issued two official decrees. The first statement was addressed toward the Wehrmacht and included high-toned words about ‘restoring justice’, taking back the originally German lands into the Reich, and the Swastika flag, which would be forever present within the conquered territories. The second message was aimed at the German people, with the news on Petain’s appeal for peace and the upcoming meeting between Hitler and Mussolini. Apart from these two messages, Hitler made a personal call to Joseph Goebbels to inform the Propaganda minister about the French capitulation and to instruct him on how the news of the German victory should be covered in the media. During this June 17 telephone call, Hitler informed Goebbels (and the chief of propaganda posted an entry into his diary), that the negotiations between Germany and France would be conducted in the forest near Compiegne. Goebbels’ entry in the diary also included a passage about the cheerful crowds at Wilhelm Platz in Berlin. A memory of the never-ending trench war and two million dead German soldiers was still vivid among the people and this does not come as unexpected, that people in Germany felt relief with the news of the victory. On the same June 17, another unexpected message came from the Netherlands: the fallen former Kaiser Wilhelm II sent his congratulations to Adolf Hitler on the occasion of the victory. The old man still had an idea that he might be returned to power in Germany. The next day, at 8 p.m. June 18 General De Gaulle made a five-minute-long radio broadcast on BBC, a kind of a counter one to Petain’s, though a very little percentage of the French ever knew about this speech, and De Gaulle at that time. The general made no comment on the current policy of the new government, interpreted the causes of the defeat for France, and asked the French people to wait in the wings. On June 19 he would deliver another speech with more passion and appeal to the French people, who should not tolerate the capitulation and the occupation of French soil. It is worth mentioning that Adolf Hitler was the one, who had previously read the military books of De Gaulle regarding conducting war with the use of fully motorized formations. On the same day of June 17, fruitful for Hitler and Germany with the events, his personal plane departed from the flying field of Gros Caillou close to the ‘Wolfsschlucht’ HQ, landed in Frankfurt-am-Main, where Hitler’s special train awaited to take him to Munich for the planned encounter with Benito Mussolini. While the German Fuhrer was on his way to the heart of Bavaria, the German command was already discussing (Franz Halder’s diary entry on June 18) the hidden pitfalls concerning the upcoming shortening of the army from 165 to 120 divisions. Hitler was welcomed in Munich by crowds of people in the streets on his way to the apartment at Prinzregentenplatz 16. Three hours later he was back at the railway station to meet the train with Duce, which came exactly at 2:58, two minutes before the scheduled arrival time. Then the cortege took both dictators to Prince Carl Palace next to Hofgarten Park, a temporary place of stay for Mussolini, and the meeting itself was to happen inside Hitler’s so-called ‘Führerbau’ next to Königsplatz. It was the same place as in September 1938 during the so-called ‘Munich Crisis’. At the same time, in England Prime Minister Winston Churchill declared his speech in the House of Commons, appealing for the parliamentary and the nation to fight to see ‘their finest hour’. The meeting between Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini took place one week after the launch of the Italian offensive in Southern France, which, despite the involvement of 32 divisions, had not produced notable results. This fact put Duce once again in the state of a junior partner in the Berlin-Rome axis. Hitler was too absorbed in his thoughts about the oncoming negotiations with France, to pay serious attention to Mussolini’s unreasonable claims, once the hostilities were over. In obvious contrast to Italy’s insignificant contribution to the victory in the West in the previous week, Mussolini asserted claims to Southern France, Corsica island, French colonies such as Tunisia, Syria, Algeria, and Djibouti, as well as the takeover of the whole French fleet and the future occupation of Malta and Egypt after the victory over England. Hitler scored off Duce’s claims, which of course incurred the displeasure of the fascist leader by presenting Italy once again with a fait accompli. In the year to come, the outcome of this underestimated meeting between the two dictators would have its fatal effect during Mussolini’s undertakings in Greece and Egypt. Along with that, Count Ciano made an entry to his famous diary, that on that day he had admired Hitler. Despite the poor outcomes of the meeting, two dictators made an appearance on the balcony of the Fuhrerbau and even signed some postcards. Followed by an encounter with Mussolini, Adolf Hitler got back to this special train and later to the plane, which took him (once again through Frankfurt and Gros Caillou airfield) back to the military headquarters in Belgium as early as the midday of June 19, 1940. On the heels of the arrival, he held some meetings and issued directives, in particular regarding his other wartime headquarters called ‘Tannenberg’: he would stay there for a week between June 28 and July 5, 1940. On that day the exact date June 22 as well as the place within the forest clearing near Compiegne, the site of the 1918 armistice, so hated by Hitler since the event twenty-two years before, was brought into accordance. Hitler ordered his officers, particularly Wilhelm Keitel, to prepare a draft of the German conditions of the French surrender, and to prepare the site of the meeting. Back in early June, when the collapse of France was to become obvious, Hitler had already voiced an idea to accept French capitulation on the site of the 1918 armistice. Now On June 19, Hitler ordered Otto Günsche, his trusted personal adjutant to be present at the negotiations to control Hitler’s personal security during the meeting with the French delegates in Compiegne. His height of two meters was to be visible from all sides. Günsche was ordered to shoot any man who may act improperly toward Hitler. Hitler spent the following two days between June 19 and 21 at Bruly-de-Pesche by making constant involvement in the writing of the German draft of the armistice agreement, and then of the translation. A team of translators under Paul Schmidt was working all night from June 20 to 21 inside a little Belgian church in the village of Bruly-de-Pesche. The preamble of the document was Hitler’s idea. He wrote it into the draft by pen, which meant no further discussion. While preparing for the meeting, on June 20, 1940, Hitler conducted a meeting with Erich Raeder, the commander of the German navy at that time on the possibility of conquering England. At the same time, Halder and Brauchitsch were discussing the new dividing line in France and the redistribution of the German divisions throughout the continent. A LONE WAGON CAR IN COMPIEGNE: 1940 ARMISTICE On June 20 the French government informed the Germans of the list of plenipotentiaries, who were to be present at the armistice negotiation in Compiegne. Charles-Leon-Clement Huntziger. Born in 1880, Huntzinger had German origins and his family had left Alsace during the Franco-Prussian war ten years before his birth. During the First World War he had served as an officer in the Allied High Command headquarters and since the outbreak of the new War, was appointed first an army commander and later an army group leader. Léon Philippe Jules Arthur Noël. He was the son of a statesman born in strict catholic traditions, later a doctor of Political and Economic sciences. One of the witnesses of the road to WWII as the former French ambassador to Poland, he was now the representative of the Foreign Affairs Ministry. Maurice-Athanase Le Luc. Had neither noble nor privileged ancestry and was the son of a French merchant. From November 1939, Le Luc was a vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the French Maritime Forces. Jean Bergeret. A former head of the third office of the Air Force staff and now brigadier general since August 1939. During the meeting between Hitler and Mussolini on June 18, the Italian dictator claimed that the French representatives should conduct peace negotiations with both Germany and Italy on the same occasion simultaneously. For obvious reasons, the German Fuhrer had zero intention to share the moment of his triumph with the junior partner and Hitler insisted on two separate commissions during the negotiations. Toward the moment, when a list of the French delegates reached Hitler’s headquarters, the planned place of the event near Compiegne had already been under preparation. Already on June 20, 1940, one day before the meeting, the German engineers of the organization ‘TODT’ blasted the front wall of the museum, which had accommodated the famous 2419 D carriage of Marshal Foch since November 1927. By using air-operating hammers, they dragged the railway car to the glade in the center of the memorial to the site of the 1918 negotiations. The hole in the wall was temporarily fixed with a panel. Though Hitler openly discussed the place of new peace negotiations in early June, he voiced an idea regarding Compiegne as far back as May 20, when the German forces had reached the sea. ‘1. Kompanie/Fuhrer Begleit Bataillon (The first company of the ‘Fuhrer escort brigade’) was transferred from Laon (Hitler would visit it on June 25, 1940) to Compiegne. The unit was to secure the safety of Hitler during the negotiations and along with the Wehrmacht soldiers, was called to form a guard for honor on the site during the armistice ceremony. Joseph Goebbels signed the instruction, that the infamy of 1918 must be erased but without any direct humiliation to the French side. Since the very 1918 (four years before the erection of the clearing) the site had become a destination for pilgrimage among French people: they used to buy cards photographs and other souvenirs from the site of the greatest diplomatic victory. As for the German delegates at the oncoming negotiations, Hitler chose them personally and the entourage included men from both his inner party circle and the armed forces. Though in his post-war memoirs Hans Bauer (Hitler’s personal pilot) would recall an airfield of Compiegne with the burned remnants of the French planes, the alternative sources claim, the journey from ‘Wolfsschlucht’ was made through the French city of Amiens. The most trusted members of the ‘Fuhrer Begleit Bataillon’ were chosen to accompany Adolf Hitler during this trip. Rochus Misch would later claim (in a book) that he was happy not to be a part of the event. After the landing on the airfield, Hitler and his entourage took their places in the Mercedes cortege and at 3:15 the column of cars finally reached the site amid the forest near Rethondes. HERMANN GORING, the man №2 in the Third Reich and nominally Hitler’s successor (the Fuhrer called Goring his successor in his will before his departure to Italy in May 1938). Each of the German delegates on June 21 wore a distinctive uniform, which was to speak for the role in the state and its merits. Goring, the only Reichsmarschall in the state, left the Mercedes with his marshal’s baton: a kind of symbol of power. RUDOLF HESS was another high-ranking Nazi leader among the entourage. Formally another second man in the Reich, Deputy Fuhrer of the Nazi party. Back in the First World War, Hess served on the Western Front in the Bavarian Regiments (the 18th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment was a sister regiment of Hitler’s 16th one), was wounded several times, and decided to be a pilot. As early as October 1918 he joined one of the Bavarian fighter squadrons but had next to no combat experience until the armistice in November. In June 1940 before the journey to the Glade of the Armistice, Hess suffered from gastric and cholecyst pains. Two days later he would go to Bad Godesberg, one of Hitler’s favorite places of rest, and be treated by the personal therapist of Heinrich Himmler. As for the latter, who had not participated in the Battles of the First World War at all, Himmler would also visit the Compiegne clearing, yet without direct participation in the event. Regarding another ‘second man after Hitler’, whose name would be widely known later, MARTIN BORMANN, in those days of June 1940 and before his chief Hess’ flight to England, Bormann had been still a minor figure to be a part of such an event. At the same time, ERICH RAEDER, the commander of the German navy (Kriegsmarine) since 1935, General admiral and minister without a formal title, was present on behalf of the navy: thus a formal rival to Maurice Lu Luc. WILHELM KEITEL would also write a lot in his memoirs about the 1940 armistice event: he was now Chief of the German Armed Forces High Command. WALTHER VON BRAUCHITSCH was another high-ranking officer, Supreme Commander of the German Army, and formally next to Hitler as a Fuhrer in the army. JOACHIM VON RIBBENTROP, Reichsminister of Foreign Affairs since 1938 was another ambitious politician, not a military (yet wearing a military uniform), next to Hitler. One of Ribbentrop’s subordinates, Otto Abetz, an emissary to France was not with Hitler, but also on the site of the clearing down the road. ALFRED JODL would join the negotiations during the two-day armistice arguing, yet he was not in the first ranks of Hitler’s entourage upon arrival. When the Mercedes cortege made a stop at the entry road to the Armistice clearing at 3:15, those present on the site included journalists. Probably the most vivid account of what he saw, later left William Shirer, first in his article, then in the ‘Berlin Diary’ book, and 1960 in his brilliant ‘The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich’. At the same time, Shirer’s reminiscences are only one of the many of that day. Hitler’s procession made a stop well short of the memorial on the road. From that site Hitler, wearing his military uniform with the Iron Cross on his chest and his retinue, came closer to the Alsace-Lorraine monument. While the monument was covered with the German swastika flag, Hitler had been fully aware of the symbolism of the memorial: the righteous sword of the Allies passed the German eagle. Without leaving any commentaries about the monument, Hitler proceeded further down the alley approximately 200 meters in length in the direction of the center of the glade. In this way, the German dictator reviewed the front rank of each of the units of the honor company on both sides of the walking passage between the trees. Then, by being a good actor in front of the people and cameras, he stood for a few silent minutes in front of the large stone slab in the center of the clearing. The inscription from 1922 declared: “On this site, on 11 November 1918, the criminal pride of the German empire was vanquished by the free peoples it had aimed to enslave.” Followed by a brief scene in the center of the memorial clearing, under the observation of the press and German soldiers, Hitler finally entered the railway car. Heinz Linge two meters high took his place at the entrance to the carriage. To underline the humiliation of the moment for the French delegates, Hitler took the chair of Marshal Foch in 1918. The long table in the center of the space was also added with half a dozen chairs on both sides for the plenipotentiaries. Once Hitler parked himself, Goring, Keitel, Ribbentrop, Rader, Brauchitsch, and Hess took their seats as well. Paul Schmidt, who had spent the previous night at the translation of the document, took a seat at the head of the table to be heard well from any place in the room. The journey of the French delegation to the clearing amid the forest of Compiegne was less comfortable and much longer than Hitler’s and reflected the road for the German delegates in 1918. At 10:25 the previous day, June 20, the German high command received an order from Hitler’s headquarters to meet the French delegates on their way from Poitiers to Tours. Franz Halder, the Chief of Staff, assigned Kurt von Tippelskirch to fulfill the order. A son of a Prussian general, Tippelskirch was a prisoner of war for six years between 1914 and 1920 and learned French to the degree of a military interpreter. Major General since 1938 he was now a Quartermaster IV in the Army General Staff, under Halder. Though the French were expected to come to Tours at 5 p.m. on June 20, they finally managed to cross the border in the late hours. Without having a chance to sleep, the French plenipotentiaries were taken to the city of Compiegne as early as 11:30 a.m. June 21. For this reason, Hitler and his entourage came to the site after 3 p.m. Two generals, an admiral, and an ambassador left the cars in the distance from the entry to the memorial next to the Alsace-Lorraine monument, then walked through the alley to the carriage bypassing the German guard of honor. The French delegates had been informed about the final destination of the journey as early as June 20 and now they were shocked to see the famous carriage of 1918. When the four delegates entered the railway car, Hitler and other Germans got on their feet and after a brief silent pause, again sat down on the table. Similar to the 1918 negotiations, Germans had no intention to seriously discuss and Hitler wanted the conditions to be read and signed without changes. Keitel was now reading the preamble in German and Paul Schmidt was reading the French translation simultaneously. As soon as Keitel and Schmidt finished the reading of the preamble, which took around ten minutes, Hitler rose and followed by his retinue, left the carriage without saying a word, leaving Keitel to proceed with the whole document with the conditions. In the same minutes Alfred Jodl and a few German officers, who had been assigned to conduct the negotiations further, took their seats in the famous car. Once receiving the complete list of conditions for the armistice, the French delegates asked for a connection with French headquarters at Bordeaux between General Huntziger and Weygand, the Commander in Chief. As for Hitler and his entourage, as they came back to the center of the clearing once again, а valet Linge gave a signal for the guard of honor to proceed with the songs. ‘Deutschland über alles’ and “Horst-Wessel-Lied” were now played amid the French war memorial site. By covering the same path to the Mercedes cars on the road, the key actor of the event left the scene to be back again at his ‘Wolfsschlucht’ headquarters at 8 p.m. the same day, June 21. The negotiations between German and French officers with Keitel and Huntzinger respectively made no outcome at the end of the first day and were to be resumed on June 22. At 6 p.m. the next day, Keitel voiced an ultimatum to the French delegates giving them an hour to either sign a treaty or terminate the diplomacy. After another call to the French headquarters, Huntzinger agreed to sign the 1940 armistice, which happened at 6.50 p.m. German summertime on June 22. At 7.:06 a happy Keitel sent a short message to ‘Wolfsschlucht’ to Hitler with the news of the signing. Also, Keitel expressed his gratitude to Huntzinger, that he had represented his country with dignity. On the same evening, Goebbels ordered a nationwide announcement on the occasion that the war was over. The full version of the German conditions for peace with France and the cessation of hostilities included 24 clauses. Following the second article, France was de facto cut into two pieces by a new post-armistice demarcation line, with the Germans occupying Northern France, leaving another part to so-called ‘Free France’. According to clause 6, all heavy artillery was to be given to the German side. Under point 8, the French fleet should be disarmed under German or Italian control: the clause unacceptable for the British and Winston Churchill in particular. The other clauses prescribed, among other things, that the planes should be left on the airfields as well as commercial boats should remain in ports. The French prisoners of War, almost 2 million people, would remain in captivity (similar to their Belgian brothers in arms) and the ‘designated German national’ were to be handed to the German side. THE FATE OF THE ARMISTICE CLEARING AND THE COMPIEGNE WAGON While Hitler himself proclaimed that the infamy of 1918 had been erased with the events of 1940, he had contempt for the French memorial site near Compiegne not so much by the old history as by French admiration of the location as a site of pilgrimage. In contrast to his statement to his photographer Heinrich Hoffmann that he admired French devotion to the site, as early as June 21 (on the heels of the coming back to his headquarters) Hitler issued a new directive in regard particularly to the Compiegne clearing memorial. The historical carriage of Marshal Foch, as well as the marble stone and the Alsace memorial, were to be taken to Berlin. The former sites of commemoration of both 1918 trains were to be dismantled and leveled to the ground. The monument to the French Marshal Ferdinand Foch was spared by Hitler probably due to Hitler’s remaining respect for the old war hero and anyone with the title of ‘marshal’ or ‘Field marshal’. On the same occasion, he voiced his wish on the fate of the memorial to Joseph Goebbels, to whom Hitler had a phone call in the late hours of June 21. Hitler’s order was carried into effect just after both the German and French delegations had left the site of the negotiations in the late hours of June 22. To start with, the German engineers, who had brought the carriage from the museum shelter two days before, dismantled parts of the memorial site. The Alsace memorial, as well as the monumental stone slab in the center of the clearing, were dismantled and loaded onto trucks. The former 2419 D carriage was loaded onto a large transportation truck, which took it to the railway tracks for the first time since 1927, and toward July 5, 1940, it would reach Berlin. On its way to the capital, Hannover, a few thousand people came to the railway station to witness the unobvious historical landmark. In the course of its first week in Berlin, the iconic 2419 D carriage was put on display next to the Brandenburg gates for every Berliner to see. He was later (some accounts claim in the Fall of 1940) also displayed within the museum island of Berlin next to the Altes Museum (The old museum). The engineers built special wooden platforms for the visitors to come closer to the railway car and to be free to watch inside it through the windows. Considering the number of preserved photos of the period, the landmark was appreciated by both Berliners and foreign visitors. For example, as early as 1942 the delegation from Finland took time to see the carriage and took dozens of photos. As for the further issued works on the territory of the memorial site near Compiegne, the Germans were certain to fulfill Hitler’s order completely. The statue of Marshal Foch was temporarily covered with a kind of a giant wooden box to protect it from the explosions within the clearing, initiated to dismantle the memorial. The museum shelter, which had previously accommodated the carriage between 1927 and 1940, was now blown up. The Germans finally leveled the site to the ground by not only digging out and making explosions but also by digging the area across, including the former alley to the memorial clearing. They even cut the trees, under which Hitler’s guard of honor and delegates of both sides had been accommodating themselves from the June sun on June 21-22. The tracks on the site of the 1918 train placement were also dug out and destroyed. Now the empty clearing next to Marshal Foch’s statue was plowed up and laid down with grass. Despite a few years of exhibiting in the center of Berlin, later the Armistice train car was preserved for some time on a service railway track. As late as 1944 when the capital of Germany had been already exposed to severe Allied bombardments and the celebration of the 1940 victories was not relevant anymore, the famous railway car was evacuated from Berlin. After another transportation using heavy truck and railway system, the car ended its way at the small railway station next to the rare known German commune called Crawinkel of 1500 inhabitants in Thuringia 250 km Southwest of Berlin. The carriage was now only 7 kilometers from the Ohrdruf forced labor camp, a part of a huge system of subcamps of a better known Buchenwald. Ohrdruf was set up in November 1944 and operated by the SS on the site of the former Wehrmacht grounds toward the Spring of 1945 it had to allocate up to 13,000 prisoners, many working on never-finished Hitler’s headquarters in the area. Thousands were then forced to perform a series of ‘Marshes of death’. It would be liberated by the US soldiers on April 4, 1945, and later visited by Dwight Eisenhower himself. Regarding the later fate of the famous Foch carriage, the fact is that it burned out in the same month April 1945 as the Ohrdruf was liberated. There are two main versions of burning. The first one is affected and has no documented fact and it claims that toward the end of the War Hitler sent his personal order to destroy the carriage. The SS soldiers from the neighboring Ohrdruf camp theoretically could carry out such an order, yet toward the time of the burning of the 2419 D carriage, the area had been already liberated by the American troops. The second and currently widely accepted explanation says that the carriage burned out due to accidental flame development. Some accounts claim the fire was not accidental and the carriage was put on fire by the liberated prisoners of Ohrdruf to get warm. There is another version, that the carriage was found in Berlin by the Soviet troops and on October 17, 1946, sent back to France. Despite one inclusion into Soviet archives, this version has no historical ground as another railway car was to be restored within the memorial site near Compiegne. The fourth rare known version, also without factual backing, claimed that the carriage was heavily damaged during the air raid on Berlin in 1945. Today the guests of the Crawinkel commune have a chance to visit the exact site, wherein in 1945 the famous carriage burned out. There is even a memorial sign with the inscription: Der legendäre Eisenbahn Waggon von Compiègne in Frankreich war Ort von Waffenstillstandsverhandlungen im I. und II. Weltkrieg 1918 – 1940. 1945 wurde der Waggon hier in Crawinkel zerstört. Frieden / Paix. Zur Erinnerung / En mèmoire 2007. The legendary Compiègne railway carriage in France was the site of armistice negotiations in World War I and II, 1918-1940. In 1945 the carriage was destroyed here in Crawinkel. Peace. As a reminder 2007. As for the fate of the memorial, its restoration was put into action half a year before the burning of the 2419 D Armistice train car and the fall of the Nazi regime. The city of Compiegne was liberated on September 1, 1944, and as soon as October 21 the first mass rally of the patriots had a gathering on the site of the former Armistice learning in the forest. On that day a few hundred men cheered the renewal of French dignity next to the preserved statue of Marshal Foch. While the clearing looked like just an open site in the woods, a wooden substitute and a memorial cloth (which had been prepared during the war in wait for the occasion) were put on the site of the former well-known granite slab: the first step in the restoration of the memorial. As early as November 11, 1944, a full-frame celebration took place here in the presence of the French, British, American, and even Polish representatives. In the course of the coming two years, the French memorial would acquire the former shape thanks to the authorities of Compiegne and the hands of the German pows. The conducted works resulted in the restoration of the authentic roads and alleys, and the glade in the center was once again covered with gravel. Some of the monuments, which had been taken away to Berlin in 1940, were now restored on the site and inaugurated toward the twenty-eighth anniversary of the first armistice on November 11, 1946. Starting from that very first commemoration in the Fall of 1944, an ever-increasing number of people were visiting the memorial. Among the most recognized guests were General De Gaulle and Vincent Auriol, the President of the French Republic. At the same time, without the famous Compiegne wagon, the exposition of the Compiegne memorial was not full. As early as September 16, 1950 ‘Compagnie Internationale des wagons-lits’ (in English: International Sleeping Car Company), the original creator of the 2419 D carriage, offered to give another carriage of the same series to be placed near Compiegne. The 2439 D was among those 37 carriages created by two series in 1913-1914. One account claims that it was found in Romania after WWII. 2439 had a similar original design as 2419 and was now assigned to be furnished and fit exactly. It was first brought to the Rethondes railway station by railway and then by trucks to the site of the newly erected museum on the site of the former, which had been blown up by the Germans in 1940. The fixtures and fittings from the pre-war museum had been hidden by the curator in 1940 and now restored in 1950. The opening ceremony took place on November 11, 1950. It took another forty years until in 1992 the museum collection would be added with the remnants of the famous authentic 2419 D car, given by the citizens of Crawinkel. The parts of the burned Armistice wagon: two access ramps, the chassis, and fragments of decoration were hidden back in 1945 and now are restored within the museum shelter. Since that time the museum witnessed two expansions and later in 2018, the building added 500 m2 of useful exhibition space. Concerning the second legendary railway car of the 1918 armistice, those of Napoleon III, which in 1918 accommodated the German delegates, it has survived the War and now is a part of a display at the ‘Musée de la Voiture et du Tourisme (Car and Tourism museum) in Compiègne. THE ARMISTICE CLEARING In the course of the last seven decades, the restored ‘Clairière de l’Armistice’ (the Glade of Armistice) memorial complex has not experienced significant changes. In 2022 the site would celebrate the 100th anniversary of its original opening back in 1922. The second most common use is still ‘Clairière de Rethondes’ (The Rethondes Clearing) about the Rethondes train station. ALSACE-LORRAINE MONUMENT The Alsace-Lorraine monument commemorates the French annexation of the lands, known as ‘Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen’ in German and Alsace-Lorraine in French. These territories to the West of the Rhine had been historically debated by France and Germany, though the greater proportion of the local people used to speak German dialects, being at the same time located to the West of the river and thus within the geographically French territories. The growing nationalistic mood in Germany and Prussia cultivated the attitude, that Alsace and Lorraine were to be taken by force. Among other reshapings of the European boundaries after the Franco-Prussian War, the territories were seized by the German Empire in 1871 due to ‘The Treaty of Frankfurt’. As early as the 1870s, and especially after the outbreak of WWI, the demand to return Alsace and Lorraine was the driving motive of the French war effort. The French troops occupied the region already in November 1918 not by the conquest but after the withdrawal of the Germans. The Alsace-Lorraine memorial was among the key parts of the open-air memorial since its inauguration on November 11, 1922. Along with that, the cost of its construction was not covered by the state but donated by the ‘Le Matin’ daily newspaper. Founded by a group of American investors as far back as 1883 with an eye on the British ‘The Morning News’, the French newspaper had been boosting its audience for decades. In 1914 and toward the outbreak of the First World War, the daily circulation of the ‘Le Matin’ overtopped one million copies with around 150 journalists like the authors. While being the patron of the erection of the Alsace-Lorraine monument (devoted to the French victory over Germany), toward the 1930s the newspaper took up a far-right attitude, especially after Hitler’s rise in power in 1933. The shift in politics predetermined the decline in circulation, which reached its minimum of 300,000 in 1940. In the late 1930s, the ‘Le Matin’ newspaper advocated pacifism and keeping out of the German annexations in Europe. Following the signing of the 1940 armistice, the newspaper was to become collaborationist and appliance. The very last output would see the light on August 17, 1944, later banned and nationalized by the government. As for the erection of the monument in 1922, it was assigned to Edgar Brandt, the famous French ironworker of Alsatian origin (through his paternal grandparents). He had opened his first studio in Paris as far back as 1902 and later became national-wide famous as the owner of the art gallery, the manufacturer of weapons, and the author of ornaments across France. The monument was created of pink sandstone from the Vosges mountains and is dominated by a metal composition in the middle. The Eagle (German Empire) is being killed by a sword (France or ‘Entente alliance’) with the inscription in French: “Aux héroïques soldats de France, défenseurs de la patrie et du droit glorieux, libérateurs de l’Alsace et de la Lorraine.”. “To the heroic soldiers of France, defenders of the Fatherland and of Law, glorious liberators of Alsace and Lorraine. “ For Adolf Hitler, the Alsace region had its own symbolic and even personal meaning in virtue of the fact that it was here he had been awarded Military Service Cross Third Class in September 1917. The issue of regaining the Alsace and Lorrain regions to Germany was never a driving force of Hitler’s political career since 1919 to the extent of Saar and Danzig. As early as September 15, 1933, in the year of the rise to power in Germany, Hitler sent a personal political note to André François-Poncet, a French Ambassador to Germany since 1931, that ‘the Alsace-Lorraine issue simply doesn’t exist. By presenting himself as a flexible international player, on November 22, 1933, Hitler gave an interview to the ‘Le Matin’ newspaper, the one, which had donated the Alsace-Lorraine memorial in 1922. In his interview, the German chancellor stated that the region (Alsace and Lorraine) is not a matter of dispute between Germany and France and that the issue is easy to solve by an agreement. In fact, at that moment in time, the Nazis had no military means to voice any aggressive rhetoric toward France. Already in September 1940, three months after the signing of the armistice in Compiegne, 23,000 Jews, and other ‘undesirables’ were deported to South France from the region. The citizens of Alsace and Lorraine would be given German citizenship as early as 1942. Upon arriving at the Clearing of Compiegne on June 21, 1940, Hitler’s motorcade made a stop at some distance from the French memorial complex and next to the Alsace-Lorraine monument. Hitler, who had his Military Service Cross from 1917 on his chest on that day, witnessed the memorial covered with a swastika banner. While he had never been on the site before, the German dictator obviously was aware of the symbolism of the monument and its meaning for the French. In the late hours of the same day, Hitler’s order proscribed the dismantling and taking off of the Alsace-Lorraine memorial to Berlin. Picked to pieces, the Alsace-Lorraine monument spent the whole war in Germany and was found by the Allied troops, packed in boxes, in 1945 next to the Soviet zone in Berlin. The parts of the former memorial were given to the French and it would be completely restored at the former place at the beginning of the alley as early as 1950. MEMORIAL TO THE FOREST RANGERS This lesser-known monument, located today in the shadow of the trees on the left hand, while moving from the Alsace-Lorraine memorial in the direction of the clearing, was not here in June 1940. Initially inaugurated on November 4, 1920, at another crossroad near Chene Vert, it was moved here to the Glade of Armistice on November 11, 1995. The memorial stone, known as ‘Monument aux morts de la forêt de Compiègne’ (Monument to the fallen from the Compiegne forest) honors the memory of the three water and forest rangers of the Compiegne forest (Forets De Compiegne), who was killed in WWI. CHARLES LOUIS JACQUES ROLLIN, born in 1886 in Jouy-aux-Arches, 250 kilometers to the West of the city of Compiegne, was a captain in the French army during WWI. Rollin was killed on May 4, 1918, during the attack in Northern France, half a year before the end of the War. LAURENT OLIVIER was born in 1875 in Vermenton in the direction to the South of Paris. During WWI he was the second lieutenant in the 56th Infantry Division and was reported missing in action on April 26, 1915. Before the War Oliver was a guard at the Maison Forestière du Pont de Berne next to Rethondes and Compiegne. GUSTAVE BRANGE was born in 1877 in Villers-la-Montagne near the Belgian and Luxembourg border. Before the outbreak of the ‘Great War’, Brange was a forester near Saint-Jean-aux-Bois, in the Southern part of the Compiegne forest 8 km from Rethondes. Gustave Brange was a soldier in the 6th Company of forest hunters and was killed on April 5, 1915. THE GRANITE SLABS OF THE GLADE OF COMPIEGNE The undistinguished open site for the artillery storage in the First World War amid the Forest on Compiegne was fated to become a memorial site and a place of memory. Before the opening of the memorial in 1922, the visitors of the site already could witness two signs: “Tram du maréchal Foch” (Carriage of Marshal Foch) and “Train des Plénipolenliaires” (Train of the assigned delegates) on the locations of the delegates trains in November 1918. Since 1922 and later after the restoration of the memorial after WWII, the clearing had been dominated by three monuments. ‘La Dalle Sacree’ or ‘The sacred slab’. It was inaugurated back in November 1922 at the same time as the Alsace-Lorraine monument. The stone in the very center of the open site was once carved from the ‘Vire Bleu’ granite, a material quarried in France and famous for its quality for erecting monuments. It is also known as ‘Bleu de Vire’, ‘Granit Vire’, ‘Vire Blue’, or ‘Vire Bleu Granite’ and was also used for the erection of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier under the ‘Arc of Triomphe’ in Paris. Marcel Mages is known to be the architect of the slab and his name could be seen on the stone. Back in 1922, the very first authentic version of the slab was added with an inscription in French. Ici le 11 novembre 1918 le criminel orgueil de l’empire allemand vaincu par les peuples libres qu’il prétendait asservir. Here, on 11 November 1918, the criminal pride of the German empire was vanquished by the free peoples it had sought to enslave. This inscription included the words of Jean-Auguste-Gustave Binet, known as ‘Binet-Valmer’. Born in 1875 he was a Franco-Swiss journalist and novelist, a combat veteran of the ‘Great War’, who was wounded three times. In 1919 he was one of the founders of the ‘Ligue des chefs de section’ (League of Section Chiefs and Combatant Soldiers), a far-write anti-communist veterans league, later active in the 1920s. Apart from being an author of the lines on the central monument in Compiegne, Binet-Valmer was also among the advocates of the creation of the ‘Tomb of the Unknown Soldier’ under the ‘Arc de Triomphe’. In late June 1940, the Germans dismantled the slab from the original site and took the pieces of it to Berlin. The remnants of the au
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"https://mtmestas.com/newspapers/images/thumbs/sonssilverstar-t.gif", "https://mtmestas.com/newspapers/images/thumbs/lavetaman-t.gif", "https://mtmestas.com/newspapers/images/thumbs/memorialdayplanned-t.gif", "https://mtmestas.com/newspapers/images/thumbs/parkconsidered-t.gif", "https://mtmestas.com/magazines/post/images/post-00-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/magazines/cowboystory/images/storyofcowboymestas-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/wheatley/cover-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/magazines/hero/images/herobehindthemountain-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/documents/memorialdedication/images/memorialdedication-01-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/documents/congressionalrecord/images/congressionalrecord-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/documents/usgeologicalsurvey/images/usgeologicalsurvey-t.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/images/poster-map2.jpg", "https://mtmestas.com/images/mestas-monument-t.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			favicon.ico		null	1942 15 Jul - Activated at Camp Gruber, Oklahoma under the command of Major General John E. Sloan. 1943 Jun- The 88th participated in Third Army Louisiana Maneuvers #3. Aug- The division moved to Fort Sam Houston, Texas. Nov- The division stages at Camp Patrick Henry, Virginia. 15 Dec- The 88th arrivived at Casablanca, French Morocco from the Hampton Roads Port of Embarcation. 26 Dec- An advance party of the 88th echelon departed for Italy. 28 Dec- The Division moved to Magenta, Algeria and conducted intensive training for employment in Italy. 1944 4 Jan- The division went into the line as observers attached to 3rd, 34th, and 36th Infantry Divisions, and the British 5th, 46th, and 56th Divisions. 3 Jan- A member of this advance echelon became the 88ths first KIA when Sergeant William A. Streuli of Paterson, New Jersey (a forward observer in B/339th Field Artillery Battalion) was killed by fragments from a bomb dropped by a Luftwaffe aircraft in the 34th Infantry Division sector. Lieutenant Elwin Ricketts, Battery B Executive Officer, became the first WIA when he was wounded in the same attack. 6 Feb- The main body of the 88th was transported to Italy in early February and concentrated around Piedimonte d'Alife for combat training. 27 Feb- The first 88th Division unit into the line was 2nd Battalion, 351st Infantry, which relieved elements of the Texas Divisions 141st Infantry Regiment near Cervaro. 28 Feb- The first artillery round fired in combat by an 88th DIVARTY unit was sent downrange by Battery C, 913th Field Artillery Battalion. It's target was a registration point at the Monte Cassino Abbey, the rubble of which was occupied by the Germans after the Allies bombed it. 4 Mar- The entire Division moved into the line at 1000 hours. 5 Mar- The division assumed responsibility for the sector previously occupied by the British 5th Division. At the same time, the 88th came under the control of the British X Corps, and deployed its three infantry regiments on line from the Mediterranean into the foothills to the east. Opposing the 88th in the strong fortified positions of the Gustav Line, were the German 71st and 94th Infantry Divisions. The Blue Devil infantry spent the next two months occupying and improving defensive positions and patrolling, while DIVARTY fired harassing and interdiction missions at German positions and suspected and known lines of communication. 11 May- At 2300 the Allied front in Italy began their last attack on the Gustav Line with the the 88th. In less than an hour, the 350th Infantry Regiment captured Mt. Damiano, key terrain overlooking the flank of the French units attacking on the Divisions right. 12 May- In that action, Staff Sergeant Charles W. Shea of F/350th took charge of his platoon after the platoon leader was killed and the platoon sergeant was wounded, and led an assault which knocked the defenders out of their well-prepared positions. For his actions that day, Staff Sergeant Shea became the first Blue Devil to earn the Medal of Honor. 11-14 May- The rest of the Division also pushed hard and forced the stubborn foe off the Gustav Line. The 351st Infantry stormed into Santa Maria Infante and engaged in a particularly bitter battle with the German defenders there. After more than two days of vicious combat, the 351st seized Santa Maria. 11 May- The 88th drove north to take Spigno, Mount Civita, Itri, Fondi, and Roccagorga. As the 349th Infantry Regiment passed through the 351st and continued the attack to the north, the 88ths operations took on aspects of a pursuit. Through towns like Itri, Fondi, and Roccgorga, the Blue Devils drove on toward Rome, effectively destroying the German 94th Infantry Division in the process. So badly battered was the 94th that it had to be withdrawn to Germany for reconstitution, and did not return to combat until October. 29 May- Elements of the 88th made contact with Allied units breaking out of the Anzio beachhead, reached Anzio on 29 May, and pursued the enemy into Rome. 4 Jun- Elements of the 88th were the first to enter the Rome. After the fall of Rome, the 88th was pulled out of the line to refit and prepare for subsequent operations. 11 Jun- After continuing across the Tiber to Bassanelio the 88th retired for rest and training. 5 Jul- The Division went into defensive positions near Pomerance and relieved the 1st Armored Division in the vicinity. 8 Jul- The Division attacked Volterra at 0500 with the 349th and 350th Infantry Regiments abreast, with the 351st in reserve. Intending to envelop the objective from both sides, the attack successfully drove the defenders of the veteran 90th Panzer Grenadier Division from their choice terrain. Volterra was secure by 2200 hours. 9 Jul- While performing security duties on the Divisions left flank, the 351st Infantry Regiment unexpectedly ran into a hornets nest near Laiatico on 9 July. Here, the regiment encountered Grenadier Regiment 1060, an element of the recently-disbanded 92nd Infantry Division now attached to the 362nd Infantry Division, as well as other elements of the 90th Panzer Grenadiers. 12 Jul- The 351st Regiment attacked again on the 12th with the 2nd and 3rd Battalions up and the 1st in reserve. The 3rd Battalion tore into the 1060ths 1st Battalion, destroying it and killing the enemy battalion commander. 13 Jul- All regimental objectives were secure; for its part in the attack, the 3rd Battalion, 351st Infantry Regiment was later awarded the Distinguished Unit Citation. 13 Jul- Villamagna fell. 20 Jul- The Arno River was crossed. 25 Jul- By 25 July, the Fifth Armys offensive power had been spent; the loss of VI Corps and its veteran 3rd, 36th, and 45th Infantry Divisions to the impending invasion of Southern France prevented it from continuing the drive further to the north. The removal of the French Expeditionary Corps for participation in the same operation also diminished Allied combat power in Italy. Above the Arno, the units of the Germans Army Group Southwest were finishing their preparations for defense of the Gothic Line, and the Allied forces of the US Fifth and British Eighth Armies were going to require every ounce of power they could muster to breach the heavily fortified line in the mountains that ran from the Ligurian coast in the east to the Adriatic in the west. Aug- Major General Sloan was transferred first to a hospital in Italy, then to the States for treatment of a recurring disease. General Sloan was succeeded by the Divisions Assistant Commander, Brigadier General Paul W. Kendall. 10 Sep- Allied forces in Italy attacked toward the Gothic Line and penetrated it in the central and Adriatic sectors. 21 Sep- After a period of rest and training, the Division opened its assault on the Gothic Line and advanced rapidly along the Firenzuola-Imola road, taking Mount Battaglianear near Casola Valsenio on the 28th. 27 Sep- The 2nd Battalion - 351st Infantry Regiment earns the Distinguished Unit Citation for Monte Cappello. The fighting raged for days, sometimes literally at bayonet point,until the 1st and 2nd Battalions secured the top of the mountain. 27-28 Sep- Captain Robert Roeder, CO of Company G, was awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions at Monte Battaglia. 27 Sep- The 2nd Battalion - 350th Infantry Regiment earns the Distinguished Unit Citation for Monte Battaglia. 30 Sep- The 349th Infantry Regiment attack the village of Belvedere enroute to its objective, Mt. Grande. 20-22 Oct- The enemy counterattacked savagely and heavy fighting continued on the line toward the Po Valley. The strategic positions of Mount Grande and Farnetto were taken on 20 and 22 October. 24 Oct- Company G, 351st came closest to breaking through, but was literally wiped out at Vedriano, southeast of Bologna, on 24 October. 26 Oct- The 88th went over to the defensive in late October patrolling in the Mount Grande-Mount Cerrere sector and the Mount Fano improved positions, and rehabilitated its combat troops. 22 Nov- The Division relieved the 85th Infantry Division in its sector. 1945 13 Jan- The Division was relieved for general rehabilitation. 24 Jan- The division was committed in relief of the 91st Infantry Division near Loiano and Livergnano and after more patrolling and maintenance of defensive positions, the Division was pulled out of the line again for further rehabilitation and special training for the impending spring offensive to 2 Mar. 1 Apr- That offensive, which would finally defeat the Wehrmacht in Italy, commenced with a supporting attack by the 92nd Infantry Division on the Ligurian coast in the west to draw German forces away from the point of the impending main effort. 9 Apr- Another supporting attack, in much greater strength, was launched by the British Eighth Army on the Adriatic coast on 9 April. Finally, with the German reserves being decisively committed to meet these attacks at the extreme ends of the line in Italy, on 14 April, Fifth Army jumped off in the main attack against the German center. 15 Apr- The 88ths attack began at 2230 hours on 15 April, as its infantry regiments lunged toward Monterumici. In two days the Blue Devils knocked the German defenders off the key ridge. 17 Apr- Monterumici fell on the 17th after an intense barrage. 24 Apr- The Po River was crossed as the 88th pursued the enemy toward the Alps. 25 Apr- Verona fell. 28 Apr- Vicenza fell. 2 May- The 88th was driving through the Dolomite Alps toward Innsbruck, Austria to link up with the 103rd Infantry Division, when the hostilities ended on 2 May 1945. German forces in Italy surrendered although it took until early the next day to notify all Blue Devil units of the capitulation. 4 May- Elements of the 349th Infantry Regiment linked up with units from the 103rd Infantry Divisions 409th Infantry Regiment coming down from Austria where German forces had yet to surrender in the Brenner Pass. 7 Jun- The 88th Division assumed POW Command duties to repatriate a minimum of 100,000 Germans and to form an estimated 120,000 of them into service units. POW strength figures at the time indicated that the 88th Division had approximately 295,000 Germans available to accomplish this dual mission. Later figures raised this total above 320,000 as Germans came in out of the hills, unguarded German service units were discovered and taken over, and responsibility for the Czech PWs was transferred from the Fifth Army to the Division. 1947 to 1954 The 88th in Occupation and the Free Territory of Trieste Trust Period. TRUST stands for Trieste United States Troops, the 5,000 man U.S. contingent based in the Free Terrority of Trieste created in 1947. The Free State was established in 1947 in order to accomodate an ethnically and culturally mixed population in a neutral country between Italy and Yugoslavia. After the war, the 88th Infantry Division on occupation duty in Italy guarded the Morgan Line from positions in Italy and Trieste until 15 September 1947. It was then withdrawn to Livorno and inactivated. The 351st Infantry was relieved from assignment to the division on 1 May 1947 and served as the main component of a garrison command in the Free Territory of Trieste, securing the disputed border between Italy and Yugoslavia. The command served as the front line in the Cold War from 1947 to 1954, including confrontations with Yugoslavian forces. In October 1954 the territory was ceded to Italy and administration turned over to the Italian Army. TRUST units, which included a number of 88th divisional support units, all bore a unit patch which was the coat of arms of the Free Territory of Trieste superimposed over the divisional quarterfoil, over which was a blue scroll containing the designation "TRUST" in white."
2080	dbpedia	1	77	https://forum.paradoxplaza.com/forum/threads/the-pacific-empire-a-japan-blackice-aar.909533/page-10	en				[ "https://forum.paradoxplaza.com/_fs-ch-1T1wmsGaOgGaSxcX/assets/fastlyLogoError.svg", "https://forum.paradoxplaza.com/_fs-ch-1T1wmsGaOgGaSxcX/assets/errorIcon.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null
2080	dbpedia	1	98	https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/new-equation.html	en	New Equation: Chinese Intervention into the Korean War	https://www.history.navy…ons/koreamap.gif	https://www.history.navy…ons/koreamap.gif	[ "https://www.history.navy.mil/etc/clientlibs/history/images/NHHC-newLogo.jpg", "https://www.history.navy.mil/etc/clientlibs/history/images/NHHC-newLogo.jpg", "https://www.history.navy.mil/etc/clientlibs/history/images/navy-library-logo.jpg", "https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/new-equation/_jcr_content/body/media_asset/image.img.gif/1486135586597.gif", "https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/new-equation/_jcr_content/body/media_asset_759540439/image.img.gif/1486137050501.gif", "https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/new-equation/_jcr_content/body/media_asset_207053084/image.img.gif/1486138388092.gif", "https://www.history.navy.mil/etc/clientlibs/history/images/fdlp-365px-wide.gif", "https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/VCL%20988_Hoz_RGB.png", "https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/WB2014_Rec-S.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Welcome - Captain Steven U. Ramsdell, USN Opening Remarks - Dr. Edward J. Marolda MacArthur and Chinese Intervention in the Korean War - Dr. D. Clayton James Invasion Patrol: The Seventh Fleet in Chinese Waters - Dr. Edward J. Marolda George E. Stratemeyer and the Air War in Korea - Mr. Thomas Y'Blood The Epic of Chosin Reservoir - Mr. Benis M. Frank General Discussion Speakers' Biographies	en	/etc/designs/history/favicon.ico		http://public1.nhhcaws.local/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/n/new-equation.html	Welcome - Captain Steven U. Ramsdell, USN Opening Remarks - Dr. Edward J. Marolda MacArthur and Chinese Intervention in the Korean War - Dr. D. Clayton James Invasion Patrol: The Seventh Fleet in Chinese Waters - Dr. Edward J. Marolda George E. Stratemeyer and the Air War in Korea - Mr. Thomas Y'Blood The Epic of Chosin Reservoir - Mr. Benis M. Frank General Discussion Speakers' Biographies WELCOME by Captain Steven U. Ramsdell, USN Director, Naval Aviation History and Publication Division Naval Historical Center On behalf of the Director of Naval History, Dr. Dean C. Allard, I welcome you to today's Colloquium on Contemporary History. The purpose of these events, I hope you understand, 15 to promote the study of post-World War II national security issues and to enhance our understanding of the role of the defense establishment in the contemporary period, with of course, emphasis on the naval aspects of that involvement. What an important subject we have today; the Chinese intervention into the Korean War. That watershed event is of interest, first of all because of what we can learn about circumstances surrounding the intervention itself and also, because it cast such a long shadow over subsequent American policy and involvement in Asia, including of course our participation in the Vietnam War. Therefore, it really commands our attention. Once again, welcome, and let's proceed with the conference. OPENING REMARKS by Dr. Edward J. Marolda Head, Contemporary History Branch Naval Historical Center The title of today's colloquium is "A New Equation: Chinese Intervention into the Korean War." Why should we be concerned with an event that occurred almost forty years ago in a conflict that Clay Blair has labeled the Forgotten War? There are many reasons, but a primary one has to be that Chinese intervention into the war strongly influenced how the United States and the People's Republic of China would approach Far Eastern security concerns for at least the next twenty years. The massive size of the Chinese Red Army, and the skill with which it forced United Nations forces to withdraw from the frozen hills of North Korea, persuaded American leaders that they faced a major military power. Thereafter, successive U.S. administrations focused on preventing full-scale armed confrontation with Chinese Communist forces, especially on the mainland of Asia. Truman gave up earlier thoughts of unifying Korea under a Western banner; Eisenhower passed on the French invitation to Dien Bien Phu and he kept Chiang Kai-shek "leashed;" and Presidents Kennedy and Johnson spared no effort to avoid provoking Chinese intervention into the Southeast Asian conflict. At the same time, the government in Peking learned from its experience in Korea that American naval, air, and ground forces, equipped with an arsenal of lethal weapons, could exact a heavy toll of Chinese lives and resources. This knowledge fostered Communist restraint during the Sino-American confrontations over the Tachen Islands in 1955, Quemoy and Matsu in 1958, and Southeast Asia in the 1960s. The fears that motivated this mutual restraint, however, also made the People's Republic of China and the United States the bitterest of enemies. Korea convinced Mao Tse-tung and his lieutenants, ardent Marxist ideologues, that the goal of the United States was not only to rid Asia of Communism but to destroy the Peking regime itself. With renewed vigor, the Chinese Communists supported Soviet foreign policy objectives and provided material support to other Far Eastern Communist movements. There was little indication that the PRC sought accommodation with the West. Chinese intervention in Korea following the harsh Soviet consolidation of power in Eastern Europe and threat to the Middle East, Mao's conquest of the mainland, and the North Korean attack across the 38th parallel, confirmed the views of many Americans that the Communist bloc was on the march. The near disasters in Korea during the first year of the war so alarmed Americans and others in the Western camp that they responded with super-charged anti-Communism. This visceral reaction enabled successive U.S. administrations to mobilize the resources needed to support the Containment structure. On the down side, the American conviction that Communism was a monolithic movement directed from the Kremlin made it difficult for many to understand that the nations forming the Sino-Soviet bloc often had divergent interests and objectives. As we now know, that perception had unfortunate consequences in Southeast Asia. As we enter this new, post-Cold War era in Asia, a region where the United States and the People's Republic of China will continue to figure prominently, it should be especially enlightening to study the causes and results of a past breakdown in Sino-American understanding. MacArthur and the Chinese Communist Intervention in the Korean War, September-December 1950 by Dr. D. Clayton James Virginia Military Institute A familiar pattern in historiography is the three-step dialectic of thesis, or orthodox position; antithesis, or revisionist stance; and synthesis, or eclectic interpretation. This process has not developed, however, regarding most issues of the Korean War, especially General of the Army Douglas MacArthur's supposed blunders in relation to the Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) intervention into Korea in the autumn of 1950. The orthodox views, as espoused by President Harry S. Truman and his top advisers, remain substantially unrevised today in textbooks and public media presentations. Indeed, many professional historians have been surprisingly acquiescent in tolerating three myths about MacArthur and the CCF intervention. The first of these is that MacArthur's arrogant, unilateral decision-making precipitated the invasion of North Korea by United Nations forces. The second myth is that MacArthur, at the Wake Island conference, misled Truman and his advisers and made them unduly optimistic by his prediction that the Chinese Communists would not enter the war. The third myth is that MacArthur's splitting of his Eighth Army and X Corps for the advance through North Korea enabled the Chinese forces to strike between the divided U.N. forces and thus rout them. The purpose of this paper is to endeavor, within the time limitation, to lay these myths to rest. MacArthur did not conceive the idea of liberating North Korea. Long before his successful amphibious assault at Inchon, Pentagon and State Department leaders supported an invasion of North Korea, even when we were backed up into the Pusan Perimeter. On August 17, 1950, Warren R. Austin, the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, called for U.N. backing for "establishing democratic government in the reunited Korea." In a nationwide radio broadcast on September 1, Truman came out in favor of a "free, independent, and united" Korea, and Secretary of State Dean G. Acheson likewise endorsed the idea of reuniting the two Koreas, if necessary by force. Also, in August and September influential members of the British Parliament proclaimed their support for Korean unification after the northern part was "liberated." The President approved NSC 81/1 on September 11. Two of its provisions are pertinent here: It stated that U.N. forces would be authorized to cross the 38th parallel for the purpose of either making the North Korean People's Army withdraw from South Korea or inflicting a decisive defeat upon that force. The document also authorized MacArthur to prepare contingency plans for the occupation of North Korea. On the day that MacArthur's attack on Inchon began, September 15, he received from the Joint Chiefs the basic provisions of NSC 81/1, and on the 27th he got the crucial directive authorizing an offensive into North Korea. The directive included many phrases taken directly from NSC 81/1, and it had the strong support of Truman, Acheson, and the new Secretary of Defense, George C. Marshall. There had also been "some amount of inter-allied consultation" about the directive; the United Kingdom, France, and some of the British Commonwealth nations backed an advance into North Korea. "Your military objective," stated MacArthur's directive, "is the destruction of the North Korean Armed Forces." He was told that he would soon receive surrender terms to broadcast to North Korea. Also, he was instructed to submit his plans for operations above the 38th parallel and for the occupation of North Korea, which he did the next day. On September 29, Marshall sent MacArthur a supportive message that even my good friend Forrest Pogue has never satisfactorily explained. The message included the following words, words that you should never send to MacArthur: "We want you to feel unhampered strategically and tactically to proceed north of the 38th Parallel." A confident MacArthur replied: "I regard all of Korea open for our military operations unless and until the enemy capitulates." The first of MacArthur's units to move across the 38th parallel was the Republic of Korea (ROK) 3rd Division which, on October 1, advanced rapidly up the east side, along the coast of the Sea of Japan. Within a few days it had gotten fifty miles. The American Eighth Army, spearheaded by the 1st Cavalry Division, launched its offensive across the 38th parallel on October 9 on the western, or Yellow Sea, side of the peninsula. Acheson and Austin and their lieutenants convinced the U.N. General Assembly to pass a resolution that radically changed the U.N.'s objective in the war, in effect, to attain Korean unification by the conquest of North Korea. The "Liberation Resolution," as some facetiously called it, was passed on October 7 by a 47 to 5 vote (with 7 abstentions). Thus MacArthur's offensive into North Korea was undertaken in execution of a policy change that was strongly endorsed by official Washington and by a large U.N. margin. The spectacular Inchon success both fueled MacArthur's arrogance toward his superiors and further intimidated the JCS in dealing with him. There is no question that he disobeyed the JCS, who prohibited him from sending non-ROK troops into the North Korean provinces bordering the Yalu River. There is no question, too, that MacArthur inflicted logistical nightmares on the Eighth Army when he decided to take Wonsan by amphibious assault with the 1st Marine Division. But in the act of invading North Korea, he was merely implementing a policy that originated in Washington, not Tokyo. The textbooks, the media, and, sadly, some scholarly studies, still perpetuate the myth of the warmongering MacArthur irresponsibly plunging into North Korea on his own. The second myth that needs to be reexamined is MacArthur's prediction at Wake in mid-October that there was "very little" likelihood of the Chinese Communists coming into the Korean fray. Confident of General Stratemeyer's air power, MacArthur boasted to Truman that "if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang (which the Eighth Army would seize on October 19) there would be the greatest slaughter." Actually both MacArthur's views on the chances of Chinese entry and the figures he quoted at Wake from his intelligence chief about the strength and disposition of the Chinese armies in Manchuria were surprisingly similar to those reported by CIA, Pentagon, and State Department intelligence sources at the time. Truman and his advisers, including General of the Army Omar N. Bradley, the JCS chairman, were quite aware of the latest Washington intelligence estimates on China. The only published report of the Wake talks was a compilation of notes of Truman's team prepared by Bradley during the return flight to the States. An important omission in the Bradley compilation, which was included in the notes made by MacArthur and his Wake advisers during their flight back to Tokyo, was MacArthur's qualification, in the presence of Truman, that his views on Red China's likely intentions were purely speculative. He had reminded Truman that the collection and evaluation of data on whether nonbelligerent nations would enter the Korean War was in the realm of political intelligence. That domain, MacArthur told Truman, belonged to CIA and State Department intelligence, not to his military intelligence staff, which was busily gathering data about the battlefield enemy, the North Korean People's Army. It is astounding that this single question by Truman, and MacArthur's brief response, constituted the entire extent of the Wake conferees' probe into the enormous implications that the current U.N. offensive in North Korea might have on Peking or Moscow. Months later, however, Truman and several of his officials spoke publicly and frequently about how misleading and erroneous MacArthur had been, portraying his remarks about China as if they were the focus of a crucial strategy session. Truman, Acheson, and other administration leaders knew of MacArthur's well-known proclivity for expounding ad nauseam on subjects beyond his expertise. It is difficult for me to escape the conclusion that Truman, who did not need MacArthur to give him the latest intelligence on Red China, was fishing for a MacArthur quote that could help nail him later as a scapegoat as well as garner votes for Democrats running in the off-year congressional races. I'm a fisherman, and in fisherman's parlance, MacArthur surely presented the President with a lunker. Unhappily, many writers imply that if MacArthur had predicted more accurately, the direction of the war might have been quite different: perhaps Washington's diplomatic efforts might have staved of f China's intervention, or perhaps the U.N. forces in North Korea might have been better prepared to thwart the impending Chinese offensive. The Truman administration, however, was already fully committed to the drive to the Yalu before the Wake meeting, and, besides, Truman and his main advisers at Wake agreed with MacArthur about the improbability of Chinese intervention. The truth is, nothing of significance occurred at the Wake Island meeting--nothing. If Truman and MacArthur had been less obsessed with political maneuvering at the Wake conference, their meeting could have afforded and excellent chance to reassess what the U.S. and the U.N. were trying to achieve in the Korean War. In retrospect, it might have prolonged the careers of the President and the general, for the Chinese entry produced a war that could not be won nor terminated, at least until both MacArthur and Truman were out of the picture. The third and final myth that needs to be buried is that MacArthur committed a tactical blunder by splitting his forces in North Korea and thus allowed the Chinese to strike through the gap between the Eighth Army on the west and the X Corps on the east side of the peninsula. At a meeting of the National Security Council on November 9, just over two weeks before the main Chinese offensive was launched, Marshall criticized the disposition of MacArthur's army and separate corps because they were not within physical contact of each other and therefore could not cover each other's flanks. In leading his 1st Marine Division northward toward the Chosin Reservoir in the X Corps sector, Major General Oliver P. Smith, a man that I knew and admired very much, also feared that enemy forces would exploit the gap, hitting the flanks of both the Eighth Army and the X Corps and possibly driving into the rear areas of both commands. On numerous occasions, patrols from Lieutenant General Edward M. Almond's X Corps and General Walton H. Walker's Eighth Army tried to make contact but could not because of the high, rugged, and almost trackless region of the Taebaek Mountains that separated the advancing U.N. forces in North Korea. After the principal Chinese offensive in late November and early December 1950, the so-called Second Phase offensive, caused the Eighth Army to retreat in near-rout chaos, numerous influential military analysts and political leaders in America and Europe, especially in Britain, charged that the Chinese breakthrough had occurred through the gap created by MacArthur's allegedly stupid splitting of his main offensive units in North Korea. Roy E. Appleman wrote recently: "There has been no greater misunderstanding, and resulting explosions of rhetoric pro and con, during the entire course of the Korean war than the controversy over the so-called gap between Eighth Army and X Corps." In truth, neither the U.N. nor the CCF forces operated in the almost impassable Taebaek Range. The Chinese attacked the Eighth Army by frontally assaulting the ROK II Corps and breaking through its center, then exploiting the penetration by pouring backup units through the hole and into the rear of the Eighth Army's right flank. The CCF did not try to exploit the gap on the X Corps' left flank either, instead hitting the 1st Marine Division on the west of the Chosin Reservoir and the U.S. Army's 7th Infantry Division on the east side of Chosin with frontal attacks supplemented be simultaneous envelopment attempts. Because of the enormous geographic problems imposed by the mountain range, the Chinese commands attacking the Eighth Army and the X Corps functioned as distinctly separate forces that did not attempt to cooperate with each other. As it turned out, the gap between Walker's and Almond's forces was not of great military consequence to either side's operations. Why have myths such as these persisted? Most historians of the Korean War have focused on its diplomatic, rather than military, aspects. Some have produced fresh, challenging interpretations for the origins of the war--one outstanding example would be Bruce Cummings' work--although, as yet, scholars have not devoted much critical attention to strategic issues during the war--and remember, I teach college kids and I know what is in the textbooks that they get in high school and college and it is way out of date. Perhaps some day revisionists will investigate why the strategic direction of the war has been so often viewed by writers from the perspective of the Truman administration. Invasion Patrol: The Seventh Fleet in Chinese Waters by Dr. Edward J. Marolda Naval Historical Center Standard accounts of the Korean War conclude that the advance of U.S.-led United Nations forces across the 38th parallel in September 1950 was the primary stimulant for the massive Chinese Communist intervention into the conflict two months later. I have no argument with that well-founded interpretation. I would contend, however, that actions taken by the United States on the Chinese maritime frontier, months before the Chinese ground advance into North Korea, laid the foundation for that attack by contributing to Peking's perception that the United States was not simply restoring the status quo ante in Korea but mounting a broad offensive against the Communist mainland regime. I should stress that there were factors, other than the activities of the Seventh Fleet, working on Communist perceptions, including renewed U.S. material assistance to the Chinese Nationalist armed forces and the growing interaction on Taiwan of prominent American and Nationalist military figures. The lack of time precludes their treatment in this paper. Most of you will recall that the Communists, under Mao Tse-tung, had been engaged in a bitter and protracted civil war with Chiang Kai-shek's Nationalists during the late 1940s. This phase of the conflict lasted until 1949, when the Communists wrested all of the mainland from the Nationalists and forced them to flee to the large island of Taiwan and other islands off the coast of China. The civil war did not end at this point as is generally suggested. The conflict entered what I characterize as the "maritime phase," which lasted throughout the 1950s and early 1960s. As the civil war ran its bloody course on the mainland, the Truman administration endeavored to disentangle the United States from the Chinese fight. Thus, even though the administration refused to recognize the openly pro-Soviet government of the People's Republic of China (PRC), established in Peking on October 1, 1949, it also moved to cast off its ties to the Nationalists and Generalissimo Chiang. In December 1949, the National Security Council (NSC) affirmed a policy that American forces would not attempt to prevent the Communist seizure of Taiwan. Then, on January 5, 1950, Truman announced to the world that the United States was adopting a "hands off" policy with regard to further political and military support for the Nationalists. Truman's Secretary of State, Dean Acheson, felt it important to avoid the permanent estrangement of Peking. He took the long view in this regard. He concluded that in twenty year's time China's traditional fear of Russian encroachment on Chinese sovereignty and a continuing need for Western trade would inevitably motivate a Sino-American rapprochement. Thus, there were clear indications in the first half of 1950 that the United States would not openly oppose Mao's consolidation of power and seizure of all remaining Chinese territory. The Communists had frequently expressed the intention to complete their victory in the civil war by destroying Chiang's surviving armies and seizing the offshore islands, the Nationalists' last refuges on Chinese soil. Certainly, Mao's armies had the ability to carry out waterborne invasions, as they demonstrated during the first half of 1950. Possessing large numbers of ground troops and coastal junks, the Communists attacked Nationalist offshore positions from one end of the coast to the other, almost simultaneously. Stretched thin by this tactic, the Nationalist air and naval forces were further hampered by the Communists' use of the night and inclement weather to mask their waterborne invasion and reinforcement movements. In short order, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) expelled the Nationalists from strategic island groups in proximity to Port Arthur and Dairen, Swatow, Canton, and Hong Kong. An even greater disaster befell the Nationalist cause when they failed a major test of strength with the Communists over the large island of Hainan off China's southern coast. This battle would be especially relevant to later conclusions regarding the Communists' ability to mount major amphibious operations and the Nationalists' inability to defend against them. Between April 16th and April 30th, Communist general Lin Piao's 4th Field Army landed on the island and outfought the 160,000-man Nationalist garrison, capturing 100,000 of the defenders and forcing the evacuation to Taiwan of most of the remainder. The loss of Hainan was a shock to the Nationalist war effort and prompted increased concern for the defense of Taiwan. Nationalist morale was severely shaken. Robert C. Strong, the U.S. Charge d'Affairs in Taipei, reported that many Nationalists now believed that Taiwan's days were numbered. The CIA predicted the fall of the island to the Chinese Communists by the end of 1950. The world's focus now switched to the Chou Shan Islands, which guarded the approaches to the strategic port of Shanghai and the Yangtze River mouths. On May 10th, fearing a repeat of the disastrous Hainan affair, Chiang ordered the withdrawal to Taiwan of the 80,000 to 100,000-man garrison, 25-plane air force contingent, and 7-ship naval force. The move was executed with dispatch. Rear Admiral Carl F. Espe, the Acting Director of Naval Intelligence, concluded that the successive evacuations had had a "devastating effect on morale."1 The U.S. Charge d'Affairs and the naval and military attaches in Taipei now concluded that "Taiwan will probably fall to the Communists sometime before the end of July."2Although Espe thought the attaches' estimate too pessimistic, he observed that "there seems to be little doubt that Taiwan will in due course fall into Communist hands."3 The Communist drive to seize Taiwan had by then reached fever pitch. U.S. naval intelligence reported advanced preparations by the Chinese Communists for an amphibious attack, labeled appropriately "Operation Taiwan." Walter McConaughy, the U.S. Consul General at Shanghai, reported that the liberation of Taiwan was being trumpeted publicly by Peking as the nation's paramount immediate mission and one on which they were staking the reputation and all the resources of the new regime. In what would prove to be a prophetic observation, McConaughy reported to Washington that "there would seem no avenue left for Communist retreat. Either they gain Taiwan, or, goaded by bitter humiliation and by Kremlin propaganda, they must keep it ever before the Chinese people as China's great irredentist issue and perpetual cause for anti-American vehemence. Well to remember that Taiwan Irredentism is not Communist monopoly but popular Chinese national issue."4 By the late spring of 1950, the Chinese Communist armed forces were prepared to carry out the assault on Taiwan, their most ambitious maritime operation yet. The Communists assembled 5,000 vessels for the invasion by commandeering freighters, motorized junks, and sampans and refloating ships that had been sunk in the Yangtze River during the fight for the mainland. Further, they gathered and trained over 30,000 fishermen and other sailors to man the flotilla. Since the previous year, General Chen Yi's 3rd Field Army, which was responsible for the assault, had been positioned on the Fukien coast opposite the large island. The Communists trained their troops extensively in amphibious warfare and applied the lessons learned from the Hainan and other island seizures. Despite an outbreak of the Asian blood fluke disease, which reportedly felled thousands of soldiers, preparations proceeded apace for the cross-channel attack. Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson later revealed that between June 10 and June 24, 1950, the strength of the field army swelled from 40,000 to 156,000 men. Also prior to June 25, elements of Lin Piao's 4th Field Army moved from south China to the Shanghai area, where they were positioned to serve as a strategic reserve for Chen Yi. Historian Allen Whiting, author of the seminal work, China Crosses the Yalu, relates that by late June, Peking's exhortations to men in the units stationed opposite the island paralleled in fervor those broadcast to the troops before the Hainan invasion. In short, the Communists were now ready to launch the attack on Taiwan and win final victory in the civil war. That attack would never come. For, on June 25, 1950, infantry and armored forces of the North Korean People's Army smashed their way south into the Republic of Korea, touching off an international conflict. That evening and again the following evening, President Truman gathered his chief political and military advisors around him at the Blair House, across from the White House in Washington, to consider the American response to the attack. After little deliberation-- and I stress that--he directed the dispatch of a message to the Pacific theater ordering the U.S. Seventh Fleet to deploy to prevent a Communist invasion of Taiwan and at the same time insure that the Nationalists would not use the island as a base of operations against the mainland. Quite simply, he sought the military neutralization of the strait, aligning the United States politically with neither of the Chinese antagonists. He announced this action on the 27th. Truman regarded the outbreak of fighting in Korea as the hostile advance of international Communism. He feared that the Communist bloc, directed by Joseph Stalin from Moscow, had aggressive intent not only toward Korea, but Japan, the nations of Southeast Asia, and American-occupied Okinawa. In addition, by June 1950, Truman had been persuaded, as a result of his own Cold War experiences, and by the arguments advanced for several years by General Douglas MacArthur, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and others in the defense establishment, that Taiwan was vital as a barrier to the advance of Soviet power and international Communism and a key link in America's Far Eastern defensive perimeter. Because of overemphasis on the geopolitical and strategic aspects of the Taiwan problem, neither Truman nor his chief advisors adequately considered the political consequences of the fleet mission in the strait. The action again involved the Truman administration in the Chinese civil war, from which it had only recently, and with great difficulty, distanced itself. Significantly, the decision to deploy the fleet off China ensured the hostility of many Chinese who, regardless of political persuasion, traditionally opposed foreign interference in Chinese affairs. Those who might not have supported the Communists were exercised over the offshore presence of the American fleet, which prevented the unification of China and resolution of the cataclysmic civil war. The Communist reaction to Truman's decision was immediate and bitter. Mao declared, with typical Communist verbal passion, that the move revealed the "fraudulent" nature of Truman's earlier statements about not intervening in the civil war and exposed the "imperialist face" of the United States.5 Zhou En-lai stated that the fleet deployment represented armed aggression against the territory of China. As an indication of the depth of feeling over the issue, Zhou observed: "The fact that Taiwan is part of China will remain unchanged forever."6 For the next two decades, Peking would virtually rule out any hope of Sino-American accommodation because of the confrontation over Taiwan. Giving substance to the President's order, by dawn on June 27th, an aircraft carrier task force, the cutting edge of American naval power in the vast Pacific Ocean, was steaming at flank speed toward the Strait of Taiwan. The Seventh Fleet units had sortied from their base at Subic Bay in the Philippines. The naval force was led by Rear Admiral John M. "Peg-leg" Hoskins, acting Commander Seventh Fleet in the absence of Vice Arthur D. Struble, then in Washington. The aircraft carrier Valley Forge - the only aircraft carrier in the Western Pacific--her two escorting destroyer divisions, two submarines, and several logistic ships steamed past Taiwan on the 29th of June. Hoskins sent 29 fighters and attack planes from the Valley Forge roaring northward through the strait to alert everyone that the U.S. Navy had arrived. The Seventh Fleet force steered past the Nationalist stronghold and dropped anchor at Buckner Bay, Okinawa, roughly mid-way between Taiwan and Korea, at the end of June. The scarcity of U.S. naval forces in the Western Pacific demanded this deployment; the major units of the Seventh Fleet could not operate in the Korean arena and defend the Taiwan Strait simultaneously. They just didn't have the strength. Planners in the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations estimated that a Communist junk flotilla would be able to transit the strait in one day, at a four or five-knot speed of advance. For this reason and because of the multitude of targets presented by a large fleet of junks, they believed a sizeable body of enemy troops might reach the shore of Taiwan without being intercepted. And everyone agreed that if any significant Communist forces landed on the island, the jig was up. Nationalist resistance would collapse. Morale was clearly eroded. Operating from Buckner Bay, the Seventh Fleet would take a day to arrive off the west coast of Taiwan. Naval forces in Korean waters would not be available for at least two days. That, of course, assumed they were not involved in heavy combat operations or engaged in evacuating U.N. forces from Korea, very real possibilities in 1950 and 1951. In this circumstance, early warning and interception of an invasion force was absolutely vital. Accordingly, steps were taken to establish U.S. air, submarine, and sea patrols of the strait. Operationally, this could only be accomplished through the use of the anchorages, ports, and shore facilities of Taiwan and the nearby Pescadore Islands. Cooperation with Nationalist authorities was implicit. To improve coordination and communications for the prospective air patrol, during the second week of July Admiral Struble and the commanding officers of two units, Patrol Squadron (VP) 28 and Patrol Squadron 46, conferred in Taipei with top military leaders of the Nationalist armed forces. On July 12th, the Secretary of Defense designated Rear Admiral Harry B. Jarrett the Senior Military Attaché in Taipei and the officer in charge of a liaison group, and augmented his staff with three officers from each of the U.S. military services. The group's mission was to serve as a link between the Seventh Fleet and the Chinese government. The operation plan for the Taiwan Strait patrol, also developed at this time, authorized an action that American leaders had avoided since 1949 because they feared it was provocative--stationing U.S. naval vessels at ports in Taiwan. Chiang, obviously pleased at the recent turn of events and the developing U.S.-Nationalist relationship, observed to Struble that he had a "special regard for and real friendship with each U.S. naval commander in [the] Far East" and "admired Navy particularly because they always willing come to help of friends in need."7 On July 16, patrol aircraft of Fleet Air Wing 1 began reconnaissance missions in the strait. On that day, VP 28, which flew nine P4Y Privateers from Naha, Okinawa, inaugurated a daily surveillance of the northern part of the strait and along the nearby China coast. The following day, VP 46, with nine PBM-5 Mariner flying boats, kicked of f patrols of the strait's southern sector from the Pescadore Islands, where seaplane tender Suisun deployed on the 17th. Routinely, patrols were only flown from land bases or secure anchorages during the winter months. Throughout 1950 and 1951, one seaplane and one land-based squadron carried out the round-the-clock patrol of the strait. The emergency nature of the 1950 patrol was clearly reflected in the way it was set up and carried out. Lieutenant Commander Maurice F. Weisner, the Commanding Officer of VP 46, and a future Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, related in a post-mission report that the patrol units had a difficult time operating in the strait. Day and night, in foul weather and good, his PBMs flew 14-hour circuits just off the "deck." During the winter monsoon, winds of gale-force strength were common. In the difficult patrolling environment of the Taiwan Strait, foreign policy requirements sometimes took a back seat to operational necessity. On August 29, Commander Seventh Fleet directed that all American aircraft "exercise particular caution not to violate Soviet or Chinese territory or territorial waters."8 Despite this injunction, Weisner observed that to accomplish the reconnaissance mission, "we got the pictures of the whole coast and forgot [about] the twelve mile limit."9 Intrusions into Chinese air space would not be uncommon in this period. During this first operation, in July 1950, MacArthur approved Struble's recommendation that the patrols be publicized. The U.S. interest in the inviolability of Taiwan, first demonstrated by the June 29th surface passage and aircraft flyover of the strait was to be made absolutely clear. For deterrence to work, this was considered an essential measure. But it also highlighted the American fleet's presence in waters the PRC considered its own. Not released to the public was the information that the submarines Catfish and Pickerel had sortied from the U.S. naval base at Yokosuka, Japan, on the 18th and 19th of July. The two submarines were directed to patrol the strait, approaching no closer than 12 miles to the mainland coast and 6 miles to Taiwan. For the next ten days, the boats patrolled submerged during the day off Amoy and Swatow. A Chinese Communist radio news broadcast that 1,500 junks were enroute from Swatow to Amoy initially caused concern, but the report proved to be bogus. Finally, on July 30 Pickerel and Catfish ended their patrols and proceeded to Yokosuka. Once in Tokyo, the commanding officers of both submarines reported on their missions to Admirals Struble and C. Turner Joy, the latter Commander Naval Forces, Far East. American fears of a Communist invasion were intense during July and August. On July 17th, the CIA concluded that the Communists could launch a successful amphibious assault on Taiwan despite U.S. opposition. Soon after, crewmen on a British merchant ship spotted a large concentration of junks in the strait. When a VP 28 P4Y Privateer was sent to investigate on the 26th, two hostile fighters attacked the patrol plane, which made good its escape. The following day, Far East Command officers in Taipei learned that a Nationalist agent on the mainland had attended a meeting at which Communist leaders discussed an assault in the near future on Quemoy. In response to this perceived invasion threat, the JCS had already directed Commander in Chief, Far East, to mount another naval show of force in the strait. The JCS felt that the presence of 7th Fleet elements in the strait, even for a short time, would be an effective demonstration of U.S. resolve and serve as a deterrent. On the 26th of July, Admiral Struble dispatched to the strait Rear Admiral Charles C. Hartman's surface task group, comprised of the cruiser Helena and the three destroyers of Destroyer Division 111. On the 28th, Hartman's group reached the northern end of the strait and began a sweep southward. The cruiser Juneau joined the force on the 28th. On August 4, Admiral Struble established the Formosa Patrol around the ships of the group, which were to operate from Keelung, Taiwan. Hence, for the first time since the evacuation of the mainland naval base at Tsingtao in May 1949, U.S. naval forces were based at a Nationalist port. The Formosa Patrol Force (Task Force 72)- later the Taiwan Patrol Force--would operate in the strait for the next two decades of the Cold War. The presence of the Seventh Fleet in the strait and the uncertainties surrounding the war in Korea did deter Peking from an invasion attempt. The Communists feared what they thought were strong forces arrayed against them. One Nationalist spy reported, after attending a high-level meeting of Communist officials, that they were concerned their invasion fleet would last only a few hours against the Seventh Fleet and the U.S. Air Force. In the July 7, 1950, issue of the Communist publication World Culture, an unnamed author described a new, unfavorable balance of forces in the strait. He related that "before June 27, the problem of liberating Taiwan pitted the strength of the PLA against the Chiang Kai-shek remnants, with the help of the American imperialists [no committed military forces] occupying a background position." After Truman's declaration, however, "the problem of liberating Taiwan pits the strength of the PLA against the American imperialists [at a minimum the Seventh Fleet], with the Kuomintang bandit remnants moving into the background."10 This was a subtle indication that Peking appreciated the changed military situation. It is significant that neither the author nor Zhou En-lai, who made relevant public statements during this period, called for the immediate "smashing" of the American imperialists or for immediate invasion. The possible consequences for the PRC of a U.S.-Communist confrontation in the strait were sobering. Of course, there was a strong possibility that the American fleet would destroy the invasion flotilla, with all the negative domestic and international ramifications that would entail. Open warfare would put China's industry and transportation system, concentrated in the coastal areas, at great risk from U.S. naval and air attack. Further, the United States might conclude that the operation was a joint venture of the Sino-Soviet bloc, and the Chinese were concerned about hazarding their relationship with Moscow. In short, after June 27, 1950, "political and military indicators evidenced a postponement of the Taiwan invasion for as long as the United States Seventh Fleet continued to shield Chiang's forces.11 The outbreak of war in Korea and the unexpectedly strong reaction of the United States and its U.N. allies to the North Korean attack also counseled caution on Mao's part. While Peking continued to devote primary attention to Taiwan and not Korea in the period from late June to the end of August, as reflected in media coverage, the Communists were aware of the dangerous situation in northeast Asia. They appeared to adopt a stance of "watchful waiting" as events unfolded in Korea. The deployment of Chinese Communist forces during this period also supports the conclusion that the Seventh Fleet and the evolution of the conflict in Korea deterred an assault on Taiwan. In late June and early July, 30,000 men of Chen Yi's 3rd Field Army, which was slated to attack Taiwan, moved north to the Shantung Peninsula. Others followed during the remainder of July and August. Thus deployed, these forces were ideally located to support operations in Korea, defend the central coast, or return to invasion preparations. Significantly, only a segment of Chen Yi's field army continued training for the maritime operation. On July 16, 1950, the Chinese general stated that "while we intensify preparations to liberate Taiwan, we must not neglect our task of national economic recovery." To quote historian Whiting, "this minor shift of emphasis implied a major change in policy.12 During this period of great volatility, important figures in the American military establishment publicly expressed views that could only inspire Chinese Communist hostility. General MacArthur, in a paper he intended to be read for him at a Chicago gathering of the Veterans of Foreign Wars, spoke of a U.S. island defense line in the Far East from which "we can dominate with air power every Asiatic port from Vladivostok to Singapore." In this defensive chain the general included Taiwan, on which "at the present time there is...a concentration of operational air and naval bases which is potentially greater than any similar concentration on the Asiatic mainland."13His text could easily have been interpreted by Peking as support for offensive action from the island as well as defensive action. At the same time that the general's words were leaked to the press, Secretary of the Navy Francis Matthews, who idolized MacArthur, suggested how the United States might deal with the current international crisis. On August 25, on the occasion of the Boston Naval Shipyard's sesquicentennial, Matthews called on the United States to become the "first aggressors for peace." As sailors scrambled up the rigging of USS Constitution, "Old Ironsides," the secretary laid out his prospective approach: "To have peace we should be willing, and declare our intention, to pay any price, even the price of instituting a war to compel cooperation for peace....It is a cause to which we will be compelled to dedicate our total and ultimate resources. From no other course can there be effected the salvation of the free world."14 Matthews' prescription for world disaster and General MacArthur's observations were quickly and publicly disavowed by Truman. Peking, however, was not comforted with the knowledge that the civilian head of the U.S. Navy and the commander of U.S. forces in Northeast Asia ascribed to such world views. In fact, the Communists referred to the speeches as evidence of American aggressiveness, the President's disavowals notwithstanding. Whiting concludes that "Peking seems to have interpreted the pattern of U.S. political statements and actions during these weeks as a direct challenge to which a firm response was dictated both by national interest and by Communist ideology.15 The trend of U.S.-Chinese interaction was not to Mao's liking. At the end of September, the authoritative Communist publication Jen Mm Jih Pao asserted: "We Chinese people are against the American imperialists because they are against us. They have openly become the arch enemy of the People's Republic of China by supporting the people's enemy, the Chiang Kai-shek clique, by sending a huge fleet to prevent the liberation of the Chinese territory of Taiwan, by repeated air intrusions and strafing and bombing of the Chinese people, by refusing new China a seat in the U.N., [and] by rearming Japan for the purpose of expanding aggressive war. Is it not just for us to support our friend and neighbor against our enemy?"16 There were increasing signs that Peking intended to intervene in the Korean War. Chinese soldiers were captured deep in North Korea. Also ominous, on November 5th, a PBM patrolling in the Taiwan Strait disappeared. This was preceded by intelligence supplied to U.S. officials by the Nationalists that the Communists had issued orders to their forces to "take offensive action against US PBM Mariner."17On November 6, the U.S. Charge in Taipei concluded from Nationalist-supplied intelligence that the Chinese Communists planned to "throw the book" at United Nations forces in Korea.18 On the November 25th, they did. In brief conclusion, it is difficult to avoid a connection between the American activities in the strait and on Taiwan, which appeared to the leaders in Peking as a serious threat to the PRC, and the Chinese Communist advance across the Yalu. ENDNOTES 1. Acting Director, Office of Naval Intelligence, memo of information, ser OP-322F1E of May 26, 1950, box 3, CNO File, 1950, Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Consul General at Shanghai to SECSTATE, Jan 5, 1950, Foreign Relations of the United States. 1950 (Wash: GPO), Vol.VI, 264-69. 5. Quoted in Stuart Schram, Mao Tse-tuna (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1966), p.244. 6. Quoted in China: U.S. Policy Since 1945 (Washington: Congressional Quarterly, 1980), p.91. 7. Msg, Charge in China to SECSTATE, Jul 10, 1950, Foreign Relations of the United States. 1950, Vol. VI (Wash: GPO), p.373. 8. Msg, COM7FLT to CTG7O.6/CTF77, 290008Z Aug 1950, Record Group 9, box 57, Incoming Navy, MacArthur Archives, Norfolk, VA. 9. CNO, "Interview of Lt. COMDR M.F. Weisner, USN Commanding Officer, VP-46," Feb 21, 1951, Post-46 Command File (Chronological), Operational Archives, Naval Historical Center. l0. Quoted in Allen S. Whiting, China Crosses the Yalu: The Decision to Enter the Korean War (NY: Macmillan Co., 1960), p.63. 11. Ibid., p.68. 12. Ibid., p.65. 13. Quoted in Secretary of State to Certain Diplomatic Offices, Aug 26, 1950, FRUS. 1950, Vol. VI, pp.451-53. 14. New York Times (Aug 26, 1950), pp.16. 15. Whiting, China Crosses the Yalu, p.95. 16. Quoted in Ibid., p.106. 17. Msg, ALUSNA Taipei to COM7FLT, 180150Z Sep 1950, Record Group 9, box 56, Navy Msgs, MacArthur Archives, Norfolk, VA. 18. Karl Lott Rankin, China Assignment (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1964), p.65. General George E. Stratemeyer and the Air War in Korea: Fall 1950 by Thomas Y'Blood Headquarters, U.S. Air Force History Office From the start of the Korean War until May 20, 1951, the top Air Force commander on the scene was Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer, commander of the Far East Air Forces (FEAF) (which included the Fifth Air Force in Japan and Korea, the Philippine-based Thirteenth Air Force, and the Twentieth Air Force headquartered on Okinawa). General Stratemeyer had commanded FEAF since April 1949. During World War II, he served as Chief of Air Staff, Army Air Forces and had held various command positions in the China-Burma-India Theater (CBI), including Commanding General, Theater Air Forces, Southeast Asia, and Commanding General, Army Air Forces, China Theater. For a man caught in the web of intrigues and personality clashes that seemed to permeate both the CBI in World War II and MacArthur's Far East Command during the Korean War, the professional Stratemeyer remained remarkably level-headed and even tempered, genial and outgoing. But he was very proud of the Air Force and did not tolerate any slurs on the service, or attempts to denigrate its accomplishments, especially if they came from the Navy. Although his relationship with the Navy commanders, such as with Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy were very cordial, he tended to view certain Navy actions with a jaundiced eye and never quite trusted that service. For example, in his August 24 diary entry he complained, "Here again the Navy with destroyers as they have done with carrier-based aviation have hit targets that the FEAF Bomber Command have practically destroyed. Mark my words, when the history is written, the Navy will claim the destruction of targets throughout North Korea that FEAF Bomber Command has destroyed. This entry in my diary is made for the record that might be made of the history of Air Force participation in the Korean War." Nor was Stratemeyer too fond of Major General Edward M. Almond, MacArthur's chief of staff and commander of the X Corps. Stratemeyer believed Almond had no conception of close air support or how the Air Force functioned. Further, Almond continually agitating for a return of, if not all, at least some of the Air Force's functions to the Army. Within a day of the invasion of South Korea, General Stratemeyer was pushing for permission to bomb North Korea. Not until June 29 did MacArthur approve such action. Official JCS permission came the next day--not the last time MacArthur would act before consulting the JCS or the President. Yet, because of the precarious ground situation in June and July, the B-29s were used extensively for ground support rather than on strategic or interdiction missions. On August 3, however, MacArthur asked Stratemeyer to prepare an interdiction campaign to "stop all communications moving south." Stratemeyer was only too pleased to comply because, "We had preached that doctrine since the B-29s arrived" and the Superfortresses would now be used on "targets that will really isolate the battlefield." An example of this interdiction campaign was the "elastic bridge," a railway span at Seoul so named for its ability to bounce back after attacks. Through the combined efforts of the 19th Bomb Group and Carrier Air Group 11 the bridge was eventually destroyed. A delighted MacArthur presented each group with trophies for their accomplishments, while an equally delighted Stratemeyer rounded up two cases of scotch for the two groups. However, these attacks showed the difficulty of destroying a major bridge even under relatively good conditions; such difficulty was magnified later at Sinuiju and the Yalu River bridges. The directive from the JCS concerning the bombing of North Korea carried an important caveat: FEAF aircraft were to "stay well clear" of the Manchurian and Soviet Union borders. Although Stratemeyer issued definite orders on both July 3 and August 14, followed by further admonitions on September 2 and 6 cautioning against any violations of these borders, FEAF aircraft did not always "stay well clear." A radar bombing run on Rashin, only 17 miles from the Siberian border -- in violation of orders to bomb the city only under visual conditions--resulted in the bombs falling well clear of the target, though not on Soviet territory. Another attack ten days later was aborted because of weather. With an anxious State Department objecting to Rashin as a target, the JCS placed the city "off limits" to attack on September 1. It was then rationalized that supplies from this city could be interdicted somewhere along the road leading south out of the city. Restrictions such as this by the JCS would lead later to charges by MacArthur's partisans of "a flagrant example of political interference in military decisions." The border was not violated at Rashin but there were several other incidents where it had been, including one on October 8, when a pair of F-80 pilots erred in navigation and strafed a Soviet airfield near Vladivostok. While the FEAF aircraft were trying to stay "well clear" of the border, the Chinese antiaircraft gunners on the other side had no compunction about firing at the planes. This activity worried General Stratemeyer and he warned his commanders on August 29 that it was "a distinct possibility" that the Chinese would come to the aid, both in the air and on the ground, of the North Koreans. The same day, Stratemeyer wired Air Force Chief of Staff, General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, that intelligence reports evaluated as B-3 (or a reasonably reliable source but deemed to be only a possibility and not necessarily accurate) indicated that the Chinese 54th, 55th, 56th, and 74th Armies were now in North Korea. (Stratemeyer may have meant divisions, not armies.) Actually, none of these units were or would be in North Korea, but this message should have sown some seeds of caution. That the crop from these seeds of caution would be harvested by the U.N. Command was another thing entirely. There had been other signs of gathering strength by Chinese forces in Manchuria, including open warnings of intervention. Nevertheless, it is quite evident today that at that time most of the U.S. intelligence agencies and the armed services were remarkably sanguine that there would be no intervention. Inchon and the breaking of the North Korean Peoples Army (the NKPA) were among the events that led to the decision to cross the 38th Parallel. As early as mid-July, MacArthur had considered crossing the line, believing it might be necessary to occupy the entire country in order to win the war. Also in July, both the JCS and the National Security Council began studying the possibility of crossing the parallel. After a JCS review, the NSC issued a revised paper--NSC 81/1. This paper, a somewhat waffling and obtuse document, among other things stated: (1) UN forces could advance north of the 38th Parallel either to force the NKPA to withdraw from the south or defeat it; (2) if Soviet or Chinese forces entered North Korea before U.N. troops crossed the parallel, there was to be no further advance north, although bombing operations in North Korea would still be allowed; (3) operations "close to" the Manchurian and USSR borders were forbidden, as were operations across these borders; (4) only ROK [Republic of Korea] troops were to be used in the "northeast province or along the Manchurian border" and; (5) occupation plans for North Korea were to be drawn up by MacArthur but executed only with the explicit approval of the President. Curiously, NSC 81/1 also stated that if the Soviets intervened anywhere in Korea, MacArthur was to go on the defensive, whereas, if the Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) intervened in the south (North Korea not being mentioned), he was to continue operations as long as he deemed them to be successful. The main provisions of NSC 81/1 were sent to MacArthur on September 15, followed on the 27th by a JCS directive authorizing movement north across the parallel. The JCS eventually did take notice that NSC 81/1 omitted any mention of Chinese intervention in North Korea, and in early October, amended its directive by substituting the word "anywhere" in place of "south of the 38th Parallel." Following some weeks of debate, the President did authorize the crossing of the parallel. Still, all of the soul-searching, discussions, and possibilities were rendered academic on September 30, when the ROKs crossed into North Korea. The ROKs really weren't going to stop at the parallel anyway. The first U.S. patrols crossed on October 7, followed by the main force two days later. The days of late September and October were heady ones because it seemed the enemy was on the run. It was just a matter of time before the war would be over. The two-month period from the Inchon landings on September 15, 1950, to the opening of the Chinese offensive on the evening of November 25, 1950, can perhaps be best described as "months of delusion." In World War II, the Japanese had coined another apt phrase; they called it "Victory Disease." Stratemeyer was as confident of an early victory as anyone, but in an October 2 memorandum regarding a Final Report by FEAF on the Korean War, he warned that "the war has been fought with a minor power against a very aggressive ground opponent and if we are not careful, people back home in the Pentagon will draw conclusions from this war which will not be true. ... All of us must be very careful not to draw inept conclusions form this small, 'police action' war." With the crossing of the parallel, Stratemeyer's strategic bombing campaign ended. In these euphoric days, attacks against "targets of relatively long-term military significance" were believed no longer necessary. In fact, by mid-October, FEAF's Bomber Command felt it had run out of targets, period. The rapid advance north by the UN forces had restricted the area in which the bombers could operate and the Yalu River bridges were still considered untouchable. Thus, on October 27, General Stratemeyer stood down Bomber Command and two of his five B-29 groups began returning to the United States. Again, the euphoria tat permeated these autumn days filtered its way up to MacArthur. Asked at his Wake Island meeting with President Truman about the possibility of Chinese intervention, MacArthur replied, "Very little. Had they interfered in the first or second months, it would have been decisive. We are no longer fearful of their intervention. We no longer stand hat in hand. The Chinese have 300,000 men in Manchuria. Of these probably not more than 100,000 to 125,000 are distributed along the Yalu River. They have no air force. Now that we have basis for our Air Force in Korea, if the Chinese tried to get down to Pyongyang there would be the greatest slaughter." (That the Chinese had no air force must have come as a surprise to Stratemeyer, who was estimating that the Chinese had close to 300 combat aircraft.) MacArthur's statement at Wake Island indicated his confidence that FEAF could isolate the battlefield and keep the Chinese out of North Korea. To some observers, it appeared that MacArthur believed that Korea could be chopped away from Manchuria through the use of air power and turned into an island. Perhaps he was thinking about the battles during World War II where islands could be bypassed--"leapfrogged"--and isolated. But there was no way this could happen in Korea. First, not enough planes were available for the job. Even if there had been, the restrictions on their use along the Yalu would have stymied U.N. efforts and caused exorbitant losses. Also, winter was coming on and the Yalu soon would freeze, allowing movements directly across the ice. On October 15, the day MacArthur made his statement, it was already too late to stop the Chinese from entering Korea because they were already there. Roy Appleman in Disaster in Korea estimates the first CCF troops may have crossed the Yalu on October 12 and were certainly across by the 15th. At the end of October, six CCF armies totaling approximately 180,000 men were in Korea and more were coming, all unnoticed by the U.N. command. Why and how were these troops not seen? A major reason was that the cuts in the armed forces after World War II left the Air Force with just the shell of an aerial reconnaissance force. When the Korean War began, the Air Force had the equivalent of one tactical reconnaissance group (three squadrons), of which one RF-80A squadron was assigned to FEAF. Strategic reconnaissance wasn't much better--one RB-29 reconnaissance squadron was also assigned to FEAF. An RB-26 squadron did reach Korea in August, followed by an RF-51 outfit which began operations in November. But all of these units shared a common problem--outmoded equipment and not even enough of that. Too, equipment often worked poorly; for example, FEAF had to obtain flash cartridges from the RAF because its own cartridges were jamming in the dispensers, exploding prematurely, or not going off at all. Even if there had been adequate photo coverage, there were not enough photo interpreters, and many of those working in this field were inadequately trained. Photo interpretation was an Army responsibility, per agreements reached in 1946, but like the Air Force, personnel cuts in the Army resulted in understaffing in the photo interpretation field. More trained interpreters did reach the field but not until much later. Thus, in October and November of 1950, even if photo coverage of the battlefield had been adequate the Eighth Army could not fully interpret this coverage. In some cases, the Eighth Army even tried to discourage its lower commands from requesting such reconnaissance. And, finally, there is the matter of the analysis of all the intelligence that was gathered. In this, there was a serious failure. For far too long, reconnaissance efforts focused on the Yalu to discover if and where the Chinese were crossing. Battlefield reconnaissance was cursory because of a lack of aircraft and because of the mistaken belief that few Chinese were yet in Korea. Too often the analysts slanted their views toward what they thought the enemy would do and not on what they could do. Why this happened--a feeling of superiority, of arrogance, perhaps of racism, the "Victory Disease" syndrome--I don't know, but do it they did. One of the main contributors to this intelligence failure was MacArthur's own G-2 Major General Charles Willoughby. Even as evidence mounted that the Chinese were in or were about to enter Korea, Willoughby refused to believe the evidence. According to Clay Blair, in his book, Willoughby may have even falsified intelligence reports to fit his (and his boss's) preconceived ideas. Nevertheless, FEAF continued to operate to the best of its abilities to help end the war. Tactical bombing continued throughout North Korea, an airborne unit was dropped at Sukchon/Sunchon, and airfields were developed in the Pyongyang area, at Yonpo southwest of Hungnam, at Sinanju near the Chongohon River. Following the Sukchon/Sunchon drop, General Stratemeyer presented MacArthur with the Distinguished Flying Cross, noting in his diary that MacArthur "was deeply affected and became very serious; he took me by the shoulders and looked me square in the eyes and stated: 'Strat, this is a great honor that I, of course, have not qualified for, but I accept this award in the spirit in which it is given -- I appreciate it beyond words.' Later, after he had read the citation, he looked across the aisle at me and threw me a kiss and said, 'Strat, I shall wear it on top of all my ribbons.' Naturally, I was affected; I thanked him, and that was that." As the U.N. forces neared the Manchurian border, FEAF operations took place in a more and more compressed area. Already restricted from operating close to the border, FEAF aircraft could attack targets within 50 miles of the border on General Stratemeyer's specific orders and then only under visual flight conditions. This restriction was modified on October 17 when a "chop line" about 20 miles south of the border was established. FEAF aircraft could now operate (under visual flight rules) between the two lines and, under emergency conditions, General Earle E. Partridge, the Fifth Air Force commander, could authorize visual attacks north of the "chop line." These restrictions were lifted, for all intents, on October 25, when Stratemeyer ordered that close support missions under the direct control of TACPs or airborne controllers could operate right up to the border. Pilots flying these missions were to be especially selected and led by experienced leaders. During the last week of October and the first of November, pursuit of the fleeing NKPA came to a crashing halt. First, a few Chinese soldiers were captured, but then, in fighting that continued until November 6, Chinese forces virtually destroyed two ROK divisions, bloodied another, chewed up the U.S. 8th Cavalry Regiment, and forced the Eighth Army to withdraw to the Chongchon River. In the X Corps sector near the Chosin Reservoir, the 1st Marine Division also ran into a hornet's nest. But here, they battered their opponents. Finally, after a week of bloodletting, the Chinese seemingly vanished. The action was not confined to the ground. Communist aircraft had once again become active and on October 18, 75-100 planes were seen parked on the Antung airfield just across the Yalu from Sinuiju. The next day they were gone. It was believed that these planes were just on a training flight, but the possibility that they were reinforcements for the North Korean Air Force could not be discounted. Then, on November 1, several air battles took place near Sinuiju. A number of Yak fighters parked on the Sinuiju airfield were destroyed or damaged but a follow-up attack later in the day ran into much more formidable opponents than Yaks--six MiG-15s. As Richard Hallion says, "While the appearance of the MiG in Korea was a shock, the discovery of the plane itself came as no surprise." The existence of the fighter had been known for some time. Since mid-October, General Stratemeyer had wanted to make an all-out attack on Sinuiju to wipe out military targets there, but had been turned down because of the border restrictions. With the appearance of the MiGs and the increasingly effective antiaircraft fire from the city and across the river, Stratemeyer renewed his request. Stratemeyer met with MacArthur on November 3 to discuss the attack on Sinuiju. In his diary, Stratemeyer says that "General MacArthur indicated that because of his contemplated use of that town he did not want to burn it at this time." Stratemeyer "told him [MacArthur] that as a lesson we could burn some other towns in North Korea and I indicated the town of Kanggye which I believe is occupied by enemy troops and is a communications center - both rail and road. He said, 'Burn it if you so desire,' and then said, 'Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy.'" MacArthur also wanted Stratemeyer to make the "very best" study to prove that Chinese Communists, in force on the ground and in the air, were operating in North Korea. By that evening, though, MacArthur changed his mind about Sinuiju and told Stratemeyer to "take out" the city. A warning order went out to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command directing the destruction of Sinuiju on the 7th. On November 5, MacArthur officially directed that the Korean ends of all international bridges on the Korean-Manchurian border were to be destroyed. Additionally, other than Rashin, the Suiho Dam and other hydro-electric power plants, FEAF was to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city and village" in North Korea. The primary target would be Sinuiju. This would be a maximum effort of two weeks duration, with the FEAF crews to be flown to exhaustion if necessary. When the Joint Chiefs received MacArthur's orders to FEAF, they were taken aback. A series of hurried meetings with the President and the State Department produced a dispatch to MacArthur and Stratemeyer postponing any bombing attacks within five miles of the border and also asking MacArthur to justify such attacks. This message was received in Tokyo early on the 7th, just a few hours before the B-29s were to take off. A vehement MacArthur replied to the JCS that "Men and material in large force are pouring across all bridges over the Yalu from Manchuria." (On November 3, Stratemeyer told General Partridge that Willoughby was estimating that there were 12,000 Chinese troops in North Korea. Now Willoughby was still only estimating about 35,000 soldiers.) Considering his rather confident statements of a few days earlier, MacArthur's message in its entirety is alarmist and suddenly full of urgency and is rather intemperate. Stratemeyer, who had some input into MacArthur's dispatch, would have preferred to have seen more emphasis on the air picture but still agreed with the gist of the message. After much hand-wringing by officials in Washington, they gave in and authorized the bombings of the Yalu bridges but reemphasized there would be no border violations and only the Korean end of the bridges would be hit. Courtney Whitney, in his book on MacArthur, claims that when Stratemeyer received approval, he complained "It cannot be done--Washington must have known it cannot be done." If Stratemeyer had worried about violating Manchurian airspace (and it was going to be tough not to), he certainly would have told MacArthur a few days earlier when MacArthur initially authorized the strikes. Nowhere in his diary during this period does Stratemeyer show he was more worried than usual about a border violation or that he was upset with Washington's restrictions. The Sinuiju attacks finally began on November 8 and destroyed approximately 60 percent of the city. Unfortunately, the bridges remained standing. Stratemeyer requested Task Force 77 join in the attacks and over the next couple of weeks Navy planes did knock down some spans of the highway bridge. However, the railway bridge was never put out of action. Although MacArthur would claim in a November 18 message to the JCS that "the air attack of the last ten days has been largely successful in isolating the battle area from added reinforcement and has greatly diminished the enemy flow of supply," North Korea never was isolated. Thus, despite the valiant efforts of the Air Force and Navy fliers, the battle against the bridges must be considered a failure. One problem of trying to destroy the bridges without bombing Manchurian territory was typified by an incident at Sinuiju on November 13. One bomb dropped by B-29s went astray and landed in Antung, across the river. When informed of the incident by Stratemeyer, MacArthur told him, "Strat, I do not admit anything. We'll make no report of this and as Bomber Command's lawyer, I propose to fight it if we are called on for a report." Stratemeyer agreed that he would not admit too much himself but went on to say that he had already informed Vandenberg about the incident. MacArthur replied, "That's too bad." These bombings brought out the MiG-15s. On November 8, in the first all-jet air battle in history, a MiG was shot down with no loss to the defending F-80s. During the next week, Navy pilots followed up this victory by scoring three more MiG kills. It was obvious, though, that the MiG-15 was superior to both the F-80 and the F9F, and that FEAF and Navy planes were in for a rough time unless an aircraft was found that could handle the Soviet fighter. Such an aircraft, the F-86, did enter combat on December 15. Meanwhile, on November 13, back in Tokyo, Stratemeyer found time to write up a fulsome recommendation for the award of the oak leaf cluster to MacArthur's Medal of Honor. In his cover letter to General Vandenberg, Stratemeyer wrote "I know of no figure of important national and international status today--or in the past--that more prominently occupies his position than General of the Army Douglas MacArthur. His courage, gallantry, and valor in the Korean War have been displayed time and time again way beyond the call of duty. The United States Air Force today, in my opinion, does not have a better friend than General MacArthur. He believes in air power, he knows how to use it, and he has backed me one hundred percent in my position as Commanding General, Far East Air Forces." MacArthur didn't get his cluster, by the way. The sudden appearance, and even more sudden disappearance, of Chinese troops did not seem to bother some of the leaders in Korea. In a message to his group commanders, "Rosie" O'Donnell (who was FEAF's Bomber Command chief) stated, "The performance of Bomber Command during this maximum effort period has inflicted heavy damage on the enemy and, in my opinion, has been largely responsible for his rapid transition from a cocky and confident offensive to a sullen and stunned defensive. During the past few years, while the Chinese Communist armies were conquering most of China against sponge defenses and little air opposition, their egos had ample opportunity for growth. The rapidity and completeness of their successes undoubtedly rendered them drunk with power and high self esteem. . . . They have now found what it is to run up against the USAF and, while I cannot say what the future holds for us, I am certain that a re-evaluation of the situation is unquestionably being made in Peiping." Ten days after this message was sent, the CCF smashed into the Eighth Army and sent it reeling back toward Seoul The climactic offensive by the Eighth Army to the Yalu was set for November 24. Naturally, MacArthur had to make a well-choreographed appearance in the Eighth Army sector. Accompanied by Stratemeyer and members of his staff, MacArthur flew to Sinanju to look at the preparations. From Sinanju, MacArthur decided to fly up to the Yalu to see what was going on there. Even with the fighter cover Stratemeyer had provided, this really was a foolish decision. Recording the day's events in his diary, Stratemeyer was somewhat cursory in the details. One event stood out, however: "Shortly after leaving Hyesanjin and setting our course for return to Haneda, Colonel Story came back to the General's compartment where Generals Hickey, Wright, Whitney and I were seated, bringing five glasses and a bottle of champagne. He poured the champagne and then MacArthur, Hickey, Wright, Whitney, and Story sang 'Happy Birthday' to me. "Following that, a large birthday cake was brought to me which had been baked at the American Embassy, and which was presented by General MacArthur. A table was then set for two and at General MacArthur's invitation, I sat on his left and we had a most delicious luncheon served to us." "To me, this was the highlight of my military career." On the evening of the second day after Eighth Army began its offensive, the CCF launched its Second Phase Offensive, which lasted until December 25. By then the U.N. forces found themselves back at the 38th Parallel and hastily forming a line along the Imjin River. Air Force units were also caught up in the retreat, the North Korean fields being abandoned and the aircraft sent to the south. Like the Army, the Fifth Air Force lost tons of supplies and equipment during these moves. The retreat, however, did not stop FEAF operations as FEAF and Navy planes provided air support, evacuated the ill and wounded, and dropped needed supplies. In this last chore, FEAF's Combat Cargo Command really shone. For the Chosin/Hungnam operations, the command's entire airdrop system had been geared to handle only 70 tons a day, but through herculean efforts this was bumped up to 250 tons a day. FEAF also had great success against the rampaging Chinese forces. Flushed with success, the CCF in the first two weeks of December began to operate openly during daytime. This proved costly to the Chinese. With many targets now available, the Fifth Air Force planes took a huge toll of men and equipment, particularly trucks. On December 16, Stratemeyer estimated that his planes had killed or wounded 3,300 enemy and destroyed countless trucks. Unable to withstand this onslaught, the Chinese reverted to nighttime operations in mid-December. On November 28, in Tokyo, MacArthur met with Walton Walker and Almond, his top commanders in Korea, plus his senior staff officers, to discuss the situation. Although both Futrell and Appleman wrote that Stratemeyer was at this meeting, he was not; Stratemeyer and his wife were actually giving a dinner that evening for a couple of high-powered fact-finding teams--the Barcus and Stearns groups--which were visiting Korea and Japan. Two days later, Stratemeyer asked MacArthur if anything had happened at the November 28 meeting that Stratemeyer should know about. MacArthur replied "no," and said the meeting had been held just to get some first-hand information on the situation. He also said that both Walker and Almond were confident but that some retrograde movements would have to be made. Nevertheless, to Stratemeyer, "the General appeared...pretty much depressed." The situation in Korea resulted in some rash statements being made, notably Truman's remarks concerning the atomic bomb. Mulling over the possibility of using this weapon in a full-scale war with China, MacArthur told Stratemeyer that his target priority list was Antung, Mukden, Peiping, Tientsin, Shanghai, and Nanking. If war escalated into the "big one," MacArthur also considered targeting the Soviet cities of Vladivostok, Khabarovsk, Kirin, and Kuyvyshievka. The sudden turn of events in Korea also brought General J. Lawton Collins, the Army Chief of Staff, to Japan to evaluate the situation. When Collins first talked to MacArthur on December 4, the U.N. commander leaned toward establishing two perimeters at Hungnam and Seoul/Inchon. This did not set well with many subordinates, not the least of whom was Stratemeyer. In a long memorandum to MacArthur on December 6, Stratemeyer detailed his objections to establishing such enclaves and wrote that the proper decision was to make an orderly withdrawal to a new Pusan Perimeter. When Collins and MacArthur met again on the 7th, MacArthur had changed his mind and had decided to consolidate both the Eighth Army and the X Corps at Pusan. In his diary, Stratemeyer wrote that he believed his "memorandum...caused a complete reversal of the decisions made on 4 December." I could go on at length about General Stratemeyer, but that would require a great deal more stamina and time. The "limited war" in Korea frustrated him, although he did not generally reveal this publicly. Only after the war, when he was retired and had become involved with Senator Joseph McCarthy, did Stratemeyer allow himself to say, "We were required to lose the war; we weren't allowed to win it." Later, he also bought MacArthur's excuse that the Eighth Army's offensive in November 1950 had not been an offensive to go all the way to the Yalu but, rather, a spoiling attack designed to blunt a Chinese counterattack. Nevertheless, Stratemeyer was a very capable officer, loyal to his men and to his superiors (and rather sycophantic when it came to MacArthur). Although not the best equipped force, his Far East Air Forces were probably the best trained and most ready of the services in Japan on June 25, 1950. Their accomplishments proved it. Notes on Sources Because this paper was intended as an oral presentation, no footnotes have been used. However, for those who wish to study the subject more closely, the following were the primary sources used in this paper. Lieutenant General George E. Stratemeyer's Korean War Diary, 25 June 1950 - 20 May 1951. (Unpublished) Though full of extraneous material, Stratemeyer's diary has much in it on personalities, combat operations, logistical problems etc. to make it a valuable historical resource. Frank Futrell. The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953 (Revised 1983). Still the best work available on the Air Force and the Korean War. Roy Appleman. Disaster in Korea (1989). An excellent history of that period when China entered the war. Occasionally dense writing and the format of the book sometimes makes the narrative hard to follow. Clay Blair. The Forgotten War (1987). Another fine history although Blair's biases do show through. Regrettably, Blair does make it almost a "forgotten war" by virtually ignoring the last two years of fighting. Richard Hallion. The Naval Air War in Korea (1986). Covers the Navy and Marines part in the Korean air war in great detail. The Epic of Chosin by Benis M. Frank Head, Oral History Section U.S. Marine Corps Historical Center Each battle, campaign, or amphibious assault has a personality or aura of its own. For each person who has participated in an individual action - as Belleau Wood, Guadalcanal, or the Battle of the Bulge, for instance - even if one of these was the only combat he ever experienced, it has a specialness unlike anything he has encountered during his lifetime, marriage, fatherhood, and the like. This applies especially to "The Chosen Few," those Marines, sailors, and soldiers who went up to the Chosin Reservoir and came back down, under fire and fighting all the way. In this paper, it is not my intention to discuss the Chosin Reservoir operation, day by day, step by step, unit by unit, but only to hit the hiqhspots and to flesh out the bare combat narrative with appropriate quotes from oral history interviews with the participants, as they tell in their own words of the anabasis in which they participated. The interview excerpts are derived from the interviews I conducted for the Marine Corps Oral History Program. There are also excerpts from interviews Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall conducted with 1st Marine Division personnel in Korea immediately after the Chosin operation for CCF in the Attack, part II, A Study on the Operations of the 1st Marine Division in the Koto-ri. Hagaru-ri. Yudam-ni Area. 20 November-10 December 1950. This was a study he did for the Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, Far Eastern Command. You will recall that following the amphibious assault of Inchon on 15 September 1950, the primary mission of the invasion forces was to retake Seoul, which they did by the 27th. The next objective of the 1st Marine Division was Wonsan, on the east coast north of the 38th parallel. Because the North Koreans had extensively sewn Wonsan harbor with Russian mines, it took some time to complete minesweeping operations. Meanwhile, the ships holding the 1st Division were making circles in the water off Wonsan, in what was called by the troops, Operation Yo-Yo. On 26 October, when the harbor and the waters leading to it were cleared, the division made an administrative landing. The division found that Republic of Korea (ROK) forces had already taken the city, Marine Fighter Squadron 312 Corsairs were operating from the Wonsan airfield, and Bob Hope and Marilyn Maxwell and their USO troop had already been there and gone. According to General Oliver P. Smith, the tall, white-haired, ascetic-looking and very professional commander of the 1st Marine Division, Major General Edward M. "Ned" Almond, USA, commander of X Corps, wanted the Marines to land through the minefields. He never wanted to accept 26 October as the date for the landing in view of the fact that the extensive minefield had to be cleared. "October 20th was the date he'd fixed, and he always called this October 26th 'Doyle Day,' because Admiral Doyle refused to (land on that date) and I went along with him." When I asked, "What was the matter with Almond, was he mad?," General Smith replied that he didn't know. He said that Almond was a very energetic man and egotistical. He was a MacArthur man, and anything MacArthur said, nothing could change it. MacArthur was God. On 26 October, X Corps issued the following order to the 1st Marine Division: "a) Land over the beaches in the vicinity of Wonsan; b) Relieve all elements of the I ROK Corps in Kojo and in the zone; c) Protect the Wonsan-Kojo-Majon-ni area, employing not less than one RCT [regimental combat team], patrolling all routes to the west in zone; d) Advance rapidly in zone to Korean northern border; f) Prepare to land one BLT [battalion landing team] in the Changjin area rapidly on order." The order to drive north to the northern border--in a zone of action that was 300 miles south to north and 50 miles deep - is interesting in view of the fact that the JCS only authorized MacArthur to destroy the North Korean People's Army (NKPA) as a threat to South Korea and to secure the military victory that would unify the two Koreas under UN supervision. Only if China or Russia intervened in the war would the mission be reconsidered. But flushed by victory, neither the JCS nor MacArthur anticipated such an intervention. The JCS, however, cautioned MacArthur not to violate international borders or send American troops all the way to the Yalu River, which was the border between Korea and Manchuria. Despite these warnings, MacArthur's planners directed the Eighth U.S. Army in Korea (EUSAK) and X Corps - which were separate and independent commands--to launch the ambitious exploitation campaign into North Korea. As General Smith told me in his interview, X Corps did not want to become part of the Eighth Army; it wanted to continue its independence. And General Almond apparently talked General MacArthur into sending x Corps around to the East Coast. This initially resulted in unrealistic planning, for as the 1st Division was mounting out from Inchon, the Eighth Army was coming around from Pusan and trying to enter the port and use the port facilities at the same time. General Smith was also critical of the planning for the upcoming drive north. His division, after landing at Wonsan, was to drive inland 60 miles, over the central mountain chain that was swarming with North Koreans, and meet the Eighth Army to help it capture Pyongyang. Sharing MacArthur's optimistic estimate of the state of the United Nations Command campaign, Almond scattered X Corps for more than 100 miles along the northeast coast of North Korea in November. To set the stage for X Corps-1st Marine Division relations during the Chosin campaign, I'd like to say a few words about Almond and place his character and personality in perspective, especially as it related to the 1st Marine Division. He was MacArthur's chief of staff in Tokyo, and was given command of X Corps and the Inchon landing because he had asked for it. When Lieutenant General Lemuel C. Shepherd, USMC, the Commanding General, Fleet Marine Force Pacific (FMFPac), visited MacArthur in Tokyo, the "Supremo" told him that as the senior Marine in the Pacific and an expert in the art of amphibious assault, he should have led the Inchon landings. However, he had promised the command to Almond and he didn't want to renege on his promise. During the planning phase for Inchon, Almond and his staff generally ignored the 1st Marine Division staff and went blithely along in their ignorance of amphibious matters. The fact that the Inchon landing was a success may be attributed to the professionalism and combat experience of Admiral Jimmy Doyle and the Marines. General Victor Krulak told me that on the morning of the Inchon assault he was standing at the railing of the command ship, Mount McKinley, not too far away from Almond and some of his staff. They all were watching the assault waves head for the beach. As the amphibious tractors floated by on the way to Wolmi-do, Krulak heard Almond say, "I didn't know those things could float!" In my interview with General Smith, we discussed the problems he had with Almond later, and I'll bring them up at the appropriate points. After landing at Wonsan on the 26th, the 5th and 7th Marines were to go north to Hamhung to prepare for a further advance to the Yalu. The 1st Marines would stay behind in the vicinity of Wonsan and sweep up the supposedly shattered remnants of the NKPA division in the area. In Tokyo, MacArthur, the Commander in Chief, Far East (CINCFE) and his staff were saying that the war would be over by Christmas. Despite the fact that there was hard intelligence that the Chinese had entered the war, including the capture of Chinese soldiers, CINCFE in Tokyo, and particularly Major General Charles A. Willoughby, MacArthur's G-2 (intelligence), refused to believe it. As service units established a base of operations for X Corps in Wonsan, the infantry regiments of the 1st Division fanned out to the west and north and the ROK divisions slid westward through the mountains to maintain contact with the Eighth Army or drove northeastward toward the Yalu. The Marines soon learned that the Korean war had not ended, and the "home by Christmas vision was a cruel delusion. Even though X Corps insisted that the North Korean People's Army was beaten, Colonel Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller's 1st Marines fought a series of battalion actions south and west of Wonsan. Colonel Homer E. Litzenberg's 7th Marines moved north to relieve ROK units in the Hungnam-Hamhung area, and under corps orders began to move north along the 78 miles of mountain road that led to the Chosin Reservoir. Meanwhile, thousands of Chinese troops were marching across the Yalu to blunt the UN offensive. Warned by a Chinese attack on the Eighth Army in early November, the 7th Marines was not completely surprised when it met a Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) division at Sudong on 2 November. The fighting was fiercer than it had been with the North Koreans. Unlike the Koreans, the Chinese did not depend on Russian tanks and heavy artillery. Building upon their own guerrilla warfare experience and respect for American airpower, the Chinese fought largely at night and sought tactical penetrations into the command, logistical, and supporting arms system of the UN forces. Momentarily rocked by the Chinese onslaught, the 7th Marines regained its balance and mounted its own offensive, supported by the close air support continually afforded by Marine Air Group (MAG) 12. In five days of fighting, the Marines virtually destroyed the enemy division, and continued up the road to Chosin Reservoir, the 5th Marines following in trace. The battle at Sudong convinced General Smith that the 1st Marine Division had to be concentrated. At one point, his southernmost battalion was 200 miles from the northernmost. He complained of this disposition to Almond, but as he told me, Almond's "idea was that there was nobody out there." He finally persuaded Almond to shift the rest of the division north. The X Corps commander then ordered Smith to push the Marine division rapidly to the northwest for a final drive toward the Chinese border. Smith had no confidence in Almond's strategy or prophetic gift, and moved his regiments cautiously. He hoped that he would not have to send his regiments all the way up the plateau, 4,000 feet above sea level, with winter descending and only one single-lane road going up there. This being the situation, General Smith paid special attention to his logistical arrangements and the security of the Main Supply Route (MSR), which was assigned to Puller's 1st Marines. Each battle, campaign, or amphibious assault has a personality or aura of its own. For each person who has participated in an individual action - as Belleau Wood, Guadalcanal, or the Battle of the Bulge, for instance--even if one of these was the only combat he ever experienced, it has a specialness unlike anything he has encountered during his lifetime, marriage, fatherhood, and the like. This applies especially to "The Chosen Few," those Marines, sailors, and soldiers who went up to the Chosin Reservoir and came back down, under fire and fighting all the way. In this paper, it is not my intention to discuss the Chosin Reservoir operation, day by day, step by step, unit by unit, but only to hit the hiqhspots and to flesh out the bare combat narrative with appropriate quotes from oral history interviews with the participants, as they tell in their own words of the anabasis in which they participated. The interview excerpts are derived from the interviews I conducted for the Marine Corps Oral History Program. There are also excerpts from interviews Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall conducted with 1st Marine Division personnel in Korea immediately after the Chosin operation for CCF in the Attack, part II, A Study on the Operations of the 1st Marine Division in the Koto-ri. Hagaru-ri. Yudam-ni Area. 20 November-10 December 1950. This was a study he did for the Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University, Far Eastern Command. You will recall that following the amphibious assault of Inchon on 15 September 1950, the primary mission of the invasion forces was to retake Seoul, which they did by the 27th. The next objective of the 1st Marine Division was Wonsan, on the east coast north of the 38th parallel. Because the North Koreans had extensively sewn Wonsan harbor with Russian mines, it took some time to complete minesweeping operations. Meanwhile, the ships holding the 1st Division were making circles in the water off Wonsan, in what was called by the troops, Operation Yo-Yo. On 26 October, when the harbor and the waters leading to it were cleared, the division made an administrative landing. The division found that Republic of Korea (ROK) forces had already taken the city, Marine Fighter Squadron 312 Corsairs were operating from the Wonsan airfield, and Bob Hope and Marilyn Maxwell and their USO troop had already been there and gone. According to General Oliver P. Smith, the tall, white-haired, ascetic-looking and very professional commander of the 1st Marine Division, Major General Edward M. "Ned" Almond, USA, commander of X Corps, wanted the Marines to land through the minefields. He never wanted to accept 26 October as the date for the landing in view of the fact that the extensive minefield had to be cleared. "October 20th was the date he'd fixed, and he always called this October 26th 'Doyle Day,' because Admiral Doyle refused to (land on that date) and I went along with him." When I asked, "What was the matter with Almond, was he mad?," General Smith replied that he didn't know. He said that Almond was a very energetic man and egotistical. He was a MacArthur man, and anything MacArthur said, nothing could change it. MacArthur was God. On 26 October, X Corps issued the following order to the 1st Marine Division: "a) Land over the beaches in the vicinity of Wonsan; b) Relieve all elements of the I ROK Corps in Kojo and in the zone; c) Protect the Wonsan-Kojo-Majon-ni area, employing not less than one RCT [regimental combat team], patrolling all routes to the west in zone; d) Advance rapidly in zone to Korean northern border; f) Prepare to land one BLT [battalion landing team] in the Changjin area rapidly on order." The order to drive north to the northern border--in a zone of action that was 300 miles south to north and 50 miles deep--is interesting in view of the fact that the JCS only authorized MacArthur to destroy the North Korean People's Army (NKPA) as a threat to South Korea and to secure the military victory that would unify the two Koreas under UN supervision. Only if China or Russia intervened in the war would the mission be reconsidered. But flushed by victory, neither the JCS nor MacArthur anticipated such an intervention. The JCS, however, cautioned MacArthur not to violate international borders or send American troops all the way to the Yalu River, which was the border between Korea and Manchuria. Despite these warnings, MacArthur's planners directed the Eighth U.S. Army in Korea (EUSAK) and X Corps - which were separate and independent commands - to launch the ambitious exploitation campaign into North Korea. As General Smith told me in his interview, X Corps did not want to become part of the Eighth Army; it wanted to continue its independence. And General Almond apparently talked General MacArthur into sending x Corps around to the East Coast. This initially resulted in unrealistic planning, for as the 1st Division was mounting out from Inchon, the Eighth Army was coming around from Pusan and trying to enter the port and use the port facilities at the same time. General Smith was also critical of the planning for the upcoming drive north. His division, after landing at Wonsan, was to drive inland 60 miles, over the central mountain chain that was swarming with North Koreans, and meet the Eighth Army to help it capture Pyongyang. Sharing MacArthur's optimistic estimate of the state of the United Nations Command campaign, Almond scattered X Corps for more than 100 miles along the northeast coast of North Korea in November. To set the stage for X Corps-1st Marine Division relations during the Chosin campaign, I'd like to say a few words about Almond and place his character and personality in perspective, especially as it related to the 1st Marine Division. He was MacArthur's chief of staff in Tokyo, and was given command of X Corps and the Inchon landing because he had asked for it. When Lieutenant General Lemuel C. Shepherd, USMC, the Commanding General, Fleet Marine Force Pacific (FMFPac), visited MacArthur in Tokyo, the "Supremo" told him that as the senior Marine in the Pacific and an expert in the art of amphibious assault, he should have led the Inchon landings. However, he had promised the command to Almond and he didn't want to renege on his promise. During the planning phase for Inchon, Almond and his staff generally ignored the 1st Marine Division staff and went blithely along in their ignorance of amphibious matters. The fact that the Inchon landing was a success may be attributed to the professionalism and combat experience of Admiral Jimmy Doyle and the Marines. General Victor Krulak told me that on the morning of the Inchon assault he was standing at the railing of the command ship, Mount McKinley, not too far away from Almond and some of his staff. They all were watching the assault waves head for the beach. As the amphibious tractors floated by on the way to Wolmi-do, Krulak heard Almond say, "I didn't know those things could float!" In my interview with General Smith, we discussed the problems he had with Almond later, and I'll bring them up at the appropriate points. After landing at Wonsan on the 26th, the 5th and 7th Marines were to go north to Hamhung to prepare for a further advance to the Yalu. The 1st Marines would stay behind in the vicinity of Wonsan and sweep up the supposedly shattered remnants of the NKPA division in the area. In Tokyo, MacArthur, the Commander in Chief, Far East (CINCFE) and his staff were saying that the war would be over by Christmas. Despite the fact that there was hard intelligence that the Chinese had entered the war, including the capture of Chinese soldiers, CINCFE in Tokyo, and particularly Major General Charles A. Willoughby, MacArthur's G-2 (intelligence), refused to believe it. As service units established a base of operations for X Corps in Wonsan, the infantry regiments of the 1st Division fanned out to the west and north and the ROK divisions slid westward through the mountains to maintain contact with the Eighth Army or drove northeastward toward the Yalu. The Marines soon learned that the Korean war had not ended, and the "home by Christmas vision was a cruel delusion. Even though X Corps insisted that the North Korean People's Army was beaten, Colonel Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller's 1st Marines fought a series of battalion actions south and west of Wonsan. Colonel Homer E. Litzenberg's 7th Marines moved north to relieve ROK units in the Hungnam-Hamhung area, and under corps orders began to move north along the 78 miles of mountain road that led to the Chosin Reservoir. Meanwhile, thousands of Chinese troops were marching across the Yalu to blunt the UN offensive. Warned by a Chinese attack on the Eighth Army in early November, the 7th Marines was not completely surprised when it met a Chinese Communist Forces (CCF) division at Sudong on 2 November. The fighting was fiercer than it had been with the North Koreans. Unlike the Koreans, the Chinese did not depend on Russian tanks and heavy artillery. Building upon their own guerrilla warfare experience and respect for American airpower, the Chinese fought largely at night and sought tactical penetratio
2080	dbpedia	2	22	https://www.4thinfantry.org/about-us/division-history	en	4th Infantry (IVY) Division Assocation	https://cdn.prod.website…76e5a_4idweb.gif		[ "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637b982ce9c14983f7997b8d/637b99240bce75ed87ba2355_4ID-patchAsset%202.svg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637d4ccecb8ef81cb62c87aa/63d42574a407de33af976e5a_4idweb.gif", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637d4ccecb8ef81cb62c87aa/63d425745332e0b07b80470d_3-Man.jpeg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637d4ccecb8ef81cb62c87aa/63d42574ea48f85a6d15f68a_250px-General_James_D__Thurman_portrait.jpeg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637d4ccecb8ef81cb62c87aa/63d42574034cd068a5aaf651_19989363_10207345465473319_4359581774597360561_n.jpeg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/637d4ccecb8ef81cb62c87aa/63d42574e942a436535b3241_us-4i45.gif", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/62434fa732124a0fb112aab4/62434fa732124a332512aaee_placeholder-1.svg", "https://cdn.prod.website-files.com/62434fa732124a0fb112aab4/62434fa732124a4a9512aae0_product%20icon-1.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			https://cdn.prod.website…_iva-favicon.png		null	4th Infantry Division - Our Proud Heritage On November 17, 1917, the same year that America entered World War I, the 4th Division was formed at Camp Greene, North Carolina to begin its long tradition of service to our country. Â Filled with draftees, the Fourth Division, whose insignia had been adopted by its first commanding general, Major General George H. Cameron, became known as the âIvyâ division. Â Its insignia consisted of four green ivy leaves on a khaki background. Â The Division also derived its numerical designation from the Roman numeral IV (4 and IV mean the same thing); hence the nickname, âIvyâ division. The divisionâs motto is âSteadfast and Loyalâ. In April 1918, the Ivy Division embarked en route to fight in France. Â By the time the âGreat Warâ ended some months hence, the Ivy Division would serve with distinction. Â They were the only American combat force to serve with both the French and the British in their respective sectors, as well as with all Corps in the American sector. When the war ended on November 11, 1918, the Ivy Division had earned five battle streamers. Â Over 2,000 officers and men had been killed in action, total casualties were almost 14,000. As war clouds engulfed Europe, the 4th Division was reactivated on June 1, 1940 at Fort Benning, Georgia. Selected as an experimental unit, the 4th Motorized Division began a three-year, wide-open experiment. Â From August 1940 through August 1943, the division participated in the Louisiana Maneuvers, then moved to the newly opened Camp Gordon, Georgia where they participated in the Carolina Maneuvers, and finally moved to Fort Dix, New Jersey where they scrapped the motorized experiment and were re-designated the 4th Infantry Division. Â A move in September 1943 to Camp Gordon Johnston, Florida gave the division realistic amphibious training in preparation for the assault on fortress Europe. Chosen as the spearhead amphibious division of the D-Day landing on the Normandy coast of France, the men of the 4th Infantry Division stormed ashore at H-Hour (0630 hours) on a stretch of the French coast named - for this operation and forever after - Utah Beach. Â It was for his actions that day that Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., Assistant Division Commander, earned the first Medal of Honor of the division. After their successful D-day landing, the men of the Ivy division fought through the hedgerows of the Cotentin Peninsula en route to taking the critically important port of Cherbourg on June 25, 1944. Â The division was in continuous action during the period of June 6 to June 28 when the last resistance around Cherbourg was eliminated. Â During this period, the 4th Infantry Division sustained over 5,450 casualties and had over 800 men killed. With hardly a pause to catch their breath, the Ivymen continued to attack through the hedgerow country and, along with the 2nd Armored Division, spearheaded the breakthrough at St. Lo on July 25, 1944. Â Exploiting the break in the German lines, the division continued the attack across France. Â On August 25, 1944 they, along with the French 2nd Armored Division, were the troops who earned the distinction of liberating Parisfrom four years of Nazi rule. Â Passing through the wildly applauding Parisians, the Ivymen left the victory parade to outfits following in their wake and continued to pursue the Germans. On September 11, 1944, a patrol from the 4th Infantry Division became the first Allied ground force to enter Germany. Â Fighting in the Siegfried Line followed. Â Mid November found the division in the bloodiest battle of its history. Â The most grueling battle in Europe was fought in the Hurtgen Forest. Â Fighting in the cold rain and snow and in a forest of pine and fir trees 150 feet in height, the Ivymen slugged it out yard-by-yard and day-by-day against determined German artillery and infantry resistance. Â By early December, the division had fought through what had become a twisted mass of shrapnel-torn stumps and broken trees and had accomplished its mission. Â Casualties in the Hurtgen often exceeded 150 percent of the original strength of a rifle company. With the Hurtgen Forest behind them, the division moved into a defensive position in Luxembourg and was soon engaged in the Battle of the Bulge. Â General George S. Patton wrote to Major General Raymond Barton of the 4th Infantry Division: âYour fight in the Hurtgen Forest was an epic of stark infantry combat; but, in my opinion, your most recent fight â from the 16th to the 26th of December â when, with a depleted and tired division, you halted the left shoulder of the German thrust into the American lines and saved the City of Luxembourg, and the tremendous supply establishments and road nets in that vicinity, is the most outstanding accomplishment of yourself and your division.â As the German push was halted in the Bulge, the Ivy Division resumed the attack and continued the pursuit through the Siegfried Line - the same location it had crossed in September - and fought across Germany as the war ground on in the first four months of 1945. Â When the war ended on May 8, 1945, the 4th Infantry Division had participated in all of the campaigns from the Normandy Beach through Germany. Â Five more battle streamers were added to the 4th Infantry Division colors and personnel of the Division during this period wear the five campaign stars of Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes, and Central Europe. Â The division suffered almost 22,000 battle casualties and over 34,000 total casualties, including over 5,000 who were killed or died of injuries, during their eleven months of fighting across Europe. Â For 199 straight days, the 4th Infantry Division was in constant contact with the Germans. On July 11, 1945, the Ivy Division returned to New York harbor and began preparing at Camp Butner, North Carolina, for the invasion of Japan. Â Fortunately, the war ended before that was required. The Cold War found the 4th Infantry Division again standing tall in defense of freedom. Â While others fought the Communists in Korea, the Ivy Division returned to Germany in 1950 and for the next six years stood strong against the Communist threat to Western Europe. Â After returning to the States in 1956, the division trained at Fort Lewis, Washington, for the next time they would be called into battle. Â The next time was in Vietnam in the late summer of 1966, twenty-two years and two months after the Ivymen landed on Utah Beach. In August 1966, led by the 2nd Brigade, the Ivy Division headquarters closed into the central highlands of Vietnam. Â On September 25, 1966, the division began a combat assignment against the North Vietnamese that would not end until December 7, 1970. Eleven additional battle streamers would be added to the 4th Infantry Division colors as the Ivy Soldiers fought in places such as the Ia Drang Valley, Plei Trap Valley, Fire Base Gold, Dak To, the Oasis, Kontum, Pleiku, Ben Het, An Khe, and Cambodia. Â With the largest assigned area of operations of any division in Vietnam, the Ivy division was charged with screening the border of South Vietnam as the first line of defense against infiltration down the Ho Chi Minh trail through Laos and Cambodia, and, to preempt any offensive on the more populated lowlands. Â Triple canopy jungles, extreme heat, and seasonal monsoons were constant challenges to the division as were the North Vietnamese Regulars and Viet Cong. Â By the time the Ivy Division completed their assignment in Vietnamand returned to Fort Carson, Coloradoat the end of 1970, 2,497 Ivy Soldiers had been killed and 15,229 had been wounded. Â Eleven Ivy division Soldiers earned the Medal of Honor during that period. Resuming training and Cold War missions, the 4th Infantry Division remained stationed at Fort Carson, Colorado from 1970 through 1995. Â During this period, the division was converted to a Mechanized organization and frequently sent units to Europe to continue the Cold War mission of standing against the Communist threat. Â It was during their time in Fort Carson that the division assumed the nickname, âIronhorseâ. In December 1995, the Ivy Division was moved to Fort Hood, Texas when the 2nd Armored Division was deactivated as part of the downsizing of the Army. Â Combining five armor battalions of the 2nd Armored Division with four mechanized infantry battalions of the 4th Infantry Division, the Ivy Division again became the experimental division of the Army, as it had been in the early 1940âs. Â Until completing the mission in October 2001, the Ivy men and women led the United States Army into the twenty-first century under the banner of Force XXI. Â They developed and tested state-of-the-art digital communications equipment, night fighting gear, advanced weaponry, organization, and doctrine to prepare the United States Army for wars in the new century, in addition to being ready to deploy to any hot spot in the world. That hot spot was to be the country of Iraq. Â On 18 January 2003, the 4th Infantry Division, under the leadership of MG Raymond Odierno, was given the deployment order for movement to Iraqas part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. In record time for a heavy armored Division, the 4th Infantry Division, augmented by artillery, engineer, and support troops from active duty, National Guard, and Army reserve units to make them âTask Force Ironhorseâ, loaded their equipment onto 37 ships bound for Turkey. The Turkish government refused to allow the Division to land as the northern force in the planned assault into Iraq. For two months the Ivy Soldiers awaited word on where they would be going. In March, word arrived that the division would be landing in Kuwait with immediate movement into Iraq. On 18 April, the Division entered combat north of Baghdad. Their initial assignments were the airfields at Taji and Balad, which were quickly secured, followed by moving into and establishing their headquarters in Tikrit, Saddam Husseinâs home town. Joined by other brigade sized units, including 173rd Airborne Brigade which Â made the first ever combat jump from C-17 airplanes (March 25, 2003 into northern Iraq), the 4th Infantry Division became the command for Task Force Ironhorse, a force of over 32,000 Soldiers. During the year long deployment from March 2003 to April 2004, the Division and other Task Force Ironhorse units, carried out aggressive offensive operations designed to hunt down the last holdouts of the old regime. At the same time, the Division had the massive job of rebuilding the infrastructure of the many villages within their Area of Operations and reestablishing a governmental structure. In Operation Red Dawn, conducted on 13 December 2003, in 4th Infantry Division, in coordination with a special operations unit, captured Saddam Hussein, the former president of Iraq. His capture has been described by the news media as the number one news story of 2003. On 18 June 2004, soon after their return to the US, MG James D. Thurman (Left) assumed command of the 4th Infantry Division. Â The division went through a massive reorganization, forming combined arms battalions consisting of Infantry, Armor, and Engineer companies, with support units also assigned in each unit. All the equipment that had been returned from Iraq began the long process of rebuild and upgrade. The Division also stood up a 4th Brigade Combat Team, bringing the total strength of the division to slightly over 20,000 personnel. The end goal was to have the Division postured so it could return to Iraq in the fall of 2005, which they did. Â The Division returned to Iraq starting in the fall of 2005, this time to Baghdad where MG Thurman now led Multi-National Division â Baghdad (MND-B), with the 4th Infantry Division as the command component. With attached units, MND-B numbered over 30,000 personnel and was responsible for the largest population area of Iraq, including the always volatile city of Baghdad. This deployment saw a rise in the sectarian violence which was beginning to plague the new government. Accomplishments during this critical year were many. A new government was elected and installed. Iraqi security forces were beginning to take a larger role in the security of their own country. Infrastructure improvements continued so that larger sections of the population were afforded clean water and improved electrical service. Oil production was back to its pre-war levels and improvements were made to schools and medical facilities. In December 2006, the Division again returned to its home at Forts Hood and Carson. Within a month of their return to the US, on January 19, 2007, MG Jeffrey Hammond assumed command of the 4th Infantry Division and began the task of resetting the equipment, retraining the personnel, and preparing for a return to Iraqin late 2007. On December 19, 2007, the 4ID again assumed command of Multi-National Division â Baghdad with a fifteen month mission to exploit the gains made during the âsurgeâ in 2007. The mission was defined as clear, control, retain, and transition. In a Christmas letter, MG Hammond explained the challenge for the next fifteen months as, âto continue to build upon the momentum built by Soldiers of Multi-National Division â Baghdad. To do this we must, first and foremost, in partnership with the Iraqi Security Forces, continue to protect the Iraqi people, aggressively hunt the enemy down, and build upon the partnerships with the Iraqi people, their security services and the local and provincial governmentsâ¦â On Easter Sunday, March 23, 2008, all hell broke loose in Baghdad. After experiencing attack rates which had been reduced by 63% between September 2007 and February 2008, the attacks during the last few days of March brought the attack level back up to what had been experienced when the surge was still taking hold in the fall of 2007. Mortar and rocket attacks, launched primarily from Sadr City, rained down on the International Zone. IED, small arms, and indirect fire attacks were launched against MND-B and Iraqi Security Forces bases, convoys, and patrols at a level which had not been seen since early in 2007. Through April into mid May, MND-B forces built a wall separating the southern portion of Sadr City from the volatile northern section and systematically cleaned out the aggressor forces, bringing a new level of calm to the entire city of Baghdad by early summer as the uprising of the JAM militia was stopped. Through the summer, fall and winter, work continued to transition the lead from Coalition to Iraqi Security Forces (ISF) and the 4ID and MND-B prepared to turn over the lead to the ISF on 1 January 2009. That was accomplished on schedule with the ISF taking lead as the New Year came in. On 31 January 2009, successful provincial elections were conducted, without a significant enemy attack on election day. A few weeks later, the 4ID once again returned to FortHood, ending their third deployment to Iraq since 2003. Â In the three deployments to Iraq, 84 4ID/Task Force Ironhorse Soldiers made the ultimate sacrifice in 2003-2004, 235 4ID/Multi-National Division â Baghdad Soldiers lost their lives in 2005-2006, and 113 4ID/Multi-National Division â Baghdad Soldiers were killed in 2007-2009. July 2009 MG David Perkins took command to become the 56th Commanding General of the 4th Infantry Division. With this change of command, even more significant events happened as the 4ID completed 14 years calling Fort Hood, TX home and returned to Fort Carson, CO, where they had served from late 1970 through late 1995. Immediately, the divisionâs brigades started preparing for their next return to combat. The 4th Infantry Brigade Combat Team completed a year long tour in Afghanistan that began in May 2009; the 3rd Brigade Combat Team has completed a deployment to southern Iraq, as an Advise and Assist Brigade, which began in March 2010; 1st Brigade Combat Team deployed to Afghanistan in late summer 2010; and 4ID HQ and DSTB deployed in October to Iraq, for the fourth time. The 2nd Brigade Combat Team, which returned from Iraq late in 2009, returned to combat duty in 2011. From early 2003 through 2011, the 4ID focused on Iraq and played a key role in the successful completion of that war, including the capture of Saddam Hussein. Since 2009 we have had Brigade elements deployed to Afghanistan and that effort continues today. MG Joseph Anderson became Division Commander on November 16, 2011. Fort Carson is now the home base and as 2012 begins the 4ID is resetting, refitting, and training to deploy Â as required to serve our nation for their next operation in the Global War on Terror. Maj. Gen. Paul LaCamera, assumed command of the 4th Infantry Division and Fort Carson, on March 14, 2013. Since January 2013, three 4ID BCTs have deployed to Kuwait as the Armyâs Mid-East Ready Reaction Brigade. From July 2013 to July 2014, 4ID HQ was deployed to Afghanistan. Sergeant's Clinton L. Romesha and Ty Michael Carter received the nation's highest military award for extraordinary gallantry and selfless actions during the Battle of Kamdesh at Combat Outpost Keating, Afghanistan, on Oct. 3, 2009. Both were assigned to Bravo Troop, 3-61 Cavalry, 4th Brigade Combat Team, 4th Infantry Division. Maj. Gen. Ryan F. Gonsalves assumed command of 4th Infantry Division and Fort Carson May 14, 2015. A Medal of Honor was presented posthumously on June 2nd 2015 to the family of WWI soldier Sergeant William Shemin for his heroic actions in 1918 when he put his own life in grave peril rescuing his comrades. He was assigned to Company G, 2nd Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment (4th Infantry Division), and the only 4ID WWI Soldier to be awarded the national highest medal. A third Medal of Honor for actions in Afghanistan was presented to Capt. Florent A. Groberg during a White House ceremony, November 12, 2015 for action on August 8, 2012 while providing a personal security detail in the city of Asadabad. Over the past several years, 4ID BCTs have deployed to Kuwait, Afghanistan, Poland and Eastern Europe. Slowed by the COVID-19 pandemic, 4ID adapted quickly and continued to train, deploy, and help provide medical aid, including vaccinations, as called on in several US cities. Joint exercises in the Pacific theater of operations have been added to 4IDâs responsibilities in 2021 and as we move into 2022. As they have done since the Division's birth in December 1917, The 4th Infantry Division Soldiers are 'Steadfast and Loyal' and 'Fit for Any Test' â they remain, 'The Mighty Fourth Division â Americaâs Best'. Division Honors Campaign participation credit World War I: Aisne-Marne St. Mihiel Meuse-Argonne Champagne 1918 Lorraine 1918 World War II: Normandy Northern France Rhineland Ardennes-Alsace Central Europe Cold War: 1947 â 1991 Vietnam War: Counteroffensive, Phase II Counteroffensive, Phase II Tet Counteroffensive Counteroffensive, Phase IV Counteroffensive, Phase V Counteroffensive, Phase VI Tet 69/Counteroffensive Summer-Fall 1969 Winter-Spring 1970 Sanctuary Counteroffensive Counteroffensive, Phase VII Operation Iraqi Freedom: Liberation of Iraq â 2003 Transition of Iraq â 2003 - 2004 Iraqi Governance â 2004 - 2007 National Resolution â 2005 - 2007 Iraqi Surge - 2007 - 2008 Iraqi Sovereignty â 2009 â 2010 Operation New Dawn â 2010 â 2011 Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan): Consolidation II â 2006 â 2009 Consolidation III â 2009 â 2011 Transition I â 2011 â 2014 Operation Inherent Resolve (CJTF-OIR) Iraq: June 2014 - TBD Operation Freedom's Sentinel (Afghanistan): 2015 â 30 August 2021 Operation Atlantic Resolve (Poland): 2018 â TBD Division Decorations Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for PLEIKU PROVINCE (1st Brigade Only) Presidential Unit Citation (Army) for DAK TO DISTRICT (1st Brigade Only) Belgian Fourragere 1940 Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in BELGIUM Cited in the Order of the Day of the Belgian Army for action in the ARDENNES Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1966â1969 Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry with Palm for VIETNAM 1969â 1970 Republic of Vietnam Civil Action Honor Medal, First Class for VIETNAM 1966â1969 Army Superior Unit Award (Selected Units) for Force XXI Test and Evaluation (1995â1996) Valorous Unit Award (1st Brigade Combat Team & Supporting units) for Operation Red Dawn, Iraq â 2003 â
3152	dbpedia	2	7	https://fsd.servicemax.com/2017/06/20/sky-italia-field-techs-sales/	en	Sky Italia's Field Techs Dish Up Sales	https://fsd.servicemax.c…calin-179750.jpg	https://fsd.servicemax.c…calin-179750.jpg	[ "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/fsd-masthead.svg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/themes/fsd_v2/brand/svg/fsd_initials.svg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/robert-calin-179750.jpg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/Lionel-Boubli-96x96.jpeg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Dave-96x96.jpeg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/sara-96x96.jpeg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Lucio-Golinelli-Headshot.jpg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/janine.jpg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/smx-hbr-report-728x90-1.jpg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/themes/fsd_v2/brand/svg/servicemax-logo-ko.svg", "https://fsd.servicemax.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/fsd_masthead_white_no-text.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Janine Milne" ]	2017-06-20T00:00:00	Sky Italia aims to boost its satellite dish installers’ skills to transform the company’s service arm from a cost center to a revenue generator.	en		Field Service Digital	https://fsd.servicemax.com/2017/06/20/sky-italia-field-techs-sales/	Sky Italia aims to boost its satellite dish installers’ skills to transform the company’s service arm from a cost center to a revenue generator. Editor’s note: This story first appeared in the latest issue of Field Service, a quarterly print magazine from Field Service Digital and ServiceMax. Check out the full magazine in print or online. Sky Italia, the Italian digital satellite television firm, isn’t worried about squeezing money out of the installation side of the business. “Putting a dish on the roof is not only a question of installation, and therefore of mere costs, but is also a chance to establish a closer relationship with customers,” says Lucio Golinelli, senior director of service and delivery at Sky Italia. The company’s technicians handle thousands of installations every year, and Golinelli is eager to turn each home visit into a sales opportunity. The company has an unusual structure. Instead of handling field service internally, Sky Italia outsources most of its actual dish installation and maintenance to 400 small providers, which in turn manage roughly 2,000 field technicians. These installers already sell extra products and services to customers while on site, but Sky Italia believes there is a huge opportunity for them to sell even more. “The trust between customer and installer is very high, and we feel this is a big opportunity,” Golinelli says, “because they can spend some time talking about home cinema, or whether they need additional boxes and services.” That requires an installer with different skills. From a technical point of view, it means not only mastering mechanical hardware skills but software skills as well. It also requires having the people skills to communicate with customers. “Field workers must now become advisors more than installers, and we must provide the tools and process and training for installers to do this. This means that they have to move from the roof fixing the satellite dishes into the living room,” Golinelli says. To achieve this long-term goal, Sky Italia’s first step has been to replace its heavily customized Siebel IT platform with a cloud-based Salesforce platform, together with ServiceMax. With the new systems in place, Sky Italia is working to create a seamless, digital customer experience from an initial customer call through sales and service. Sky Italia will use its new CRM and field service management systems to make more informed field service decisions. For example, Golinelli says being able to send the best upseller to a specific customer is a better opportunity than allocating a job based purely on location and proximity to the customer. Golinelli expects the ability to plan its service delivery to maximize profits will create huge opportunities for the company. “Customers will ask for more and more services in the future,” he says. “We visit thousands of customers at home per year,” noting that the company’s technicians will probably have the opportunity to visit each customer in the next few years. That means more chances to install cable boxes and advise customers about home cinema upgrades and other new services. Alongside upselling opportunities, Golinelli says Sky Italia’s service technology investments will help manage costs by reducing problem resolution times, cutting administrative fees and above all, improving customer service.
3152	dbpedia	1	58	https://www.foxweather.com/earth-space/april-2024-astronomical-events	en	April also features other astronomical events besides the total solar eclipse	https://images.foxweathe…73.jpg?ve=1&tl=1	https://images.foxweathe…73.jpg?ve=1&tl=1	[ "https://static.foxnews.com/static/orion/styles/img/fox-weather/bg/phone-w-logo-small.png", "https://static.foxnews.com/static/orion/styles/img/fox-weather/s/icons/live-light-animated.svg", "https://images.foxweather.com/static-media.fox.com/ms/stg1/weather/992/558/play-70412f299001102--29799664674.jpg?ve=1&tl=1", "https://images.foxweather.com/static.foxweather.com/www.foxweather.com/content/uploads/2024/03/668/376/Comet12Pswirl.jpg?ve=1&tl=1", "https://images.foxweather.com/static.foxweather.com/www.foxweather.com/content/uploads/2024/04/668/376/GettyImages-1250844973.jpg?ve=1&tl=1", "https://images.foxweather.com/static.foxweather.com/www.foxweather.com/content/uploads/2023/04/668/376/GettyImages-486404653-copy.jpg?ve=1&tl=1", "https://images.foxweather.com/static.foxweather.com/www.foxweather.com/content/uploads/2024/03/668/376/Screenshot-2024-03-26-at-1.23.37-PM.png?ve=1&tl=1" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Emilee Speck" ]	2024-04-01T17:13:35-04:00	Here are some non eclipse and eclipse adjacent astronomical events to look up for throughout April.	en	//static.foxnews.com/static/orion/styles/img/fox-weather/favicons/favicon.ico	FOX Weather	https://www.foxweather.com/earth-space/april-2024-astronomical-events	Without including the anticipated total solar eclipse, April is already packed with astronomical events to enjoy outside if the skies are clear, including the full Pink Moon and Comet 12P. Here are some non-eclipse and eclipse-adjacent astronomy events worth looking up this month. Comet 12P puts on a colorful show Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is zooming toward its closest approach to the Sun, known as perihelion. The comet is expected to be nearest the Sun in its 71-year orbit by the third week in April. TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE FORECAST SHOWS WHO HAS BEST CHANCE FOR CLEAR SKIES ON APRIL 8TH Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of our solar system about 4.6 billion years ago, made up of dust, rocks and ice. As comets approach the Sun, they heat up and create a glowing atmosphere, or coma, and form the famous bright comet's tail, that can stretch for millions of miles, according to NASA. Comet 12P is expected to become visible to the naked eye in early April. NASA said Comet 12P will be only 25 degrees away from the Sun during totality on April 8th. By April 21st, Comet 12P will be at its closest point to the Sun. Planets on display during total eclipse This is another eclipse-adjacent astronomy event. Thanks to the April 8th eclipse, those in parts of Mexico, the U.S. and Atlantic Canada can see a few planets during the afternoon, not normally all visible at the same time during this time of year. During the eclipse, when everyone will be looking (with their solar glasses) at the Sun, here's where to look for the planets: Jupiter will be to the upper left of the Sun, while Venus, Saturn and Mars will be to the lower right. April 23: Full Pink Moon April's full Moon is known as the Pink Moon, and this month, the Moon will be full on April 23rd at 7:49 p.m. ET. According to NASA, the Moon will appear full from Monday through Thursday of that week. According to the Farmers' Almanac, the Pink Moon is named for the herb moss pink, also known as creeping phlox, a plant native to the eastern U.S. This bloom is pink and can be a sign of spring. April's full Moon has other native names, including the Egg Moon, Fish Moon and Sprouting Grass Moon. Lyrid meteor shower The Lyrid meteor shower peaks around the time of the full Moon, which is terrible news for sky gazers because the bright moonlight will drown out the shooting stars in the night sky. Lyrids are created from the debris of comet C/1861 G1 Thatcham and are expected to peak between April 21st and 22nd. Celestial explosion: TBD This next event is expected to happen sometime before this fall, so it's worth keeping on your star-gazing radar. An ongoing dance between two stars 3,000 light years away is expected to end in a massive explosion so bright it will create the appearance of a "new" star in the night sky seen by the naked eye for several days and with binoculars for weeks. According to NASA, the binary star system known as T Coronae Borealis, or T CrB, could soon become visible to those on Earth. This Nova explosion happens about every 80 years, and astronomers believe it could happen between now and September. According to NASA, this "new" bright star will appear in the constellation Corona Borealis or the Northern Crown in the northern sky. Keep looking up and if you see a new star, you might be witnessing this celestial explosion 80 years in the making.
3152	dbpedia	0	14	https://media.sportbusiness.com/organisation/sky-italia/	en	Organisation: Sky Italia	https://dgh6pthnj75vb.cl…ty-image-2-1.png	https://dgh6pthnj75vb.cl…ty-image-2-1.png	[ "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/07/GettyImages-2150359615.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/06/GettyImages-2152892245.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/06/GettyImages-1793160659.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/06/GettyImages-2123623689.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/05/GettyImages-1328231477.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/03/GettyImages-1711331004.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2024/01/GettyImages-1845236434.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/11/GettyImages-1783108530.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/11/GettyImages-1466971616.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/10/GettyImages-1750715175.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/09/Zebre-parma.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/07/GettyImages-1356581815.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/07/LCLC.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/06/GettyImages-1487007776.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/06/GettyImages-1487764960-27.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/05/GettyImages-1291646035-1.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352", "https://uploads-sportbusiness.imgix.net/uploads/sites/2/2023/05/GettyImages-1483248297.jpg?auto=compress,format&crop=faces,entropy,edges&fit=crop&w=620&h=352" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Martin Ross", "Imran Yusuf", "SportBusiness Staff", "Jonathan Rest", "Frank Dunne" ]	2024-07-16T11:03:40+00:00		en	https://uploads-sportbus…t=crop&w=32&h=32	SportBusiness Media	https://media.sportbusiness.com/organisation/sky-italia/	Sky Italia One-season renewal for EuroLeague and DAZN, Sky Italia Euroleague Basketball has renewed its Italian rights deals with subscription broadcasters DAZN and Sky Italia but only for the 2024-25 season, having previously signed long-term deals in the country. Serie B lowers expectations in new tender with season looming Lega Serie B’s “final offer to the market” will likely end in reduced domestic rights fees for the second division of Italian club football, though the league is hoping a key change in its approach will result in belated deals ahead of the new season. Sky Italia locks down exclusivity to its Uefa club rights Sky Italia has opted against opening up free-to-air coverage of Uefa club competitions in Italy next season via the on-sale of rights or on its own TV8 channel. Serie B looks to close domestic TV deals in week of talks Lega Serie B is preparing for intense negotiations this week as it looks to bring an end to its stuttering domestic media rights sales process for the 2024-27 cycle. Rai drives Euro 2024 uplift in Italy Uefa and the CAA Eleven agency earned a combined uplift in Italy from Rai and Sky Italia for European Championship rights, SportBusiness Media has learned. Sky follows Premier League deal in DACH with Italy renewal Pay-television giant Sky is to remain as a Premier League rights-holder in its major European markets until at least 2028, after striking a new deal in Italy. Serie B’s Balata: Fifa/Uefa ‘gigantism’ harms domestic league revenues Mauro Balata, president of Italy’s second football division, Serie B, has called on football’s governing bodies to be more aware of the negative impact their constant expansion of competitions has on the value of domestic leagues. Sky Italia renews NBA at flat fee in three-year deal Sky Italia’s three-year renewal cements the NBA’s position as a major sports property in the country, though the lack of competition in the market led to no increase in rights fee on the previous deal. Debt-ridden Italian clubs opt for safety, with DAZN shouldering risk Serie A clubs, in accepting a total of €900m per season from DAZN and Sky Italia for five seasons, opted for guaranteed rights fees in the face of their high operational losses and debts. Serie A to stay on DAZN-Sky screens to 2029, new €4.5bn deal boosted by revenue-share Lega Serie A clubs today (Monday) accepted the new domestic media rights offer on the table from incumbents DAZN and Sky, which represent a slight drop on the current cycle and a similar fee to the one… United Rugby Championship lands on Sky Italia for first time Sky Italia, the pay-television broadcaster, is to show the United Rugby Championship for the first time, after picking up rights for the next two seasons Sky Italia moves quickly for Serie C pay-TV rights Sky Italia has secured a wide-ranging package of exclusive pay-TV rights to Italian football’s Serie C across the 2023-24 and 2024-25 seasons. Sky Italia retains Uefa European Championship, NBA and Six Nations Pay-television broadcaster Sky Italia has announced rights renewals for a slew of sports properties, including the Uefa European Championship, the NBA, rugby union’s Six Nations and sailing’s America’s Cup. S No deal: Serie A to continue with private talks over domestic rights Lega Serie A has extended private negotiations with three broadcasters interested in its domestic rights from 2024-25 onwards, after refusing to accept the offers on the table Serie B announces Helbiz termination, Sky and DAZN face increased payments Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie B (LNPB) has terminated its rights deal with Helbiz, the US-based micro-mobility company, in a move that is set to mean Sky Italia and DAZN will be required to increase… Serie A fishing for clues with eight-model domestic rights tender Lega Serie A’s invitation to tender for domestic live media rights from the 2024-25 season contains multiple innovations as it aims to hit its minimum target of €1bn per season. Broadcasters can bid for Serie A domestic rights over three, four and five seasons Lega Serie A clubs have given their unanimous backing to the make-up of the league’s domestic broadcast rights tender with broadcasters able to submit offers across three, four or five seasons. Sky Italia finalises Uefa club competitions rights swoop Pay-television broadcaster Sky Italia has retained its rights to Uefa club football competitions through a three-season extension that will take in the new era of the Uefa Champions League
3152	dbpedia	3	16	https://www.svgeurope.org/blog/headlines/sky-sport-italy-summit-2024-behind-the-scenes-of-sky-italias-euro-2024-setup/	en	Sky Sport Italy Summit 2024: Behind the scenes of Sky Italia’s Euro 2024 setup	https://www.svgeurope.or…es/2024/07/1.jpg	https://www.svgeurope.or…es/2024/07/1.jpg	[ "https://ads.sportsvideo.org/www/delivery/avw.php?zoneid=13&cb=INSERT_RANDOM_NUMBER_HERE&n=a9d93a8a", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/05/SVGe-SPS-2024-223x83px-v1.jpg", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/05/SVGe-Women@IBC2024-223x83px-v2.jpg", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/05/SVGe-Networking-at-IBC-2024-223x83px-v2.jpg", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2023/10/SVGe-Sky-DACH-Summit-2024-223x83-1.jpg", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/07/SVGe-FutureSPORT-2024-223x83px-v1.jpg", "http://ads.sportsvideo.org/www/delivery/avw.php?zoneid=14&cb=034976039470963476&n=a102a972", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/07/1.jpg", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/17/files/2024/07/Group.jpg", "https://ads.sportsvideo.org/www/delivery/avw.php?zoneid=18&cb=INSERT_RANDOM_NUMBER_HERE&n=aafadd05", "http://ads.sportsvideo.org/www/delivery/avw.php?zoneid=14&cb=034976039470963476&n=a102a972", "https://www.svgeurope.org/wp-content/themes/svg2015/img/linex2.png", "http://ads.sportsvideo.org/www/delivery/avw.php?zoneid=13&cb=INSERT_RANDOM_NUMBER_HERE&n=a9d93a8a", "https://px.ads.linkedin.com/collect/?pid=4304793&fmt=gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Roberto Landini", "Italian Correspondent" ]	null	Held on 27 June at the Milan Santa Giulia headquarters of Sky Italia, the Sky Sport Italy Summit 2024, opened with Manuela Baraschi, head of content ...	en		SVG Europe	https://www.svgeurope.org/blog/headlines/sky-sport-italy-summit-2024-behind-the-scenes-of-sky-italias-euro-2024-setup/	Held on 27 June at the Milan Santa Giulia headquarters of Sky Italia, the Sky Sport Italy Summit 2024, opened with Manuela Baraschi, head of content partner & Sky production services at Sky Italia, moderating a panel entitled ‘Euro 2024 Insights: Bridging Germany to Italy’. She was joined on stage by Alessandro Alquati, Andrea Buonomo, and Luciano Consigli, while Ferruccio Zanotti and Fabio Buzza connected from the IBC in Germany. Ferruccio Zanotti, senior manager editorial production at Sky, explained how Sky managed the UHD HDR production of the European Championship. After a year of preparation and guideline definition, this new production standard was adopted and will also be used for the Champions League. Sky’s European project began with booking and drafting specifications. The filming focused on training grounds, using two bonded cameras to support four reporters who followed the national team’s entire day. Cinevideo handled the integration of the unilateral feed, supplying an on-site broadcast-class mobile unit. The main studio in Germany is equipped with three cameras, one of which is mounted on a Jimmy Jib. A second studio has been created pitchside, equipped with two cameras, one on a Rockycam with anamorphic lenses, while a super slow-mo camera captures profiles during matches, and a flash position camera conducts interviews. Two bonded cameras operate around the stadium to ensure 360-degree coverage alongside live events. During the group stage, six matches were broadcast live with commentary and UEFA pre- and post-match connections. An additional nine matches were also covered. For the opening ceremony, the studio operated in remote production thanks to LiveU equipment, distributing three separate signals and three more in SRT as backup. The studio at Adidas Village in Berlin, opposite the Reichstag, hosted four newscasts. The project achieved significant cost savings by sharing backpacks with Sky UK and Germany. The MCR at the IBC The technological heart of the operation, the MCR, was created at the IBC in Leipzig in collaboration with Globecast and Cinevideo for signal distribution, using four J2K fibres for HD and HDR matches and six MPEG4 fibres for ancillary signals provided by UEFA. The entire system was configured in a dual ring with simultaneous delivery to Rome. Zanotti emphasised the production centre’s commitment, managing over 200 hours of broadcasting, while continuing to work on other sports such as motorsports and tennis. High audience ratings crowned the event. Globecast’s managing director Alessandro Alquati and chief technology officer and Fabio Buzza described “how the distribution model has changed over the years”. “New technologies with smaller encoders have improved signal delivery quality and security, thanks to a redundant architecture,” said Alquati. Read more Sky Sport Italy Summit 2024: Exploiting the transformative power of GenAI A 1GB redundant fibre ring connecting the IBC to Milan Santa Giulia was described, accompanied by a disaster recovery solution with an alternative route connecting Rome. In case of issues, Sky’s fibres connecting the two sites are used. Buzza explained: “The technical configuration involved the use of new encoding platforms. The most significant change was the switch to J2K encoding to avoid latency issues. This allowed for greater variability.” System monitoring was also explored. At the IBC, a facility was set up to monitor all matches with a structured monitoring system, allowing verification of the signals generated in Germany, those delivered, and those actually received in Santa Giulia. The end-to-end configuration facilitated troubleshooting. Another crucial element was replicating the same monitoring at Globecast’s MCR in Rome, creating a double verification level. Circuit redundancy is essential in these contexts, and an additional disaster recovery level was added, with MPEG4 equipment, to ensure the security of this very important and expensive product. Andrea Buonomo, executive sales manager of Cinevideo, highlighted: “Technologies have evolved significantly, increasingly operating according to a remote production logic, allowing the creation of high-quality content. This approach has consolidated through experimentation in numerous major international events.” Cinevideo implemented a remote signal control system managed at the IBC for the Euros held in 2021, similar to the one used in the current edition. In this configuration, Sky can directly select signals to send via fibre from Leipzig to Milan Santa Giulia. For on-site personalised production, Cinevideo used an OB van in 12G HDR standard, which in this edition operates in 1080p HDR. Also, in the studio in Germany, the cameras operate entirely in HDR, including the Cinelook on Rockycam support, a full-frame camera. This was possible thanks to previous tests conducted with Sky on two Champions League matches in 2023, which introduced a completely HDR workflow for the first time. Tests in real-world situations helped the team overcome the biggest challenge: ensuring that the on-site conversions and those made in Milan were of the same nature and quality. In practice, Cinevideo had to ensure that the native HDR workflow converted to SDR maintained the same quality and colorimetric parameters as the international signal distributed by UEFA to users in 1080i SDR. This process ensures that the HDR standard will be maintained without surprises when the Champions League resumes. Luciano Consigli, senior manager – broadcast engineering at Sky, delved into the new opportunities for the Sky group, highlighting HDR production methods, on-site studio coverage, and synergies between the UK and Germany offices. “These are the three key points that emerged,” he said. The production of the 51 matches in UHD HDR required infrastructure alignment between the various stadiums, a complex task. LUTs (Look-Up Tables) were essential for this operation. Furthermore, all UEFA matches over the next three years will be managed in HDR/SDR progressive, a significant commitment that involved a complete overhaul of the reception system, as UEFA opted for DVB-S2 distribution for progressive signals. LUTs and NBCU were explored to manage the technical parameters needed for HDR and SDR, including white compression. For Sky, this means dual workflows: signal transport is dual, as is reception and alignment at the MCR, the production chain, graphics, playout level, and distribution. This dual system ensures optimal compatibility across devices. The ultimate goal is to obtain a single feed, both HDR and SDR, that the MCR receives in progressive, ensuring an optimal production level. This requires the entire production centre to operate in progressive, with updates already underway, even in the production part, and implementing a cloud-based playout infrastructure directly in progressive. Consigli concluded by saying: “Two crucial points were remote production and collaboration between the various international crews; the latter allowed for the sharing of many resources, starting with the shared backpack filming thanks to Globecast and LiveU Matrix connections.”
3152	dbpedia	3	57	https://www.aviano.af.mil/News/Display/Article/3566633/blinding-lights-in-the-sky/	en	Blinding Lights in the Sky	https://media.defense.go…F-HS287-4381.JPG	https://media.defense.go…F-HS287-4381.JPG	[ "https://www.aviano.af.mil/Portals/1/31st_Fighter_Wing.png?ver=ampIkr92r9lRl28V0U5Ywg%3d%3d", "https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/24/2003326563/2000/2000/0/231012-F-HS287-8920.JPG", "https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/24/2003326551/2000/2000/0/231012-F-HS287-2476.JPG", "https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/24/2003326561/700/700/0/231012-F-HS287-7366.JPG", "https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/24/2003326537/700/700/0/231012-F-HS287-1055.JPG", "https://media.defense.gov/2023/Oct/24/2003326554/700/700/0/231012-F-HS287-4381.JPG" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2023-10-24T00:00:00	Shining a laser at an aircraft may seem like a harmless act, but in reality, it poses significant dangers to both those on the aircraft and the surrounding community. Laser strikes on aircraft, often	en	/Portals/1/Aviano_favicon.ico?ver=MZu7hfuRQy0zo7Ok29USRw%3d%3d	Aviano Air Base	https://www.aviano.af.mil/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aviano.af.mil%2FNews%2FDisplay%2FArticle%2F3566633%2Fblinding-lights-in-the-sky%2F	Shining a laser at an aircraft may seem like a harmless act, but in reality, it poses significant dangers to both those on the aircraft and the surrounding community. Laser strikes on aircraft, often referred to as "lasing," have become a growing concern for aviation safety in recent years. This dangerous activity involves pointing a laser device at airplanes, helicopters, or other airborne vehicles; causing temporary blindness, distraction and potential long-term eye damage to pilots and crew members. “When a laser beam hits an aircraft canopy, the light disperses and illuminates the cockpit momentarily, blinding the pilot’s visuals,” said U.S. Air Force Master Sgt. Miguel Gibson, 31st Fighter Wing flight safety manager. “Aircrew can also be harmed when lased directly in the eye causing permanent eye damage depending on the laser pointer’s output power.” The 31st FW flight safety office, Carabinieri and the Italian Air Force are working together to build a process which notifies the local law enforcement of the laser perpetrator’s location. Additionally, this process will educate the community of the hazards associated with lasing an aircraft, help reduce lasing incidents and create a safer air space for both military and civilian aircraft. “Laser jamming of air navigation is often classified as an attack on transport safety,” said Lgt Andrea Businello, ITAF Carabinieri commander, “Article 432 of the Criminal Code says: whoever endangers the safety of public transport by land, water or air is punished with imprisonment from one to five years. If a disaster results from the act, the penalty is imprisonment from three to 10 years." Aviano Air Base flight safety office reported an increase in lasing incidents over the last year on HH-60 Pave Hawk, which is most likely due to the aircraft’s lower and slower flight path then the F-16 Fighting Falcon. “Over the last year, we have had 13 laser strikes against our aircraft, mostly on HH-60s,” said Gibson. “By educating the public of the dangers of lasing aircraft we can help prevent unnecessary aircraft mishaps while keeping all aviators and the local community safe—which is our number one priority.”
3152	dbpedia	2	60	https://www.globaldata.com/company-profile/sky-ltd/	en	Sky Ltd Company Profile - Sky Ltd Overview	https://www.globaldata.c…1138213/logo.JPG	https://www.globaldata.c…1138213/logo.JPG	[ "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 400w, https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 800w, https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 1600w", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/bg/site/bg-number-fade.webp", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/bg/site/bg-target.webp", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/bg/site/newsletterIntro.webp", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/bg/site/bg-report-singular-dark.webp", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/bg/site/peak.webp", "https://www.globaldata.com/assets/img/logo/gd_blue.png", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/ajax-loadernew.gif", "https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 400w, https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 800w, https://assets.globaldata.com/gdcom/assets/img/logo/gd_blue-3-1-1.webp 1600w" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Up-to-date Sky Ltd company overview including funding information, company profile, key statistics, peer comparison and more.	en	https://assets.globaldata.com/gdic/assets/img/icon/favicon.ico		https://www.globaldata.com/company-profile/sky-ltd/	Sky Ltd (Sky), a subsidiary of Comcast Bidco Ltd, is a satellite broadcasting company that provides multi-channel, multi-platform television services. The company owns, operates, distributes, and retails channels under the Sky brand including Sky 1, Sky Sports, Sky News, Sky Atlantic, Sky Arts, Sky Cinema and Sky UNO, among others. It offers these channels through the DTH (direct-to-home) television platform. The company offers its channels to other cable operators for retransmission to their subscribers. It also provides broadband and fixed-line telephony services, besides offering interactive services such as betting, gaming, and mobile TV services. The company offers its services to both retail and wholesale customers across the UK, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Portugal, Switzerland, Belgium, and Italy. Sky is headquartered in Middlesex, England, the UK.
3152	dbpedia	0	79	https://www.standard.co.uk/business/business-news/sky-to-ditch-bskyb-name-as-it-completes-ps7-billion-european-deal-9857671.html	en	Sky to ditch BSkyB name as it completes £7 billion European deal	https://static.standard.…=webp&quality=75	https://static.standard.…=webp&quality=75	[ "https://static.standard.co.uk/s3fs-public/thumbnails/image/2014/07/25/08/bskyb.jpg?crop=8:5,smart&quality=75&auto=webp&width=1000", "https://www.standard.co.uk/img/newsletters/newsletter_city_spy_embed_desktop.png", "https://www.standard.co.uk/?crop=8:5,smart&quality=75&auto=webp&width=960", "https://www.standard.co.uk/?crop=8:5,smart&quality=75&auto=webp&width=960", "https://www.standard.co.uk/?crop=8:5,smart&quality=75&auto=webp&width=960", "https://www.standard.co.uk/img/eros.png", "https://www.independent.co.uk/vouchercodes/static/shop/20316/logo/tui_discount_codes.png?width=132&format=pjpg&auto=webp&quality=60", "https://www.independent.co.uk/vouchercodes/static/shop/21182/logo/ASOS_discount_code.png?width=132&format=pjpg&auto=webp&quality=60", "https://www.independent.co.uk/vouchercodes/static/shop/20322/logo/Travelodge_discount_code_logo_2023.png?width=132&format=pjpg&auto=webp&quality=60", "https://www.independent.co.uk/vouchercodes/static/shop/21183/logo/The_Body_Shop_Discount_Code_.png?width=132&format=pjpg&auto=webp&quality=60", "https://www.independent.co.uk/vouchercodes/static/shop/21267/logo/The_Perfume_Shop_logo.png?width=132&format=pjpg&auto=webp&quality=60" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Alex Lawson" ]	2014-11-13T09:12:16+00:00		en	/img/shortcut-icons/favicon.ico	Evening Standard	https://www.standard.co.uk/business/business-news/sky-to-ditch-bskyb-name-as-it-completes-ps7-billion-european-deal-9857671.html	* Required fields Already have an account? SIGN IN By clicking Create Account you confirm that your data has been entered correctly and you have read and agree to our Terms of use , Cookie policy and Privacy policy .
3152	dbpedia	0	5	https://logos.fandom.com/wiki/Sky_Italia	en	Sky Italia	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/a/ac/Sky.it.svg/revision/latest?cb=20240701202658	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/a/ac/Sky.it.svg/revision/latest?cb=20240701202658	[ "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/e/e6/Site-logo.png/revision/latest?cb=20240726180647", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/e/e6/Site-logo.png/revision/latest?cb=20240726180647", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/4d/Sky2003Logo.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/300?cb=20230922175947", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/3/3c/Sky_%282009%29.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/200?cb=20200724103243", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/a/ac/Sky.it.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20240701202658", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/a/ac/Sky.it.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20240701202658", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/5/59/Sky_glass_logo_2010.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20230922180753", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/5/59/Sky_glass_logo_2010.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20230922180753", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/6/66/Sky_italia.png/revision/latest?cb=20200926060143", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/6/66/Sky_italia.png/revision/latest?cb=20200926060143", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/f/f5/Sky_glass_spectrum_variant.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20200822041217", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/f/f5/Sky_glass_spectrum_variant.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20200822041217", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/5/5e/Sky_2016.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20180921193844", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/5/5e/Sky_2016.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20180921193844", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/42/Sky_2020.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20200918214119", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/42/Sky_2020.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/150?cb=20200918214119", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/42/Sky_2020.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/170?cb=20200918214119", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/b/b3/Universal_Destinations_%26_Experiences_%282023%29.png/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/200?cb=20230309105854", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/8/84/NBCUniversal_2011.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/270?cb=20220208225958", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/42/Sky_2020.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/170?cb=20200918214119", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/8/80/Comcast_logo_2024.svg/revision/latest/scale-to-width-down/200?cb=20240614043419", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/6a181c72-e8bf-419b-b4db-18fd56a0eb60", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/6c42ce6a-b205-41f5-82c6-5011721932e7", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/464fc70a-5090-490b-b47e-0759e89c263f", "https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/f7bb9d33-4f9a-4faa-88fe-2a0bd8138668" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Logopedia" ]	null	Sky Italia was formed by a merger of Tele+ and Stream TV in 2003. The logo used is the same as the one of Sky México (until 2016) and Sky Brasil. On June 28, 2010, Sky Italia and its channels adopted a new logo using the graphics of UK version of Sky (which later became its parent company in...	en	https://static.wikia.nocookie.net/logopedia/images/4/4a/Site-favicon.ico/revision/latest?cb=20210629045729	Logopedia	https://logos.fandom.com/wiki/Sky_Italia	Part of Comcast UK & Ireland Free-to-air channels Challenge \| Sky Arts \| Sky Mix \| Sky News General channels Sky Atlantic \| Sky Comedy \| Sky Crime \| Sky Documentaries \| Sky Kids \| Sky Max \| Sky Nature \| Sky Replay \| Sky Showcase \| Sky Witness \| Sky Sci-Fi Sky Cinema channels Premiere \| Action \| Animation \| Comedy \| Drama \| Family \| Greats \| Hits \| Sci-Fi Horror \| Select \| Thriller Sky Sports channels Main Event \| Action/NFL \| Box Office \| Cricket \| F1 \| Football \| Golf \| Mix \| News \| Premier League \| Racing (50%) \| Tennis \| + Joint-venture channels A+E Networks UK (50%, with A&E Networks): Sky History \| Sky History2 \| Blaze \| Crime & Investigation Paramount International Networks: Comedy Central (Extra) (25%) GINX Esports TV (50%, with ITV plc) Former channels General: Sky One \| Sky Real Lives \| Sky Travel Shop \| Sky Soap \| Sky Scottish \| Sky Living Loves \| Bravo \| Bravo 2 \| [.tv] \| The Comedy Channel \| Galaxy \| Now \| The Power Station \| Sky 3D \| Sky 3D Box Office \| Sky Arts 1 \| Sky Arts 2 \| Tiny Living \| Jackpot247 \| Channel One \| Setanta Sports News \| The Children's Channel \| Trouble \| European Business News \| Merit Joint-venture: Lifetime (with A&E Networks) Sky Movies/Cinema: Box Office \| Classics \| Disney \| Indie \| Max \| Premier \| Superheroes Sky Sports: PremPlus \| Xtra \| Extra (BT TV) \| Arena Other services Sky+ \| Sky+ HD \| Sky Q \| Sky Glass \| Sky Stream \| Sky Live \| Sky Broadband \| Sky Connect \| Sky Mobile \| Sky Talk \| Sky Go \| Sky IQ \| Sky Multiscreen \| Sky on Demand \| Sky Yahoo! Mail \| The Cloud \| Sky Kids \| Sky WiFi \| Sky Store (Sky Store Premiere) \| Sky Soundbox \| AdSmart \| Sky Zero \| Sky Worlds \| Sky Up Germany & Austria General channels Sky Showcase \| Sky One \| Sky Replay \| Sky Krimi \| Sky Atlantic \| Sky Crime \| Sky Documentaries \| Sky Nature Sky Cinema channels Premiere \| Highlights \| Action \| Family \| Classics Sky Sport channels News \| Top Event \| F1 \| Premier League \| Mix \| Tennis \| Golf \| UHD \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 Sky Sport Bundesliga channels Bundesliga \| UHD \| 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 Sky Sport Austria channels 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 Former channels Premiere: Premiere Action \| Premiere Comedy \| Premiere One \| Premiere X-Action \| Premiere 5 \| Premiere 6 \| Premiere 7 \| Premiere Serie Sky: Sky 3D \| Sky Arts \| Sky Info \| Sky Select \| Sky Comedy Sky Cinema: Emotion \| +1 \| Comedy \| Best Of \| Fun \| Thriller Sky Sport: 11 \| 12 \| 13 \| 14 \| Info \| HD Extra \| Fanzone Other services Sky Q \| Wow \| Sky Go \| Sky Arts \| Sky Store \| Sky X (Austria) \| Sky Zero Italy Free to air channels TV8 \| Cielo \| Sky TG24 General channels Sky Uno \| Sky Atlantic \| Sky Serie \| Sky Investigation \| Sky Crime1 \| Sky Documentaries \| Sky Nature \| Sky Arte \| Sky Meteo 24 Sky Cinema channels Uno \| Due \| Collection \| Family \| Action \| Suspense \| Romance \| Drama \| Comedy Sky Sport channels 24 \| Uno \| Calcio \| Football \| Arena \| Tennis \| Action \| F1 \| MotoGP \| NBA \| 4K Sky Calcio channels 1 \| 2 \| 3 \| 4 \| 5 \| 6 \| 7 \| 8 \| 9 \| 10 \| 11 \| 12 \| 13 Other services Sky Primafila \| Sky Digital Key \| Sky Go \| Sky Q \| Sky WiFi \| Sky Mobile \| Sky Zero Former channels Sky Vivo \| Sky Show \| Sky Cinema Mania \| Sky Cinema Italia \| Sky Sport Mix HD \| Sky Sport Extra \| Sky Inside \| Sky 3D \| Sky Cinema Classics \| Sky Cinema +24 \| Sky Cinema 4K Other assets Amstrad CPC \| Freeview (20%) \| Now (UK \| Italy) \| Sky Media \| Sky Switzerland (Sky Sport \| Sky Show \| Sky Cinema) \| Sky Studios \| Sky Originals \| Sky News Arabia
3152	dbpedia	2	37	https://www.vml.com/work/a-sky-full-of-italy	en	A Sky Full Of Italy	https://res.cloudinary.c…ofitalycover.jpg	https://res.cloudinary.c…ofitalycover.jpg	[ "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/c_fill,f_auto,g_faces:center,q_auto,w_1920/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/hhoam7wiwqmfdqygdyoi/vmlitaitaairwaysaskyfullofitalycover.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/videos/ar_16:9,b_black,c_pad,f_auto,q_auto,so_4,w_1500/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/lefbubwtn3xw21bdi4td/vmlitaitasearchbar60sengadci.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/f_auto,q_auto,w_1500/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/t7cypqlqepcmqt6ydrjo/vmlitaitaairwayssearchbarframesearch.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/f_auto,q_auto,w_1500/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/hz1iaurhbil0t7wmbvnf/vmlitaitaairwayssearchbarframefood.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/f_auto,q_auto,w_1500/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/ovqsys194ksniplrjfqm/vmlitaitaairwayssearchbarframegate.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/f_auto,q_auto,w_1500/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/llqbgsstf2wmxc6koyqv/vmlitaitaairwayssearchbarframestyle.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/c_crop,h_1201,w_2002,x_268,y_313/c_scale,f_auto,q_auto,w_600/v1/wt-cms-assets/2024/06/jr2xcryn6zn6g8362tqr/vmlitanalj.jpg", "https://res.cloudinary.com/dotcom-prod/images/ar_5:3,c_fill,f_auto,g_faces:center,q_auto,w_600/v1/wt-cms-assets/2023/12/hrjdx0gd2yqulmuzbjs8/vmlitalavazzarossahero.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	ITA Airways is able to provide an amazing Italian customer experience.	en	/favicon.svg?v=2024	VML	null	Thanks to its recognized excellences, Italy is the most desired destination in the world by far. The challenge is presenting ITA Airways not as an airline company but as the sum of the Italian excellences in flight. How can we turn into physical expression what people search for when dreaming of a trip to Italy and reveal in the end that everything can be found up in the sky? The starting point was to learn and understand what people look for when searching about Italy and this was achieved thanks to the support from Google, who shared key insights from Google Search Trends from around the world and specifically from the US related to Italy. What people search when planning a trip to Italy is exactly what ITA Airways offers on board: a unique style, like the one of the crew’s uniforms designed by Brunello Cucinelli; surprising flavors, like those of the onboard menus created by starred Italian chefs; a refined design and the highest comfort, both ensured by the interiors and the seats conceived by Walter De Silva. But above all, that typical warm welcome that every passenger can experience. That’s why, with ITA Airways, Italy starts even before touching the ground. We present ITA Airways not as an airline company but as the sum of the Italian excellences in flight. Starting from the iconic shape of a search bar, we turned it into the physical expression of the Italian excellences that people search for when dreaming of a trip to Italy and, in the end, into the airplane window, to reveal that everything can be found up in the sky.
3152	dbpedia	0	80	https://www.allpaytv.com/sky-italia/	en	Sky Italia	https://www.allpaytv.com…condivisione.jpg	https://www.allpaytv.com…condivisione.jpg	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=998058018663577&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://www.allpaytv.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/logo-website.png", "https://www.allpaytv.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/logo-website.png", "https://www.allpaytv.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/sky_condivisione.jpg", "https://www.allpaytv.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/logo-website.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-07-19T22:16:46+00:00	Watch French Canal+ FR anywhere in Europe via satellite. Order Canal Plus France from us today to watch French TV.	en	https://www.allpaytv.com…ebsite-32x32.png	allpaytv	https://www.allpaytv.com/sky-italia-italy/	Sky Italia Satellite Offer Sky Italia’s satellite service is a comprehensive entertainment package that caters to a wide variety of tastes and preferences, ensuring top-notch viewing experiences across Italy. Here are the key highlights and offerings of Sky Italia’s satellite services: Extensive Channel Lineup Sky Italia offers an extensive range of channels covering various genres such as movies, sports, TV series, news, documentaries, kids’ programming, and more. The channel lineup is designed to cater to all family members, providing something for everyone. Movies Sky Cinema: Offers a plethora of movies, from the latest blockbusters to timeless classics. With multiple channels dedicated to different genres, viewers can enjoy action, drama, comedy, and family films. Sky Primafila: A pay-per-view service that gives access to the latest movie releases. TV Series Sky Atlantic: Home to exclusive international series and Sky Originals. Viewers can enjoy acclaimed series such as “Gomorrah,” “Chernobyl,” and “Game of Thrones.” Sky Uno: Features a variety of entertainment programs, including talent shows, reality TV, and original Italian productions. Sports Sky Italia is renowned for its sports coverage, providing live broadcasts of major sporting events and leagues. Football: Exclusive coverage of Serie A, Serie B, UEFA Champions League, and Europa League. Additionally, it offers international leagues such as the Premier League, La Liga, and Bundesliga. Other Sports: Extensive coverage of Formula 1, MotoGP, NBA, tennis (including Grand Slams and ATP tournaments), rugby, golf, and more. Documentaries and News Sky Documentaries: High-quality documentaries covering a wide range of topics from nature and science to history and current affairs. Sky TG24: A 24-hour news channel providing the latest news updates, in-depth reports, and live coverage of important events in Italy and around the world. Kids’ Programming Sky Kids: A dedicated section for children, offering popular channels such as Cartoon Network, Nickelodeon, and Disney Channel. It includes educational programs, animated series, and kids’ movies. Packages and Pricing Our SKY ITALIA offer is the FULL PACK HD in 6 months or 12 months prepaid. Disclaimer AllPayTV is dedicated to providing legal and 100% authentic satellite subscriptions from Sky.it. We acquire these subscriptions from official resellers who are our partners. It is important to note that AllPayTV operates as an independent second-market merchant. We are not an authorized partner or reseller of Sky.it. Our business activities involve buying and selling on our own account. The use of Sky.it trademarks and service marks on our website is purely for reference purposes to describe the goods being offered. All products and services offered through our platform are legitimate and comply with applicable laws.
3152	dbpedia	2	76	https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/trends/restaurants-and-chefs/pellegrino-artusi-inventor-of-italian-cuisine	en	Pellegrino Artusi, the Inventor of Italian Cuisine	https://media.lacucinait…si-copertina.jpg	https://media.lacucinait…si-copertina.jpg	[ "https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/trends/restaurants-and-chefs/~/assets/la-cucina-italiana-blackbg.svg", "https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/_nuxt/img/la-cucina-italiana.e0793ec.svg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5e26f02e7fac380008ec4ced/1:1/h_68,c_limit/la%20cucina%20italiana%20logo.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5d6199ca29ce5a00098c8377/2:1/w_800,c_limit/Pellegrino-Artusi-copertina.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5d61997629ce5a00098c8375/master/h_900,c_limit/Pellegrino-Artusi.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5d8105cce4ab7000088101ba/1:1/h_400,c_limit/spaghetti-cacio-e-pepe_cover.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5df24ee4bbb6b30008b0cd5d/1:1/h_400,c_limit/lasagna.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5d8105cce4ab7000088101ba/1:1/h_400,c_limit/spaghetti-cacio-e-pepe_cover.jpg", "https://media.lacucinaitaliana.com/photos/5df24ee4bbb6b30008b0cd5d/1:1/h_400,c_limit/lasagna.jpg", "https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/footer_image_sm.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Editorial staff" ]	2019-08-30T10:07:05.184000+00:00	The portrait of Pellegrino Artusi, the father of Italian cuisine	en	/favicon/apple-touch-icon.png	La Cucina Italiana	https://www.lacucinaitaliana.com/trends/restaurants-and-chefs/pellegrino-artusi-inventor-of-italian-cuisine	His name is well known in Italy, but few are really aware of his story and the book that made him immortal. “La Scienza in Cucina e l’Arte di Mangiar Bene” (Science in the Kitchen and the Art of Eating Well), a manuscript from 1891 that has also been translated into Dutch, Portuguese, Spanish, German, and French, made Pellegrino Artusi of Forlimpopoli famous worldwide. A writer as well as a food and literary critic, he probably thought he would go down in history for his work on the poet Ugo Foscolo, but he’s actually remembered for what’s called “the Gospel of Italian cooking.” A unique treatise His book, also known simply as “L’Artusi,” became a sort of watershed in the gastronomic culture of his era. He enhanced the national culinary tradition and did it with just the right dose of humor. Artusi, who paid for his book’s publication out of his own pocket because he couldn’t find a publisher willing to print it, collected recipes from all over Italy – some garnished with little personal comments, placing an appropriate emphasis on home cooking. This is why many people are grateful to him for imparting dignity to a huge mosaic of regional traditions that included fritters, fillings, stews, soups, sauces, roasts, boiled meats, ice creams and preserves. His book has sold more than a million copies and gone through a hundred editions. Who was Pellegrino Artusi? Pellegrino Artusi was born in Forlimpopoli on August 4, 1820, to Teresa and Agostino Giunchi. After studying at the Bertinoro Seminary, he began looking after his father’s affairs, but a turning point in his life was a raid by bandits on January 25, 1851. Stefano Pelloni, aka “Il Passatore,” (the Ferryman) was a vicious brigand from Romagna who led his gang in an attack on Forlimpopoli. He robbed the richest families while they were at the theatre. That night, in addition to invading the auditorium, the outlaws gang-raped several women, including Pellegrino’s sister Gertrude, who was seriously traumatized and had to be admitted to a mental hospital. After this terrible event, the Artusi family left Romagna and moved to Florence, where they ran a booth selling silk. Pellegrino got a job in Livorno with a large business and later founded a bank in Florence that brought him wealth and respect. The writer stayed there until his death at the age of 91. Food and literature enthusiast Since he enjoyed a dependable income and a life of ease, Artusi never turned away from his fondness for writing and cooking. In 1865, he moved to a new home and withdrew into private life, spending all his time on his cultural interests, first writing a biography of Ugo Foscolo and then Observations as an Appendix on 30 Letters by Giusti. These two books published at his own expense did not have the success of the later “Science in the Kitchen and the Art of Eating Well” in 1891. The first edition of “Science” sold thousands of copies and were reprinted many times, and Artusi published fifteen editions over twenty years. Science in the Kitchen and the Art of Eating Well was not just a blockbuster but a work that critics deemed to be very important due to the language model it used, which helped to spread standard Italian throughout the peninsula. An unusual book This volume, which is still kept in many households, collected 790 recipes explained in an educational way, accompanied by the author’s reflections and anecdotes, presented in a witty and mordant manner. One example is his famous sentence, “With this practical manual, all you need to know is how to hold a ladle.” His efforts brought cooking knowledge and the secrets of good food to everyone in Italy. This is why Pellegrino Artusi remains a revered name in the world of Italian cuisine.
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3152	dbpedia	2	56	https://www.esa.int/Space_Safety/Planetary_Defence/Mother_of_Dragons_comet_visible_in_the_night_sky	en	‘Mother of Dragons’ comet visible in the night sky	https://www.esa.int/var/…ooks_pillars.jpg	https://www.esa.int/var/…ooks_pillars.jpg	[ "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/ESA_Menu.svg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/ESA_Search.svg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/ESA_Title.svg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/ESA_Logo.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2024/03/comet_12p_pons-brooks/25992434-3-eng-GB/Comet_12P_Pons-Brooks_pillars.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2023/11/structure_of_a_comet/25188591-3-eng-GB/Structure_of_a_comet_article.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2024/03/when_and_where_to_observe_comet_12p_pons-brooks/25992600-3-eng-GB/When_and_where_to_observe_comet_12P_Pons-Brooks_article.png", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2024/03/orbit_of_comet_12p_pons-brooks_around_the_sun/25992741-1-eng-GB/Orbit_of_comet_12P_Pons-Brooks_around_the_Sun_article.png", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2024/03/sketches_of_comet_12p_pons-brooks_from_1884/25992694-1-eng-GB/Sketches_of_comet_12P_Pons-Brooks_from_1884_article.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2023/11/where_do_comets_come_from/25188427-6-eng-GB/Where_do_comets_come_from_article.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2015/08/approaching_perihelion_animation/15556093-1-eng-GB/Approaching_perihelion_Animation_article.gif", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2023/01/hera_approaching_didymos_asteroids/24679985-1-eng-GB/Hera_approaching_Didymos_asteroids_article.gif", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/space_safety/planetary_defence/21119530-2-eng-GB/Planetary_Defence_card_full.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2022/12/aten_asteroids_in_orbit_with_esa_s_orbit_visualisation_tool/24627817-1-eng-GB/Aten_asteroids_in_orbit_with_ESA_s_orbit_visualisation_tool_card_medium.gif", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2023/02/comet_ztf_and_its_apparent_three_tails/24698491-1-eng-GB/Comet_ZTF_and_its_apparent_three_tails_card_medium.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2023/11/where_do_comets_come_from/25188427-6-eng-GB/Where_do_comets_come_from_card_full.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow-white.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2013/07/a_unique_hubble_view_of_comet_ison/12969099-1-eng-GB/A_Unique_Hubble_View_of_Comet_ISON_card_medium.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2020/07/comet_neowise_on_12_july_2020/22149050-1-eng-GB/Comet_NEOWISE_on_12_July_2020_card_medium.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/nebula.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/science_exploration/space_science/rosetta/19716780-19-eng-GB/Rosetta_card_full.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/space_safety/hera/19717001-97-eng-GB/Hera_card_full.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/science_exploration/space_science/comet_interceptor/25150365-10-eng-GB/Comet_Interceptor_card_full.png", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/esa_multimedia/images/2024/04/asteroid_99942_apophis/26021615-1-eng-GB/Asteroid_99942_Apophis_card_medium.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg", "https://www.esa.int/var/esa/storage/images/science_exploration/space_science/soho/24655114-3-eng-GB/SOHO_card_full.jpg", "https://www.esa.int/extension/pillars/design/pillars/images/arrow.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en			null	26/03/2024 180835 views 124 likes What is happening? Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is visible in the night sky for observers in the northern hemisphere, offering a rare chance for professional and amateur astronomers to catch a glimpse of an object known for its spectacular outbursts of gas and dust. Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is a ‘Halley-type’ comet with an orbital period of roughly 71 years and a nucleus approximately 30 km wide. It has been observed during previous journeys through the inner Solar System, allowing astronomers to study its behaviour and characteristics over time. Its distinctive shape has earned it the name ‘horned’ comet, or ‘devil’ comet, but we have chosen instead a pop-culture reference that draws on its role as the probable parent body of the ‘kappa-Draconids’, a small annual meteor shower that is active around 29 November to 13 December. Like other comets, 12P/Pons-Brooks is composed of ice, dust, and rocky material. When it approaches the Sun, heat causes the ice inside the comet to turn from solid to gas. The gas escapes from the surface of the comet, dragging dust with it. They form a large cloud and a tail that is pushed away from the Sun by the solar wind. Where, when and how can I see the comet? The visibility of comet 12P/Pons-Brooks varies. When it is highly active and close to Earth, it can appear very bright. Other times, it may appear only faintly. The comet will reach its closet point to Earth in June 2024. However, by this time, it won’t be possible to observe the comet from the northern hemisphere. Late March and early April will offer the best opportunities. During this time, the comet will be visible in clear dark skies above the western horizon during the hours after dusk. If you are lucky, it may be possible to observe it with binoculars, or even the naked eye, but you will have a better chance with even a small telescope, as its brightness is unpredictable. Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks won’t return to our night skies until 2095. Discovery and previous appearances Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is named after two of the most prolific comet observers of all time. French astronomer Jean-Louis Pons (1761–1831) made most of his discoveries using telescopes and lenses of his own design. Pons made 37 visual comet discoveries between 1801 and 1827 – a record still held today. One of his discoveries was made on 12 July 1812, when Pons spotted a dim object that initially lacked the iconic tail of a comet. Over the next month, the comet became bright enough to be seen with the naked eye. On 15 August that year, it reached its peak brightness and featured a distinct tail. Astronomers calculated the orbit of the comet based on Pons’ observations and suggested that the new comet had an orbital period around the Sun of between 65 and 75 years. British-American astronomer William R. Brooks (1844–1921) accidently verified these calculations during the comet’s next trip through the inner Solar System. Brooks was also prolific: his total of 27 comet discoveries is second only to Pons. But it soon became apparent that the ‘new’ comet he spotted on 2 September 1883 was actually the same one discovered by his spiritual rival 71 years earlier. Due to the dual nature of the discovery, comet 12P now bears the names of both astronomers. 12P/Pons-Brooks went on to become famous for the sudden outbursts of gas and dust observed during its approach to the Sun in 1883, 1954 and 2023. It is thought that records of bright objects in the night sky from China in 1385 and Italy in 1457 could be observations of 12P/Pons-Brooks. Why are comets interesting? Comets are ancient cosmic icebergs. They are roughly 4.6 billion years old and formed at the same time as the Sun, Earth and the other planets. Gravitational interactions fling them towards the inner planets from out beyond the orbit of Neptune, making them some of the most chaotic and dynamically interesting objects in the Solar System. A comet’s nucleus is typically between 1 and 50 km across with the structure of a dirty snowball. They are made of dust and ice, which partly goes from solid to gas when the comet is warmed by the Sun. Cometary and asteroid impacts may be responsible for a fraction of the water present on Earth and for the icy reservoirs that are thought to exist at the bottom of permanently shadowed craters on the Moon. The defining characteristic of a comet is its tails. Tails come in two main types, a dust tail and an ion (or plasma) tail. When sunlight warms the ice on a comet, gas and dust are released into space. The dust falls into orbit around the comet and is gently pushed into fan-shaped tail by incoming sunlight. The gas is ionised by ultraviolet sunlight and the particles of the solar wind, and these charged particles (ions) form a narrow ion tail that is pushed directly away from the Sun by the solar wind. Comet tails are the reason for Earth’s annual meteor showers, during which Earth passes through clouds of dust left behind by comets. Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is a ‘near-Earth comet’, which means it orbits the Sun in less than 200 years and comes close enough to the Sun that it could cross Earth’s orbit. ESA’s Planetary Defence Office keeps a close eye on near-Earth comets to monitor any risk of collision. Near-Earth comets are much rarer than near-Earth asteroids – their less icy cousins. We know of only 122 near-Earth comets, but of almost 35 000 near-Earth asteroids. ESA missions to comets and asteroids Seeing comets from afar can be beautiful, but to really get to know them, you have to study them up close. ESA has developed and flown a number of spacecraft to comets and asteroids to improve our understanding of the formation and evolution of the Solar System, the role of these objects in delivering the ingredients of life to Earth, how comet activity works, and the risks these fast-moving space rocks pose to our planet. Giotto Giotto was ESA’s first deep-space mission. In 1986, it passed closest to the nucleus of comet Halley. It imaged a comet nucleus for the first time and found the first evidence of organic material on a comet. In 1992, after a long cruise through space, Giotto was directed to comet Grigg–Skjellerup, which it passed just 200 km from the nucleus. Rosetta Rosetta was the first spacecraft to rendezvous with a comet when it arrived at 67P/ Churyumov–Gerasimenko on 6 August 2014 and entered orbit around it. It was the first spacecraft to follow a comet on its journey around the Sun and measure the increase in activity as the icy surface warmed up. On 12 November 2024, Rosetta’s Philae probe became the first to land on the surface of a comet. On the way, it also flew by two asteroids, Steins and Lutetia. Hera Launching later this year, the Hera mission is part of the world’s first test of asteroid deflection. The main spacecraft and its two CubeSats will perform a detailed post-impact survey of the asteroid Dimorphos following the impact of NASA’s DART mission in September 2022. Hera will turn the grand-scale experiment into a well-understood and repeatable planetary defence technique. Mission to Apophis Meanwhile, ESA’s Planetary Defence Office is also considering a number of options for a mission to asteroid Apophis. In April 2029, Apophis will come closer to Earth than our geostationary satellites and will be visible to the naked eye. The trajectory of Apophis is very well known, and it poses no risk to Earth, but it offers a unique chance to study such a large asteroid up close and better prepare for one that is. Comet Interceptor Looking further ahead, ESA’s future Comet Interceptor will build on the findings of Giotto and Rosetta. Comet 12P/Pons-Brooks is a returning comet that has made a number of previous appearances over the centuries. Launching in 2029, the unique aspect of the Comet Interceptor mission is that it will target a newly discovered comet entering the inner Solar System for the first time. Such a ‘pristine’ comet would carry material unaltered since the formation of the planets. Special mention: SOHO While not a dedicated comet mission, no list of prolific comet observers would be complete without mentioning the ESA/NASA Solar Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO). SOHO provides new views of the Sun’s atmosphere and interior, but small, previously undiscovered, Sun-grazing comets often pass through its field of view on the way to their fiery demise. While Pons and Brooks still hold the top spots for visual discoveries, we now spot most new comets using large telescopes either on Earth or on satellites in orbit. SOHO recently discovered its 5000th comet.
3152	dbpedia	1	0	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Italia	en	Sky Italia	https://upload.wikimedia…_italia_2018.png	https://upload.wikimedia…_italia_2018.png	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sky_italia_2018.png/220px-Sky_italia_2018.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Sky_Box_HD_Pace.jpg/300px-Sky_Box_HD_Pace.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Decoder_Sky_Amstrad_DRX890I.jpg/300px-Decoder_Sky_Amstrad_DRX890I.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Sky_Q_Silver.jpg/300px-Sky_Q_Silver.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Sky_Q_Black.jpg/300px-Sky_Q_Black.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Sky_Italia_-_Logo_2003.svg/150px-Sky_Italia_-_Logo_2003.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Logo_sky_italy.jpg/150px-Logo_sky_italy.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2005-03-02T12:28:30+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Italia	Italian satellite pay-television platform Sky Italia S.r.l. is an Italian satellite television platform owned by the American media conglomerate Comcast. Sky Italia also broadcasts three national free-to-air television channels: TV8, Cielo, and Sky TG24. Pay TV services on the Sky Italia satellite platform are broadcast on the Hot Bird satellites at 13.0°E and are encrypted in NDS VideoGuard. Sky Italia was founded on 31 July 2003 by the merger of TELE+ and Stream TV.[2] On 28 June 2010, Sky Italia changed its brands and logos, making them identical to the BSkyB ones. On 1 October 2010, Sky activated its first 3D channel, Sky Sport 3D, available without any extra cost to the Sport pack subscribers. The very first event Sky Sport 3D aired was the 2010 Ryder Cup. On 25 December 2010, Sky launched another 3D channel: Sky Cinema 3D, airing 3D movies, available for free for Cinema pack subscribers. These channels have been replaced by Sky 3D on 6 September 2011, then closed on 16 January 2018. Tom Mockridge, the then head of Sky Italia, replaced Rebekah Brooks as chief executive of News International after she resigned on 15 July 2011.[3] Andrea Zappia replaced Tom Mockridge as CEO on 1 August 2011.[4] On 7 October 2011 Sky Italia announced it reached the 5 million subscribers benchmark. Following News Corporation's split into two on 28 June 2013, to create two separate companies, 21st Century Fox (the re-branded News Corporation), and the spin-off company New News Corp, the 100% stake held by News Corporation in Sky Italia was retained by the re-branded 21st Century Fox. Following media speculation, on 12 May 2014 Sky Italia's sister company, BSkyB, confirmed it was in talks with its largest shareholder, 21st Century Fox, about acquiring 21st Century Fox's 57.4% stake in Sky Deutschland and its 100% stake in Sky Italia. The enlarged company would be likely to be called "Sky Europe" and will consolidate 21st Century Fox's European digital TV assets into one company.[5][6] The sale was announced on 25 July 2014, which was subject to regulatory and shareholder approval.[7] The acquisition was completed on 13 November.[8] In 2016, Sky Italia created Vision Distribution, a film distribution venture with five Italian production companies: Wildside (owned by Fremantle), Cattleya (backed by ITV Studios), Lucisano Media Group, Palomar and Indiana Production. Since the beginning of August 2019, Universal Pictures, Sky's corporate cousin via NBCUniversal, handles theatrical distribution for Vision's releases in Italy.[9] On 20 January 2020, Vision launched their international sales arm, Vision Distribution International.[1] Since October 2018, Sky Italia, as well as Sky UK, Sky Ireland and Sky Deutschland, is controlled by Comcast. On 1 October 2019, Maximo Ibarra replaces Andrea Zappia as CEO. Maximo Ibarra, however, had already left Sky Italia on 30 June 2021. On 16 June 2020, Sky Italia launched Sky Wifi, its ultra-broadband service. On 6 September 2021 Andrea Duilio started as the new CEO of Sky Italia. December: Miro Allione, Stream's CEO, stated that News Corp signed a preliminary deal with Telecom Italia to buy 80% of Stream, but the introduction of a bill limiting the acquisition of soccer pay TV rights has made the company reconsider its plans.[10] April: 35% of Stream is acquired by News Corp.[11] June: TELE+ is acquired by News Corp.[12] March: the European Commission approves the merger between TELE+ and Stream TV. 31 July: Sky Italia is founded. 31 August: Sky TG24 is launched as a rolling news channel. April: Sky Italia abandons SECA encryption system to switch to the NDS, managed by the News Corporation. 1 August: Sky launches weather news channel, Sky Meteo 24. November: Sky's subscribers reach 3 million. May: Sky Italia are awarded the broadcast rights to the 2006 FIFA World Cup. November: Sky Italia launches the My Sky decoder with PVR functionality. May: Sky launches its first high definition channels: Sky Cinema HD, Sky Sport HD, National Geographic Channel HD and Next:HD. December: Sky's subscribers reach 4 million. April: Fox airs the first TV drama created by an Italian pay television channel, Boris. May: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for Formula One for two and a half years. May: Cooltoon anime programming is launched. November: A selection of Sky channels become available via IPTV on Telecom Italia, Fastweb and Wind. February: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the 2012 Summer Olympics. May: Sky launches My Sky HD. 30 August: Sky launches sports news channel, Sky Sport 24. December: VAT on subscriptions is increased from 10% to 20%. January: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the FIFA Confederations Cup and the Six Nations Championship. April: Sky launches Sky Uno and Sky Primafila HD. August: Sky increases its high-definition offering to 12 channels. September: Sky announces the Sky Digital Key, a USB Key with terrestrial decoder functions. December: Sky On Demand service launches. Sky launches free-to-air channel Cielo. January: All Serie A matches begin transmitting in high-definition. April: Sky launches three Sky Movies channels in high-definition, bringing the total number of HD channels to 25 channels. June: Sky changes its brand identity with a new logo, similar to that used by BSkyB. Mondiali 1–4 launch for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. August: The number of high-definition channels reaches 36. October: The 2010 Ryder Cup final is the first sports event to be broadcast in 3D. November: Sky's subscribers reach 4.8 million. January: Avatar is the most watched film on Italian pay TV, with an audience of 1.3 million viewers. February: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the 2011 Copa América, 2011 and 2012 Copa Sudamericana and 2012 Copa Libertadores. March: Sky Cinema Passion and Sky Cinema Comedy launch. May: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for X Factor. August: Sky launches Sky Go, an app which allows a number of Sky channels to be viewed on smartphones and tablets. September: Sky launches Sky 3D, the first 3D channel in Italy. October: Sky's subscribers reach 5 million. Sky Uno begins broadcasting in HD for the premiere of X Factor. December: Sky's HD channels reach 40 with the launch of Eurosport 2 HD. February: 12 new HD channels are launched, Fox Life HD, Real Time HD, Extreme Sports Channel HD, ESPN America HD, Discovery Science HD, Discovery Travel & Living HD, History HD, Nat Geo Wild HD, Nat Geo Adventure HD, Gambero Rosso Channel HD, Disney Channel HD and MTV Live HD, bringing the total number of HD channels to 52. Sky changes the operating system of My Sky HD. March: Sky Go becomes free and is made available for PC, OS X, iPhone and Android. May: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the Grand Prix motorcycle racing for the 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018 seasons of MotoGP, Moto2 and Moto3 series. June: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the Formula One and its feeder series (GP2, GP3 and Porsche Supercup) for the 2013, 2014 and 2015 seasons, with an option for the 2016 and 2017 seasons. The launch of Sky Arts is announced. July: Sky updates the On Demand service. Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the UEFA Champions League for the 2012–13 and 2013–14 seasons. Sky adds 12 extra channels for the 2012 Summer Olympics. August: Sky's subscribers reach 4.9 million. September: Sky TG24 receives an on-screen rebrand. Sky adds two more high definition channels: DeA Sapere HD and Disney XD HD. October: Planet Kids, a new channel for kids, is launched. November: 1: Sky Arts launches in HD, bringing the total number of HD channels to 58. Sky Go is updated to include three more channels and Sky On Demand. February: Sky's subscribers fall to 4.83 million. March: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the Bundesliga for two seasons. Sky launches the Sky Sport F1. 3 April: Cielo launches in HD. May: Sky's subscribers fall to 4.78 million. July: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for 2014 Winter Olympics, but transfers the rights for the 2016 Summer Olympics to RAI. 9 August: Fox Sports launches on Sky and Mediaset Premium, broadcasting the Premier League, the FA Cup, La Liga and Ligue 1. September: Sky TG24 launches in high-definition, bringing the total number of HD channels to 63. October: Classica and MTV launch in high-definition, bringing the total number of HD channels to 65. November: Sky's subscribers fall to 4.76 million. December: Sky Go launches on Windows Phone. February: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for Italia's Got Talent and the UEFA Europa League for 3 seasons. 10 March: Sky Sport MotoGP launches. 9 April: Sky Atlantic launches, broadcasting American, Italian and European TV series. August: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the Lega Basket Serie A for 2 seasons. December: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the Premier League for the 2016–17, 2017–18 and 2018–19 seasons. May: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the EuroBasket 2017, EuroBasket Women 2017, 2018 FIBA Women's Basketball World Cup, 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup, EuroBasket Women 2019, EuroBasket 2021, AfroBasket 2021, AmeriBasket 2021, 2021 FIBA Asia Cup and EuroBasket Women 2021. October: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the NBA for the 2016–17 and 2017–18 seasons. Sky's subscribers rise to 4.67 million. November: Cartoon Network HD is launched, bringing the number of HD channels to 66. June: Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup. Sky are awarded the broadcast rights for the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League for the 2018/19, 2019/20 and 2020/21 season, and for the 2018, 2019 and 2020 UEFA Super Cup. November: Sky launches Sky Q Platinum. April: Mediaset Premium's cinema channels start broadcasting on Sky. June: Mediaset Premium's TV series channels start broadcasting on Sky. July: Channel logos became identical to the Sky UK ones. Sky launches Sky Q Black. December: Sky's subscribers reach to 5,2 million. February: Discovery Travel & Living and Animal Planet close. July: Mediaset Premium's TV series channel Premium Joi close. September: Sky launches Sky Q Fiber. October: Disney XD, Disney in English, Fox Animation, Fox Comedy and Nat Geo People close. May: Bike Channel, Disney Channel, Disney Junior, Teennick, MTV Rocks and MTV Hits close. July: Fox Life, Lei, Dove TV and Man-ga close. September: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Sky's subscribers fall to 4.6 million. The logos became identical to the Sky UK ones. December: GINX Esports TV close. July: Fox Crime and Roma TV close and Sky Documentaries, Sky Investigation, Sky Nature and Sky Serie are launched. January: Premium Action, Premium Stories, Premium Crime, Premium Cinema, Paramount Network and Spike close. July: Fox closes. October: National Geographic, National Geographic Wild and Baby TV close and Lazio Style Channel is upgraded to HD. November: Crime & Investigation rebranded as Sky Crime. Sky HD is the brand name of the HDTV service launched by Sky Italia on 20 April 2006 in Italy – during the 2006 FIFA World Cup – to enable high definition channels on Sky Italia to be viewed. The service requires the user to have a Sky Box HD (distributed by Sky Italia), and an HDTV with HDCP enabled. A HD PVR decoder called My Sky HD was launched on 26 May 2008 (on 20 December 2008 was sold a particular edition designed by Fendi in favour of the international organisation Child Priority). On 29 November 2017, Sky launched Sky Q Platinum, a set-top box enabled to view programmes in 4K HDR and to use the multiscreen wireless service. On 2 July 2018, Sky launched Sky Q Black, a set-top box identical to the Sky Q Platinum which enables the 4K HDR service but not the multiscreen wireless. Here are the channels available in HD: TV 31 channels Sky TG24 HD, Rete 4 HD, Canale 5 HD, Italia 1 HD, Sky Uno HD, Sky Uno +1 HD, Sky Serie HD, Sky Serie +1 HD, Sky Atlantic HD, Sky Atlantic +1 HD, Sky Investigation HD, Sky Crime HD, Sky Arte HD, TV8 HD, Blaze HD, MTV HD, Classica HD, NOVE HD, 20 Mediaset HD, Cielo HD, 27 Twentyseven HD, Real Time HD, Giallo HD, DMAX HD, Eurosport 1 HD, Eurosport 2 HD, Horse TV HD, Gambero Rosso Channel HD, Food Network HD, Sky Nature HD, Sky Documentaries HD, Discovery Channel HD, Discovery Science HD, History HD, Motor Trend HD Cinema 11 channels Sky Cinema Uno HD, Sky Cinema Due HD, Sky Cinema Collection HD, Sky Cinema Family HD, Sky Cinema Action HD, Sky Cinema Suspense HD, Sky Cinema Romance HD, Sky Cinema Drama HD, Sky Cinema Comedy HD, Sky Cinema Uno +24 HD, Sky Cinema Due +24 HD Sport 10 channels Sky Sport 24 HD, Sky Sport Uno HD, Sky Sport Football HD, Sky Sport Arena HD, Sky Sport Collection HD, Sky Sport Tennis HD, Sky Sport NBA HD, Sky Sport F1 HD, Sky Sport MotoGP HD, Roma TV Calcio 11 channels Sky Sport 24 HD, Sky Sport Serie A HD, Sky Sport Football HD, Sky Sport HD (channels from 251 to 257), Lazio Style Channel Kids 1 channel Cartoon Network HD Primafila 7 channels Sky Primafila 1 HD, Sky Primafila 2 HD, Sky Primafila 4 HD, Sky Primafila 6 HD, Sky Primafila 8 HD, Sky Primafila 10 HD, Sky Primafila 12 HD Optional Channels 4 channels DAZN 1, DAZN 1+, Milan TV, Inter TV 31 July 2003 – 3 September 2006 4 September 2006 – 27 June 2010 28 June 2010 – 25 September 2013 26 September 2013 – 1 July 2018 2 July 2018 – 13 September 2020 in use from 14 September 2020 Sky Italia offers a range of channels that are grouped into: Sky TV – Entertainment, TV series, Eurosport's sport, news, documentaries and music; Entertainment plus – Adds Netflix to the Sky TV package; Sky Cinema – Movies; Sky Sport and Sky Calcio (Football) – Sports and football; Sky Kids – cartoons. Rai 1 Rai 2 Rai 3 Rete 4 Canale 5 Italia 1 La7 Sky Uno (Sky One, +1 available) Sky Serie (+1 available) Sky Atlantic (+1 available) Sky Crime (+1 available) Sky Arte (Sky Arts, +1 available) TV8 Comedy Central (+1 available) MTV Classica NOVE 20 Mediaset Cielo 27 Twentyseven La5 Real Time Mediaset Extra Giallo TOPcrime Sky Investigation (+1 available) DMAX Mediaset Italia 2 Eurosport 1 Eurosport 2 Horse TV Gambero Rosso Channel Food Network HGTV Sky TG24 (Sky News Italy) Sky TG24 Primo Piano Sky Meteo 24 (Sky Weather 24) Sky News Mediaset TGCom24 MTV Music VH1 Discovery Channel (+1 available) National Geographic (+1 available) Discovery Science History (+1 available) Sky Documentaries (+1 available) Sky Nature (+1 available) Focus Motor Trend Super! K2 Frisbee Rai Gulp HD DeA Kids (+1 available) Nick Jr. (+1 available) Nickelodeon (+1 available) Cartoon Network (+1 available) Boomerang (+1 available) DeA Junior Sky Sport 24 (Sky Sports News) Sky Sport Uno Sky Sport Serie A Sky Sport Football Sky Sport Arena Sky Sport Collection Sky Sport NBA Sky Sport F1 Sky Sport MotoGP Lazio Style Channel Sky Sport (channels from 251 to 263) Sky Cinema Uno (+24 available) Sky Cinema Due (+24 available) Sky Cinema Collection Sky Cinema Family Sky Cinema Action Sky Cinema Suspense Sky Cinema Romance Sky Cinema Drama Sky Cinema Comedy Iris Cine34 Zona Dazn (channels from 214 to 218) Milan TV Inter TV Caccia e Pesca
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"https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=2000&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 1440w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=1440&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 1248w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=1248&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 960w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=960&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 768w" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	A Modern Digital Experience For The Italian Media Platform	en	https://www.codeandtheor…-precomposed.png		https://www.codeandtheory.com/things-we-make/sky-italia	Code and Theory partnered with Sky Italia, the renowned broadcaster, to create a modern digital platform experience and publishing workflow. The challenge was to strengthen Sky Italia’s identity in the Italian news market. There was fierce competition in the digital space from several players with strong historical presence and years of brand legacy in Italy. Sky Italia were well known as a premium TV provider and in a strong period of audience growth for their digital properties. But they were still not as well known as a digital media outlet and their multiple properties needed to be more clearly connected to the master brand. Our task was to elevate the digital Sky Italia brand and experience globally, across their verticals — the news channel Tg24, Sky Sport and a new entertainment vertical, Tg24 Spettacolo. Given that the brand was known as a premium TV provider with quality content, our main priority was to increase awareness around their digital offering. User-centric design At the heart of our strategic approach was creating user-centric design. The key to this framework was understanding user behaviors and how they could help users more easily navigate across verticals to enjoy Sky’s full offering. By understanding user motivations, leaning into Sky’s core value proposition, and identifying tactical wins, we were able to create a holistic and rigorous strategic approach. These assumptions were vetted through in-depth user journeys to explore how all the elements could come together. This approach, in tandem with a flexible set of storytelling tools, allowed Sky Italia to bolster their ability to create engaging, user centric experiences. In order to strengthen their digital experience and create a global design system, we collaborated with the teams in Milan across a wide range of areas to reframe their existing processes, including editorial workflows, design systems, advertising integration and technical approach. Over an ambitious roll-out phase, we worked with their design, product and technical teams, and co-located in their Milan offices. We created a scalable design system with a phased approach, following a robust phase of definition. Iterative Experience Tactics We identified experience tactics that would help improve the user experience within the vertical pillars. These included solutions to improve storytelling, loyalty and retention, video, navigation and personalisation. Each one of these tactics was tested, iterated and implemented in an agile process to ensure we were designing the best experience for the user based on market, region and user type. Foundation and future In order to support the evolution of their digital business we provided a roll-out framework to bring life to future developments. The strategy was divided into quick wins, foundational and overhaul solutions. In the short term, we focused on high-impact, low-to-mid effort solutions within the existing structure of the site. We then turned to creating a solid foundation, getting to parity with new versions of existing parts of the sites that would define the foundation and start future processes. Finally, once the core functionalities were performing effectively, we began to focus on new features that would drive the strategic business initiatives and objectives forward. “Code and Theory enabled us to build a bold, new visual identity across our editorial properties while keeping strong brand recognition. Their structured approach at every step ensured collaboration across the business areas but also with a strong focus on the user. The outcome has been to create a scalable, impactful system that sets a new standard for our digital properties.” – Chei Amlani, Director of Product and Audience, Sky Italia
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"https://www.airbus.com/sites/g/files/jlcbta136/files/styles/airbus_480x480/public/2021-10/history-helicopters-teaser.jpg?itok=C2YAa7xd", "https://www.airbus.com/sites/g/files/jlcbta136/files/styles/airbus_480x480/public/2021-06/history-defence-teaser.jpg?itok=68b1UwTq", "https://www.airbus.com/sites/g/files/jlcbta136/files/styles/airbus_480x480/public/2021-06/history-space-teaser.jpg?itok=pKs9A9j9" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "www.facebook.com" ]	2021-06-14T00:00:00	With a 50-year track record of innovation, technological firsts and industry milestones, Airbus has lived up to its official motto, “We Make It Fly,” from the company’s creation.	en	/themes/custom/airbus_web_experience_ui/appicons/appicon-48x48.png	Airbus	https://www.airbus.com/en/about-us/our-history	With a 50-year track record of innovation, technological firsts and industry milestones, Airbus is a leader in designing, manufacturing and delivering aerospace products, services and solutions to a customer base that spans the globe – with operations for commercial aircraft, helicopters, defence, space and security. Take a journey through some of the highlights of our company from the past 50 years, and learn more about Airbus’ continuing success story with the extensive 'History In Depth' pages below. 1960s \| Laying the foundations 1965 The SA330 Puma performed its first flight This medium-weight twin-engine was the first of a long series that has been built in various versions down to the present day. 1968 First flight of the Gazelle SA341 The second prototype of the Gazelle (SA 341) made its first flight on 12 April 1968, and featured a Fenestron tail rotor fairing. 1969 Concorde takes off on its 1st flight in Toulouse Commercial aviation took a supersonic leap into the future with Concorde’s maiden flight, which was captained by André Turcat. 29 May 1969 Official launch of the Airbus A300 Programme The A300 programme was launched with a milestone agreement signed by French Transport Minister Jean Chamant and German Economics Minister Karl Schiller at the 1969 Paris Airshow, to build a commercial aircraft that was smaller, lighter and more economical than its three-engine American rivals. Trailblazing pioneers Roger Béteille Roger Béteille was a key figure at Airbus from 1967 to 1985 – and a driving force behind the A300 programme, serving initially as a Technical and Coordinating Manager, and becoming Managing Director in 1975. A large part of the company’s initial success can be traced back to Béteille: a believer in European cooperation, he joined Airbus still in its “preliminary” stage. Béteille’s first proposal of work-sharing (to have aircraft parts such as elements of the fuselage, the wing root and the wings produced by different entities) is still in place today. Béteille’s involvement in the A300 programme ensured the aircraft would match the needs of airline customers, and not just manufacturers’ ideas. Béteille retired from the company in 1985; the final assembly building for the Airbus A350 XWB in Toulouse is named after him. René Mouille René Mouille was pivotal in pushing the helicopter industry forward and garnered a collection of groundbreaking inventions to his name. He is at the origin of the design for the SE3120 (Alouette I) and the SE 3130 Alouette II (the first turbine helicopter), and the Alouette III in 1958; the Super Frelon in 1962; the Puma in 1964; the Gazelle in 1967; and the Dauphin and Ecureuil in the 1970s. In 1963, he was nominated Engineer-in-Chief of the helicopter division of Sud Aviation. With over 40 patents to his name, Mouille was instrumental in pushing the barriers of helicopter technology, such as with the hub NAT (Non-Articulated Drag) with visco-elastic dampers, as well as the famous Fenestron© shrouded tail rotor and the Starflex main rotor. He also invented the SARIB suspension system. The inventions by Mouille and his collaborators are still widely used in the helicopter industry today. Ludwig Bölkow An innovator of the aeronautical industry in Germany, Ludwig Bölkow created the Bölkow GmbH in Ottobrunn, which developed into the biggest aeronautics and spaceflight company in the country, MBB (Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm). MBB was an aerospace manufacturer that was later bought by Deutsche Aerospace AG, which is now part of Airbus. Bölkow was the key figure in the design of the world's first jet fighter, the Me 262, and was leading the rebuilding of the German aviation industry following the Second World War. Bölkow was awarded the Ludwig-Prandtl-Ring from the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics) for "outstanding contribution in the field of aerospace engineering" in 1972. He was awarded a Gold Medal by the British Royal Aeronautical Society in 1978. 1970s \| European Collaboration 1970 Airbus Industrie was officially created as a GIE France’s Aerospatiale (a merger of SEREB, Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation), and Germany’s Deutsche Airbus – a grouping of four firms. 1971 First flight of C-212 Aviocar Developed by Airbus predecessor CASA, the C212 has been used in charter and short-haul cargo roles, for search and rescue missions, and various military applications. 1972 First flight of the SA360 Dauphin The Dauphin was originally designed as the successor to the Alouette III and was to be called the "Business Alouette". 1972 The world's first twin engine wide-body aircraft The first flight of the A300 took place in Toulouse on 28 October 1972, a month ahead of schedule despite several delays due to bad weather. 1973 An odyssey across South and North America A300 embarks on a six-week sales expedition across North and South America to show off Airbus’ new creation to customers, pilots and executives. 1974 Helios-A and Helios-B, launched in 1974 and 1976 Helios-A and Helios-B were the first space probes produced outside of the U.S. and the Soviet Union to leave Earth orbit, with their launches in 1974 and 1976. 1974 A300B2 enters regular service for Air France Initial commercial flights for Air France were from Paris to London. 1974 First flight of the Tornado The MRCA prototype, later known as the Tornado, took its maiden flight at Manching. 1978 Eastern Airlines, Airbus' first US customer, orders 23 A300B4 aircraft After the breakthrough agreement with Eastern Airlines, there followed a series of orders that confirmed Airbus as a serious contender in the global aircraft manufacturing industry. 1979 First flight of BK 117 The precursor to the EC145, the BK117 was a 50:50 joint venture by MBB and Kawasaki. 1980s \| New stars are born 1982 Cockpit advances Delivery of the first A300 FFCC jetliner version, received by Indonesian airline Garuda, incorporating the Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit configuration, which enabled a two-pilot crew to fly the aircraft without the need for a flight engineer. 1983 Spacelab starts its journey into space Spacelab, built in Bremen by MBB-Erno as prime contractor, starts its first journey into space on board the Columbia space shuttle. The command and data managament subsystem CDMS was developed by MATRA. 1985 Development of Eurostar A series of high-performance communications satellites suited to a full range of communications missions – including links with fixed ground stations, mobile services, broadcast and broadband. 1987 Launch of A320 With the groundbreaking Fly-by-wire technology, the A320 Family would go on to record spectacular sales success, becoming the best-selling jetliner aircraft family ever. 1988 Maiden flight of the Bo108 The Bo108 took off with the most up-to-date technology, including a composite structure, new vibration absorbers, and ultra-modern avionics with screens. 1988 Launch of the first Ariane 4 The first Ariane 4 flew in June 1988 from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana, performing 113 successful launches and capturing 50% of the commercial satellite launch services marketplace. Jean Pierson CEO and managing director of Airbus 1985 – 1998 Jean Pierson was a French engineer and industrialist , having participated in the Concorde programme and the development of Airbus as one of its historical leaders. Pierson championed the spirit of Airbus which summed up the organisation’s essence from its beginnings to the present day: “The determination of the partners to keep the damaging demons of intra-European rivalry at bay was a key factor in the success of Airbus Industrie. It is in the interests of Europe that this determination should prevail. If there could be one lesson…it would be that co-operation is the key to prosperity and that there simply is room no more for narrow nationalistic endeavours.” 1990s \| Expanding frontiers 1991 Arrival of the A340 The ultra long-range four engined A340-300, able to seat 295 in a three-class configuration and fly 7,150 nautical miles/13,200 kilometres, was rolled out in October, 1991. 1992 Maiden flight of the medium to long-range A330 Carrying 335 passengers in two classes, the A330 marked another milestone with the first Rolls-Royce engine – the Trent 700 - on an Airbus aircraft. 1994 First flight of the Eurofighter The extremely capable, flexible and versatile swing-role front-line fighter aircraft flew for the first time. 1994 Maiden flight of the EC135 The first helicopter in the Eurocopter range and successor to the BO108. The most important addition to the EC135 is its Fenestron® tail rotor. 1994 Rollout of the A300-600ST Beluga The Beluga was the successor to the Super Guppy transporter for Airbus components. 1995 First flight of the EC120 Colibri With this helicopter, Eurocopter extends its range to include 1.5 metric tonne machines. 1996 Super jumbo A3XX Airbus Industrie sets up Large Aircraft Division, to develop the super jumbo A3XX, later designated the A380. 1996 First official flight of the NH90 The maiden flight took place at the Eurocopter plant in Marignane, France in the presence of military and governmental representatives from France, Italy, Germany and the Netherlands (the nations participating in the NH90 Programme). 1997 Successful lift off of the Ariane 5 As of early 2019, the heavy-lift vehicle had been launched more than 100 times from the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana. Its payload lift capability has evolved from the initial 6,900 kg. in geostationary transfer orbit to an enhanced performance of 10,000 kg., along with a capacity of 20 tonnes into low Earth orbit. 1998 First flight of C295 Originally designed for the deployment of forces, the C295 can transport over nine tonnes of troops or cargo. Further developed from the CN235, it has a longer fuselage and more powerful engines. 1999 Production investment contract signed for the Tiger The contract marked a decisive step towards production of Tiger, with an initial batch of 160 helicopters (80 for Germany and 80 for France) to be procured. 1999 Maiden flight of the EC145 The EC145 offers an increased maximum takeoff weight and payload capacity as well as a modern cockpit identical to that of the EC135. 1999 Maiden flight of the EC130 B4 This new member of the Ecureuil/AStar family offers more cabin space, extensive visibility and a reduced sound level. 2000s \| A new era begins 2000 "Day One" as the official start of operations for EADS The merger of the Franco-British company Matra Marconi Space with the space activites of Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace leads to the foundation of Astrium 2001 The new EC725 helicopter is presented to the French Air Force Chief of Staff This version will be able to carry a higher military payload, and will also have an increased civil range of action compared to the MK2 version of the Cougar / Super Puma. 2002 First flight tests of the A318, the smallest member of the A320 family Captain Bernd Schaefer confirmed that the aircraft handled as anticipated on its maiden flight, which kicked off the A318 flight test campaign. 2003 Mars Express heads for the Red Planet Mars Express lifted off in June 2003. After arriving at Mars, data from this planetary orbiter helped answer questions about the geology, atmosphere, surface environment, history of water and potential for life on the planet. 2003 Launch of A400M programme With the first flight performed in December 2009, the A400M developed for tactical and strategic missions – along with force-projection through aerial refuelling – Airbus set the bar high in terms of technical and programme complexity. 2004 Opening of American Eurocopter plant in Columbus The Columbus site will mainly focus on the assembly and customisation of the helicopters sold by American Eurocopter to local and federal government organisations for military operations, homeland security and other parapublic missions. 2005 EADS provides relief assistance and 2 million euro donation in response to tsunami disaster in Southeast Asia Through the years Airbus has supported international aid organisations in regions affected by natural disasters. We bring our products and resources, from relief flights to satellite imagery and helicopter hours, to emergency responders to help alleviate some of the world's most pressing challenges. 2005 Unveiling of the A380 The world's largest and most modern passenger jet is unveiled to the public. Later that year it would complete its maiden flight. 2005 Eurocopter Ecureuil AS350 piloted by Didier Delsalle lands on Mount Everest on May 14, 2005 This tremendous achievement breaks the world record for the highest altitude landing and takeoff ever, which sets an ultimate milestone in the history of aviation. 2005 EADS and China agree on strategic partnership Airbus strengthened its foothold in China, with an order of 150 A320 family aircraft, the largest order in Airbus history so far, and a new engineering centre to be set up 2006 Launch of Metop-A Observation data provided by Metop enable precise weather forecasting, better prediction of natural disasters, and measurements for issues such as climate change, progressive melting of polar ice and rise in sea levels. 2006 U.S. Army selects the UH-72A Lakota U.S. Army selects the UH-72A Lakota version of the EC145 rotorcraft as the military service’s Light Utility Helicopter. More than 400 have been supplied to the U.S. Army and Navy, with production performed at a facility in Mississippi. 2007 First flight of the A330 MRTT Based on the successful A330-200 airliner, the A330 MRTT is the benchmark for new-generation multi-role tanker/transport. 2008 Columbus sets sail for ISS on the Space Shuttle Atlantis The Columbus science laboratory was launched aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis on February 7, 2008 and docked at the International Space Station (ISS). 2006 Inauguration of A320 final assembly line in Tianjin, China Airbus expanded its industrial network by creating a new A320 final assembly line in Tianjin, China – the company’s first outside of Europe. 2008 ATV in service of the International Space Station The Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), a servicing spacecraft for the ISS with the delivery of propellant, water, air, payload and experiment equipment. Fabrice Brégier Airbus COO 2006 – 2018, President of Airbus Commercial Aircraft 2012 – 2018 In 1998, Mr. Brégier became CEO of Matra BAe Dynamics. He was appointed CEO of MBDA, the leading European missile systems company that was created in 2001 by Aerospatiale Matra, British Aerospace and Finmeccanica. In 2003, Fabrice Brégier became President and CEO of the Eurocopter Group and was appointed Head of EADS’ Eurocopter Division in June 20. Mr. Brégier was appointed Airbus Chief Operating Officer (COO) in October 2006. As a Member of the EADS Executive Committee, he was commissioned by Louis Gallois to improve the overall operational performance of the Group. From 2012 – 2018, Fabrice Brégier served as President of Airbus Commercial Aircraft. 2010s \| We make it fly 2010 The new generation EC145 T2 performs its first flight The EC145 T2 was developed with major innovations such as the dual AFCS, reducing pilot’s workload, particularly in difficult weather or mission conditions. 2010 First flight of the X3 demonstrator The X3 is a high-speed hybrid helicopter developed to perform vertical takeoffs and landings and obtain cruising speeds of approximately 220 kts. 2011 A record breaking year Beginning with a milestone order: Virgin America’s acquisition of 60 A320s, Airbus hits above its 10,000th order mark. Also in January 2011, Airbus signed a Memorandum of Understanding with IndiGo for 180 A320s. 2012 Clean Sky 2 initiative Eurocopter signs up for leadership in a European compound rotorcraft demonstration project through the Clean Sky 2 initiative. 2013 The A350 XWB takes flight Airbus’ newest and most efficient jetliner – the A350 XWB – conducted its highly successful maiden flight from Toulouse-Blagnac Airport. 2013 Launch of Gaia Gaia – an Airbus-designed and-built space surveyor for ESA – is to compile a 3D space catalogue of more than 1,000 million stars, or approximately roughly 1% of the stars in the Milky Way. 2014 EADS renamed Airbus Group EADS was renamed Airbus Group (which later in 2017 renamed to Airbus). Eurocopter becomes Airbus Helicopters. The rebranding marks a new era in the history of the company as it joins Airbus and Airbus Defence & Space within the new Airbus Group. 2014 First flight of the A320neo The highly-efficient aircraft with new engine option along with standard Sharklets, will deliver a 15% fuel burn reduction to carriers. 2014 Cometary encounter Launched in 2004, the Rosetta spacecraft spent 10 years on a voyage of more than six billion kilometres to reach and study the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. 2015 Inauguration of operations of the A320 FAL in Mobile, Alabama The facility joins existing final assembly lines in Hamburg; Toulouse; and Tianjin, China, boosting the production of the best-selling single-aisle aircraft family. 2015 Unveiling the H160 The H160 is unveiled on Airbus Helicopters’ Heli-Expo booth in Orlando, Florida. Its first flight took place in Marignane (France) on June 13, 2015. 2015 Airbus launches business accelerator BizLab Airbus formally launched its first global aerospace business accelerator Airbus BizLab – located in Toulouse, France, with a second site at Hamburg, Germany. 2015 Launch of the LISA Pathfinder This ESA technology demonstrator mission is one of the most ambitious scientific undertakings to date: proving key elements of Einstein’s theory of general relativity. 2016 Delivery of the 10,000th aircraft to Singapore Airlines A year of milestones, including service introductions of the A320neo; first deliveries of the latest A330 Family member tailored for regional routes; start of final assembly for the A330neo; and its 10,000th overall delivery. 2016 Galileo goes live Galileo, the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) went live in 2016. From the beginning of Galileo through 2018, Airbus was prime contractor for the satellite navigation system’s ground control segment. 2017 Maiden flight of the A330neo Powered by latest-generation Rolls-Royce Trent 7000 engines, the A330neo will expand operators’ market opportunities with a range capability increase of approximately 400 nautical miles while carrying more payload. 2018 Europe’s Future Combat Air System (FCAS) The landmark industrial agreement between Airbus and Dassault Aviation envisions a “system of systems” – composed of next-generation fighter aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles, future cruise missiles and drones, and military services. 2018 The autonomous demonstrator VSR700 Airbus Helicopters started autonomous flight trials of a VSR700 Optionally Piloted Vehicle (OPV) demonstrator, without safety pilot on December 20, 2018. 2018 The newest members of Airbus’ single-aisle aircraft family A milestone partnership between Airbus and Canada’s Bombardier took effect in July with Airbus acquiring a majority stake in the C Series Aircraft Limited Partnership. 2018 The first BelugaXL Airbus’ next-generation super airlifter – performed its maiden flight on 19 July in Toulouse. 2018 Launch of the BepiColombo Launched on an Ariane 5 in October, the BepiColombo to research the solar system’s smallest and least-explored terrestrial planet – Mercury. 2019 Growth of the A220 As of early 2019, more than 530 orders were placed for A220 aircraft. Airbus is to open a new assembly line for the aircraft at its U.S. manufacturing facility in Mobile, Alabama, which will build jetliners for U.S. customers. 2019 Delivery of the 12,000th Airbus jetliner Airbus delivered the 12,000th commercial aircraft in the company’s 50-year history – an A220-100 assembled in Mirabel, Canada for U.S.-based Delta Air Lines. 2019 A321XLR: Efficiency and extra-long range After its official launch at the 2019 Paris Air Show, Airbus’ extra-long-range single-aisle A321XLR steadily built up a strong base of orders and commitments from customers around the world. Tom Enders CEO of Airbus 2007 – 2019 Dr. Thomas (“Tom”) Enders served as Chief Executive Officer (CEO) of Airbus SE, from June 2012 to April 2019, after having been CEO of the Airbus Commercial Aircraft Division since 2007. Before that he served as Co-CEO of EADS between 2005 and 2007. He was Head of the Group’s Defence Division from 2000 to 2005. He has been a member of the Executive Committee of Airbus S.E. since its creation in 2000. Prior to joining the aerospace industry in 1991, Enders worked, inter alia, as a Member of the “Planungsstab” of the German Ministry of Defence and in various foreign policy think tanks. He studied economics, political science and history at the University of Bonn and at the University of California in Los Angeles. Discover more Airbus history Commercial Aircraft 1967 to today Airbus Helicopters 1920 to today Airbus Defence 1970 to today Airbus Space 1960's to today
3152	dbpedia	3	20	https://www.sportcal.com/media/sky-italia-opts-to-keep-uefa-club-competition-rights-exclusively/	en	Sky Italia opts to keep UEFA club competition rights exclusively	https://www.sportcal.com…671b2123f4ee.jpg	https://www.sportcal.com…671b2123f4ee.jpg	[ "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2022/12/S.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2024/06/main6671b2458a1b1.jpg", "https://pr-fr-json-b2b-gdm-figaro1.pantheonsite.io/pharmaceutical-technology/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/report.png", "https://pr-fr-json-b2b-gdm-figaro1.pantheonsite.io/pharmaceutical-technology/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/report.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/offsite.png'", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/offsite.png'", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/company-profile-unit.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/newsletter-new.svg", "https://pr-fr-json-b2b-gdm-figaro1.pantheonsite.io/pharmaceutical-technology/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/report.png", "https://pr-fr-json-b2b-gdm-figaro1.pantheonsite.io/pharmaceutical-technology/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/report.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2024/08/main66ba2ab527efd.jpg", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2024/08/main66ba2b0e6cfb6.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2024/08/main66ba2bb9f18d0.jpg", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2024/08/main66ba2bbd36273.jpg", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/icons/catfish-icon.svg", "https://www.sportcal.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/32/2022/12/Sportcal_footer.png", "https://www.sportcal.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/linkedin_icon_w.svg", "https://www.sportcal.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/twitter_icon_w.svg", "https://www.sportcal.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/img/icons/facebook_icon_w.svg", "https://www.sportcal.com/code/wp-content/themes/goodlife-wp-B2B/assets/images/verdict-logo-w.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Tariq Saleh" ]	2024-06-13T10:34:39+00:00	The broadcaster will neither sub-license matches to another broadcaster or show games on its free-to-air TV8 channel.	en		Sportcal	https://www.sportcal.com/media/sky-italia-opts-to-keep-uefa-club-competition-rights-exclusively/	Sky Italia, the dominant Italian pay-TV operator, will broadcast European soccer’s UEFA club competitions exclusively on its platforms next season after choosing not to open it up to free-to-air coverage. The broadcaster has opted against sub-licensing some matches to another broadcaster or even showing games on its own free-to-air TV8 channel in a move to boost its subscriber numbers. It means matches from the elite UEFA Champions League, second-tier Europa League, and third-tier Conference League will only be shown on the linear Sky channels and Now streaming platform. This comes after Sky recently announced a price increase in Italy of between €6.90 ($7.45) and €7.99 per month to a final price of between €22.90 and €26.90 per month. Meanwhile, the soccer-only package is rising from between €3 to €8 per month. In May 2023, Sky acquired exclusive rights to broadcast 185 of the 203 Champions League matches per season, as well as all 342 Europa League and Europa Conference League fixtures for the next three-year period from 2024-25 to 2026-27. The pay-TV operator will share Champions League rights with Amazon Prime Video, the streaming platform of the global tech and retail giant which will continue to show 18 top-pick Wednesday evening games. In the previous 2021-22 to 2023-24 cycle, Sky held rights to show 121 of the 137 Champions League games per season, with commercial free-to-air broadcaster Mediaset holding exclusive live rights to the first-pick Champions League match on Tuesdays, as well as delayed coverage and highlights. Sky also had exclusive linear and non-exclusive digital rights to the Europa League and Conference League but was subsequently banned from acquiring exclusive streaming rights to any content in Italy for three years, from 2019 through 2021 (inclusive). The ban was put in place by the AGCM, Italy’s antitrust regulator, to maintain competition in the market after the broadcaster’s failed purchase of R2, the pay-TV services and technical platform of Mediaset Premium, the digital terrestrial TV service. This ban allowed international streaming service DAZN to secure Europa League and Conference League rights in the previous cycle. Despite Sky’s decision not to sub-license any rights next year, AGCOM, the Italian communications regulator, will enforce a rule that European club finals must be shown free-to-air should they feature an Italian team, as it did with this year’s Europa League final that Atalanta won. The Bergamo-based side’s 3-0 win over Germany’s Bayer Leverkusen was shown by state broadcaster Rai and drew an audience of 6.3 million. It became the most-watched soccer match of the year in Italy with a combined total viewership of 7.98 million and a national market share of 36.1%, with the match also shown on Sky and DAZN. Next season, eight Serie A clubs will feature in European competitions, with five in the Champions League – Inter Milan, AC Milan, Atalanta, Juventus, and Bologna. Roma and Lazio will compete in the Europa League, while Fiorentina will play in the Conference League. The increase in Sky’s Champions League matches for the next deal corresponds to the new format of the competition starting next year. The number of participating teams will increase from 32 to 36, with each side in the initial group stages to play eight games, up from six. As well as UEFA club rights, Sky holds domestic rights to Serie A and recently renewed its deal to show the English Premier League through 2027-28.
3152	dbpedia	1	39	https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/05/11/northern-lights-aurora-tonight-saturday-forecast/73655231007/	en	What's your chance of seeing the northern lights tonight? A look at Saturday's forecast	https://www.gannett-cdn.…=pjpg&width=1200	https://www.gannett-cdn.…=pjpg&width=1200	[ "https://www.gannett-cdn.com/authoring/authoring-images/2024/05/11/USAT/73655470007-clean.jpg?crop=1919,1079,x0,y0", "https://www.gannett-cdn.com/appservices/universal-web/universal/icons/icon-play-alt-white.svg", "https://www.gannett-cdn.com/appservices/universal-web/universal/icons/icon-instagram_24.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "USA TODAY", "Ahjané Forbes", "Jeanine Santucci", "Krystal Nurse" ]	2024-05-11T00:00:00	The northern lights made its appearance in the northern half of the United States on Friday, but it is predicted to dazzle the skies again tonight.	en	https://www.gannett-cdn.…ages/favicon.png	USA TODAY	https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/05/11/northern-lights-aurora-tonight-saturday-forecast/73655231007/	Illuminating the night sky with pink, green and gray colors, the northern lights made its appearance in the United Kingdom and the northern half of the United States on Friday. The magical phenomena could happen again tonight. The show fascinated many onlookers as they took out their phones to capture the beauty of the night sky. On Friday, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) issued extreme (G5) conditions across the United States. A storm of this intensity has not been seen since October 2003. The storm gained the name "Halloween Storm" and caused many power outages in Sweden and damaged transformers in South Africa, according to Earth.com. Meteorologists have predicted that the northern lights can be visible on Saturday as well as Sunday. If you are going outside to see the northern lights, forecasters want to remind the public that their solar eclipse glasses can be used for viewing the phenomenon. Here's what you need to know to prepare for the next viewing of the northern lights. The northern lights: Danced across the US last night. It could happen again Saturday. What is the cloud forecast Saturday night? Will clouds block the northern lights? If you missed the aurora borealis Friday night, you might still catch a glimpse on Saturday or Sunday, depending on where you live. But not if clouds get in the way. The cloud forecast for Saturday night is generally good for most of America, but some of the people who missed their chance last night due to clouds may have a similar problem Saturday, said AccuWeather senior meteorologist Tom Kines. Areas that are likely to be cloudy include New England and Mid-Atlantic regions, as well as parts of the Southern Plains, including Oklahoma, Kansas and Colorado. “Even just a few breaks in the clouds will allow the aurora to be visible,” Kines said. “There’s always hope.” Peak visibility time Saturday night will be between 9 p.m. and midnight, with some chance until 2 a.m., Kines said. The best views will be in dark areas away from the light pollution of cities, he said, though some reported seeing the auroras Friday night from metro areas like Milwaukee and Detroit. Sunday night, if there is any aurora to see, those in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic can rejoice, because Kines said the skies should be clearer. Where can you see the northern lights tonight? The Space and Weather Prediction Center offers an experimental forecast map that shows the aurora may be visible in a wide swath of the U.S. including Oregon, Nebraska, Indiana and Pennsylvania. Other states like California, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida could also see the sky light up again for an encore performance. But visibility will depend on shifting factors that include weather, pollution and cloud cover. Below are forecast predictions for seeing the northern lights in New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Ohio and Indiana on Saturday. New York Rain and clouds are expected to damper expectations to see the aurora borealis around the Rochester, N.Y. area. Elsewhere in NY, the Lower Hudson Valley could see the lights again, if weather permits. Michigan NWS maps predicting the intensity and location of the northern lights Saturday and Sunday show the aurora will be visible in mid to northern Michigan and the Upper Peninsula. Saturday and Sunday are predicted to be mostly cloudy with some rain showers and isolated thunderstorms. The NWS predicted 48% to 58% sky cover in metro Detroit from 8 p.m. Saturday to 2 a.m. Sunday. The western portion of both peninsulas are expected to have a lower cloud cover. Wisconsin In the Milwaukee area, the evening is expected to bring mostly clear skies and overnight will have scattered clouds, said Tim Halbach, local meteorologist with the National Weather Service. Ohio Those living around the Cincinnati region could be treated to the northern lights Saturday night with the NWS' Wilmington, Ohio, office forecasting dry, partly cloudy conditions. Clouds shouldn't be an issue as many Ohioans reported seeing the lights Friday despite some cloud cover. Indiana In a telephone interview, Mike Bettwy, operations chief of the NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center in Boulder, Co, said Indianapolis and surrounding areas might have a better chance of seeing the aurora today and Sunday. They can expect clear skies tonight, Bettwy said. "The aurora itself might be actually a little bit less active than it was last night," he told IndyStar. "I think the ability for you to see it will be better because the skies will be clearing out — at least in the Indianapolis area and that immediate vicinity." Northern lights forecast path If you want to get a better idea of if you will be able to see the northern lights from your state, check NOAA's aurora forecast tool, which has a 30-minute forecast window. The auroras are a natural light display in Earth's sky that are famously best seen in high-latitude regions. Scientist left amazed by the aurora The aurora seen on May 10 amazed Antonella Fruscione, an astrophysicist at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. She sent photos of the lights and the April eclipse to her friends in Italy. The northern lights weren't as prominent in Italy as it was in other places. "And I sent them the picture that I took at the solar eclipse and I said, 'Can you imagine how fortunate I was this year, one month apart, I see these two incredible spectacles of the universe,'" she recalled telling them. The phenomena seen Friday and possibly Saturday night isn't usual, she said. "It's a very rare occurrence, especially because last night it was really visible," Fruscione said. That's because the Earth's magnetic activity was at a nine, the highest the index goes, coupled with the Sun being at an active peak, causing eruptions. She added the colors cannot be predicted either as it depends on how the solar energetic particles interact with oxygen and nitrogen atoms. Oxygen appears green, while nitrogen appears purple, blue or pink, she said. "It just depends on which atoms in the atmosphere this particle interact with," Fruscione said. She declined to predict how strong Saturday's aurora could be as it's not in her expertise, but said people make predictions all the time about space weather not just for the northern lights, but to ensure communications, space stations, astronauts and other matter in space doesn't get majorly disrupted. Down on Earth, however, the activity is harmless to humans. "It's completely harmless because the particles do not don't do not reach us," Fruscione said. "The reason why we see the colors is that the particle interacts with the atoms and they make these beautiful colors and that's it." For Saturday, and any other day where chatter about the aurora borealis is high, Fruscione encouraged people to download an aurora forecasting app to their phones so they can see the colorful skies. What are the northern lights? The northern lights materialize when energized particles from the sun reach Earth's upper atmosphere at speeds of up to 45 million mph, according to Space.com. Earth's magnetic field redirects the particles toward the poles through a process that produces a stunning display of rays, spirals and flickers that has fascinated humans for millennia. Contributing: Eric Lagatta and Dinah Voyles Pulver, USA TODAY; Tanya Wildt, Detroit Free Press; Alex Groth, Milwaukee Journal Sentinel; Contributing: Bebe Hodges, Cincinnati Enquirer; Contributing: Steve Howe, Rochester Democrat and Chronicle; Rockland/Westchester Journal News; Alexandria Burris, Indianapolis Star
3152	dbpedia	3	2	https://aws.amazon.com/solutions/case-studies/sky-case-study/	en	Sky Italia Case Study	https://a0.awsstatic.com…ile_1200x630.png	https://a0.awsstatic.com…ile_1200x630.png	[ "https://d1.awsstatic.com/customer-references-case-studies-logos/sky-logo%402x.122aacd5159c947a0719b9086faa5cdbaab04dcf.png", "https://d1.awsstatic.com/industry-images-customer-references/Customer-References-industry-Media-Entertainment.9137bfc98657ba150c74360d5f0bc8bdecccdfda.jpg", "https://d1.awsstatic.com/case-studies/CustomerReferences_QuoteMark.16fc612d9e480eaec3e716161a76c4a71428c86a.png", "https://d1.awsstatic.com/industry-images-customer-references/SkyItalia_SystemEngineeringView.c98ea3314d41aad1a13a5c9bea2516f2fdd0f142.png", "https://d1.awsstatic.com/industry-images-customer-references/SkyItalia_SystemEngineeringView.c98ea3314d41aad1a13a5c9bea2516f2fdd0f142.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Sky Italia used AWS to rebuild its on-premises architecture in the cloud, enabling real-time sports data pushes and reducing compute costs by 30 percent. As part of one of Europe’s leading direct-to-consumer media and entertainment providers, Sky Italia set out to deliver a better fan experience by using AWS AppSync to optimize data transfers during peak traffic times and provide sports updates in milliseconds. Serverless, ready-to-use solutions on AWS equipped Sky Italia with the flexibility and high performance necessary to accelerate its data delivery, achieve cost-efficient scaling, and speed up time to market for innovations.	en	https://a0.awsstatic.com/libra-css/images/site/fav/favicon.ico	Amazon Web Services, Inc.	https://aws.amazon.com/solutions/case-studies/sky-case-study/	Media and entertainment company Sky Italia wanted to deliver a better fan experience by pushing real-time data updates during live broadcasts of sports events, but its Sky Sports website was already straining the performance capacity of Sky Italia’s on-premises data centers. The website receives 150 million page views per month and has recorded a peak of 2,041,954 visits for a single day. To enable real-time updates, Sky Italia required a faster and more elastic solution for propagating data, particularly during peak times. Sky Italia migrated to Amazon Web Services (AWS) to rebuild its previous architecture from the ground up, increasing its horizontal scalability and elasticity during both peak and off-peak times and optimizing data transfers between its front-end system and backend applications. In addition to providing faster game updates, Sky Italia achieved greater operational efficiency, reduced legacy data center maintenance costs, and improved search engine optimization by attaining faster data transfer speeds. “Achieving real-time updates of sports events was only the starting point to rethinking our architecture,” explains Giambattista Cerri, head of the digital team for editorial digital properties at Sky Italia. “The ready-to-use AWS services enabled the complete digital transformation of our architecture.” Sky Italia is part of the Comcast-owned British satellite television service Sky, one of Europe’s leading direct-to-consumer media and entertainment companies, with 24 million customers in six countries. Until 2019, Sky Italia ran on-premises data centers in Milan and Rome, but it couldn’t scale up during peak times using its legacy architecture, resulting in slow data delivery that made real-time updates impossible. Sky Italia also pulled updates from thousands of apps by querying on the backend instead of the more efficient approach of pushing data from the apps to its website. “Our main goal was to provide faster data; when you’re following your soccer team, your Grand Prix motorcycle racing, or your Formula 1 season, you want the latest updates,” says Cerri. Because Sky Italia couldn’t upgrade individual components of its integrated architecture to enable real-time data pushes, it chose to totally redesign an architecture comprising stand-alone, simple-to-modify components from AWS. AWS solutions offered the autonomy Sky Italia needed to increase elasticity, enhance operational efficiency, reduce compute resource costs, and improve data delivery speed and quality. “We wanted to evolve our architecture to provide the highest level of performance for our customers, even at peak times during sports events, and increase observability to continuously improve the system,” explains Daniele Mangano, solution architect at Sky Italia. “That meant orienting ourselves toward a micro front-end approach where data changes could be pushed to the end user and each component of the architecture, when properly decoupled, could scale as needed and be independently managed.” The first release of Sky Italia’s new serverless architecture focused on data delivery, but the next steps will involve managing multiple data providers within the same system. The company also wants to efficiently ingest and update data so it can produce web components in less time and manage multiple data providers and message types. For these solutions, it plans to use Amazon DynamoDB, a fast and flexible NoSQL database service; Amazon Kinesis Data Streams, a fully managed data-streaming service; and Amazon Kinesis Data Analytics. “The idea is to have powerful tools to automatically recognize the type of message to forward it to the appropriate ingestion flow with a unique entry point,” explains Mangano. Sky Italia’s drive to improve the fan experience with real-time game updates unlocked even more possibilities to innovate on AWS. The company is in talks with Sky about potentially using AWS solutions to enable global real-time sports updates. Sky Italia’s news channels will also use the same architecture on AWS to push election data updates from Italy’s central government so that viewers can stay informed in real time. “We find that AWS AppSync is the best solution to solve our problems,” says Mangano. “We were impressed by the speed of data propagation and received positive feedback from many areas of Sky.”
3152	dbpedia	1	81	https://media.hopper.com/articles/a-guide-to-the-three-major-airline-alliances-star-alliance-oneworld-and-sky-team	en	A Guide to the Three Major Airline Alliances: Star Alliance, Oneworld and Sky Team	https://media.hopper.com…hopper-meta.webp	https://media.hopper.com…hopper-meta.webp	[ "https://media.hopper.com/_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.ctfassets.net%2Fe2xvpak6j0p2%2F2IqR5LlHW02GIEQuCMCGsM%2Fe62410fadaee291355c873eef24de4be%2F01_Hopper-Bunnies.jpg&w=64&q=75 1x, /_next/image?url=https%3A%2F%2Fimages.ctfassets.net%2Fe2xvpak6j0p2%2F2IqR5LlHW02GIEQuCMCGsM%2Fe62410fadaee291355c873eef24de4be%2F01_Hopper-Bunnies.jpg&w=128&q=75 2x" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	For a smoother connecting flight, travelers will want to look into these three airline alliances and find out how they improve the ride.	en	/assets/images/favicon.ico	Hopper	https://media.hopper.comundefined	Originally conceived as a small-scale agreement to cooperate made between two airlines, airline alliances have grown into huge and ambitious projects, aiming – in the words of the world's biggest alliance – to "take passengers to every city on earth." Three major passenger airline alliances now exist, bringing together between 15 and 27 airlines to reach over a thousand destinations scattered all across the globe. The advantages of airline alliances are clear. They offer passengers an extended network through code sharing agreements, where two or more airlines share the same flight, listing it in both their reservation systems; this makes booking easier and moving between connections more efficient. Flight times are therefore reduced, and – with operational costs more streamlined – ticket prices lowered (though of course alliances can also lead to a loss of competition on some routes and so occasionally have the opposite effect). Furthermore, frequent flier rewards can be accumulated across airlines within the same alliance, reducing the time it takes to reach those sky-high mileage rewards. And round-the-world tickets can be bought far more easily, and cost a lot less, as the alliances work together to formulate an overall offer that takes passengers from the palms of the east Pacific to the ice-clad peaks of Patagonia – or wherever else you may wish to go. Download the Hopper mobile app to find the best deals on flights! Now on iOS and Android! Star Alliance by hsckcwong/ Flickr Star Alliance was the first major airline alliance and remains the biggest today. Operations began in 1997, when five airlines – Thai Airways International, Air Canada, Lufthansa, Scandinavian Airlines and United Airways – joined forces to provide more expansive and efficient air travel. At the time, the alliance stated its intention to "take passengers to every major city on earth," and they have made significant strides towards this end in the years since. Membership has expanded to 27 airlines, with Copa Airlines bringing coverage of South America, Ansett Australia and Air New Zealand doing the same for Oceania, and Ethiopian and South African Airlines stitching in Africa. Recently, the alliance has lured huge providers of the future, such as Air China and Air India, into its embrace. At the time of writing, its members launch over 20,000 flights daily and encompass 1316 destination airports in 192 countries, knitting together the globe in spectacular fashion. All 27 airlines in Star Alliance: Adria Airways, Slovenia Aegean Airlines, Greece Air Canada Air China Air India Air New Zealand All Nippon Airways, Japan Asiana Airlines, South Korea Austrian Airlines Avianca, Colombia Brussels Airlines, Belgium Copa Airlines, Panama Croatia Airlines EgyptAir Ethiopian Airlines EVA Air, Taiwan LOT Polish Airlines Lufthansa, Germany Scandinavian Airlines Shenzhen Airlines, China Singapore Airlines South African Airways Swiss International Airlines TAP Portugal Thai Airways Turkish Airlines United Airlines, United States Oneworld by bbw1150/ Flickr Oneworld was the second of the three major alliances to be born, launched two years after its rival Star Alliance. The founding members were all long-established, well-respected airlines such as British Airways, American Airlines and Qantas, who were soon joined by two more highly regarded European carriers, FinnAir and Iberia. LanChile then came on board to provide coverage of Latin America, followed by Royal Jordanian in 2005, the first Middle Eastern carrier to join any alliance. Notable recruits since then have included Japan Airlines and Malaysia Airlines, ensuring the alliance offers extensive coverage of Asia. Oneworld aims to forge relationships with "frequent international travelers," particularly from the corporate and business world, a goal reflected in its HQ location on Park Avenue, NY. It serves just under 1000 destination airports in over 150 countries – substantially fewer than either of its rivals, but carefully targeted to appeal to its business clientele. All 15 airlines in Oneworld: Air Berlin, Germany American Airlines British Airways Cathay Pacific, Hong Kong Finnair, Finland Iberia, Spain Japan Airlines LAN Airlines, Chile Malaysia Airlines Qantas, Australia Qatar Airways Royal Jordanian S7 Airlines, Russia SriLankan Airlines TAM Airlines, Brazil SkyTeam by Angelo DeSantis/ Flickr SkyTeam is the youngest of the three major airline alliances, founded in 2000 by four airlines that together provided strategically broad coverage of the world's air travel hotspots: Aeromexico, Air France, Delta Airlines and Korean Air. But the alliance has grown rapidly since its launch, overtaking Oneworld to encompass 20 member airlines travelling to 1,064 destination airports in 178 countries. Significantly diversified coverage has been brought to to the alliance by such carriers as China Airlines, Garuda Indonesia, Saudi Airlines and Kenya Airways. Depth of experience is provided by KLM, the Dutch flag carrier which was founded in 1919 and is the oldest airline in the world still operating under its original name. In total, SkyTeam has 564 lounges dotted around the globe, serving around 588 million annual passengers. All 20 airlines in SkyTeam: Aeroflot, Russia Aerolineas Argentinas Aeromexico Air Europa, Spain Air France Alitalia, Italy China Airlines, Taiwan China Eastern Airlines, China China Southern Airlines, China Czech Airlines Delta Airlines, United States Garuda Indonesia Kenya Airways KLM, Netherlands Korean Air, South Korea Middle East Airlines, Lebanon Saudia, Saudi Arabia TAROM, Romania Vietnam Airlines Xiamen Airlines, China Largest airlines outside of these alliances by Gunnar Kullenberg/ Flickr While joining an alliance has many benefits for the airlines themselves – increased efficiency, reduced operational costs, and the fact partner airlines can work together to feed each other passengers – it's also pretty expensive. Airlines have to meet very specific standards in order to do so, and this usually requires some tweaking of their current operation. So if an airline has a particular niche, or a pre-existing strong brand, they may choose to continue to go it alone. Hawaiian Airlines is an example of an airline with a strong niche: it is the only U.S. airline to fly between the islands, and so is fed traffic from all the other airlines without having to shoulder the costs of joining an alliance. Budget airlines, also, are chosen not for their ease, efficiency or amiability, but solely on the basis of their price – and so RyanAir and EasyJet, among others, are not part of any alliance. And a few heavy hitters with established brand names have, thus far, chosen to hold themselves apart, including Virgin Atlantic, Emirates and Etihad. All 8 U.S. airlines not in an alliance: AirTran Airways Alaska Airlines Frontier Airlines Hawaiian Airlines JetBlue Southwest Airlines Spirit Airlines Virgin America
3152	dbpedia	3	61	https://www.skyteam.com/en/about/ita-airways/	en	ITA Airways	https://static.skyteam.c…lane-980x600.png		[ "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/header-logos/Skyteam2x-blue.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/header-logos/skyteam2x-white.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/airlines/ita-airways-airplane-980x600.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/stock-images-may-2022/skyteam-online-check-in.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/ita-logo.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/stock-images-may-2022/skyteam-luggage-calculator.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/ita-logo.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/stock-images-may-2022/skyteam-seamless-connections-980x600.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/ita-logo.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/stock-images-may-2022/skyteam-guaranteed-reservations.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/ita-logo.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/frequent-flyers/ffp-cards/skyteam-frequent-flyer-program-ita-volare-980x600.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/aerolineasargentinas.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/aeromexico.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/aireuropa.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/airfrance.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/chinaairlines.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/chinaeastern.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/czechairlines.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/delta.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/garudaindonesia.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/ITA-logo.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/kenyaairways.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/klm.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/koreanair.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/mea.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/saudia.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/tarom.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/vietnamairlines.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/virgin-atlantic.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/member-airlines/site-logos/xiamenair.svg", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/appicons/skyteam-apple-app-store-download-button.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/appicons/skyteam-google-play-download-button.png", "https://static.skyteam.com/globalassets/appicons/skypriority-app-huawei-app-gallery-icon-v2.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	SkyTeam member ITA Airways is Italy’s leading airline for business and leisure travelers alike.	en			https://www.skyteam.com/en/about/ita-airways/	Our Members SkyTeam is the global airline alliance dedicated to transforming the future of travel by powering the most responsible and integrated customer journey. Our member airlines work together across an extensive global network to welcome 437 million customers each year on more than 10,770 daily flights to 1,050 destinations in 166 countries. SkyTeam and Aeroflot have agreed to temporarily suspend the airline's SkyTeam membership. On the SkyTeam websites we may use the following cookies: functional cookies (for basic functionality of our websites), analytics/statistical cookies (to generate user statistics) and third party cookies (to provide the option to share content on social media platforms, to personalize advertisements and to further analyse your website usage). To use certain cookies that may impact your privacy, we require your consent. If you would like to know more about cookies and wish to change your cookie settings, please go to our Cookie Policy. By clicking on ‘I Accept’, you consent to the placing of these cookies. Please Note: While we strive to keep information up to date, lounge opening times and amenities may be subject to change. Access policies for certain lounges may differ from general policies advertised. Maintenance Dear user, our website is going through some essential maintenance work. During this time, some functionalities won’t be available. We apologize for any inconvenience this might cause to your experience on SkyTeam.com.
3152	dbpedia	1	78	https://www.military.com/join-armed-forces/us-military-branches-overview.html	en	What Are the Branches of the US Military?	https://images02.militar…4/enlistment.jpg	https://images02.militar…4/enlistment.jpg	[ "https://images.military.com/themes/military/logo.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/search-arrow.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons_facebook.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons_X.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons_pinterest.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons_email.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons-share.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons-link.svg", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/icons/social-icons_more.svg", 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"https://images02.military.com/sites/default/files/styles/thumbnail_large/public/brightcove/videos/images/posters/image_8676.jpg?itok=qPfCL53V", "https://www.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/search-arrow.svg", "https://images.military.com/themes/military/assets/images/logo-monster-footer-white.svg", "https://images.military.com/sites/default/files/media/shared/css-global/2012/05/adchoices-icon.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Military.com Updated" ]	2012-05-07T00:00:00	In simple terms, the U.S. Armed Forces are made up of the six military branches: Air Force, Army, Coast Guard, Marine Corps, Navy and Space Force.	en	/themes/military/favicon.ico	Military.com	https://www.military.com/join-armed-forces/us-military-branches-overview.html	The U.S. Armed Forces consist of six branches: the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The Army handles land-based operations, the Navy conducts naval missions, the Marine Corps specializes in amphibious warfare, the Air Force manages air and space operations, the Space Force protects U.S. interests in space, and the Coast Guard is responsible for maritime security and law enforcement. Together, they safeguard the nation's interests, with each branch having distinct roles and areas of expertise. There are three general categories of military people: active duty (full-time soldiers and sailors), reserve & guard forces (usually work a civilian job but can be called to full-time military duty), and veterans and retirees (past members of the military). And of course, there are the millions of family members and friends of military members, past and present. But you're here to learn more about the military. There is much to learn. So first the basics. Who Is in Charge of the 6 Military Branches? The president of the United States is the commander in chief, who is responsible for all final decisions. The secretary of the Department of Defense (DoD) has control over the military and each branch -- except the Coast Guard, which is under the Department of Homeland Security. With more than 2 million civilian and military employees, the DoD is the world's largest "company." What Are the Branches of the Military? Each branch of the military has a unique mission within the overall mission of U.S. security and peace. In addition to the six branches of the military, the Army and Air National Guards also serve their own special functions. Here's a rundown: Air Force and Air Force Reserve The nation's source of air and space power. The primary mission of the USAF is to fly planes, helicopters and satellites. Air National Guard The Air National Guard, as we know it today, is a separate reserve component of the United States Air Force. Army and Army Reserve The dominant land power. The Army generally moves into an area, secures it and instills order and values before it leaves. It also guards U.S. installations and properties throughout the world. Army National Guard The Army National Guard is an elite group of warriors who dedicate a portion of their time to serving their nation. Each state has its own Guard, as required by the Constitution; in fact, it is the only branch of the military whose existence actually is required by the Constitution. Coast Guard and Coast Guard Reserve The Coast Guard's mission is primarily with domestic waterways. The Coast Guard does rescues, law enforcement, drug prevention and clears waterways. Marine Corps and Marine Corps Reserve The Marine Corps is known as the country's rapid-reaction force. They are trained to fight by sea and land, and usually are the first "boots on the ground." Marines are known as the world's fiercest warriors. Navy and Navy Reserve The Navy accomplishes its missions primarily by sea but also by air and land. It secures and protects the oceans around the world to create peace and stability, making the seas safe for travel and trade. Space Force The newest branch of the military, the U.S. Space Force, was signed into law in December 2019. The Space Force currently does not have a reserve component. The sixth branch of the military, the Space Force is also still in development and will be for some time as many final decisions are made, including uniforms, basing and even recruitment. Where Are These Military Men and Women Stationed? The U.S. operates in more than 100 countries, including the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy, Bahrain, Brazil, South Korea, Australia, Afghanistan, Iraq and Japan. Interested in Joining the Military? We can put you in touch with recruiters from the different military branches. Learn about the benefits of serving your country, paying for school, military career paths, and more: sign up now and hear from a recruiter near you. Story Continues
3152	dbpedia	3	37	https://business.x.com/en/success-stories/how-sky-tapped-into-nostalgia-to-promote-sky-glass.html	en	Sky Italia	https://cdn.cms-twdigita…ng.twimg.768.png	https://cdn.cms-twdigita…ng.twimg.768.png	[ "https://business.x.com/content/dam/business-twitter/success-stories/sky-italia/sky-header.png.twimg.1920.png", "https://business.x.com/content/dam/business-twitter/success-stories/sky-italia/sky-branded-notif.png.twimg.1920.png", "https://business.x.com/content/dam/business-twitter/unbranded-stock-images/people-checking-cell-phone.jpg", "https://business.x.com/content/dam/business-twitter/unbranded-stock-images/office-desk-laptop.jpg", "https://business.x.com/content/dam/business-twitter/unbranded-stock-images/twitter_marketing_brazil_perspective_insights_campaign.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Sky partnered with X to drive awareness of Sky Glass TV, by taking audiences on X on a journey through time!	en	https://abs.twimg.com/favicons/twitter-orange.3.ico		https://business.x.com/en/success-stories/how-sky-tapped-into-nostalgia-to-promote-sky-glass.html	This was the first ever custom brand campaign to run in the Italian market. The campaign was overwhelmingly successful, generating 3.4 million video views in a short period of time, with a very modest budget. The quality of the copy, the attention-grabbing nature of the video assets, and the surprise element of the random response mechanic proposed by Xâs in-house creative team, all combined to deliver outstanding reach and engagement. Video ads on X provide a more engaging way to tell your story and captivate your audience. X is becoming a video-first platform, with video now part of more than 8 in 10 of unique user sessions.Â Branded Notifications enable advertisers to have 1-1 conversations at scale, delivering time-triggered, automated @mention posts directly to opted-in users at the moments that matter most.Â For Sky Italia, people who "liked" the call-to-action (CTA) post received a personalized notification from Sky that was randomly selected from a pre-written set of possible responses.Â Their opt out messaging was also baked-in to the post copy, to ensure brand safety.Â
3152	dbpedia	3	60	https://italicsmag.com/2022/05/20/civita-di-bagnoregio-the-city-in-the-sky/	en	Civita di Bagnoregio: The City In The Sky	https://italicsmag.com/w…-4014-scaled.jpg	https://italicsmag.com/w…-4014-scaled.jpg	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=561970142801860&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-e1545843349431.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-2-e1545840888455.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gianluca-bei-JtFz3WhGck0-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/nicole-geri-hf5lj-6CMx0-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/295403680_d3f62071e4_c-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/eliott-reyna-kcT-7cirBEw-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/joshua-hanks-MEUA9bJ4uPw-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/annie-niemaszyk-O97e8AK1BVY-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Italian-Opera-Theater-San-Carlo-Napoli-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Naples-Nativity-Scenes-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Haruki-Murakami-on-Graffiti-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/antonio-molinari-1989cZMSwtA-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/vincent-guth-62V7ntlKgL8-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/POLLIONE-DIEGO-GODOY-3-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/BK9A5252-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/aaron-thomas-iCjqkc_Jtsc-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/pexels-cottonbro-studio-4659806-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/luca-florio-BHl2WVvDu8o-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/artur-tumasjan-KZSNMN4VxR8-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/illiya-vjestica-CKaAbuj90zs-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-4014-770x578.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-4034-800x1067.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-5313-800x600.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/4f8e5cfb-83be-4bec-9d9e-e2194e3ed5ed-1-800x600.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gianluca-bei-JtFz3WhGck0-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/nicole-geri-hf5lj-6CMx0-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/295403680_d3f62071e4_c-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/spencer-davis-9qY7iog2CU4-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ITALICS-mag-LOGO-bianco-01-e1545842406918.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-e1545843349431.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Jana Godshall" ]	2022-05-20T00:00:00	Time traveling and romanticizing different eras aside, everyone should bookmark Civita di Bagnoregio in their must-see towns in Italy.	en	https://italicsmag.com/w…cs-New-32x32.png	Italics Magazine	https://italicsmag.com/2022/05/20/civita-di-bagnoregio-the-city-in-the-sky/	Raise your hand if you like time travel? Well, not that I can actually see any of your hands, but I would assume some of you have them up — or at least thought about it. And why wouldn’t you? The idea of traveling back in time appeals to so many of us. In fact, if I could have one superpower, it would be the ability to travel through time, but since I’m only human, I have to rely on period piece films and time traveling movies to fill this void in my life. I gladly suspend my beliefs and all sense of logic as I willingly go on the journey the story takes me — whether that means I believe that a magic door or a flying car allow people to go back and forth between centuries, I’m onboard. Aside from fiction and fantasies, ancient cities are the closest thing that provide us with the slightest notion of what the past may have felt like. It’s essentially the nearest thing that we have to real life time travel, and it’s probably why I love Italy as much as I do. We can literally walk on the same roads that were built thousands of years ago. We’re given a taste of the past, and Italy has no shortage when it comes to ancient cities. Take Rome for instance. It’s one big outdoor museum of the past world. Matera in the Basilicata region feels biblical. San Gimignano in Tuscany is straight up medieval times. And then there’s Civita di Bagneregio just one hour north of Rome, and it’s one of those places that stops you in your tracks. You walk around a corner, and bam! You’re hit with the image of an ancient village that literally looks perched on top of a crumbling mountain. And it looks perched on top of a crumbling mountain because it is. The image truly takes your breath away and invites you on a journey to another time. It’s an enchanting show-stopper, and to put it lightly, it’s dying. And it’s known around Italy as the dying town, ‘la città che muore’. Despite the constant erosion, there are a lot of people working to keep Civita di Bagnoregio intact. These people are fully aware of how many tourists visit the village and just how special the place is. They don’t want to see it going anywhere any time soon, so a lot of funding goes into repairing this dying city. Civita di Bagneregio was founded over two thousand years ago by the Etruscans. The Etruscans are believed to have migrated from the East Mediterranean and Asia Minor area in 900 BC, but you don’t gather that from any of the architecture. Most of what you see in Civita was built during the Middle Ages. The church structure and bell tower in the center of the town were likely built around 600 AD, and the rest of the buildings were probably constructed around 1100 AD. But things didn’t start to go south — literally crumble to the ground — until 1695, after an earthquake hit. This started the decline. Following the quake, there were many landslides, each that trimmed more and more land off the city’s square footage. These natural disasters left it vulnerable and virtually abandoned. Civita loses about seven centimeters of land each year. The earth collapses into the canyon below, and despite the amount of money that goes into keeping it alive, the city is still on the 100 most endangered sites lists. The yearly erosion plus the fact that the town is basically an island connected to the world by a footbridge keeps the population at a minimum. I’ve read that the city has seven residents, but I’ve also read that eleven and maybe even sixteen people call this place home. To be honest, I don’t see how it’s more than a vacation home to most of the residents because to reach the village you have to cross the sole footbridge that’s about 366 meters, inclined. That’s about a fifteen minute walk. Can you imagine leaving the house keys in the car? Round trip that’s at least thirty minutes. And don’t even get me started on furniture. I don’t understand how one moves anything there. And while there may not be many year-round locals, there’s no shortage of tourists. The tourists arrive each and every day by the busloads. In 2019, one million visitors stopped by to enjoy this ancient city in the sky. Civita is known as one of the most beautiful towns in Italy, and it really does have that picture-perfect postcard image inside and out. There are no vehicles driven within the city walls; there’s not even a grocery store, hardware store or any offices that I could find. However, sprinkled about are quaint restaurants, enotecas, museums, souvenir shops, a number of charm-filled B&Bs, and even a little garden on the opposite end of the entrance. Sauntering through the town and passing the souvenir shops each highlighting different paintings and photographs of the city, it was easy to want to mentally travel inside the photo, despite already being in the city at that very moment. Oftentimes, when we mentally travel to other lands or time periods, we think we would be happier. Sometimes when we see a photograph of a beautiful memory, we may want to be inside the picture again — to go back to that day or that moment in time where things looked happier or maybe easier (from a 2D perspective). Now, I am literally inside a picture, a perfect moment, and I’m still admiring a photo of it instead of real life. It’s the same sentiment of wishing you knew you were in the good ole days before it’s too late. Maybe if I could just remember this then I wouldn’t stroll through streets of an ancient village and long to live in another era. Instead, I’d want to live in the moment and appreciate what the city is now and whom I’m experiencing it with. But honestly, who am I kidding? I wouldn’t last a day in the ancient world. Despite all the lounging time and leisure-wear togas, one whiff of the streets, and I would surely be a goner. I can hardly stand the smell of today’s public restrooms. Can you imagine the ancient roads? They were one big toilet. The smell alone would be the death of me. Time traveling and romanticizing different eras aside, everyone should bookmark Civita di Bagnoregio in their must-see towns in Italy. I’ve now been to Civita three times, and while maybe I don’t necessarily see anything new (it’s a small village), I feel something new each time. And I always have to make a special stop at Antico Forno. I’m not usually a creature of habit — I mean, I am. Who am I kidding? I’ve worn the same perfume for twenty years. However, I still like to try new places, but here in Civita, I really just want to eat in this rustic cave filled with antique treasures, including a 1500 year-old original oil press that serves as a master centerpiece for the restaurant. The menu at Antico Forno is quite small, and mainly bruschetta but — authentic bruschetta — which I guess is confusing to people who write reviews on Tripadvisor because the place only has 2 stars and really funny slash harsh reviews, as it seems people get pretty riled up about paying for toast — which guys, bruschetta is essentially toast. You can add delicious toppings, but at the end of the day, it’s toast. I really can’t recommend this spot more when you visit this magical mountaintop. All in all, if you need to relax after pounding the pavement in Rome, I suggest you buy a journal or bring your laptop and spend a couple of nights at a B&B and reflect. Write. Meditate on whatever is happening or not happening in that noggin’ of yours and travel back to present day and enjoy the inspiration from the little city in the sky. Take a photograph and bottle up the memories so one day when you need reminding you can open the bottle and smile about the good ole days. Or wait, didn’t I say earlier that the good ole days are always now. Okay, well. I guess it’s all relative. What do I know? Just go to the city. Eat some toast. Donate to the cause of helping a two thousand plus year-old city not die.
3152	dbpedia	1	79	https://www.familyeducation.com/pregnancy/baby-names/names-that-mean-sun	en	151 Names That Mean Sun (with Meanings and Origins)	https://www.familyeducat…bp?itok=VNmffYAw	https://www.familyeducat…bp?itok=VNmffYAw	[ "https://www.familyeducation.com/themes/custom/fentheme_radix/logo.svg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/themes/custom/fentheme_radix/logo.svg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/max_920w/public/2023-07/151%20Names%20That%20Mean%20Sun_Feature.jpg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/scale50w_crop/public/2022-05/Heidi-Butler-Headshot.jpg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/Girl%20Names%20That%20Mean%20Sun.jpg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/Names%20that%20Mean%20Sunrise.jpg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/scale150w/public/2022-05/Heidi-Butler-Headshot.jpg", "https://www.familyeducation.com/themes/custom/fentheme_radix/build/assets/images/logo-light.svg", "https://www.playwire.com/hubfs/Powered-by-Playwire-Badges/Ads-Powered-by-playwire-2021-standalone-small-300px.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/themes/custom/fentheme_radix/build/assets/images/sbx-logo-learning.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/factmonster_logo.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/infoplease_logo.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/teachervision_logo.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/inline-images/sbco-logo.png", "https://www.familyeducation.com/sites/default/files/styles/crop_150x150_/public/2023-10/101%20Zimbabwean%20Shona%20Names%20for%20Girls_Feature.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Heidi Butler" ]	2023-07-18T08:14:06-04:00	Discover the perfect name for your little sunshine with our list of names that mean sun. Browse unique and meaningful options for your baby boy or girl.	en	/themes/custom/fentheme_radix/favicon.ico	FamilyEducation	https://www.familyeducation.com/pregnancy/baby-names/names-that-mean-sun	Discover the perfect name for your little sunshine with our list of names that mean sun. Browse unique and meaningful options for your baby boy or girl. Table of contents The sun is the heart of our universe, which makes it the perfect inspiration for the name of the piece of your heart living outside of your body. Baby names that mean sun are a brilliant choice because they represent warmth and life. If you are looking for a sun name for your little one, the first place to look is history books! People have worshiped the various Gods and Goddesses of the sun, the dawn, and the sky for centuries, paying tribute to the light that these deities bring to our existence. These unique names that mean sun come from all parts of the globe, so you can choose from monikers that match your heritage or select ones from another! Related: 50 Names That Mean Fire for Your Little Spark of Life If you are setting your sights on finding a baby name that means sun, then you’ve come to the right place! We have an extensive list of baby girl names, baby boy names, gender-neutral names, and even God and Goddess names for your little ray of light. Here are 150+ sun-sational baby names for your little ray of sunshine! Boy Names That Mean Sun Aarush - This is an Indian and Sanskrit name meaning “first ray of sun.” Aelius - A Romanian name meaning “sun” or “sunshine.” Albert - Of German origins, this title means “bright,” “noble,” “famous,” and “intelligent.” Anshul - A Hindu title meaning “sunbeam,” “radiant,” or “first ray of sun.” Aster - This is a Greek name that means “star.” Aurelius - Of Latin origins, this title means “golden one.” Berto - A Spanish name meaning “bright flame.” Bertrand - This is a German title meaning “bright.” Cy - Of Persian origins, this name means “the sun.” Cyrus - Another Persian name meaning “the sun.” Dag - This is a Scandinavian name meaning “daylight.” Dayton - Of Scandinavian and Old English origins, this name means “day” and “bright town,” respectively. Elio - This is an Italian and Spanish name for “sun.” Enver - A Turkish name meaning “luminous.” Halo - Of French origins, this name means “greeting” or “surprise.” This is also the word used to describe the white light that forms around the sun. Langa - This is a Zulu and African name meaning “sun,” “light,” and “sunshine.” Luca - An English name meaning “bringer of light.” Lucian - This is a Latin name meaning “light.“ Nuri - Of Arabic origins, this name means “fire.” Robert - A Spanish name meaning “bright flame.” Roshan - This is a Hindi and Indian name meaning “one who emanates light.” Sampson - A Hebrew name meaning “like the sun.” Samson - Another Hebrew name meaning “like the sun.” Sansone - Yet another Hebrew name that means “like the sun.” Sindri - This is an Old Norse moniker that means “glittering.” Somerset - Meaning “dwellers at the summer settlement”, this title has English origins. Taner - Of Turkish origins, this name means “seed,” “born at dawn,” and “warrior of the dawn.” Xanthus - This is a Greek epithet meaning “yellow.” Girl Names That Mean Sun Aeliana - Of Latin and Roman origins, this title means “sun.” Áine - This is an Irish name that translates to “radiance,” “brightness,” and “brilliance.” Alina - A Greek name that means “light” and “truth.” Apricity - Of English origins, this name means “warmth of the sun in winter.” Asta - This is a Greek name meaning “star.” Aurelia - Of Latin origins, this pretty name means “gold.” Claire - A Latin name meaning “bright.” This is a fitting title for a baby girl who is radiant like the sun! It is also a popular name, ranking number 66 on the Social Security Administration’s Most Popular Baby Names list of 2022. Clara - Another name of Latin origin that means “bright.” Cyra - This is a Persian name meaning “sun” or “throne.” Danique - Of French origins, this name means “morning star.” Dagny - A Scandinavian name meaning “day.” Dior - Of French origins, this epithet means “golden.” Eileen - A Greek and Irish name meaning “light.” Elena - This is a Greek name meaning “light.” Eliana - Of Greek origins, this name means “mercy” and “daughter of the sun.” It also has Hebrew roots meaning “my God has answered.” Eliane - This is a French title meaning “daughter of the sun.” Elidi - A Greek name meaning “gift of the sun.” Elin - Of English origins, this name means “light.” Elina - Another name of Greek origin, this title means “bright light.” Ellen - This is an English name that means “light.” Enya - Of Scottish origins, this title means “blazing” or “jewel.” Estella - A Latin name meaning “star.” Estrella - Of Spanish origins, this is another name that means “star.” Esther - This is a Persian name meaning “star.” Goldie - An Old English name meaning “to shine.” Helen - Of Irish origins, this name means “light.” Helia - This is a Greek name that means “sun” or “daughter of the sun.” Hinata - A Japanese name meaning “ray of sunshine.” Ilene - A Greek and Irish name meaning “light.” Kalinda - This is a Hindi name meaning “sun.” Kira - A Persian name meaning “sun,” a Japanese name “sunlight,” and a Latin name meaning “light.” Kiran - Of Hindi origins, this title means “ray of light” or “sunbeam.” Kyra - This is another Persian name meaning “throne” or “sun.” Laine - An English name meaning “sun ray.” Leonora - This is a Greek name meaning “light.” Lina - Of Russian origin, this beautiful name means “illumination.” Luciana - This is a Latin and Italian name meaning “illumination” or “light.” Lucille - Of French and Latin origins, this epithet also translates to “light.” Lucy - A Latin name meaning “light” and “riches.” Luz - This is a Latin and Spanish name meaning “light.” Marici - Of Sanskrit origins, this name means “ray of light.” Marisol - This is a Spanish name that means “I am the sun.” Mehri - Of Arabic origins, this name means “sunny,” “lovable,” and “kind.” Melina - A Greek name meaning “yellow as a canary.” Mitra - Of Hindi origins, this title means “friend” or “the sun.” Neci - This is a Latin name meaning “intense” and “fiery.” Nellie - A Greek name meaning “the bright one.” Nora - This is a Greek title that means “the bright one,” “honor,” or “light.” Oralie - A Latin and Hebrew name meaning “golden” and “light.” Phoebe - Of Greek origins, this epithet means “brilliant,” “radiant,” or “shining one.” Rashmi - A Sanskrit and Indian name meaning “ray of light” and “sun rays.” Rezarta - Of Albanian origins, this name means “golden ray.” Savita - This is a Hindi name meaning “sun.” Solana - A Spanish name meaning “sunshine.” Soleil - This is a French name meaning “sun.” Soley - This is a Catalan surname that means “sunny side.” Solveig - A Norwegian and Scandinavian name meaning “way of the sun.” Sunna - This is an Arabic name meaning “sun” or “sunshine.” Sunniva - Of English and Scandinavian origins, meaning “gift of the sun.” Sunny - An English name meaning “bright disposition” or “cheerful” and the word to describe bright with sunlight. Synnove - Of Scandinavian origins, this name means “sun gift.” Tindra - A Swedish name that means “twinkle,” “sparkle,” or “shine.” Zara - This is an Arabic name meaning “radiance” or “blooming flower.” Zia - Of Arabic and Persian origins, this title means “light” and “illumination.” Gender-Neutral Names that Mean Sun Anwar - Of Muslim origins, this epithet means “rays of light.” Arev - This is an Armenian name meaning “sun.” Arki - A Filipino, Indian, Sanskrit, and Norwegian name meaning “sun” or “radiant.” Diell - This is an Albanian title meaning “sun.” Günay - A Turkish title meaning “moon seen in daylight” and “beautiful like the sun and moon.” Haru - Of Japanese and Korean origins, this moniker means “daylight,” “sun,” and “sunshine.” JoMei - A Japanese name meaning “spreads light.” Keahi - This is a Hawaiian name that means “flames” or “fire.” Kem - An English epithet meaning “sun.” It is also an American girl’s name meaning “zany” and an Irish name meaning “warrior chief.” Mirri - Of Australian origins, this name means “the sun.” Osbert - This is an English name meaning “divinely bright.” Robin - Of Old English origins, this name means “bright.” Saulė - A Lithuanian name meaning “sun.” Shams - An Arabic family name meaning “sun.” Sulien - This is a Welsh name that means “born from the sun.” Sun - While a little on the nose, this is a Korean and Chinese name that means “goodness,” and of course, “sun.” Surya - A unisex Hindi name meaning “the sun.” Sun God and Goddess Names and Origins Abellona - This is the name of the Norse goddess of the sun. Aditya - Of Hindi and Sanskrit origins, this title means “lord of the sun.” Alectrona - This is the name of the Greek goddess of the sun. Apollo - Of Greek origins, this name means “manly” and it is the title of the God of the sun. Aurora - A Roman name for the Goddess of the dawn. It also means “gold” in Latin. Eos - The name of the Greek Goddess of the dawn. Freyr - Of Old Norse origins, this name means “God of peace and prosperity.” He was also the God of sunshine. Grian - Of Irish origins, this is the name of the Celtic Goddess of the sun. Helios - In Ancient Greek mythology, this is the name of the God of the sun. Horus - Of Egyptian origins, this is the God of the sun and the sky. Inti - This is the name of the Incan sun god. Lugh - Of Celtic origins, this is the name of the God of sun and light. Malina - In Inuit mythology, this is the name of the Goddess of the sun. Meri - An Old Welsh name meaning “protector by the sea” and the name of the Brazilian sun god. Naolin - This is the Aztec God of the sun. Ra - Another recognizable name on this list, this is the Egyptian God of the sun. Ravi - Of Hindi origins, this is a sun God and a name that means”benevolent.” Ravindra - This is the name for the Hindu God of the sun. It translates to “protector of ravens.” Semine - This is the Danish Goddess of the sun, moon, and stars. Sol - Of Latin origins, this name means “the sun.” It is the name of the Roman God of the sun. Surya - This is the other name for the Hindu God of the sun. Names that Mean Sunset Dismas - Of Hebrew and Greek origins, this masculine name means “sunset.” Dysis - This is a Greek girl’s name meaning “sunset.” Sandya - A Hindi girl name meaning “sunset time.” Names that Mean Sunrise Agim - Of Albanian origins, this masculine epithet means “dawn” or “sunrise.” Agon - A unisex Albanian name that means “dawn.” Akino - This Japanese girl’s name means “rising sun.” Alba - A Latin name meaning “dawn” or “a thick or mass of vegetation.” Altan - This is a Turkish boy’s name meaning “red dawn.” Anatoly - Meaning “sunrise” or “east,” this boy’s name has Russian origins. Aurum - This is a unisex Latin title that means “glowing dawn” or “golden.” Danica - Of Latin origins, this unique girl’s name means “morning star.” Dawn - This is an English girl’s name meaning “daybreak.” Ergun - Of Turkish origins, this unisex name means “rising of the sun.” Gry - A unisex Norwegian name that means “dawn.” Heulwen - This is a Welsh girl’s name meaning “sunrise.” Oriana - A Latin girl’s name meaning “dawn.” Ôstara - This is a German girl’s name that means “dawn’s first light” and “to shine.” Roxana - A Persian and Iranian girl’s name meaning “bright,” “shining,” “brilliant one,” and “dawn.” Shachar - This is a gender-neutral Hebrew title meaning “first light” or “dawn.” Zora - Of Slavic origins, this feminine title means “golden dawn.” Zorina - This is another Slavic girl’s name meaning “golden dawn.” How to Pick the Perfect Sun Name For more creative sun names you can also select from names that circle around the actual word “sun” or you can choose titles that are associated with this radiant star in our galaxy. These can include descriptors like bright, light, luminous, golden, yellow, shining, glowing, glittering, flame, warm, and blazing. Additionally, parents-to-be can pick out names that mean star, and names that mean ray of light. You can also look for names inspired by sunshine, dawn, sunrise, and sunset! Needless to say, no matter if you choose a first or middle name that surrounds this de-light-ful theme, you are selecting a powerful personification of this life-sustaining part of our cosmos. Need more inspiration? Consider these radiant baby boy names and baby girl names that mean light!
3152	dbpedia	3	3	https://konghq.com/resources/case-study/sky-italia-modernized-and-transformed-into-an-apiops-led-organization-with-kong-enterprise	en	Sky Italia modernized and transformed into an APIOps-led organization with Kong Gateway Enterprise	https://prd-mktg-konghq-….png?auto=format	https://prd-mktg-konghq-….png?auto=format	[ "https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=256 256w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=460 460w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=690 690w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=920 920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1150 1150w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1380 1380w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1920 1920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/01/65b82d4e-digital-defense-demo-1200x627.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=2560 2560w", "https://assets.prd.mktg.konghq.com/images/2023/05/logo-sky.svg", "https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=256 256w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=460 460w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=690 690w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=920 920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1150 1150w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1380 1380w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1920 1920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/04/66311c44-cf-logo.jpeg?auto=format&fit=max&w=2560 2560w", "https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=256 256w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=460 460w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=690 690w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=920 920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1150 1150w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1380 1380w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=1920 1920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2024/02/65cfdcc2-logo-mercedes-1245x800.jpg?auto=format&fit=max&w=2560 2560w", "https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=256 256w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=460 460w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=690 690w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=920 920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1150 1150w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1380 1380w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=1920 1920w, https://prd-mktg-konghq-com.imgix.net/images/2023/11/6568c88c-aaeron-logo.png?auto=format&fit=max&w=2560 2560w" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	/favicon.ico	Kong Inc.	https://konghq.com/resources/case-study/sky-italia-modernized-and-transformed-into-an-apiops-led-organization-with-kong-enterprise	As a large media and technology company, Sky Italia faced challenges around standardizing and managing its APIs. While the team had an existing SOA Architecture in place, they realized that it would not allow them to deliver on the ambitious goals of creating a platform that would support all aspects of Sky's revenue-generating business. Without the ability to scale and move to a microservice architecture, the team needed to find a new solution that would allow them to be more efficient, reduce costs, and maintain low latency. Sky chose Kong as its API management platform to support its new infrastructure built on the pillars of automation, observability, and performance. This infrastructure utilized Kong Enterprises deployment flexibility, running in hybrid mode to support both cloud and on-prem services. They also used AWS EKS to manage their Kubernetes clusters and microservices in the cloud, alongside an AWS Managed Observability Stack and IaC by policy to build a solution that is both highly scalable and has high availability. By adding Kong plugins to extend the functionality of this architecture to include security, monitoring, transformation, and integration, the team has been able to implement simple logic directly on the gateway, saving effort and greatly broadening the scope of what Kong Enterprise can provide. In order to implement APIOps methodology, the Sky team created a clear process to facilitate the rapid building and iteration of APIs through a combination of DevOps and GitOps. "Through this new process, we have been able to reduce development time to enable fast usage and rapid testing as soon as the interface agreement is confirmed. This lets the team work much faster and more efficiently, to deliver quicker results to the broader organization," says Spadaccini. Since first deploying Kong Gateway Enterprise, Sky Italia has seen impressive benefits and results. From a technical standpoint, they have increased performance by 70%, while maintaining 99.99% availability. "One of our major goals in partnering with Kong was to be able to support our high volume of transactions, without losing any revenue through downtime. We have been able not only to meet, but exceed these goals," says Spadaccini. They have also reduced deployment time by 80%, allowing the team to build 200+ APIs designed and built through the APIOps with clear policies, increased testing, and greater consistency. The broader business has also seen significant results since Sky began working with Kong. The team has also achieved faster time-to-market, releasing new products and services 20% more quickly than before. This speed provides better experiences for customers across the board, while also producing new revenue streams for the business. The benefits that the Sky Italia team has seen since implementing Kong even extend past improvements in speed, availability, and cost savings. Spadaccini and the Integration team needed to fully reconceptualize their approach to APIs and their role in the tech stack. "It took time to fully implement this new strategy," says Spadaccini. "We had to build out not only the new architecture, which of course took time and effort, but we also needed to retrain ourselves in how we create and measure the APIs that we do have." This mindset shift was assisted by developers on the team diving in and using Kong Gateway Enterprise. After trying out the new system and realizing how easy it was to use, they fully embraced the API lifecycle management and APIOps mindset. "Now that we have a centralized platform and process for designing, building, and managing our API lifecycle, we have been able to change our entire company's mindset around APIs. They are not an afterthought, but a core of our technology stack and foundational to our strategy," says Spadaccini.
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3152	dbpedia	1	80	https://brooklynrail.org/2024/07/art/An-My-Le-with-Monique-Truong-and-Ocean-Vuong	en	An-My Lê with Monique Truong and Ocean Vuong	https://storage.googleap…/40739/le-1a.jpg	https://storage.googleap…/40739/le-1a.jpg	[ "https://brooklynrail.org/images/dist/brooklynrail-logo.svg", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg2.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg3.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg4.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg5.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40739/le-1a.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40732/le-3.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40731/le-2a.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40729/le-1.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40735/le-7.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40733/le-4.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40737/le-9.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40738/le-10.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40736/le-8.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40734/le-5.jpg?w=575&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40729/le-1.jpg?w=440&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40730/le-2.jpg?w=440&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/article_image/image/40732/le-3.jpg?w=440&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.org/images/dist/brooklynrail-logo-white.png", "https://brooklynrail.org/images/dist/brooklynrail-logo.svg", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg2.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg3.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg4.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.imgix.net/content/issue/cover_image/247/br-covers-jpeg5.jpg?w=200&q=80&fit=max", "https://brooklynrail.org/images/dist/br-black-150.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "An-My Lê", "Monique Truong", "Ocean Vuong" ]	2024-07-02T00:00:00+00:00	This special occasion brings in conversation Vietnamese American artist An-My Lê with Vietnamese American writers, Monique Truong and Ocean Vuong. It is organized in conjunction with the exhibition An-My Lê: Between Two Rivers.	en	/images/dist/apple-touch-icon.png	The Brooklyn Rail	https://brooklynrail.org/2024/07/art/An-My-Le-with-Monique-Truong-and-Ocean-Vuong	Despite how difficult life can be without our sense of control, every once in a while each of us gets reminded who we truly are in the world. This occasional reminder or moment of self-recognition occurs when we least expect. I remember my late friend Jonas Mekas (who prefers to be called a “filmmer,” a midwife rather than the godfather of American avant-garde cinema) in the last two decades of his life had traveled extensively and had often been asked a similar question, “Where do you come from? Where do you live? And what do you do?,” which philosophically evokes Paul Gauguin’s epic picture Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We Going? (1897–1898). Mekas always provided the same answer, “I was born in Lithuania. I live in New York. And my country is culture.” In thinking of the millions of political refugees and immigrants, who left their beloved father/mother lands for the United States and elsewhere among the free and open societies of the world, we all immediately know in the space in-between that neither belongs to their old, nor new homes. Here, I must confess, as fortunate as many of us are in regards to having discovered our lifelong passions, some particular creative outlets from which we can pour our total intellectual and emotional energies as maximally as possible, we may, however at times, come to realize these passions can be served as substitutions as personal avoidances from our deep pains and boundless sorrows. (This why we rarely and readily in our respective ambitions would generally imply our substances, our emotional lives that ought to be hidden, buried, or suppressed to somewhere else in our psyches, as we often fear our stories are less interesting or perhaps too untidied.) It is from this perspective that I find very infrequently it emerges when both form and substance can harmoniously be brought together as one coherent synthesis, which is to say I felt fortunate to have been present at this remarkable and generous gathering of our three old and new friends. The following conversation took place on the evening of Monday, January 22, 2024 at the Roy and Niuta Titus Theater 1 at The Museum of Modern Art. It includes Roxana Marcoci’s thoughtful introduction and has been slightly edited for your broader reading pleasure. —Phong Bui Roxana Marcoci: Good evening and warm greetings to everyone, those present in person and those joining us via Zoom. I’m Roxana Marcoci, The David Dechman Senior Curator and Acting Chief Curator of Photography at The Museum of Modern Art. And it is my pleasure to welcome you all on this special occasion, which brings in conversation Vietnamese American artist An-My Lê and Vietnamese American writers, Monique Truong and Ocean Vuong, organized in conjunction with the exhibition An-My Lê: Between Two Rivers/Giữa hai giòng sông/Entre deux rivières, an exhibition whose title in English, Vietnamese, and French conjures up a space where distinct landscapes, histories, and cultures converge. This ninety minute conversation will explore themes of memory, autobiography, heritage, and the creative relationality between images and words. This event is the germination of a partnership between the Asian American Writers’ Workshop and The Museum of Modern Art. And it is an honor to have collaborated with Jafreen Uddin, Executive Director of the AAWW, and her team in planning this event and sharing space tonight with its members. For over thirty years, the AAWW has been dedicated to publishing and amplifying Asian American literary culture. Operating from a radically inclusive ethos, AAWW expands the definition not only of who—of who a writer is, but also of who is Asian American. Through a robust and diverse lineup of programming, AAWW serves as a vital sanctuary space for writers and readers alike. It’s one of the only national organization cultivating and curating the next generation of Asian American storytellers. AAWW works to mobilize the literary community towards a more just future. So on behalf of both our institutions, we extend heartfelt thanks to our three distinguished speakers, as well as with Adelia Gregory, Manager of Public Engagement, José Camacho, Assistant Educator, and Naomi Amenu-Fesseha, Public Programs Fellow in the Department of Learning and Engagement, and Caitlin Ryan, Assistant Curator of Photography. It’s been a cherished gift, to me personally, to have worked with An-My Lê on her consequential survey at MoMA. And I hope you will all take the opportunity to view the exhibition one more time before it closes. Educated at Stanford and Yale University, An-My has been the recipient of the MacArthur Grant, the Louis Comfort Tiffany Foundation Award, the Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship, among numerous other honors. An artist’s artist, she is an influential thinker and educator. As a Charles Franklin Kellogg and Grace E. Ramsey Kellogg Professor in the Arts at Bard College, New York, An-My has played a crucial role in the imagination of future generations of creatives. For more than three decades, she has addressed in her own practice the complex fictions that inform how we justify, represent, and mythologize warfare and other forms of conflict. At a time when there is always more than one war being waged in the world, the significance of photographs that critically engage with the meaning of rampage and dislocation are ever more urgent, and in the context of heightened political tensions within the US, An-My’s work invites us to reflect beyond insular ideas of nation state, and national borders on the diverse temporalities of space, the layering of racial identities and histories, and the intimacies that grow paradoxically out of conflict. Her work was first presented at The Museum of Modern Art in 1997, in New Photography, an exhibition curated by our former colleague, Susan Kismaric. And it’s a great pleasure to have her here this evening. The New Photography is an iteration of the museum’s long standing series of significant development in photographic practice. And we are now inviting you to see An-My’s most comprehensive retrospective, featuring new projects that the museum is proud to have world premiered. We are honored to have with us the novelist, essayist, children’s book author and librettist Monique Truong, whose debut novel The Book of Salt, published in 2003, is an exploration of the artistic salons of Paris in the 1930s, a time when Vietnam was part of colonial French Indochina, from the eyes of the Vietnamese cook employed by Gertrude Stein and Alice B. Toklas. The book, whose story revolves around photographs, became a national bestseller, a New York Times Notable Fiction Book and the winner of the New York Public Library Young Lions Fiction Award, and the Bard Fiction Prize, among other honors, along with Bitter in the Mouth from 2010 and The Sweetest Fruits from 2019. Monique’s novels have been translated into fourteen languages to date. Monique also co-edited the anthology Watermark: Vietnamese American Poetry and Prose, and its twenty-fifth anniversary edition in 2023. Monique is the recipient of the Guggenheim Fellowship, US-Japan Creative Artists Fellowship, American Academy of Arts and Letters Rosenthal Family Foundation Award, PEN/Robert W. Bingham Fellowship, Princeton University’s Hodder Fellowship, John Gardner Fiction Book Award and John Dos Passos Prize for Literature. We are honored to have with us Ocean Vuong, Professor in the creative writing MFA program at New York University, the author of The New York Times bestselling poetry collection Time is a Mother from 2022, a deeply intimate poignant testament in the face of longing and loss, and the New York Times bestselling novel On Earth We’re Briefly Gorgeous from 2019, an epistolary, fearless meditation on the meaning of human connection, and the entanglements of colonial and personal histories. The recipient of the MacArthur Grant, Ocean’s contributions to literature also include the critically acclaimed poetry collection, Night Sky with Exit Wounds, a New York Times Top 10 Book of 2016, winner of the T.S. Eliot Prize, the Whiting Award, the Thom Gunn Award, and the Forward Prize for Best First Collection. His daring experimentation with language and form illuminate how the experiences we perennially live through, enjoy, endure, and question are truly inexhaustible. A Ruth Lilly fellow from the Poetry Foundation, Ocean’s honors comprise fellowships from the Lannan Foundation, the Civitella Ranieri Foundation, The Elizabeth George Foundation, The Academy of American Poets, and the Pushcart Prize. We are deeply honored that Ocean’s poem, “The Last Dinosaur,” Monique’s essay, “We Travel to See”, and An-My’s “Beyond the Rectangle: Fourteen Views.” Transoceanic, complex, and fluid stories grace the pages of our exhibition catalog that I hope you’ll all have the curiosity and opportunity to read. An-My Lê: So we decided to introduce ourselves this way. And Monique will explain a little bit more. This is a scan of my grandmother’s passport, and it was actually delivered out of the Vietnamese Embassy in France. It’s a bit of a complicated story as to why we were all there, and why it’s my grandmother and her grandchildren in the photographs in the passport, but I am showing it because of the influence of grandparents on children of diasporas. I think we always look back at our parents to be the keepers of culture. But we should look further back at the grandparents, because it seems that there’s something even deeper and perhaps more at the root of who we are, where we come from. I also put this page of my grandmother’s passport up because I, for the longest time, said that I didn’t know what it meant to be an artist. I was trained as a biologist, I kind of discovered photography by chance. But more recently, I thought about my grandmother’s influence. She was living in Paris in this very scrappy apartment given by the Catholic Church. It was the late sixties when we arrived with my mom. And while we were in school, she would be in the apartment smoking, listening on the cassette tape to Trịnh Công Sơn and experimenting—cooking. There was only one very fancy Chinese restaurant at the time in Paris, and then some other scrappy place that was more like a grocery store. So my grandmother was experimenting; she was trying to make street food, the kind of food that we don’t really cook at home in Vietnam. Of course, the ingredients were missing. And she was very resourceful in terms of making things up and substituting. I was the sous-chef, so I was constantly running up and down the five flights of stairs, buying different groceries, begging for Chinese parsley, which was cilantro, which no one ever had. And I would be tasting, chopping, tasting. And I think that what I learned from her was that, even when she failed, which was often, she would pick it up the next day and continue. Of course, there was no such thing as authentic because she didn’t have the right ingredients. But she managed to do something that tasted right. Or that perhaps just felt comforting enough. I think that all of her trials and tribulations kind of made me understand what it means to be an artist. That you don’t really know where you’re going. And it’s all trial and error. But when you get there, you just know it. Monique Truong: Okay, so this is me. This photo was taken in Saigon in 1971—January 27, 1971, which was the first day of Tết, in the Year of the Pig. I’m two years old, and I’m here with my grandfather. His name was Phạm Văn Tươi, and he was a writer. He wrote under his own name, and he also wrote under the pen name Tú Xe, and he was also a translator, a bookstore owner, a book publisher. The lore within my family is that I inherited my love of writing and words from him. And, you know, his achievements are talked about with great pride, especially by my mother. And I have been thinking recently that for her to have been able—and still be able—to say his name in connection with mine was really a way for her to alleviate a lot of the fear and a lot of the anxiety that she felt for me ever since I left the law to become a writer. So, you know, this familial thread that I have with this man of letter—this Vietnamese man of letter, this tradition—is here in the US, of course, only that—familial, private, right? So, his name was never a part of my official biography. He’s never mentioned in introductions at events and gatherings like this. And I think in recent years, I’ve really started to feel that absence more and more. I feel this need to remember and acknowledge him. So tonight, we’re going to change that. We’re going to take this opportunity to introduce myself to you as Monique Truong, cháu gái của nhà văn, the granddaughter of the writer Phạm Văn Tươi. Thank you. Ocean Vuong: Thank you so much for both of your comments on the photos. This photo was taken perhaps around 1993 in the tenement building, in Hartford, Connecticut, where I grew up. The Salvation Army sponsored us and we were all in a one bedroom apartment here. And, of course, I look at this photo and think of Roland Barthes’s punctum and studium. What I love about Barthes’s concept is that for him the most perennial haunting punctum is what’s not in the photo—but time, what the photo elicits. My mother took this snapshot, and when I look at it, I don’t see myself—of course it’s a photo of myself, but I see instead myself aspiring towards my mother. And something that I love in photography, but also perhaps specifically portrait photography, in the work of An-My, and Dawoud Bey, William Gedney, is that the photographer has the magical power of eliciting a kind of gaze from the subject. And that is the photographer’s authorial presence. I look at this photo and see what my mother made of my face. That kind of bewildering joy of a boy who has no reckoning yet with his sexuality, but of course, riding this pink bike. My mother bought the pink bike because it was the cheapest one. What does that say about—[Laughs.] You know, it says a lot about America. [Laughter] But it was also my favorite because you know, she chose it. And so for me, this is a quick moment that has everything I love about memory, history, and photography in that the affect of the subject is transformed by the person behind the camera. And that is where the mechanics, the mechanism of capturing almost becomes second hand. It’s really about human beings trying to see the world in a different way. And I think this is most evident, at least for me, in this photo. Truong: So, thank you An-My and Ocean. I love, love, love this act of self-introduction and the sharing of personal photos. I can’t really remember now how we collectively decided to do this, but I know it’s an unusual gesture. For me, I thought of it as a good balance against all of the beautiful but very long list of accolades, and fellowships and awards, which are hard-earned. But I think that I was hoping to get us closer to the bone of who we are with these photos, these personal family photos or, in your case An-My, a document of your grandmother. So do you recall what appealed to you about this gesture that we just did together? Lê: I think it’s that notion of putting yourself forward. The three of us do work that could be called autobiographical somehow. So this was a great segue to talk about what it means to put yourself in your work. [Laughter] Vuong: Well, what I love about that, choosing a document, An-My—particularly that document—was that it seems that the whole schema was trying to portray that neither the photo, nor the description of the face, was enough. On one hand, we had a description of things like chins and noses, and on the other hand we have the photo itself. So there’s a kind of skepticism around both forms, writing and photography, where there’s already a sense that they would not be accurate enough. You know, particularly in photography— Lê: Photography, and truth. Vuong: Yeah. Yeah. So it’s the perfect way to introduce this. Yeah, and it’s this kind of dichotomy. This kind of twin parallel between which one is more true. It’s actually writing that survived via stone tablets, you know, Gilgamesh, The Iliad—our species moves through the record via this patrilineal testament, and then similarly with photography, which came much later. But I just thought it was perfect that whoever organized the documentation already realized that neither form would be enough evidence by itself to permit bodies to pass through borders and timelines. Lê: It’s also an odd thing, because it’s the grandmother and her grandchildren, it’s a very unusual situation. And perhaps it suggests something about a discordance and times of conflict. Truong: Right, what constitutes family? Right? Lê: Yeah. Yeah. Truong: Alternative forms. Lê: Alternative forms. Truong: Yeah, absolutely. So just a quick bit of housekeeping just so that you know the structure of what’s happening up here. We’re going to have a conversation, but I have the great privilege of asking the first and the last questions. So I will begin. You mentioned, An-My, that this kind of use or inclusion of the family photos, family documents, would be a good segue into a discussion of our work, and I think the first thing that occurs to me really is that you’re known as a landscape photographer, but of course your work includes a multitude of faces, bodies. And yet, rarely your own. And the one photo that you’ve referenced—that is in the MoMA exhibition—that you consider your “self-portrait” is actually not of you. Right? And, Ocean, your work is exquisitely crafted, and is often talked about as being autobiographical. Right? While my work, my three novels are rarely spoken about in those terms. And sometimes they’re considered not even Vietnamese American. So I thought we could begin there; this idea of our decision to include or exclude ourselves from the frame, as it were, and whether it is something that was organic to your creative process, or were you from the beginning pushing against something? An-My? Lê: When I came out of graduate school, postmodern photography was at its height, and the use of performance, text and image, appropriation, critique of the medium, critique of culture—those were the processes used by the photographers that were at the center of things at the time. I think many were women doing self-portraits, people like Cindy Sherman, Adrian Piper, Carrie Mae Weems. That really did not have a pull for me. I’m kind of a self-professed, straight photographer, I’m interested in photographing in the real world. So the notion of the self-portrait or talking about myself was probably the last thing on my mind. But at the same time, I think, being a landscape photographer, using the large format, you kind of perform. You’re right there, everyone’s looking at you, you can’t really hide and run away, so you are front and center. But then it’s easy to just shrug it off, because it’s for the purpose of the photograph. And so I think my MO was always to look for something that maybe stands in for myself or things that I feel. And so that’s what the portrait is, it’s about a kind of resilience. It’s about the vulnerability of children in war, but a resilience too. See the contrast between her delicate features and the heavy pith helmet that she’s wearing and wearing well, and how she’s working in the land. So that’s my preferred way of photographing. But then when I had to work with these Vietnam War reenactors, and suddenly, who I was, my Vietnamese-ness, was front and center. And it played into their notion of what realism is. Suddenly, it seemed that I had to participate and put myself forward. And I learned from it because I think it made me understand more about casting, acting, performing. It made me enter into different roles that I wouldn’t normally have. I’m glad that I did that. But that was probably the only time that I’ve really used self-portraits or used my autobiographical background in such a forward way. I prefer to use my experience to guide the way I look at the world more than anything else. Vuong: I love that you said street photographer. It’s so incredible that you mentioned that you see it—you say you saw yourself as a street photographer? Lê: Straight photographer. Vuong: Oh. Lê: Straight, straight, meaning, it’s less, it’s not setup photography, you know, you don’t go into a studio, when you build something. Vuong: Right, right. Lê: Even though you know, with a view camera, you kind of have to ask people to hold still and— Vuong: Right, right. Lê: You have to direct them a little bit. Vuong: Documentary—Okay, beautiful. For a moment, I thought…well, I’d love to see you on Madison Avenue with a view camera. [Laughter] Lê: I’ve done that. I’ve done that. People have done that. Vuong: I kind of love my mishearing actually. Because I think what we see with street photography is this kind of idea of—of the impromptu, a kind of chance, close encounter, off the cuff, shooting from the hip. But then if you expand that idea to what you’re doing, I also wonder how do we—can we, redefine whimsy and serendipity? Like even though your photos take time to build and frame, I can see that kind of relationship, particularly when you photograph Vietnamese women, particularly the girls, you can see there’s a kind of … it’s almost like you found them, right? And that’s one thing I really love about your photographs. They feel completely, artistically deliberate, but they also feel found, like we discovered these subjects as you’re framing them. And I think what is really fascinating with your decision to use the view camera, which has this long history from the 19th century from the Civil War and Mathew Brady manipulating the bodies to dramatize and present a very public facing position with the photograph. But you take the same sort of mechanics, and you take photos of processes, praxis, you turn the process into the project, and I’m also really excited about seeing the strip mining, all these processes of mechanical liminality, the reenactments. It reminds me also that there’s so much opulence in reenactments—the gear, the time it takes, the ability to travel and set up and devote to this—that those who get to recreate mythologies of history still have the privilege to perform. Performance as a kind of privilege. And then, of course, seeing the industrial capital at work. I was just really, really stunned by that. And I’m curious of, I’m sorry, I’m diving right in here, because I’m so excited. But I’m curious of how you think about process, particularly when using the view camera? And have you used other formats? Have you ever gotten the urge, you know, to come out from behind the screen and say, you know what, I want to take out a 35 millimeter and just walk for a while? Do you ever get that urge? Lê: Yeah, the world looks differently to me in a 35 mm camera. Of course, the weight and the difficulty of using that unwieldy view camera sometimes makes me want to throw it all away and go for the digital camera. But there is something, you know, it’s like a piece of furniture. You’re standing next to it, and you actually commune with the landscape or you actually talk to someone and so the relationship is completely different. It’s just like writing, right? I think that you have to really commit to the medium, and it’s a deep dive but the more you kind of handle it, the more seamless it is. And then you can really use it in a way that’s more poetic. You can be open to the surprises. I’ve used a view camera for so long that it’s like a flow, I don’t hear anything when I’m under the dark cloth. I get into the zone and the surprises are wonderful. Sometimes I don’t see them until the moment I look at the contact sheet. I’m sure in writing it’s the same thing. You have to master it somehow and then it allows you to be more relaxed, right? Vuong: Yeah, I mean Sontag said it best—she says there’s no luck in writing. In other arts, you know, sometimes in snapshot photography you might get the right angle at the right time. But in writing, there’s just no luck, it’s very difficult to write a good sentence accidentally. And so there’s a kind of tedium. And you know, many people use the metaphor of writing, the pen is a brush, but I actually think the sentence is the brush. And there’s a lot of obsession that can come with it—I actually think it may be close to my understanding of the view camera technique where everything is … there’s a syntax in how you arrange things, the composition, going back and forth, talking to the subject, going under the cloth, checking it. That obsession with the paragraph feels very similar, which is why I like a smaller format when I do my photography, because I get to not be a writer, I get to be very far from the writer, because it’s more curatorial. You shoot, you shoot. And then—the magic comes afterwards, you know, in Lightroom, or the dark room when you process it in the contact sheets, and you say, “Oh, the fourth one is where the poetry is.” So there’s a kind of discovery. But the view camera is very similar. I’m curious, do you think that in today’s world—in the twentieth and twenty-first century, which is where you’re working in—the view camera kind of disarms the subject more? In the nineteenth century, it was so grand, it was like “now photography is coming,” right? Here it is, you know, get ready, set it up, and it feels very regal, opulent. But now, I think it was Alec Soth who mentioned this, where he says, sometimes the large spectacle of the view camera brings people to him. “Oh, this is an art project.” Whereas if you walk around with a 35 millimeter, it can feel quite creepy. Like you’re stalking someone, you know? I tried to take landscape-like shots of people’s houses with 35 millimeter, and some people came out thinking I’m casing the house like a psychopath. Lê: Well, I think people who don’t know much about photography tend to take you more seriously, or they assume it’s art because it’s so unwieldy. But that’s out of ignorance, right? I think you can do really mediocre work with the view camera, as much mediocre work as with a handheld. The camera doesn’t make the man nor does the pen make a writer, right? Vuong: Spill the tea. Lê: So I don’t think the subject comes to you because you have a view camera. But I do think that people present themselves. I know people don’t always reveal themselves completely, but there’s something interesting about dealing or looking at a large format camera. I think that I like the slowness of it. I like being able to take my time. Even when I’m rushing, photographing the military for example, there’s something very meditative about it. Truong: Do you also like the invisibility of it? In the moment when you’re taking the photograph—you are under this black cloth? Lê: Yeah, yeah. But, but then at the same time, everyone’s looking at you. Truong: Yeah, but then you get both, that duality exists. Lê: Right, or I play the role of the photographer, I’m not me. I’m just the photographer. Truong: Right. Lê: Yes. So that’s the kind of invisibility. It doesn’t matter whether I’m Vietnamese or something else or a woman. Vuong: Monique, your comment there just made me realize something in answering your question about where the self is in my work. And I remember now this very pivotal cartoon I saw when I was young. And we only had three or four channels, depending on how you moved the antenna. And every year around Christmas, there was this old seventies version, the British version of Ebenezer Scrooge—you know, the Ghosts of Christmas past—and of course a ghost comes and takes Scrooge and he becomes invisible to his past, and he gets to see portions of his life without the awareness of that, of the people in it. And I think that’s kind of how memory works. And I think I put myself and various people I know in my work because I’m invisible in the composition, because I’m traveling like Scrooge in the past through memory. I’m also interested in representing the Asian body through selfhoods, because, you know, in the nineteenth century, the early census in this country didn’t have a category for us, it could not conceive of an Asian body, even though we were here building this place. To the point where there was a case in Texas where two white laborers murdered a Chinese American man, and they got off because there was no legal category to put the Asian American man, and therefore no murder occurred. It’s kind of this bureaucratic semantic loophole. So the human being didn’t exist because it could not be defined by the state. And I could have written all my works with the same context, with the same political pressures, and then put it on Mars or made it sci-fi or, you know, put them in armor in medieval Europe and made it very imaginative. But I was deeply interested in having readers of all kinds, of all types, reckon with an Asian American body moving through space, to track that body through time and have the body then be durable, right? Through the plot of a novel. And I think it’s because the Asian body has been so malleable, for better and for worse, in this country. It’s been erased, it’s been twisted, it’s been subverted, it’s been ostracized, it’s been unseen. And so I’m interested in playing into that malleability as an author, then when it’s … it’s almost like, well, now that it’s my turn, I can charge and transform, and mythologize the body, as I see fit, right? We are alive only for a short while, and I thought, if I’m here, I’m curious to see what a selfhood could be. And so I don’t see my work as memoir, I see it more like a simulation. The characters—the protagonist in my novel was much more courageous, patient, much better than I am. He gets twelve drafts. I get, I get one draft at life, and I usually mess it up right away. And I think that kind of the magic of fiction is that you launch this simulation, and you get to charge these questions on people. I also think it’s unfair, and perhaps I would go as far as to say it’s unethical, for me to interview my family and say, “tell me how your wounds affected your life,” so that I might transform them to art. I don’t think I had the courage, or I had too much respect for them to say, “Give me material.” So I only had what I saw, which of course, was insufficient. And so I had to animate it and make it up. And I think that’s what, for me, fiction is for—taking a recognizable context towards an elsewhere that not even the author knows. If we were to use the metaphor of a house, the biography is just the foundation of the house, but the rest of the home, what happens in it, all the way up to the roof, must be animated by the imagination. I told myself at the end of this novel, if I looked at it, and recognized these people as me and my family, I would never publish it. So the challenge was transformation. I’m curious how you think about selfhoods in your work? Truong: Well, I think that I am in every single one of my novels in some form or another. I was hoping actually that one of you—both of you—would push back against the question that I raised: That you could actually exclude yourself from the frame of your work. Because when I see your photographs, An-My, I know that there’s a Vietnamese American woman on the other side of that photograph, and so I feel as a viewer—as a person who is engaging with your work—I feel included because of that. And it’s profound. Lê: So explain again, what do you mean by feeling that we can exclude ourselves? Truong: That portrait is of a Vietnamese girl. You are not pictured in the photograph, but you are in every single one of your work, I think. I feel. And this is why going to your exhibit—knowing that your exhibit is here—has been so emotional for me. Because I think that I often, as a—I’m sorry, to use the word “consumer”—but as a consumer and engager of art, I am apprehensive. I am like a person who is stressed, you know, like, what is this photo about? What is going on here? Do you know? And with your photographs, even those that are so, in a way, shocking and challenging, I still feel—I’m gonna use this word, and it’s gonna sound odd but—I feel safe. I feel safe. That’s not the role of art. You know, that’s not why you created. But I thought it is worthwhile to share with you that that’s how you’ve made me feel. Vuong: I second that—I feel held in the capacity of your vision. And maybe it’s the scope of what you do, but I think there’s a tenderness there, and I think it’s helpful to also unpack and maybe redefine the word “autobiography.” I like to consider autobiography in its most literal definition, which is the writing of a self. That is the writing of a selfhood, which might include the knowledge of a self, the histories that the self traffics in. And so I think, in that gaze, all of our works are autobiographical because they hold the sum total of our experience. And I also think that composition is enough evidence of the personhood. It somehow hurts me, you know, to hear, Monique, you say that sometimes your work is not considered Vietnamese American. And I just want to say that if you were, if you and I, all three of us would just write the word ‘the,’ that’s a Vietnamese American “the”—a single article, right? Because if it comes from you, then that’s what it is. It becomes the sum total of an authorial presence, and it has the identity markers that we don’t even know of ourselves, that “the” then encompasses, at least for me, dog lover, brother, son, lover of Mixed Martial Arts, right? But it also might identify things that I haven’t even reckoned with yet. And I think when I’m writing and making, I actually try to divest myself of the public categories put on me. I go through these rituals to kind of forget myself knowing that “myself” will always be intact. So, I forget the cultural monikers in order to say okay, yes, Asian American, queer, brother, New Englander, refugee, all that, but many people can embody that. What can the sentence hold for just Ocean? It’s the highest bar and it’s seldom achieved in the work. But I think that aspirational position makes it worthwhile to try. But I just want to say from one Vietnamese author to another that you write the word ‘a’ or ‘the’ or heck, if you put down period, that’s a Vietnamese American period. Lê: I love what you said. Monique, you said you see yourself in all of your work, but you also write about a lot of things you don’t know, characters you discover or construct, places that you travel to, that you explore. So, I wanted to talk a little bit more about navigating those two things; the unknown, and then also carrying the self forward. Truong: I think of writing as a series of what-ifs. It’s me asking the questions: What if I was in that body? What if I was in that time? What if I was in this particular set of facts? I write historical fiction because I adore research. I often come across small, tiny references to people whom I know have so much more in them historically. You know, instead of a footnote, it’s actually an epic. And so I get to do that; I get to go in there and do the what-ifs and explore and break it and expand it. But, ultimately, I’m writing about people, right? So I can only write that—that kind of connection or that kind of being in the world—I can only extrapolate from what I’ve experienced. And so, yes, every single one of these characters that have made it into my books, they are me. They came through what I’ve experienced; what my family has experienced. In an interview a couple of years ago, I actually just declared that every single one of my novels is a Vietnamese American novel. Because the most recent one does not have a Vietnamese or Vietnamese American character in it, and that became quite a source of concern, a source of concern from the very beginning. From the stage of an agent trying to sell it, a publisher acquiring it, reviews. It’s almost like there’s this desperation, right, to make a very quick and easy connection: this is why you are writing this! This, An-My, is why you are taking photographs of a quarry! You know, there’s no easy connection to that. It’s involved, it’s nuanced. And that’s what makes the work. That’s what animates that particular series. And makes it so complex, right? And I would hope that’s the same thing that you can say about the works that I’ve engaged in. Lê: Yeah. So it’s about taking risks. Is this something that you think about while you ‘re making the work? Or is it only in retrospect that you realize, “oh, that was a big risk”? Vuong: I’ll try to answer that. But I also want to ask you about the photo of the monk and the soldier on the ship because I think they talk about, you know, going for something despite fear of contrivance, this is one of my favorite photos of yours. For me, I kind of failed and snuck into “the writing world.” I dropped out of business school and, too ashamed to tell my mother, I just kept couch-surfing in New York, reading poems at bars. And someone said, “why don’t you just get a degree in English and just learn what you’re doing.” And I thought great, I can go study poetry at a school and show my mother the degree—my mother who’s illiterate—and tell her that it’s a business degree. And that’s what I did. But I think, for me, the composition comes with an awareness of the cost that I get to spend time writing because so much of my family spent their entire lives in factories and nail salons. Most of my life, I’m scared, I’m terrified of asking them what their dreams are, knowing that it’s most likely not possible to realize them at this point. You know, the opportunities, the times have long passed. And it’s a reckoning since I don’t think I can bear to hear exactly what their dreams are. One day, I’ll get there. I never got to ask my mother—I was too cowardly. But when I work, I know that, you know, there’s dozens of Vietnamese Americans who put their heads down in the factories and in the pedicure and manicure tables just so that one poet could put his head up. And yet when I’m writing—I write by hand—I feel great kinship with my family, because they hold the nail drill exactly the same way I hold the pen. So when I’m working, I feel in a very strange way, mimetic, you know, I’m mimicking the action of their labor. So I tell myself that I’m—it reminds me of a Seamus Heaney poem, where he comes from farmers and laborers in Ireland, and he says, “I’ll take my pen, and I’ll dig with it.” So with that in my head, and all my life as a writer, a professor—I never thought I would be here, so it feels incredibly privileged and lucky. And because of that, I have to risk it all. I can’t hold anything back, the cost is too high. And it’s already been paid for me to sit here. It’s already been paid. I can’t negotiate that. It’s been paid with or without my consent. But I get to do what I do because the bill has been paid in full. And it’s been paid with their bodies. And so when I get to the desk, I cannot hold anything back. People often ask me, “How can you be so vulnerable?” I say, that’s easy. Living through the body through time is very hard. But when I get to the page, the page is just the final act, the final sequence. It’s the residue of thinking and being. You know, when I was handing in my novel to my editor, I tried to sneak in a final edit. And I think they have this fancy program where they see your latest edits right away. I tried to sneak in this last edit in the novel. And what I tried to put in there, what I ended up putting in there at the keystone of this novel is a rim job scene. And I had this lovely, lovely conversation very quickly with my editor. She wrote me to say “Hey, can we talk, page seventy-seven suddenly looks very different.” And we had this beautiful conversation, you know. She’s represented and published the best and she wanted to hear me stand behind my work. And I told her, look, I’ve never seen this sexual act in a novel—maybe I haven’t read enough—and yet I don’t want to do it just to be new or edgy or whatever. There’s a reason, and I’ve been trying to do this, and I’ve been terrified of it. And this is the final edit, we’re gonna go to the printers in a week. I’m trying to do this because this is the summation of what I’ve tried to do, which is that in this moment, I can turn the sexual act into a vehicle of mercy, self-dignity, and rescue. And, there’s a queer white character in that novel, and the whole novel, he’s kind of just informed by his familiar New England working-class, blue-collar masculinity. And this is the moment where he commits this act as a way to absolve his friend’s humiliation during botched sex. And to me, that’s the moment where he breaks away from his culture. And its queerness that allows him to venture into the unknown, to commit to an act of tenderness that no one taught him, unprecedented. So this boy discovers this because it comes from within him, it doesn’t come from his country, his father, his community, nowhere. No one encouraged it but it comes from the queerness inside him, it becomes this moment of light, the light becomes this knowledge. And so the rim job becomes an act of rescue between two people. And I told this to her and she’s like, “great, we’re going to the printers.” So that’s the idea of risking it, because the cost is so high. This is our chance. You know, I never feel like I get a second chance. Every book, I just feel like I don’t know if I can do this again. I have to, you know, you can have all the dice in your hands. And that dice could be talent, luck. Right time, right place. But if you don’t throw the dice, nothing happens. You have to toss it. I’m curious about your relationship with risk, Monique. Truong: My definition, recently, of art—I mean, I’m just going to claim all the genres and speak about it—is this idea of how you began—talking about your grandmother and her desire to try to create these dishes, reclaim these flavors, and failing, right? And yet she does it, and she does it again. I think that is art. Exactly like you really started us off, with this idea that art is when you know you can fail, chances are you will fail, and you continue to do it. And it might also be a mental health issue. [Laughter] But it feels like this is a good moment for An-My to talk about the risk that she took with the Vietnam War reenactment series. I think when I first saw those photos, I didn’t understand what you had to agree to, in order to create the series. And you’ve mentioned it, but, to me, to be out in the woods with a bunch of men reenacting a war—that your family had endured, survived, and here you are—is a risk that I cannot imagine doing. And yet, I feel like your decision to do so is what kind of propelled you into, I think, another category of artists. So let’s talk about your risk. Lê: You know, I didn’t think working with those guys was a risk for me. I felt lucky that I even found them. I wanted to address the issue of war. And, like I said, being a photographer who likes to work with things in the real world, I couldn’t rely on collages. I couldn’t rely on constructing things and re-photographing them. So it was really a godsend that I heard about these guys and found them online. Beyond that, I felt that I needed to do what I needed to do to take that project to the end. Even if that meant having to wear black pajamas. And that was very difficult. Or the weird psychosexual tensions that I sometimes felt from those guys, it’s part of the project. I think they were working out something, and I was working out something. And it was safe, you know, it was like the safest war. And I’m not trying to defend these guys, but there’s no audience. It’s kind of an aesthetic project for them as well. They were so committed. Once I started working I realized that it’s not about recreating the horror of war. There was no need for me to do that. So what is it about? And then I realized that it’s about this idea of war, whether it’s mine or theirs, how it has been mediated through literature, through film, through our imagination. It was like this incredible place of fantasy that, I think, taught me a lot about realism, you know, what’s real, what’s not real. It was kind of Brechtian, because they went through so much trouble to do all of that, but I was like, the most authentic thing. They were these white guys playing Asian men and they didn’t care. So, it had a lot of fault lines that made it so interesting. But I didn’t think of it as risky. I mean, I do things that are physically risky, like going on an aircraft carrier, going on a submarine so the risk is built in. But, I think there are intellectual risks as well, or artistic risks of not knowing where you’re going to end up. The embroidery project was one of those that really kind of threw me for a loop. But I had my grandmother looking over me, because I learned how to do all that craft from her; the crocheting the knitting, and I did learn to embroider a little bit, though I had to have a refresher course. And dealing with the topic was a risk as well, you know, this porn film. Vuong: Can you talk about, we talked earlier about the risk in that photo of the monk and the soldier in the medical vessel, can you talk about risk here, you mentioned it earlier backstage. Lê: I think that as photographers, when we actually are making a picture, whether it’s with a handheld camera or a view camera, you get into this very intuitive mode, where you sort of think, but you don’t think critically in the way you do after you get home and you look at contact sheets. I was on this hospital ship, this American hospital ship that came to Vietnam. The Americans were trying to renew relations with the Vietnamese military. And that humanitarian mission was one of the early steps. So I managed to get access to that mission. I saw the nun from a small boat getting on to the big ship and immediately said, I’m going to follow her. So I followed her around to this waiting room. It’s all metal with these kinds of very boring curtains. It’s neither here nor there. Speaking of liminal spaces…And she’s sitting there waiting. And I thought, okay, this is my chance, I’m going to photograph her. I tried to make a portrait of her. And again, I’m not a portraitist and the whole thing felt wrong. Somehow, something was missing. And I had a military escort. And it’s not like I had studied him or paid attention to the fact that he was actually Buddhist, and he wore a bracelet of beads on his wrist. But I kind of turned to him. And I said, “oh, can you sit next to her?” And then I made the picture. And it was a natural thing. I resisted that picture for a long time, because I thought it was too contrived. Because it talks about war and peace in a very obvious way. The fact that it describes the idea of the uniform, the shaved heads, the idea of them sitting parallel one next to the other, but not really confronting each other, almost like parallel play, was so interesting. And so I think the risk there was to decide that it was okay. Vuong: I just love that you committed to it. And I think that’s where to me art is most exciting. When we get so close to the terms of the agreements, the cultural agreements, which can be breached, of cliché, sentimentality, or artifice. Because if we turn away from that, then we deny ourselves our subjects. And if we turn away from that, and allow the culture to say “this is now overdone,” then we deny ourselves access to the world. And I see this in some of my students, they avoid anything close to cliché, like the plague. And then what do they have, I ask, what’s left for you then, if you let the culture decide what you write? You know, and then you realize there’s a safe kind of neutral gray zone, and the work actually gets evacuated of life and the heat that brought it there. And I think of the Russian formalists. Victor Shklovsky’s theory of cliché. He said, “There’s no such thing, as a cliché.” Rather it’s the artists’ obligation to estrange the cliché into a defamiliarized new ground, often via displacement. Lê: Well, I think we spoke about it earlier, it’s about the art of describing. As Hayo Miyazaki talks about it so beautifully, I think he was berating one of the younger, graphic people who worked for him. And he said, you know, you’re not actually drawing someone who is opening the door, you are drawing the idea of that person opening the door. And so you were telling me how you love the details of the way the nun holds her hands, or the details of the draping of the dress. I think it’s all in the details, in the descriptions. That’s the objective part that photography does so well. Those things allow you to think beyond the image. Vuong: That photo is a response to the fear of contrivance because what that photo proved that instead of turning away—because sometimes you approach a familiar subject and you say, “oh god, I can’t do it”—but then when you go even closer, you discover something else, right? There’s an elsewhere. And that’s what I really love about your photos—many people take photographs, but I think you take something else. And in that moment of fantasy in that frame, I saw the mala beads on the soldier’s hand and then of course the contrast and color: his uniform is blue, hers is saffron. And I thought to myself, “Oh, she gave it to him.” You know, so for me, that fantasy of what photography does, right, it demands that I finish the story, just like in writing. Lê: I don’t want to diminish photography, but you know, we can just take the jump, just try it, right? Sometimes we take pictures just to see what it will look like as a photograph. And I don’t think you guys can do that. The labor that goes in there to gather not just a sentence, but a whole paragraph. Truong: It’s the mystery of the word. [Laughter] But I regretfully have to announce that we are at a five-minute mark. So, we are now going to have our last question. And this is in honor of my favorite television show—the show that has sort of allowed me to survive the pandemic emotionally and the previous presidential election [Laughter]—and it’s RuPaul’s Drag Race. So if we can bring up— Ah, okay, so Ocean will go first. Then I will go, and then An-My will fittingly have the last word. Ocean, as Mother Ru would ask of her finalists, what would you say to your younger self? Vuong: Well, it’s already pretty drag-esque right there, so he’s ahead of the curve, I think. I would tell him: “you should scare yourself. But you shouldn’t be scared of yourself.” Truong: Ah! Goodness. Well, I think we’ll just end. Okay, so, to little Thúy-Dung [Monique Truong’s Vietnamese given name] up there, I would tell her to go to more of her college classes. Because she’ll be paying off the loans forever. I would also tell her to maybe not go to law school and get therapy instead. And I think also just to let her know that she’s going to feel really, really lonely for a very, very long time. But that books are going to help her survive. And that’s why she will want to be a writer. And she’s gonna forget that sometimes, because it gets hard and sometimes it becomes demoralizing. But she has to hold on to the fact that books helped her to feel so not alone in the world and she wants to offer that to someone else.
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3152	dbpedia	0	74	https://www.dfl.de/en/news/bundesliga-international-and-sky-italia-strengthen-their-broadcast-partnership-through-to-2025/	en	Sky Italia: broadcast partnership extended	https://media.dfl.de/sit…ia_1920x1080.jpg	https://media.dfl.de/sit…ia_1920x1080.jpg	[ "https://media.dfl.de/sites/3/2021/04/dfl-de_Broadcast_DFL-sky-Italia_1920x1080.jpg", "https://media.dfl.de/sites/3/2020/09/Template_dflde_International-Broadcasters_Archive-576x324.jpg", "https://media.dfl.de/sites/3/2021/04/dfl-de_BLI_Broadcasting-deal_1920x1080-576x324.jpg", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/bl_international.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_digital.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_sportcast.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/sportec.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/liga_travel.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_stiftung.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/aws_logo.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_footer_partner_derbystar_new.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_footer_partner_ea_new.svg", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/lilac.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_footer_partner_sky.png", "https://www.dfl.de/wp-content/themes/dfl-theme/assets/logos/dfl_footer_partner_topps.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "npozniak" ]	2021-04-30T10:15:44+00:00	Bundesliga International has agreed a four-year deal with Sky Italia up to the end of the 2024-25 season.	en	https://media.dfl.de/sit…icon-192x192.png	EN - DFL Deutsche Fußball Liga GmbH	https://www.dfl.de/en/news/bundesliga-international-and-sky-italia-strengthen-their-broadcast-partnership-through-to-2025/	Sky Italia will continue to be the home of the Bundesliga up to and including the 2024-25 season Deal includes Bundesliga and Bundesliga 2 rights, as well as relegation play-offs and German Supercup Sky Italia continues the partnership with Bundesliga, having first broadcast matches from the German top flight in 2003 30 April 2021 – Bundesliga International, a subsidiary of the DFL Deutsche Fußball Liga, has agreed a four-year deal with Sky Italia up to the end of the 2024-25 season. The new deal, which begins with the 2021-22 season, includes rights to both Bundesliga and Bundesliga 2 matches, the Bundesliga relegation play-offs, and the German Supercup, as well as additional magazines shows such as the highlights and “Bundesliga Weekly” programmes. As one of Italy’s most renowned sports broadcasters, Sky Italia will continue to show the German top flight on its subscription channels, as well as utilising its full range of digital and social platforms to promote the Bundesliga. In addition to the live broadcasts, Sky will produce a weekly live segment dedicated to the Bundesliga, as part of its international football show EuroShow, aired on the broadcaster’s sports news channel Sky Sport24. Furthermore, Bundesliga International and Sky Italia will work in parallel to create more content opportunities, bringing the league’s biggest names closer to supporters throughout Italy.
3152	dbpedia	2	16	https://www.skygroup.sky/about-us	en	About Us	https://static.skyassets…7b/Thumnbail.png	https://static.skyassets…7b/Thumnbail.png	[ "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/bltc5f8334a1e6d9c74/654cc103bb246f040a4dc4cd/Sky_Logo_Small.png", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt49209219dcc5643c/6660e9f638df321f9661a2b5/Impact_Carousel_Desktop.jpg?downsize=1920:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt1a17d81421f4ab50/60b8ea937ed7e61985b8d3e5/Spectrum_Header.png?downsize=1920:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt795b4ae605a8d68b/66680dfe134a34ced767b6e7/Social_Impact_Update_2023_Carousel.jpg?downsize=1920:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt49209219dcc5643c/6660e9f638df321f9661a2b5/Impact_Carousel_Desktop.jpg?downsize=1920:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt1a17d81421f4ab50/60b8ea937ed7e61985b8d3e5/Spectrum_Header.png?downsize=1920:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blta6a935f713f1a8ad/61237f628faa7a6bbfbfadb6/DANA-TN.jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt2c9134e0067002bb/60ab66d2909370737ae4990a/Careers.1-.jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt434125f986b1d02b/6011a1f396de49101cfb56f0/About-Us-UK.jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt208491030362e128/64b00d296664b615bfbf8dac/Then-you-run-about.jpg?downsize=undefined:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt125aca9601d65c74/64b00f27d60b85a78168da4d/Our-products.jpg?downsize=undefined:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt56262c5a233d56d8/64b010a4a80c258baac8fa07/Our-history.jpg?downsize=undefined:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt8bdaf98f702c4a1e/64b019ec55695cce3ba94fae/Impact-Image.jpg?downsize=undefined:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt5836a65e81799d8c/64b00a674d8143afb2900c0f/Comcast-tile.jpg?downsize=undefined:&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt95a64f872e0261cc/65539b3ca255e2a7f0210b5c/SIC_Osterley.jpg?downsize=undefined:*&output-format=jpg", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt4126b6b78f32ca5b/60a2664911dac1533c75c970/TNSky_Master_Brand_Logo_SMALL_RGB.png", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt42a13db4b1a88017/653b858f3e392d040946d28e/UK-FLAG.png", "https://static.skyassets.com/contentstack/assets/bltdc2476c7b6b194dd/blt99e547e689a70dca/64c91f6d3b94214f78e9dd46/Ireland-.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null		en	https://static.skyassets…4c5f/Favicon.png		null	From Sky Glass the new streaming TV from Sky, to our smart home protection service Sky Protect, find out more about our range of products and businesses. At Sky, we believe in better. Better products, better service, and better value. So we are constantly reinventing, to meet the needs of our millions of customers. read about some of our achievements, over the last three decades We're also determined to make a positive impact on the world. So across Sky, we support two important causes. Through Sky Up, we help people fulfil their potential by giving them access to the internet and opportunities in our industry. And through Sky Zero, we're slashing our carbon emissions and inspiring others to do the same.
3152	dbpedia	2	41	https://www.bbc.com/news/business-31042864	en	Sky to launch UK mobile phone service	https://ichef.bbci.co.uk…_012557396-1.jpg	https://ichef.bbci.co.uk…_012557396-1.jpg	[ "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/624/mcs/media/images/80648000/jpg/_80648653_012557396-1.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/2048/mcs/media/images/80464000/jpg/_80464076_56036915.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/464/mcs/media/images/52699000/jpg/_52699550_bt.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/464/mcs/media/images/54341000/jpg/_54341211_012557396-1.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/news/768/mcs/media/images/78253000/jpg/_78253165_78253164.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/4990/live/c9d17fd0-58c0-11ef-9bb2-430c3a314589.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/bd7d/live/b2346af0-58fb-11ef-8f0f-0577398c3339.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/37ca/live/f8613dd0-4ffc-11ef-b2d2-cdb23d5d7c5b.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/228a/live/9e3c6e00-572d-11ef-8f0f-0577398c3339.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/8906/live/5de007c0-5310-11ef-b2d2-cdb23d5d7c5b.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/ecae/live/0979ccb0-58ca-11ef-8f0f-0577398c3339.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/046b/live/4211f420-58c1-11ef-8f0f-0577398c3339.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/7c07/live/55885bd0-55eb-11ef-988b-a92d5a24d40c.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/385/cpsprodpb/e8e7/live/ecccd500-588b-11ef-aebc-6de4d31bf5cd.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/480/cpsprodpb/d4e7/live/ed92c8e0-5571-11ef-aebc-6de4d31bf5cd.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/images/ic/480x270/p0c5ydny.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/480/cpsprodpb/232a/live/ae78c050-4f28-11ef-b2d2-cdb23d5d7c5b.jpg", "https://ichef.bbci.co.uk/ace/standard/480/cpsprodpb/2b53/live/b6127c00-5899-11ef-8f0f-0577398c3339.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "BBC News", "www.facebook.com" ]	2015-01-29T13:15:37+00:00	Pay-TV firm Sky is launching a mobile phone service next year as the battle for a slice of the UK's telecoms market intensifies.	en		BBC News	https://www.bbc.com/news/business-31042864	Pay-TV firm Sky is launching a mobile phone service next year in partnership with O2's Spanish parent Telefonica. Sky will use Telefonica UK's wireless network, enabling the satellite broadcaster to offer mobile voice and data services for the first time. It takes Sky into the battle for "quad play", adding mobile to its existing services of internet, landline and TV. Offering all four services is seen as the next big UK growth area for telecoms firms and broadcasters. Such bundled services are already popular in much of mainland Europe "Sky has a proven ability to launch new services, at scale," said Jeremy Darroch, the company's chief executive. The UK's telecoms market has seen several deals in recent months, and Telefonica is in talks to sell its O2 business to Hutchison Whampoa for about Â£10bn. Meanwhile, BT, the UK's largest fixed-line provider, is talks to buy the UK's biggest mobile operator, EE, for Â£12.5bn. Sky, 39%-owned by Rupert Murdoch's 21st Century Fox, is present in more than 10 million homes and has been successful in cross-selling services. Sky already offers Sky Go, which enables customers to watch Sky programmes across a number of devices. Analysts welcomed the move, which they said was unlikely to be a costly drain on capital but which took Sky into a potentially important growth market. "We would expect take-up amongst loyal customers to be relatively quick," analysts at Citi said in a research note. The latest announcement will not affect Sky's existing tie-up with Vodafone allowing customers to access Sky Sports or Sky's pay-as-you-go NowTV service. Last year Sky changed its name from BSkyB after it completed the acquisition of Sky Italia and a majority interest in Sky Deutschland. The enlarged company now serves 20 million customers in three of Europe's four biggest markets.
3152	dbpedia	1	1	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Group	en	Sky Group	https://upload.wikimedia…ogo_2020.svg.png	https://upload.wikimedia…ogo_2020.svg.png	[ "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a6/Sky_Group_logo_2020.svg/220px-Sky_Group_logo_2020.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Aerial_view_of_Sky_campus_in_2011.jpg/250px-Aerial_view_of_Sky_campus_in_2011.jpg", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Decrease2.svg/11px-Decrease2.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/UK_satellite_TV_evolution.JPG/220px-UK_satellite_TV_evolution.JPG", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red_Asia_Australia.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Comcast.svg/120px-Comcast.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Comcast.svg/120px-Comcast.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Telecom-icon.svg/16px-Telecom-icon.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png", "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png", "https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg", "https://en.wikipedia.org/static/images/footer/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Contributors to Wikimedia projects" ]	2002-08-30T03:52:07+00:00		en	/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png		https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky_Group	British media and telecommunications conglomerate "Sky (company)" redirects here. For other companies called Sky, see Sky (disambiguation). For Sky's UK operations, see Sky UK. For Sky's Irish operations, see Sky Ireland. Sky Group Limited[4] is a British media and telecommunications conglomerate, which is a subsidiary of the American conglomerate Comcast, and headquartered in Isleworth. It has operations in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Italy. Sky is Europe's largest media company and pay-TV broadcaster by revenue (as of 2018 ),[5] with 23 million subscribers and more than 31,000 employees as of 2019.[2][6] The company is primarily involved in satellite television, producing and broadcasting. The current CEO is Dana Strong. Initially formed in 1990 by the equal merger of Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting, BSkyB became the UK's largest digital pay television company.[7] In 2014, after completing the acquisition of Sky Italia and Sky Deutschland, the merged company changed its name to Sky plc.[8] Prior to November 2018, Rupert Murdoch's 21st Century Fox owned a 39.14% controlling stake in the company;[9] on 9 December 2016, following a previous attempt under News Corporation that was affected by the News International phone hacking scandal, 21st Century Fox announced that it had agreed to buy the remainder of Sky, pending government approval. However, after a bidding war that included the Walt Disney Company (which was, in turn, acquiring most of 21st Century Fox's assets), US media and telecoms conglomerate Comcast acquired the entirety of Sky in 2018 for £17.28 per share. NBCUniversal, which is Sky Group's sister company, is also a subsidiary of Comcast. Before the acquisition by Comcast, Sky was listed on the London Stock Exchange and was a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index and had a market capitalisation of approximately £18.75 billion (€26.76 billion) as of 2018.[10] History [edit] BSkyB [edit] Formation [edit] British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB) was formed by the merger of Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting on 2 November 1990.[11] Both companies had begun to struggle financially and were suffering financial losses as they competed against each other for viewers. The Guardian later characterised the merger as "effectively a takeover by News Corporation".[12] The merger was investigated by the Office of Fair Trading[13] and was cleared a month later since many of the represented views were more concerned about contractual arrangements which had nothing to do with competition.[14] The Independent Broadcasting Authority was not consulted about the deal; after approval, the IBA demanded precise details about the merger, stated they were considering the repercussions of the deal to ultimately determine whether BSB contracts were null and void.[15][16] On 17 November, the IBA decided to terminate BSB's contract, but not immediately, as it was deemed unfair to 120,000 viewers who had bought BSB devices.[17] Sam Chisholm was appointed CEO[18] in a bid to reorganise the new company, which, continued to make losses of £10 million per week. The defunct BSB's HQ, Marco Polo House were sold, 39% of the new company's employees were made redundant to leave just under 1000 employees,[12] many of the new senior BSkyB executive roles were given to Sky personnel with many BSB leaving the company. In April the nine Sky/BSB channels had been condensed into five, with EuroSport being dropped soon after the Sky Sports launch.[19] Chisholm also renegotiated the merged company's expensive deals with the Hollywood studios, slashing the minimum guaranteed payments. The defunct Marcopolo I satellite was sold in December 1993 to Sweden's NSAB, and Marcopolo II went to Norway's Telenor in July 1992[20] after the Independent Television Commission (ITC) was unable to find new companies to take over the BSB licences and compete with BSkyB. News International received 50%, Pearson PLC 17.5%, Chargeurs 17.5%, Granada 12%, Reed International 2% of the new shares in the company.[21] By September 1991, the weekly losses had been reduced to £1.5M a week, Rupert Murdoch said "there were strong financial marketing and political reason[s] for making the compromise merger instead of letting BSB die. Many of the lessons had been learnt with more than half the running cost of the combined company". Further cuts in losses were a direct result of 313,000 new customers joining during the first half of 1991.[22] By March 1992, BSkyB posted its first operating profits, of £100,000 per week, with £3.8 million weekly from subscriptions and £1 million from advertising, but continued to be burdened with £1.28 billion of debt. Stockbroker firm James Capel forecast BSkyB would still be indebted in 2000.[23] In the autumn of 1991, talks were held for the broadcast rights for Premier League for a five-year period, from the 1992 season.[24] British television network ITV were the current rights holders for the Football League, and fought hard to gain the new rights. ITV had increased its offer from £18m to £34m per year to obtain the new rights.[25] BSkyB joined forces with the BBC[26] to make a counter bid. The BBC was given the highlights of most of the matches, while BSkyB paid £304m for the Premier League rights, giving them a monopoly of all live matches, up to 60 per year from the 1992–93 season.[27] Murdoch has described sport as a "battering ram" for pay-television, providing a strong customer base.[28] A few weeks after the deal, ITV went to the High court to get an injunction as it believed their details were leaked before the decision was taken. ITV also asked the Office of Fair Trading to also investigate since it believed Rupert Murdoch's media empire via the newspapers had influenced the deal.[29] A few days later neither action took effect, ITV believed BSkyB was telephoned and informed of its £262m bid, and the Premier League advised BSkyB to increase its counter bid.[30] BSkyB retained the rights paying £670m for the 1997–2001 deal, but was challenged by On Digital[31] for the rights from 2001 to 2004, thus it was forced to pay £1.1 billion which gave it 66 live games a year.[32] Following a lengthy legal battle with the European Commission, which deemed the exclusivity of the rights to be against the interests of competition and the consumer, BSkyB's monopoly came to an end from the 2007–08 season. In May 2006, the Irish broadcaster Setanta Sports was awarded two of the six Premiership packages that the English FA offered to broadcasters. Sky picked up the remaining four for £1.3bn.[33] Becoming a public limited company [edit] In October 1994,[34] BSkyB announced its plans to float the company on the UK and US stock exchanges, selling off 20% of the company.[35] The stock flotation reduced Murdoch's holding to 40 per cent and raised £900m, which allowed the company to cut its debt in half. Sam Chisholm said "By any standards this is an excellent result, in every area of the company has performed strongly".[36] Chisholm became one of the world's most highly paid television executives.[37] In 1995, BSkyB opened its second customer management centre at Dunfermline, Scotland,[38] in addition to its original centre at Livingston which opened in 1989. BSkyB entered the FTSE 100 index, operation profits increased to £155M a year, and Pearson sold off its 17.5% stake in the company.[39] Sam Chisholm resigned from BSkyB due to a rift with Rupert Murdoch in June 1997.[40] A week later, Murdoch was quoted as saying "I cannot understand the fuss; BSkyB was grossly overpriced", which caused further rifts with the new management.[41] In 1997, BSkyB formed a partnership with Carlton and Granada to bid for the right for the new digital terrestrial network. In June, it was awarded the right to start the service, ONdigital, under the condition BSkyB withdrew from the group's bid.[42] In February 2003 BSkyB wished to renegotiate its deal with MTV to reduce its payment from £20m. Chief executive Tony Ball said "We're definitely prepared to stare them down if we can't get a sensible deal. MTV, and other channels, have done particularly well out of the growth of Sky but the opportunity for savings is now there and Sky will be taking it," he added. "MTV has done extremely well out of that original deal."[43] On 17 April 2003 BSkyB launched its own range of music channels Scuzz, Flaunt and The Amp, as part of its plan to create its own original channels for the platform.[44] Within 18 months the channels failed to make impact, and were outsourced to the Chart Show Channels company.[45] Shortly afterwards it acquired Artsworld, giving a majority of subscribers full access to the channel. The buyout was part of James Murdoch's strategy to improve the perceptions BSkyB which could lead to potential new subscribers. John Cassy, the channel manager of Artsworld, said: "It is great news for the arts that a dedicated cultural channel will be available to millions of households."[46] In early 2007 Freeview overtook Sky Digital with nearly 200,000 more subscribers at the end of 2006, while cable broadcaster Virgin Media had three million customers.[47] In July 2007, BSkyB announced the takeover of Amstrad for £125m, a 23.7% premium on its market capitalisation.[48] BSkyB and Virgin Media announced that they had reached agreement for the acquisition by BSkyB of Virgin Media Television. Virgin1 was also a part of the deal and was rebranded as Channel One on 3 September 2010, as the Virgin name was not licensed to Sky.[49][50] The new carriage deals are understood to be for up to nine years.[51] The deal was completed in July 2010 and Virgin Media Television was renamed Living TV Group. In June 2010, News Corporation made a bid for complete ownership of BSkyB. However, following the News International phone hacking scandal, critics and politicians began to question the appropriateness of the proposed takeover. The resulting reaction forced News Corp. to withdraw its bid for the company in July 2011.[52][53] The scandal forced the resignation of James Murdoch, who was the chairman of both BSkyB and News International, from his executive positions in the UK, with Nicholas Ferguson taking over as Chairman of BSkyB.[54] In September 2012, Ofcom ruled that BSkyB was still fit to hold broadcast licenses in the UK, but criticised James Murdoch's handling of the scandal.[55] On 28 June 2013, News Corporation was split into two publicly-traded companies; the company's publishing operations (including News International, renamed News UK) and broadcasting operations in Australia were spun into a new company known as News Corp, while the company's broadcast media assets, including its 39.14% stake in Sky, were renamed 21st Century Fox.[56] European acquisitions [edit] On 12 May 2014, BSkyB confirmed that it was in talks with its largest shareholder, 21st Century Fox, about acquiring 21st Century Fox's 57.4% stake in Sky Deutschland and its 100% stake in Sky Italia. The enlarged company (dubbed "Sky Europe" in the media) would consolidate 21st Century Fox's European digital TV assets into one company.[57] The £4.9 billion takeover deal was formally announced on 25 July, where BSkyB would acquire 21st Century Fox's stakes in Sky Deutschland and Sky Italia. BSkyB also made a required takeover offer to Sky Deutschland's minority shareholders,[58] resulting in BSkyB acquiring 89.71% of Sky Deutschland's share capital. The acquisitions were completed on 13 November.[8] Sky plc [edit] British Sky Broadcasting Group plc changed its name to Sky plc to reflect the European acquisitions, and the United Kingdom operations were renamed Sky UK Limited. Sky plc bought out the remaining minority shareholders in Sky Deutschland during 2015, using a squeeze-out procedure to obtain the remaining shares and delist Sky Deutschland on 15 September 2015.[59] Competition around being acquired [edit] On 9 December 2016, 21st Century Fox announced that it had made an offer to acquire the remainder of Sky plc for £11.7 billion at a value of £10.75 per-share. It marked Fox's second attempt to take over Sky, as its previous attempt under News Corporation was affected by the News International scandal. The two companies reached an agreement on the deal on 15 December, subject to regulatory approval.[60][61] Ofcom expressed concern that this purchase would give the Murdoch family "material influence over news providers with a significant presence across all key platforms" and "increased influence over the UK news agenda and the political process". However, the regulator did deem that a Fox-owned Sky would be "fit and proper" to hold broadcast licences, despite the recent sexual harassment controversies that had emerged at the US Fox News Channel, as there was no evidence to the contrary.[62][63][64] Avaaz opposed Ofcom's opinion, stating that the regulator "made mistake after mistake in deciding to give the Murdochs a clean bill of health to take over more of our media".[65] The Walt Disney Company announced on 14 December 2017 that it would acquire 21st Century Fox, including its stake in Sky plc but barring specific US assets. Fox stated that this purchase would "not alter [its] full commitment and obligation to conclude our proposed transaction". Analysts suggested that Disney's proposed transaction could ease regulatory concerns over Fox's purchase of Sky, as the company will eventually lose its ties to the Murdoch family. Disney has a narrower scope of media ownership in the country than the Murdoch family.[66] Sky already has a relationship with Disney for its Sky Cinema service, holding pay television rights to its films in the United Kingdom and operating a dedicated Sky Cinema channel devoted to Disney content.[67] A preliminary report by the Competition and Markets Authority issued January 2018 called for the insulation or outright divestment of Sky News as a condition of the purchase, so that it is editorially independent from the Murdoch family.[68] Sky had threatened to reevaluate the channel's continued operations if they "unduly impeded merger and/or other corporate opportunities available in relation to Sky's broader business". The channel has operated on a loss of at least £40 million per-year.[69][70] In February 2018, Fox proposed the establishment of an independent editorial board, and committing to fund the network for at least 10 years. This commitment would be inherited by Disney after the completion of its purchase of 21st Century Fox.[71][72] On 3 April 2018, Fox stated that Disney had "expressed an interest in acquiring Sky News", which would not be conditional on its proposal to acquire 21st Century Fox.[73] A bidding war began 25 April 2018, when the competing US media and telecoms conglomerate Comcast (owner of NBCUniversal), announced a counter-offer for Sky at £12.50 per-share, or approximately £22.1 billion.[74][75][76][77] NBCUniversal CEO Steve Burke stated that purchasing Sky would roughly double its presence in English-speaking markets, and allow for synergies between the respective networks and studios of NBCUniversal and Sky.[78] On 5 June 2018, Culture Secretary Matt Hancock cleared both 21st Century Fox and Comcast's respective offers to acquire Sky plc. Fox's offer was contingent on the divestiture of Sky News.[79][80] On 12 June 2018, Comcast announced a US$65 billion counter-offer to acquire the 21st Century Fox assets that Disney had offered to purchase.[81] However, Fox subsequently agreed to an increased, US$71.3 billion offer from Disney instead.[82] On 15 June 2018, the European Commission gave antitrust clearance to Comcast's offer to purchase Sky, citing that in terms of their current assets in Europe, there would be limited impact on competition. Comcast included a 10-year commitment to the operations and funding of Sky News similar to that of Disney's offer.[83][84][85] On 19 June 2018, Disney formally agreed to acquire Sky News as part of Fox's proposed bid, with a 15-year commitment to increase its annual funding from £90 million to £100 million.[86] On 11 July 2018, Fox increased its bid for Sky to £14.00 per share, valuing it at £24.5 billion. Comcast subsequently counterbid just hours later with an offer at £14.75 per-share, valued at £26 billion.[87][88] On 19 July 2018, after Fox agreed to a Disney counter-offer,[89][90] it was reported that Comcast had abandoned its bid for 21st Century Fox to focus solely on Sky.[91][92] On 20 September 2018, the Panel on Takeovers and Mergers ordered that a blind auction be held "in order to provide an orderly framework for the resolution of this competitive situation". In this process, Fox, followed by Comcast, made new cash-only bids for Sky. After these first two rounds of bidding, there would be a third round where both companies could make new offers. However, the third round of bidding would only be binding if both companies make a bid. The results were to be revealed on 22 September, and be confirmed by the start of trading on 24 September.[93] Comcast won the auction with a bid of £17.28 per-share, beating Fox's bid of £15.67.[94][95] Sky plc had until 11 October to formally accept this offer.[96] Following its auction victory, Comcast began to acquire Sky shares from the open market. On 26 September 2018, Fox subsequently announced its intent to sell all of its shares in Sky plc to Comcast for £12 billion.[97][96] On 4 October 2018, Fox completed the sale of their shares, giving Comcast a 76.8% controlling stake at the time.[98] Sky Group Ltd [edit] On 12 October 2018, Comcast announced it would compulsorily acquire the rest of Sky after its bid gained acceptances from 95.3% of the broadcaster's shareholders with the company being delisted by early 2019.[99] Sky was delisted on 7 November 2018 after Comcast acquired all remaining shares.[100] In August 2021, Sky Group signed a deal with ViacomCBS to launch Paramount+ in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Germany, Switzerland and Austria by 2022.[101] On 3 May 2022, it was announced that Paramount+ will launch on 22 June 2022 for Sky customers in Ireland and the United Kingdom.[102] Management [edit] Executive Chairman: Jeremy Darroch (since January 2021) Chief Executive: Dana Strong (since January 2021) List of former chairmen [edit] Rupert Murdoch (1990–2007) James Murdoch (2007–2012) Nicholas Ferguson (2012–2016) James Murdoch (2016–2018); second term List of former chief executives [edit] Sam Chisholm (1990–1997) Mark Booth (1997–1999) Tony Ball (1999–2003) James Murdoch (2003–2007) Jeremy Darroch (2007–2021) The first CEO of BSkyB was Sam Chisholm, who was CEO of Sky TV before the merger. Chisholm served in this position until 1997. He was followed by Mark Booth who was credited with leading the company through the introduction of Sky. Tony Ball was appointed in 1999 and completed the company's analogue to digital conversion. He is also credited with returning the company to profit and bringing subscriber numbers to new heights. In 2003, Ball announced his resignation and James Murdoch, son of Rupert Murdoch was announced as his successor. This appointment caused allegations of nepotism from shareholders.[103] On 7 December 2007, it was announced that Rupert Murdoch would be stepping down as BSkyB's non-executive chairman and would be replaced by his son, James. In turn, James stepped down as CEO of BSkyB, to be replaced by Jeremy Darroch.[104] It was estimated that Darroch would earn around £38.2 million from selling Sky to Comcast. He sold his 775,772 shares in Sky worth £13.4 million and would cash in on previously awarded bonus shares.[105] In January 2021, it was announced that Darroch would be standing down as CEO, and will become executive chairman of Sky for the remainder of 2021, and will then be an advisor to the company.[106] He will be succeeded as CEO by Dana Strong.[106] The current company directors are Comcast personnel: Michael J Cavanagh (Comcast senior VP & CFO), Arthur R Block (legal counsel) and David L Cohen (senior VP & CDO).[107] Financial performance [edit] Financial results have been as shown in the table.[108] Revenue and profit or loss, by fiscal year Year ended Revenue (£m) Profit/(loss) before tax (£m) Net profit/ (loss)(£m) 30 June 2018 13,585 864 815 30 June 2017 12,916 803 691 30 June 2016 11,965 752 663 30 June 2015 9,989 1,516 1,952 30 June 2014 7,632 1,082 865 30 June 2013 7,235 1,257 979 30 June 2012 6,791 1,189 906 30 June 2011 6,597 1,014 810 30 June 2010 5,709 1,173 878 30 June 2009 5,359 456 259 30 June 2008 4,952 60 (127) 30 June 2007 4,551 815 499 30 June 2006 4,148 798 551 30 June 2005 4,048 631 425 30 June 2004 3,656 480 322 30 June 2003 3,186 128 190 30 June 2002 2,776 (1,276) (1,383) 30 June 2001 2,306 (515) (539) 30 June 2000 1,847 (263) (272) 30 June 1999 1,545 (389) (285) 30 June 1998 1,434 271 249 30 June 1997 1,270 314 288 30 June 1996 1,008 257 – 30 June 1995 778 155 – 30 June 1994 550 93 – 30 June 1993 380 (76) – 30 June 1992 233 (188) – 30 June 1991 93 (759) – In February 2019, The Economist magazine claimed that Sky enjoys gross margins of 50%.[109] Current operations [edit] Subsidiaries [edit] Subsidiary companies of Sky Group Name Details Sky UK Limited The original Sky Television, now a holding company for Sky's United Kingdom operations.[110] Sky Subscriber Services Limited Operating company for the Sky pay-television service.[111] Sky In-Home Services Limited Home installations of satellite dishes and set-top boxes.[112] Sky Broadband Limited and Sky Home Communications Limited Operating companies for Sky's broadband and telephony services, including Be Un Limited which was acquired from O2.[113] Sky Ireland Limited Operating company for Sky pay-television service in Ireland.[114] Sky Italia S.r.l. Operating company for Sky pay-television, broadband and telephony services in Italy.[115] Sky Deutschland GmbH Operating company for Sky pay-television service in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.[116] Sky Studios In June 2019, Sky formed Sky Studios with the production assets from Sky Vision. Excluding distribution which was transferred to sister company NBCUniversal.[117][118] Amstrad British electronics company acquired by BSkyB.[48] Now An internet broadcast company owned by Sky. Freesat from Sky A free satellite television service similar to Freesat and Freeview. The Cloud Free Public Wi-Fi hotspot provider acquired by BSkyB.[119] Ventures [edit] Current venture operations of Sky Group Venture Share Partner General information A&E Networks UK 50% A&E Networks Operates Blaze, History, H2 and CI channels[120] Sky Sports Racing 50% Arena Racing Company Ginx TV Ltd 50% ITV plc[121] Jupiter Entertainment 60% Skybound Stories 50% Skybound Entertainment [122] Comedy Central (British TV channel) 25%[123] Paramount British Pictures, part of Paramount Global/National Amusements DTV Services Ltd 20% Arqiva, BBC, Channel 4, ITV plc Manages and markets the Freeview brand[124] SkyShowtime 50% Paramount Global (through Showtime Networks) Sky services per country [edit] Services offered by Sky Group divisions Division Countries Years Television Broadband Telephony Sky UK United Kingdom 1990– Pay TV satellite, free TV satellite (Freesat from Sky), pay IPTV (Sky Glass/Sky Stream) DSL and FTTP Landline and mobile Sky Ireland Ireland 1998– Pay TV satellite DSL and FTTP Landline Sky Italia Italy, San Marino, Vatican City 2003– Pay TV satellite, pay IPTV (Sky Q via internet/Sky Glass) FTTH and FTTC Landline and mobile Sky Deutschland Germany, Austria, Switzerland (through Sky Switzerland) 2009– Pay TV satellite — — Former operations [edit] Subsidiaries [edit] Former subsidiary companies of Sky Group Name Details Sky España An over-the-top video streaming service in Spain. On 1 September 2020, Sky España ceased its own operations.[125] Acetrax A video on demand movie rental service. Now closed down.[126] Sky México (41.3%) – with Liberty Media and Grupo Televisa Operating company for Sky pay-television service in Mexico. Sold their stake to DirecTV Sky Brasil (80%) – with Liberty Media and Grupo Globo Operating company for Sky pay-television service in Brazil. Sold their stake to DirecTV Sky Vision Unit for distributing TV shows globally and investment in production assets. Assets split between Sky Studios and Universal Television Distribution following Comcast's takeover of Sky[127][118] Japan Sky Broadcasting [ja] (JSkyB) – with SoftBank Corp. Operating company for Sky pay-television service in Japan. Sold to DirecTV and later absorbed into SKY PerfecTV! Ventures [edit] Former venture operations of Sky Group Venture Share Partner General information Australian News Channel 33.3%[123] Seven Network and Nine Entertainment and operated Sky News Australia Sold to News Corp Australia Bad Wolf minority HBO, BBC Studios Sold to Sony Pictures Television[128][129] Beamly 10% Sold to Coty Nickelodeon UK 40%[123] Paramount Networks UK & Australia, part of Paramount Global Sold to Paramount Networks UK & Australia Stake in ITV [edit] ITV plc has been the subject of a flurry of rumoured take-over and merger bids since it was formed. For example, on 9 November 2006, NTL announced that it had approached ITV plc about a proposed merger.[130][131] The merger was effectively blocked by BSkyB on 17 November 2006 when it controversially bought a 17.9% stake in ITV plc for £940 million,[132] a move that attracted anger from NTL shareholder Richard Branson[133] and an investigation from media and telecoms regulator Ofcom.[134] On 6 December 2006, NTL announced that it had complained to the Office of Fair Trading about BSkyB's move. NTL stated that it had withdrawn its attempt to buy ITV plc, citing that it did not believe that there was any possibility to make a deal on favourable terms.[135] On 17 July 2014, BSkyB's 6.4% stake in ITV was sold to Liberty Global, valued at £481 million.[136] References [edit]
3152	dbpedia	1	55	https://www.theaurorazone.com/about-the-aurora/aurora-legends/	en	Mythology of the Northern Lights	https://www.theaurorazon…ds_ancestors.jpg		[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=933756316714490&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/aurora-logo.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/menu-wishlist.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/menu-phone.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/email-hover.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/nav-bars.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/aurora-logo.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/logo-colour.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/logo400.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/legends_ancestors.jpg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/legends_celestial_dragon.jpg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/HT4A0962.jpg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/feature-1.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/feature-2.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/feature-3.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/feature-4.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/atol_logo_6865.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/feefo_sq_gold_service_2022_grey_yellow.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/aito-assured2.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/abta-logo.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/British_Travel_Awards_Logo_small.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/artisan-group-logo.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/black-arrow.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/white-arorazone.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/white-heart.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/white-call.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/themes/aurorazone/images/white-bar.svg", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/logo-colour.png", "https://www.theaurorazone.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/logo400.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2023-05-18T08:08:47+00:00	Northern Lights mythology from Around the World from us, your Northern Lights holiday experts. Find out something new !		https://www.theaurorazon…ages/favicon.png	Aurora Zone	https://www.theaurorazone.com/about-the-aurora/aurora-legends/	Aurora Borealis is derived from the Greek words “Aurora” meaning “sunrise” and “Boreas” meaning “wind”. For the ancient Greeks to have seen the lights there must have been some incredibly strong solar activity because sightings so far south are almost unheard of. The Greeks held that Aurora was the sister of Helios and Seline, the sun and moon respectively, and that she raced across the early morning sky in her multi-coloured chariot to alert her siblings to the dawning of a new day. The Romans also associated the Northern Lights with a new day believing them to be Aurora, the goddess of dawn. Image credit: Guercino – The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. It’s rare for the Northern Lights to appear over Southern Europe and such appearances require intense solar activity which usually results in red Auroras appearing in the night sky. Not surprisingly, on the rare, rare occasions that they do appear, they cause quite a stir and, until fairly recently, were enough to terrify a populace unaware of the Aurora’s origin. The poor residents of France and Italy for example believed the lights to be a bad omen heralding the outbreak of anything from war to plague and death. In Scotland and England, the skies are said to have blazed red just a few weeks prior to the French Revolution and were later considered to have been a sign of the coming strife in their Gallic neighbour state. Image: Markku Inkila Centuries ago, human settlements were far less concentrated and we lived in far smaller and remoter communities with barely any communication with other tribes. As a result, many, many North American tribes or people evolved their own myths surrounding the Aurora Borealis. Here are just a few of the many and varied beliefs held by our ancestors in North America. The Cree Indians held that the Aurora was part of life’s circle and were the spirits of the dead who remained in the sky but apart from their loved ones. The Cree believed that the lights were spirits of these departed friends and relatives trying to communicate with those they had left behind on earth. The Algonquin’s take on the Aurora was that it was created by light from a fire built by Nanahbozho, their creator. They understood the fire to be Nanahbozho’s way of telling his people that he remembered them and was watching over them. Further north, many Inuit tribes considered the Aurora to be the spirits of dead humans playing a ball game using a walrus skull as the ball. For reasons we will doubtless never fathom, the good people of remote Nunavik Island told the same story but the other way round so for them, the Northern Lights were walrus spirits playing ball with the skull of some unfortunate human. In Washington State, the particularly imaginative Makah Indians thought the lights were fires in the north created by a tribe of dwarves who used it to boil whale blubber. Fire and cookery were also at the forefront of the Mandan people’s thinking in North Dakota. Their explanation was that the lights were again fires over which great warriors boiled their enemies in huge cooking pots. Just to illustrate how different the legends and myths became, disparate North Americans accepted the lights as anything from ravens to spirit guides holding torches aloft to direct the departed to the next world. The lights were deemed to be the spirits of those who had died violently, spirits rejoicing because the sun was absent, spirits of dead animals such as deer and salmon and spirits of revenging enemies killed in combat. Image: Antti Pietikainen
3152	dbpedia	0	19	https://www.creditsafe.com/business-index/en-gb/company/sky-italia-srl-it02825508	en	S.r.l. full company profile on Creditsafe	https://www.creditsafe.c…mRleC5wbmc=-.png	https://www.creditsafe.c…mRleC5wbmc=-.png	[ "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/cslogo.svg", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/uk.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/us.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/fr.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/it.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/be.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/nl.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/be.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/jp.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/de.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/ie.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/uk.png", "https://index-edge.creditsafe.com/img/languages/se.png", 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Get Contact details, financial insights, industry benchmarks, competitors from creditsafe.com	en	https://www.creditsafe.c…e-touch-icon.png		https://www.creditsafe.com/business-index/it-it/company/sky-italia-srl-it02825508	Company Credit Reports Reduce risk associated with your new or existing UK customers and suppliers with a trusted credit checking system. Company Credit Reports International Credit Reports Protect your business when trading in less familiar locations with comprehensive international reports. International Credit Reports
3152	dbpedia	0	81	https://proprivacy.com/guides/stream-sky-italia-online-with-vpn	en	How to Stream Sky Go Italia Online from Anywhere in 2024	https://cdn.proprivacy.c…image-social.png	https://cdn.proprivacy.c…image-social.png	[ "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/2024/01/james-milin-ashmorejpg-avatar_image-small.png", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/01/expressvpn-logopng-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2019/10/nordvpn-logo-full-400-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2023/01/surfshark-pos-128pxpng-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/06/logo-horizontalpng-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/12/private-vpn-360png-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://proprivacy.com/images/our-team-450.jpg", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/01/expressvpn-logopng-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2019/10/nordvpn-logo-full-400-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/06/logo-horizontalpng-logo_image-default_webp.webp", "https://cdn.proprivacy.com/storage/images/proprivacy/2021/12/private-vpn-360png-logo_image-default_webp.webp" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "James Milin-Ashmore" ]	2023-02-07T00:00:00	Are you looking for an easy way to watch your favorite Italian TV shows and movies when you're abroad? Here's everything you need to know about using a VPN to stream Sky Go Italia.	en	/apple-touch-icon.png	ProPrivacy.com	https://proprivacy.com/guides/stream-sky-italia-online-with-vpn	Are you looking for an easy way to watch Sky Go Italia from abroad? Here’s everything you need to know about using a Virtual Private Network (VPN) to stream Sky Go Italia, including the best options on the market. If you hadn’t guessed, Sky Go Italia is a regional streaming service that is exclusively available in Italy. Even if you pay for an Italian Sky subscription back at home, access will be blocked if you’re away on vacation, or frequently travel abroad to work. However, you’ll be able to bypass any restrictions easily with the use of a VPN for Sky Go Italia. A VPN works by encrypting all of the traffic sent to and from your device. It also assigns the user with a new IP address in the process, which can be used to bypass many regional restrictions. By connecting to the VPN server, your IP address and location will be masked, which helps to improve online privacy. What’s the best way to stream Sky Go Italia from anywhere? A VPN is one of the easiest ways to access Sky Go Italia if you’re not in a supported region. Your traffic will be encrypted in the process, and it’s safer and more reliable than using a proxy. We’ll go through each of the best VPNs for Sky Go Italia in detail below, but here’s a quick roundup if you’d prefer the key information upfront. Best VPNs for Sky Go Italia: ExpressVPN:Our top pick for streaming Sky Go Italia.Exceptional speeds, and one of the best services for accessing blocked content in Italy and beyond. Comes with a risk-free 30-day money-back guarantee. NordVPN: Large network of servers, can be used to access Sky Go Italia via Rome and Milan, lots of affordable deals, and a good all-rounder. Surfshark: Ideal for streaming content from Italy, consistent speeds, unlimited device connections, and strong security. PIA: Italian servers, speedy connections, 10 simultaneous connections, and proven zero-logs claims. PrivateVPN: Arguably the best cheap VPN, can access various international streaming sites, and has servers in Milan. How to watch Sky Go Italia online abroad with a VPN If you’re not sure what to do, there’s no need to worry, as the setup process is really simple. Here’s a step-by-step guide to get started with almost any VPN while outside Italy. Here’s how to watch Sky Go Italia online (from outside Italy): Pick a VPN that can be used with Sky Go Italia. (ExpressVPN is our top recommendation overall.) Download the relevant VPN app to your device. Sign in, and select an Italian server. (This will give you an Italian IP address.) Once you’ve connected to the server, open Sky Go Italia and sign in. It's a simple solution for accessing geo-blocked content. Some VPNs will also work with other international streaming platforms, including the likes of BBC iPlayer and Netflix. The best VPNs for Sky Go Italia \| In-depth analysis With hundreds of competing VPN services to choose from, it can be tough to pick the best provider for the job. For example, as you’re accessing an Italian service, you’ll need strong coverage in the country, as well as connection speeds that are fast enough for streaming live content. (Since October 2022, all live TV and on demand Sky Go content is displayed in HD, capped at 720p.) We used the following criteria to come up with this list: Secure servers located in Italy Speeds fast enough for video streaming Circumvent regional restrictions in Italy and beyond Ability to mask VPN activity Additional privacy and security features User-friendly apps for popular devices Here’s a rundown with our best VPNs to use with Sky Go Italia: 1. ExpressVPN Editor's Choice \| August 2024 ExpressVPN is our top pick for watching Sky Go Italia from anywhere. Excellent speeds from servers in 94+ countries including Italy, simple apps, and unblocks the majority of services worldwide.Â Pricing 12 months + 3 months FREE + Backblaze backup: $6.67/mth 49% OFF 6 months: $9.99/mth 1 month: $12.95/mth Pros Will unblock almost any geo-blocked service, including Sky Go ItaliaÂ Lightway protocolÂ Excellent speeds for streamingÂ Strong encryption and securityÂ Italian servers in Milan and Cosenza Cons Canât match up to budget providers in terms of pricing Some server locations are virtual rather than physicalÂ Available on Windows macOS iOS Android Linux Unblocks Netflix iPlayer Amazon Prime Hulu Website www.expressvpn.com ExpressVPN is always going to be one of the best options if you’re in need of a provider to unblock tough streaming services. It has servers in 94+ countries worldwide, and speeds that are some of the fastest you’ll find on the market. It is on the pricier side of things, but you’re paying for beginner-friendly apps and servers that can easily access Sky Go Italia, as well as other popular services like Netflix, BBC iPlayer, Amazon Prime Video, and Hulu. You’ll be able to pick from Italian servers located in Milan and Cosenza. Additional Italian content you can access includes RaiPlay, Mediaset Infinity, VVVVID, La 7, and more. The proprietary Lightway protocol is perfect for speedy streaming, and it keeps no identifying logs. Encryption is watertight, and privacy features are numerous, including split tunneling and obfuscation. You’ll find intuitive apps for Windows, Linux. macOS, Android, iOS, and more, along with router support for various models. It does come with a premium price tag, but you get what you pay for thanks to a stellar all-round service. You’ll also be able to test it out for yourself, as there’s a hassle-free 30-day money-back guarantee. NordVPN is the best budget option for streaming Sky Go in Italy and elsewhere. Large network of servers and strong streaming capabilities. Pricing 24 months + 3 months FREE: $3.69/mth 70% OFF 12 months: $4.99/mth 59% OFF 1 month: $11.99/mth Pros NordLynx protocol, OpenVPN, and WireGuardÂ Lots of advanced featuresÂ Affordable dealsÂ 50+ Italian servers Will be able to access Sky Go Italia securely Cons Can lag while switching serversÂ May prompt captcha with some servers Available on Windows macOS iOS Android Linux Unblocks Netflix iPlayer Amazon Prime Hulu Website www.nordvpn.com Coming in a close second, NordVPN has a selection of affordable deals which make it one of the best options for users on a budget. The NordLynx protocol helps to improve performance while streaming, and there are 50+ Italian servers to choose from. It’s a capable provider for accessing blocked services, including US Netflix, restricted YouTube videos, BBC iPlayer, Amazon Prime, and more. The same goes for Sky Go, as it works with versions in the United Kingdom, Italy, Germany, and New Zealand. That’s reasonably comprehensive. However, we saw better results with the Windows app during testing. You’ll find apps for Windows, macOS, Android, and iOS devices, alongside browser extensions which are available for Chrome and Firefox. It allows for six simultaneous connections. Additional features include double-hop connections, VPN over Tor, DNS-based malware protection, Dedicated IPs, and Smart DNS. The provider is based in Panama, which is great for privacy. NordVPN comes with the industry standard 30-day money-back guarantee. SurfShark is a viable choice for Sky Go Italia, and another great option if youâre looking for value for money from your streaming VPN.Â Pricing 24 months + 3 months FREE: $2.19/mth 86% OFF 12 months + 3 months FREE: $2.79/mth 82% OFF 1 month: $15.45/mth Pros Unlimited device connectionsÂ Large server network in 100+ countriesÂ Fast connection speedsÂ Works with the majority of major streaming platformsÂ Cons Monthly subs could be cheaperÂ Slower speeds with some locationsÂ Available on Windows macOS iOS Android Linux Unblocks Netflix iPlayer Amazon Prime Hulu Website www.surfshark.com Based in the British Virgin Islands, Surfshark makes use of unlimited connections to great effect, allowing you to protect as many devices as you’d like with a range of apps for all popular operating systems. This includes macOS, Windows, Linux, iOS, Android, Chrome, Firefox, Fire TV, and more. It’s great for accessing numerous streaming sites, including various Netflix libraries, Disney+, and Amazon Prime Video. As for Sky Go Italia, there are servers in Milan and Rome offering WireGuard support, along with features such as Camouflage Mode. Surfshark’s servers are RAM-only, and don’t store any data. Speeds are quick enough for watching 4K content, and extras include ad and malware-blocking, obfuscation, and multi-hop functionality. Live chat is available 24/7, and Surfshark comes with a simple 30-day money-back guarantee. PIA is an affordable service with strong encryption, 10 simultaneous devices, and speeds that are fast enough to stream Sky Go Italia with ease.Â Â Pricing 24 months + 2 months FREE: $2.19/mth 82% OFF 6 months: $7.5/mth 38% OFF 1 month: $11.95/mth Pros Italian servers which are perfect for streamingÂ 10 simultaneous device connectionsÂ Fast and consistent server speedsÂ Proven no-logs policyÂ Cons Based in the US Not much in the way of notable extras to improve privacyÂ Available on Windows macOS iOS Android Linux Unblocks Netflix iPlayer Amazon Prime Hulu Website www.privateinternetaccess.com Private Internet Access (PIA) is another capable VPN if streaming access in Italy is what you’re looking for. You’ll be able to connect up to 10 devices simultaneously with a single account, and there are apps for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, Linux, and Amazon Fire TV. If you need a lightweight version, you can also find a duo of browser extensions for Chrome and Firefox. Speeds are quick enough for 4K streaming (even if Sky Go is capped at 720p), while PIA Mace works to block ads, trackers, and malware. One downside is that it’s based in the United States, although it has a no-logs policy that has been proven in court multiple times. Customer support options are robust, and it comes with a simple 30-day money-back guarantee. PrivateVPN offers servers in Italy and elsewhere that can be used for streaming live content. It comes with strong privacy features and a free trial. Pricing 36 months: $2/mth 84% OFF 3 months: $6/mth 50% OFF 1 month: $9.99/mth 17% OFF Pros Great for accessing streaming services around the world, including ItalyÂ User-friendly serviceÂ Strong encryption and simple privacy policyÂ Â Will be able to stream Sky Go Italia in HD Cons Speeds are slower from a few locationsÂ Lacks a public audit Fewer servers than some of the competitionÂ Available on Windows macOS iOS Android Linux Unblocks Netflix iPlayer Amazon Prime Hulu Website www.privatevpn.com Sweden-based PrivateVPN has Italian servers found in Milan, which are ideal for accessing content like Sky Go Italia. As with PIA, you’ll be able to connect up to 10 devices at any given time. There are servers in 60+ countries, unblocking an impressive number of international streaming services, including Netflix US, Hulu, and Prime Video. There are apps for all popular devices, and it comes with features like a kill switch and obfuscation. You’ll be further protected by strong encryption and a zero-logs policy. As well as a seven-day free trial, you’ll be able to test it out for longer thanks to its 30-day money-back guarantee. Accessing Sky Go Italia with a Free VPN There are numerous free VPNs, but we’d strongly advise against using a provider which doesn’t charge for its service via subscription. It’ll be tough to find a VPN that has the servers needed to access Sky Go Italia in the first place, as the majority of free options are limited to the United States. If you do manage to find a free provider with Italian servers, these are likely to be blocked by most streaming platforms. Sky Go Italia is one of the more difficult platforms to access from abroad, so it’s unlikely to work anyway. The majority of free VPNs struggle with slow connection speeds due to overloaded servers, so you’ll have to put up with lag or constant buffering. You’re also going to have to deal with a constant barrage of adverts, and some services have even been caught selling user data and bandwidth in the past. Many free providers are risky in terms of privacy and security and lack solid encryption, which means it will be leaking your data in the background. Why does Sky Go Italia block its users? Sky Go Italia can actually be used in many European countries, as long as you meet the following criteria: You must pay for the Sky subscription, and you must be a permanent resident in Italy. If so; "When you travel to one of the countries in the European Union, you can see the same programs available in Italy on your devices without downloading them.” You’ll be able to use the Sky Go app in Italy, the Republic of San Marino, the Vatican City, all European Union countries, Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway. However, this no longer includes the UK. EU countries are as follows: Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta , the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, the Czech Republic, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Hungary. However, this only works for 30 days. You will then receive an email to remind you that, within the following week, you need to log in again from Italy to confirm your residence. Due to complicated international broadcasting rights, streaming services tend to stick to a country or region. (In this case, Italy and the EU.) If you’re on holiday in the UK, or anywhere else outside of the EU, you will probably see the following error message: "Per vedere este contenuto è necessario trovarsi su Territorio della Repubblica Italiana di San Marino o della Città del Vaticano.” An Italian IP will trick the service, and gives the user access to Sky Go Italia streams. How does a VPN access Sky Go Italia? As the service is restricted to Italian users with a few exceptions, you’ll have to use an IP address from Italy to trick Sky Go into thinking that you’re currently in the country. Most websites tend to use your IP address to determine your current location. A VPN ‘spoofs’ your IP, which is another term for masking (or hiding) your real IP address with a substitute. Your IP is unique, but you can use a VPN to get an address from any location you connect to. Sky is one of the more stringent platforms when it comes to blocking the use of VPNs. This is conjecture, but it could be due to the various live sports available on the platform, with broadcasting rights that are split across Europe and beyond. You’ll need a premium service to have any chance of being able to access Sky Go, and the average VPN is unlikely to make the cut. How to access Sky Go Italia: Further information Available free of charge to all Sky customers, Sky Go Italia has apps for iOS, Android, macOS, and PC. According to the Sky help pages, you’ll only be able to watch Sky Go programs on one device at a time, although you can replace devices whenever you want without any limitations. Premium users can associate their Sky iD with up to eight devices and use the services on two paired devices at the same time. Watching Sky GO Italia from anywhere: FAQs Is it legal to watch Sky Go Italia with a VPN? Yes, it’s legal, and you won’t get in trouble if you plan to watch content with a VPN. However, it is worth noting that you could be in breach of Sky’s Terms of Service. The broadcaster is unlikely to cancel your subscription at any rate. It’s not illegal to change your IP address in Italy, but rules will vary depending on your current location. For example, VPNs are restricted in some countries, such as China, Russia, and parts of the Middle East. Make sure to check the legality before heading out. Will my Sky Go Italia account be banned if I use a VPN? It’s unlikely that you’ll be banned for accessing a service that you’ve paid for, especially if you’re only using it while you’re on holiday. However, you will be restricted from watching content if they find out you’re not in Italy. Streaming services ban the IPs used by VPNs, rather than the users themselves. What devices can I use for Sky Go Italia? Sky Go Italia can be used with a variety of different devices. The Sky Go platform is available for tablets and smartphones with iOS 12 or higher and Android 5.1 or higher, for PC/Mac with Windows 7 or higher and Mac OS X 10.11 or higher. It also works with Smart TVs, games consoles, some streaming sticks, and boxes. I’m having issues with my VPN and Sky Go Italia. Any solutions? If you’ve followed the guide and you’re still running into problems, there are a number of potential solutions. Make sure to clear all the cookies from your device. Desktop versions tend to have more success with streaming services. You can also try switching to a different server in Italy. If all else fails, we’d advise to contact the VPN support team to see if they can help. What can I watch with Sky Go Italia? You’ll be able to watch various live Sky Italia channels, including sports, football, news and more. For example, here are the sports offerings: Sky Sport 24 Sky Sport Uno Sky Sport Calcio Sky Sport Football Sky Sport Arena Sky Sport Tennis Sky Sport Action Sky Sport NBA Sky Sport F1 Sky Sport MotoGP There are also thousands of on-demand cinema titles, TV series, documentaries, and children's programs. However, it will vary depending on your Sky subscription, and you won’t get access to anything you haven’t paid for. You can watch Peacock content with the platform, but Sky Primafila content is not available on Sky Go. Can I watch Sky Go Italia for free? Yes, and no. Sky Go is free for any Sky subscriber, but you will have to be a paying customer.
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"https://wise.com/public-resources/assets/logos/wise-personal/logo.svg" ]	[ "https://www.youtube.com/embed/u44neaGc768?si=_BxGWUoyAZvMwKoc" ]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Gert Svaiko" ]	2023-11-29T00:00:00	Travelling abroad? Read our complete guide on Sky Mobile international data roaming, including roaming destinations, coverage and roaming charges.	en	https://wise.com/public-…onal/favicon.png	Wise	https://wise.com/gb/blog/sky-mobile-data-roaming	Heading off on holiday soon? As well as packing your suitcase, you’ll also need to get a few other travel essentials sorted. This includes checking whether you can use your UK debit card abroad without charges, and whether your mobile network allows international roaming. In this guide, we’ll be focusing on Sky Mobile and how its international data roaming policy works. We’ll run through where in the world you can use your Sky Mobile device to get online, along with any data roaming charges you need to know about. And while you’re making your pre-travel preparations, make sure you check out the Wise card from the money services provider Wise. It could save you money on holiday spending, letting you pay and withdraw cash like a local in 150+ countries - and all for low fees* and great mid-market exchange rates. Table of contents What is Sky Mobile? What services does Sky Mobile provide? How does roaming with Sky Mobile work? Sky Mobile international data roaming coverage Sky Mobile data roaming in Europe (EU) Sky Mobile data roaming in the US³ Sky Mobile data roaming in Turkey Sky Mobile international data roaming charges Additional fees What is Sky Mobile? Sky Mobile is a mobile virtual network operator (MVNO). This is just a rather long-winded way of saying that it doesn’t have its own network, but uses another provider’s network. In this case, Sky Mobile uses the O2 network. What services does Sky Mobile provide? Sky Mobile offers a range of pay monthly plans and contracts for phones, tablets and laptops. You can also get SIM cards and buy accessories such as headphones and smartwatches at the Sky Mobile website. How does roaming with Sky Mobile work? Sky Mobile does allow roaming, which means that you’ll be able to use your phone to get online and make calls when you’re outside the UK. However, it isn’t free. International minutes, texts and data aren’t considered to be included in your monthly plan, so you’ll be charged for them. We’ll look at roaming charges in more detail shortly. Before you travel, you’ll need to make sure you have data roaming switched on in your phone settings.¹ But you don’t need to tell Sky Mobile that you’ll be using your phone internationally. When you land at your destination, you should receive a welcome text from the provider which outlines the roaming charges for using your phone in that country. You can set a spend cap to limit any roaming charges, but you need to make sure it’s above £0 if you want roaming to work. Sky Mobile international data roaming coverage Sky Mobile customers should be able to use their devices worldwide, although there may be a handful of exceptions. You can check the full list of roaming destinations here. There are some specifics you need to know about certain destinations though. We’ll run through these next. Sky Mobile data roaming in Europe (EU) If you’re jetting off to Europe, you can use the Roaming Passport Plus Pass for £2 a day. This lets you use your UK data, call and text allowances while spending time in over 55 countries. This includes almost all of the EU/EEA, as well as the USA, Australia and a handful of other destinations.² You don’t need to buy or order the pass. As soon as you use your phone in an included destination, the pass activates automatically. 📚 Read more: 7 best UK-issued prepaid travel cards for Europe Sky Mobile data roaming in the US³ For those travelling to the USA, there’s an extra complication to bear in mind. Before you go, you’ll need to make sure your phone is compatible with something called VoLTE Roaming or 4G Calling Abroad - and switch it on in your device settings. This is because US mobile network providers are currently switching over from 2G and 3G to make way for 4G and 5G networks. The following (but not all) phones should be compatible: iPhone 7 and above running iOS15 or higher. Samsung S10 and above, and Samsung A series, running Android 12 or higher. If your device fits the bill, you can use the Sky Mobile Roaming Passport Plus Pass to use your UK data, call and text allowances while in the US. If not, you might need to look into getting a US SIM card instead. 📚 Read more: 7 best UK-issued prepaid travel cards for the US Sky Mobile data roaming in Turkey The only thing to know about data roaming in Turkey is that the Sky Mobile Roaming Passport Plus Pass does work there.¹ So all you need to do is switch on data roaming and start using your phone when you land - and it’ll be activated automatically. 📚 Read more: 7 best UK-issued prepaid travel cards for Turkey Sky Mobile international data roaming charges The Sky Mobile Roaming Passport Plus Pass costs a flat £2 a day, and allows you to use your UK allowance of calls, text and data in 55+ included countries. Be aware though that some additional charges may apply to certain calls or messages. If you want to roam somewhere outside of the 55 countries, international data roaming charges will apply. These vary depending on the destination, and there’s a full list on the Sky Mobile Tariff Guide. But to give you an idea, here are a few examples:⁴ Malaysia - £0.36 per MB Albania - £2.16 per MB Tunisia - £4.32 per MB Mozambique - £12 per MB. Additional fees Like other providers, Sky Mobile also has additional charges for certain types of international calls or messages. It all depends on where you’re travelling to, but here are a few examples:⁴ DestinationCall/messageFee One of the 55+ Roaming Passport Plus Pass countriesCall to an EU/EEA destination£0.55 per minute One of the 55+ Roaming Passport Plus Pass countriesText to an EU/EEA destination£0.10 per text One of the 55+ Roaming Passport Plus Pass countriesMMS£0.40 to EU £0.58 to non-EU Rest of the worldCalls to the UK (landline or mobile)£0.72 to £4.68 a minute Rest of the worldReceiving calls£0.14 to £2.10 a minute And that’s it - your handy guide to Sky Mobile international data roaming. We’ve looked at where you can roam and how much it costs, along with any other destination-specific information you need to know. After reading this, you should be all set to start planning your trip. Don’t forget to pop your Wise card in your travel wallet, as it could save you a bundle when spending abroad. Sign up with Wise today 💰 Sources used for this article: Sky Mobile - Roaming Passport Plus Sky Mobile - Using Sky Mobile abroad (roaming) Sky Mobile - Roaming in the USA Sky Mobile - Sky Mobile Tariff Guide
3152	dbpedia	2	98	https://www.literaturelust.com/post/why-the-best-selling-novel-beneath-a-scarlet-sky-is-raising-red-flags	en	Why the Best-Selling Novel, Beneath a Scarlet Sky, Is Raising Red Flags	https://static.wixstatic…6bdb782b~mv2.jpg	https://static.wixstatic…6bdb782b~mv2.jpg	[ "https://static.wixstatic.com/media/5a5ed7_3f2c32d8751f4763964e768894121abf~mv2.png/v1/fill/w_103,h_60,al_c,q_85,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01,enc_auto/Melissa%20Gouty.png", "https://static.wixstatic.com/media/5a5ed7_b83b63b5d42b4b7dac7409696bdb782b~mv2.jpg/v1/fill/w_147,h_98,al_c,q_80,usm_0.66_1.00_0.01,blur_2,enc_auto/5a5ed7_b83b63b5d42b4b7dac7409696bdb782b~mv2.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Melissa Gouty" ]	2021-04-27T00:51:30.905000+00:00	Rumblings are sounding that Mark Sullivan's novel, Beneath a Scarlet Sky, has been misrepresented. The story it's based on is not all true.	en	https://static.wixstatic…81b8ea%7Emv2.jpg	LiteratureLust.com	https://www.literaturelust.com/post/why-the-best-selling-novel-beneath-a-scarlet-sky-is-raising-red-flags	Rumblings in the literary world Photo by Tengyart on Unsplash Literary Rumblings of Fraud I admit that I’m easily excited by stories. A good plot gets my blood pumping. A strong character piques my interest. A well-researched historical basis stimulates my mind. So it’s no surprise that the premise of Mark T. Sullivan’s Beneath a Scarlet Sky wowed me. The novel was based on “the true story of a forgotten hero,” Pino Lella, an Italian youth who led refugees over the mountains to freedom in physical acts of courage. Later, Lello enlisted in the German Army to avoid being drafted into it. Once in the German army, was appointed as the chauffeur to German General Hans Leyers where Pino Lella performed mental feats of tremendous strength by spying on the General and providing information to the Italian Resistance. I loved the book, Beneath a Scarlet Sky. Was my praise naive or premature? In the last two weeks, I received notes from several readers who wanted me to think again about promoting Mark Sullivan’s Beneath a Scarlet Sky, with one reader suggesting the book is “an epic hoodwinking.” “…I recommend you do some poking around (GoodReads and now Reddit), because in reality the book is not in the same universe as what the author (mis)represents it to be … not correctly marketed as “based on a true story” much less “90% true”. This is so even after accounting for the gross abuse and redefining of “Based On a True Story,” (BOTS) products by the leisure-entertainment industry to the point where it can be all but meaningless. The truth is that this is one of those situations where a lot of folks will one day marvel that it took so very long for what is fairly categorized as a literary fraud to be (widely) exposed for what it is and the author held to account for his many deceits. ..” What’s the impetus for these rumblings? Two writers got it started: Cat Calilban A writer named Cat Caliban debunked several aspects of Sullivan’s book in a Reddit post. No written evidence or paper trails exist of either Pino or his brother, Mimo Lello’s heroic antics during the war. Sullivan claims records have been burned by the Nazis, but the Nazis wouldn’t have kept records of Pino’s work with the boys of Casa Alpina who skiied refugees across the border. Nazis would not have had records of the activities of the Italian Resistance in which Pino might have been named. The lack of these records has nothing to do with the Nazis destroying them. In 1985, Pino Lello gave an interview with significantly different details from what he presented to Mark Sullivan more than twenty years later. The German general that Pino Lella served as a chauffeur was not Hans Leyers, but General Kaufmann. Franco Isman Franco Isman was a young Italian Jewish boy who stayed at Casa Alpina from September of 1943 until May of 1945 when Italy was liberated from the Germans. He was there at the same time that the Lella boys were supposedly there. Now an elderly man, he writes historical pieces. Isman makes these claims: That Pino and Mimo Lella did not live at Casa Alpina as the book claims they were. Isman has no memory of them. Neither boy appears in any of the photos Isman has of the years at Casa Alpina. That Mark Sullivan used a picture of Franco Isman as Mimo Lello. That Mark Sullivan’s portrayal of Casa Alpina was not accurate. There were not forty boys, but fewer than ten. That Mark Sullivan has the geography all wrong in the scene where he describes Pino Lella’s extraordinary rescue of a pregnant woman, carrying her and her Stradivarius violin across the Alps to safety in Switzerland. Once she’s safely delivered, Lello pauses at the top of dam to hear the violinist play a moving song in thanks. Isman notes, “Really poetic. Too bad that the dam that formed the lake was built after the war and, above all, that the Val di Lei was Italy and not Switzerland! To reach Switzerland, they should have climbed another 500 meters on the opposite side of the valley.” Rumblings vs. rumor vs. fact vs fiction In Mark Sullivan’s defense, the conclusion to the novel’s preface assays this: “Due to the document burning, the collective amnesia, and the death of so many characters by the time I learned of the story, I have been forced in places to construct scenes and dialogue based solely on Pino’s memory decades later, the scant physical evidence that remains, and my imagination fueled by my research and informed suspicions. I have also comingled or compressed events and characters for the sake of narrative coherence and have fully dramatized incidents that were described to me in much more truncated forms. As a result, then, the story you are about to read is not a work of narrative nonfiction, but a novel of biographical and historical fiction that hews closely to what happened to Pino Lella between June 1943 and May 1945.” Sullivan calls his book a “ novel.” Not “nonfiction.” The reality is that the rumblings about “fraud” are because Beneath a Scarlet Sky is marketed as based on a “true story” and a few people are feeling duped by how much “truth” was included. And that, my friends, is the issue with historical fiction. It’s extremely difficult to know how much is truth and how much is fiction. No comment from the publishing world Mark Sullivan’s basic marketing premise for the book — that it’s based on a “true” story — is what’s causing angst among readers. Please note that I’ve looked for these same “rumblings” and/or acknowledgments about the book’s claims in the publishing world. Nothing has shown up in Publisher’s Marketplace, LitHub, or Library Journal, or in other news sources that focus on contemporary culture and issues. Read the discussion on Goodreads as well as the ones posted above on Reddit and Arengario.net to make your own decision. Beneath a Scarlet Sky is a great story. You can still enjoy it and learn a bit about what Italy looked like under German occupation. You just have to know that it might be more of a “story” than it was presented to be. If you buy a book or product that you’ve discovered through Literature Lust, I may earn a small commission on the sale. Thank you! Buy Beneath The Scarlet Sky from Amazon Buy Beneath The Scarlet Sky from Bookshop.org If you are searching for your next great read or enjoy knowing about books, you'll appreciate the dozens of articles about current and classic books in Book Talk at Literature Lust.
3152	dbpedia	0	39	https://en.satexpat.com/tv/italy/sky/	en	Italian Pay Satellite Television	https://i3.satexpat.com/…uoco-560x228.jpg		[ "https://satexpat.com/img/icon/satexpat_logo.png", "https://satexpat.com/img/icon/sat_icon_36x24.png", "https://www.satexpat.com/img/cha/uk/sky-uk-211x129.png", "https://i3.satexpat.com/sky-italia/sky-roma-fuoco-560x228.jpg", "https://en.satexpat.com/en/lib/postComment/img/ajax-loader.gif" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null					null	Contributions, comments and corrections are welcome. They are moderated and there may be a delay before they appear on the site. Thank you.
3152	dbpedia	2	36	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sky-PLC	en	Sky PLC \| British company	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.124.12	https://cdn.britannica.c…e.jpg?v=3.124.12	[ "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel/eb-logo/MendelNewThistleLogo.png", "https://cdn.britannica.com/73/124073-131-EA3EACC6/Tug-of-war-US-Naval-Academy-Maryland-Annapolis-2005.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/51/189351-131-104BA669/Jesse-Owens-Olympic-Games-1936.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/58/105358-131-083D7290/Battle-of-Gettysburg-Picketts-Charge-attempts-South-3-1863.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/64/189464-131-198EE448/dive-springboard-diver.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/24/129624-131-37C4C022/flags-soccer-balls-Futbol-football-arts-blog-2009.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/70/62770-131-C97CD1F7/Black-widow-spider.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/58/156058-131-22083D0A/Adolf-Hitler.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop", "https://cdn.britannica.com/26/4826-050-915ED74D/United-Kingdom.jpg", "https://cdn.britannica.com/11/221411-050-CE4F58CA/British-businessman-James-Murdoch.jpg?w=300" ]	[]	[]	[ "Sky PLC", "encyclopedia", "encyclopeadia", "britannica", "article" ]	null	[]	null	Other articles where Sky PLC is discussed: Greg Dyke: …worked successively for Rupert Murdoch’s BSkyB cable and satellite television company and for Pearson Television.	en	/favicon.png	Encyclopedia Britannica	https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sky-PLC	In United Kingdom: Broadcasting …cable market is dominated by Sky PLC (formerly BSkyB), which is partly owned by Murdoch’s News International. Sky, which serves Austria, Germany, Ireland, and Italy as well as the United Kingdom, also operates a 24-hour news channel and several sports channels. Read More In James Murdoch …of British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB), a multinational satellite television company in which News Corporation held a 39 percent stake, and he quickly overcame accusations of inexperience and nepotism to build its revenue base and profitability in Britain, Italy, and Germany. In 2007 Murdoch became nonexecutive chairman of BSkyB and… Read More
3152	dbpedia	2	61	https://www.firstonline.info/en/sky-italia-il-nuovo-amministratore-delegato-e-andrea-duilio/	en	Sky Italia: the new CEO is Andrea Duilio	https://www.firstonline.…a-Duilio-1-1.jpg	https://www.firstonline.…a-Duilio-1-1.jpg	[ "https://www.firstonline.info/favicon.ico", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Manchette-Guida-alla-Finanza.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/LogoTestata1200.png", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Andrea-Duilio-1-1-480x270.jpg", "https://firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/Targa-FIRST.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/Caldo-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Pruna-di-Frati-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Call-center-abusivi-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Screenshot-CIE-480x270.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Banner-salmone.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Paris-2024-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/Carte-da-Bridge-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Banner-Ginnastica-Mentale.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/Zelensky-300x300.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Politically-Incorrect-300x300.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/K2-300x300.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Banner_300x200_v1.png", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/itai-aarons-i4fEtZMvMgY-unsplash-3-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Ginnastica-Mentale-La-palestra-della-mente-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/Pruna-di-Frati-300x300.webp", 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"https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Paola-150x150.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/playing-2344559_1920-150x150.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/uomo-150x150.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/energy-efficiency-154006_1280-150x150.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/Giuliano-Cazzola-150x150.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/bolgherix-480x270.jpg", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/Edi-Snaidero-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/Antonio-Varsori-480x270.webp", "https://www.firstonline.info/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Logo-USPI-socio-nero.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Redazione FIRSTonline", "FIRSTonline editorial team", "Giuliano Cazzola", "Gerard Pelosi", "Valentina Nubola", "Giuliano DeRisi", "Marika Lion", "Federico Rendina", "www.facebook.com" ]	2021-07-26T09:42:53+00:00	The manager, with twenty years of experience in Vodafone Italia, inherits from Ibarra a TV without Serie A after almost 20 years and in full battle with the giants of streaming cinema and TV series	en	https://www.firstonline.…9/03/favicon.png	FIRSTonline	https://www.firstonline.info/en/sky-italia-the-new-managing-director-and-andrea-duilio/	Sky Italy has a new CEO: It is Andrea Duilio, who will assume the position starting from 6 September. The company announced it in a note, specifying that the manager will report directly to Stephen van Rooyen, CEO of Sky UK & Europe. The company makes it known. Duilio – who is 47 years old and has a degree in Economics from the Bocconi University of Milan – has experience twenty years in Vodafone Italy, where he worked – with ever increasing responsibilities – in the consumer business units. Since 2018 she has led with the role of digital director the digital transformation path of the telecommunication company. He later took on the position of director of business operations. Simultaneously, Vodafone Italia announced who Andrea Duilio's successor is Gianluca Pasquali who from 1 September assumes the role of Consumer Business Unit director of Vodafone Italia, reporting directly to the Chief Executive Officer Aldo Bisio. Pasquali is currently Group Retail & Customer Operations Director, where he has accelerated digital as a sales channel, the transformation and digitization of both the retail channel and customer service for the entire Vodafone Group, designed the new strategy for customer operations and for the My Vodafone app and launched the single platform approach for both TOBi and the App with the aim of leveraging the global dimension of the Group. In his role, he also introduced smart working in the customer operations of the entire Vodafone Group. “I am delighted to welcome Andrea Duilio as the new CEO of Sky Italia – comments Stephen van Rooyen – and to be able to work together with him on the implementation of our ambitious development plans. The experience gained by Duilio will give an important boost to Sky Italia's innovation and growth process, completing the transition towards a leaner and more integrated operating model with the group”. Duilio will have to take the reins of Sky Italia in a very special moment for the company, which for the first time in almost 20 years is no longer the main television platform where you can watch Serie A matches.
3152	dbpedia	0	4	https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1695Z:IM	en	Sky Italia-Srl - Company Profile and News	https://www.bloomberg.co…markets-logo.png	https://www.bloomberg.co…markets-logo.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "1695Z", "Sky Italia-Srl", "NYSE", "Nasdaq", "S&P", "FTSE", "DJIA", "DAX", "1695Z news", "1695Z stock", "1695Z stock price", "stock", "stock price" ]	null	[]	null	Company profile page for Sky Italia-Srl including stock price, company news, executives, board members, and contact information	en	https://assets.bwbx.io/s…avicon-black.png	Bloomberg.com	https://www.bloomberg.com/profile/company/1695Z:IM	Connecting decision makers to a dynamic network of information, people and ideas, Bloomberg quickly and accurately delivers business and financial information, news and insight around the world Connecting decision makers to a dynamic network of information, people and ideas, Bloomberg quickly and accurately delivers business and financial information, news and insight around the world
3152	dbpedia	0	78	https://italicsmag.com/2022/05/20/civita-di-bagnoregio-the-city-in-the-sky/	en	Civita di Bagnoregio: The City In The Sky	https://italicsmag.com/w…-4014-scaled.jpg	https://italicsmag.com/w…-4014-scaled.jpg	[ "https://www.facebook.com/tr?id=561970142801860&ev=PageView&noscript=1", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-e1545843349431.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-2-e1545840888455.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gianluca-bei-JtFz3WhGck0-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/nicole-geri-hf5lj-6CMx0-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/295403680_d3f62071e4_c-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/eliott-reyna-kcT-7cirBEw-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/joshua-hanks-MEUA9bJ4uPw-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/annie-niemaszyk-O97e8AK1BVY-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Italian-Opera-Theater-San-Carlo-Napoli-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Naples-Nativity-Scenes-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/Haruki-Murakami-on-Graffiti-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/antonio-molinari-1989cZMSwtA-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/vincent-guth-62V7ntlKgL8-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/09/POLLIONE-DIEGO-GODOY-3-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/BK9A5252-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/aaron-thomas-iCjqkc_Jtsc-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/pexels-cottonbro-studio-4659806-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/luca-florio-BHl2WVvDu8o-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/artur-tumasjan-KZSNMN4VxR8-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/03/illiya-vjestica-CKaAbuj90zs-unsplash-370x247.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-4014-770x578.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-4034-800x1067.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/IMG-5313-800x600.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/4f8e5cfb-83be-4bec-9d9e-e2194e3ed5ed-1-800x600.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/gianluca-bei-JtFz3WhGck0-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/nicole-geri-hf5lj-6CMx0-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/295403680_d3f62071e4_c-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/spencer-davis-9qY7iog2CU4-unsplash-300x300.jpg", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/ITALICS-mag-LOGO-bianco-01-e1545842406918.png", "https://italicsmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Logo-Italics-Magazine-_Tavola-disegno-1-e1545843349431.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Jana Godshall" ]	2022-05-20T00:00:00	Time traveling and romanticizing different eras aside, everyone should bookmark Civita di Bagnoregio in their must-see towns in Italy.	en	https://italicsmag.com/w…cs-New-32x32.png	Italics Magazine	https://italicsmag.com/2022/05/20/civita-di-bagnoregio-the-city-in-the-sky/	Raise your hand if you like time travel? Well, not that I can actually see any of your hands, but I would assume some of you have them up — or at least thought about it. And why wouldn’t you? The idea of traveling back in time appeals to so many of us. In fact, if I could have one superpower, it would be the ability to travel through time, but since I’m only human, I have to rely on period piece films and time traveling movies to fill this void in my life. I gladly suspend my beliefs and all sense of logic as I willingly go on the journey the story takes me — whether that means I believe that a magic door or a flying car allow people to go back and forth between centuries, I’m onboard. Aside from fiction and fantasies, ancient cities are the closest thing that provide us with the slightest notion of what the past may have felt like. It’s essentially the nearest thing that we have to real life time travel, and it’s probably why I love Italy as much as I do. We can literally walk on the same roads that were built thousands of years ago. We’re given a taste of the past, and Italy has no shortage when it comes to ancient cities. Take Rome for instance. It’s one big outdoor museum of the past world. Matera in the Basilicata region feels biblical. San Gimignano in Tuscany is straight up medieval times. And then there’s Civita di Bagneregio just one hour north of Rome, and it’s one of those places that stops you in your tracks. You walk around a corner, and bam! You’re hit with the image of an ancient village that literally looks perched on top of a crumbling mountain. And it looks perched on top of a crumbling mountain because it is. The image truly takes your breath away and invites you on a journey to another time. It’s an enchanting show-stopper, and to put it lightly, it’s dying. And it’s known around Italy as the dying town, ‘la città che muore’. Despite the constant erosion, there are a lot of people working to keep Civita di Bagnoregio intact. These people are fully aware of how many tourists visit the village and just how special the place is. They don’t want to see it going anywhere any time soon, so a lot of funding goes into repairing this dying city. Civita di Bagneregio was founded over two thousand years ago by the Etruscans. The Etruscans are believed to have migrated from the East Mediterranean and Asia Minor area in 900 BC, but you don’t gather that from any of the architecture. Most of what you see in Civita was built during the Middle Ages. The church structure and bell tower in the center of the town were likely built around 600 AD, and the rest of the buildings were probably constructed around 1100 AD. But things didn’t start to go south — literally crumble to the ground — until 1695, after an earthquake hit. This started the decline. Following the quake, there were many landslides, each that trimmed more and more land off the city’s square footage. These natural disasters left it vulnerable and virtually abandoned. Civita loses about seven centimeters of land each year. The earth collapses into the canyon below, and despite the amount of money that goes into keeping it alive, the city is still on the 100 most endangered sites lists. The yearly erosion plus the fact that the town is basically an island connected to the world by a footbridge keeps the population at a minimum. I’ve read that the city has seven residents, but I’ve also read that eleven and maybe even sixteen people call this place home. To be honest, I don’t see how it’s more than a vacation home to most of the residents because to reach the village you have to cross the sole footbridge that’s about 366 meters, inclined. That’s about a fifteen minute walk. Can you imagine leaving the house keys in the car? Round trip that’s at least thirty minutes. And don’t even get me started on furniture. I don’t understand how one moves anything there. And while there may not be many year-round locals, there’s no shortage of tourists. The tourists arrive each and every day by the busloads. In 2019, one million visitors stopped by to enjoy this ancient city in the sky. Civita is known as one of the most beautiful towns in Italy, and it really does have that picture-perfect postcard image inside and out. There are no vehicles driven within the city walls; there’s not even a grocery store, hardware store or any offices that I could find. However, sprinkled about are quaint restaurants, enotecas, museums, souvenir shops, a number of charm-filled B&Bs, and even a little garden on the opposite end of the entrance. Sauntering through the town and passing the souvenir shops each highlighting different paintings and photographs of the city, it was easy to want to mentally travel inside the photo, despite already being in the city at that very moment. Oftentimes, when we mentally travel to other lands or time periods, we think we would be happier. Sometimes when we see a photograph of a beautiful memory, we may want to be inside the picture again — to go back to that day or that moment in time where things looked happier or maybe easier (from a 2D perspective). Now, I am literally inside a picture, a perfect moment, and I’m still admiring a photo of it instead of real life. It’s the same sentiment of wishing you knew you were in the good ole days before it’s too late. Maybe if I could just remember this then I wouldn’t stroll through streets of an ancient village and long to live in another era. Instead, I’d want to live in the moment and appreciate what the city is now and whom I’m experiencing it with. But honestly, who am I kidding? I wouldn’t last a day in the ancient world. Despite all the lounging time and leisure-wear togas, one whiff of the streets, and I would surely be a goner. I can hardly stand the smell of today’s public restrooms. Can you imagine the ancient roads? They were one big toilet. The smell alone would be the death of me. Time traveling and romanticizing different eras aside, everyone should bookmark Civita di Bagnoregio in their must-see towns in Italy. I’ve now been to Civita three times, and while maybe I don’t necessarily see anything new (it’s a small village), I feel something new each time. And I always have to make a special stop at Antico Forno. I’m not usually a creature of habit — I mean, I am. Who am I kidding? I’ve worn the same perfume for twenty years. However, I still like to try new places, but here in Civita, I really just want to eat in this rustic cave filled with antique treasures, including a 1500 year-old original oil press that serves as a master centerpiece for the restaurant. The menu at Antico Forno is quite small, and mainly bruschetta but — authentic bruschetta — which I guess is confusing to people who write reviews on Tripadvisor because the place only has 2 stars and really funny slash harsh reviews, as it seems people get pretty riled up about paying for toast — which guys, bruschetta is essentially toast. You can add delicious toppings, but at the end of the day, it’s toast. I really can’t recommend this spot more when you visit this magical mountaintop. All in all, if you need to relax after pounding the pavement in Rome, I suggest you buy a journal or bring your laptop and spend a couple of nights at a B&B and reflect. Write. Meditate on whatever is happening or not happening in that noggin’ of yours and travel back to present day and enjoy the inspiration from the little city in the sky. Take a photograph and bottle up the memories so one day when you need reminding you can open the bottle and smile about the good ole days. Or wait, didn’t I say earlier that the good ole days are always now. Okay, well. I guess it’s all relative. What do I know? Just go to the city. Eat some toast. Donate to the cause of helping a two thousand plus year-old city not die.
3152	dbpedia	3	56	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sky	en	SKY Definition & Meaning	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	https://www.dictionary.c…_social_logo.png	[ "https://pixel.carambo.la/Pixel/dctn68/112845/2/1/0", "https://www.dictionary.com/ab34ff65bbd3138890c7.svg", "https://www.dictionary.com/e8d8d7d566d7f7f23acd.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Sky definition: the region of the clouds or the upper air; the upper atmosphere of the earth. See examples of SKY used in a sentence.	en	/94e56a525da4e9fe0cda.png	Dictionary.com	https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sky	Discover More Example Sentences Historical accounts of California summers describe months of smoky skies, but as a feature of the landscape, not a bug. From ProPublica When combined with additional data from other sky surveys, that alignment quantifies how much the matter in the universe is clumped together. From Science News With India’s aviation industry flying through troubled skies, sectors that are dependent on airlines have now started to feel the heat. From Quartz If you are working with smaller pieces, each contains less context for figuring out where it came from, especially in parts of the puzzle without any unique clues, like a blue sky. From Singularity Hub Four years ago, three big tech companies had plans in the works to beam internet down to Earth from the sky, and each scenario sounded wilder than the next. From Singularity Hub They looked up into the blue sky as the helicopters flew over in a lost man formation. Where these laser-like missiles are falling out of the sky onto a city and you have to stop each of them from hitting the targets? “At least it keeps the mosquitoes away,” one of my table-mates said, as we watched the swooshes of smoke waft into the Havana sky. Rob Marshall lets a sigh of relief erupt so loud it could be heard by giants in the sky. The sky is not the limit; beliefs still must be sincere and connected to some for-real source. It was the darkest hour of twilight, when there was just enough of gleam from the lurid sky, to shew the outline of objects. From Project Gutenberg He had seen through a powerful naval glass some figures standing erect and silhouetted against the sky on the parapet. From Project Gutenberg If it should ever be my lot to take the Long Trail at short notice, I hope it will be under a blue sky and a blazing sun. From Project Gutenberg The storm, however, was over; the moon and stars were shining in a clear sky, and the aurora was dancing merrily. From Project Gutenberg
3152	dbpedia	0	15	https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/2024/04/03/sky-italia-renews-premier-league-contact/	en	Sky Italia renews Premier League contact	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…ague-Graphic.jpg	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…ague-Graphic.jpg	[ "https://cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/14110001/Premier-League-Graphic-900x675.jpg", "https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/cropped-Julian-Grey-70x70.jpg", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/24131342/bttoweratnight-comp.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/03132859/Plex-Community-Lifestyle-TV.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/09122002/Foxtel-Remote.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/30170206/Wi-Fi-7_WhitePaper_Eero-1.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/14105533/Eutelsat-Paris.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/17114127/White-Paper-Eliminating-the-STB-Blind-Spot.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/14105947/Warner-Bros.-Discovery.png?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/30170206/Wi-Fi-7_WhitePaper_Eero-1-300x200.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Julian Clover" ]	2024-04-03T00:00:00	Sky Italia has extended its broadcast rights deal for the English Premier League for a further three seasons. The current contract, also a three-year deal, takes it through until the end of the 2024-25 season. As before, Sky will cover all 10 matches per round across its linear channels and the Now streaming service. Marzio…	en	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…N-Logo-32x32.png	Broadband TV News	https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/2024/04/03/sky-italia-renews-premier-league-contact/	Sky Italia has extended its broadcast rights deal for the English Premier League for a further three seasons. The current contract, also a three-year deal, takes it through until the end of the 2024-25 season. As before, Sky will cover all 10 matches per round across its linear channels and the Now streaming service. Marzio Perrelli, Sky’s EVP Sport, said: “We are happy to announce this agreement with the Premier League, which will remain a fundamental pillar of Sky Sport’s offering in the coming seasons.” Last month, it was confirmed that Sky Deutschland had retained exclusive broadcasting rights across all distribution channels in Germany, and non-exclusive rights in Austria and Switzerland. Sky Italia also holds the rights to three games per round in Italy’s Serie A, shared with DAZN, which also screens the remaining games.
3152	dbpedia	2	6	https://cloud.google.com/customers/sky-italia	en	Sky Italia Case Study	https://cloud.google.com…oud-1200-630.png	https://cloud.google.com…oud-1200-630.png	[ "https://www.gstatic.com/devrel-devsite/prod/vd185cef2092d5507cf5d5de6d49d6afd8eb38fe69b728d88979eb4a70550ff03/cloud/images/cloud-logo.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/retail.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/cpg.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/finance.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/hcls.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/media.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/telecommunications.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/gaming.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/manufacturing.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/supply-chain.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/government.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icon-sprite.svg#education", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#computeengine", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#cloudstorage", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#bigquery", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#cloudrun", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#kubernetesengine", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/vertex-ai.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/cloud-looker.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#apigeeapiplatform", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#cloudsql", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/gemini.png", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/icons.svg#cloudcdn", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/cloud/images/navigation/forward.svg", "https://www.gstatic.com/devrel-devsite/prod/vd185cef2092d5507cf5d5de6d49d6afd8eb38fe69b728d88979eb4a70550ff03/cloud/images/cloud-logo.svg", "https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/wV78CXcpOCyNuurfai0oKyKWFCeozdttDG2YVtRAEn_Y7oltz1Ypm4y2CIgt-n_Wy425EWA0clilu7xFFMfL2ByFBLJIso7Gu56XKv0ea9SAurOCQuU", "https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/LjLGpS-SCfQ-cIoxwTyLlepCaCkdIHAdc92e3T8z2ksZ_6VXcI5DjdTfL24Bs0AyL1yspuucFUpBCA_0JJaO5_kJSbgFkHgdoglxnlf9EHSh3DBPZ-PP", "https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/wV78CXcpOCyNuurfai0oKyKWFCeozdttDG2YVtRAEn_Y7oltz1Ypm4y2CIgt-n_Wy425EWA0clilu7xFFMfL2ByFBLJIso7Gu56XKv0ea9SAurOCQuU", "https://lh3.googleusercontent.com/LjLGpS-SCfQ-cIoxwTyLlepCaCkdIHAdc92e3T8z2ksZ_6VXcI5DjdTfL24Bs0AyL1yspuucFUpBCA_0JJaO5_kJSbgFkHgdoglxnlf9EHSh3DBPZ-PP" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Sky Italia employs Google Cloud preemptible VMs and Google Kubernetes Engine to transcode television content from standard to high definition	en	https://www.gstatic.com/devrel-devsite/prod/vd185cef2092d5507cf5d5de6d49d6afd8eb38fe69b728d88979eb4a70550ff03/cloud/images/favicons/onecloud/favicon.ico	Google Cloud	https://cloud.google.com/customers/sky-italia	Transcoding video on demand with preemptible virtual machines As a first step, Sky Italia transcoded its entire back catalog into high definition in only a few weeks. This was a major technical challenge. Processing high-definition content takes longer and demands four times more CPU than standard-definition video, meaning that Sky Italia needed to add resources to its on-premises infrastructure in order to meet its deadlines. To do that, Sky Italia teamed up with Google Cloud Partner Go Reply to develop a solution for integrating its hybrid transcoder into Google Cloud. “We had to transcode all our assets to the new bit-rate set optimizing costs and time. This wasn’t possible using only our existing on-premises infrastructure,” says Gabriele Ubertini, Director of Technology Engineering and Innovation at Sky Italia. “With Compute Engine, we could spin up new instances so quickly that managing our peak transcoding workload became a no-brainer. No extra capex, no time wasted. And by using Custom Machine Types, we could optimize the configurations of VMs to our real needs.” Transcoding old video content while keeping up with new content produced every day can put a strain on a broadcaster’s infrastructure. With more than 5,000 video assets to be transcoded to HD on tight deadlines, Sky Italia had to source new transcoding capacity in addition to its existing on-premises servers. Rather than purchase and install extra hardware, the team looked for a cost-effective solution that met stringent internal security requirements. Together with Go Reply, Sky Italia conceived a public cloud and on-premises hybrid HD transcoder and benchmarked a range of potential cloud providers. They decided to take advantage of Google Cloud preemptible VMs—highly affordable, short-lived compute instances that could handle the batch jobs and fault-tolerant workloads that Sky Italia needed. Preemptible VMs offer the same machine types and options as regular compute instances and last for up to 24 hours. Working with Custom Machine Types, which respond rapidly to peaks in demand without the need for overprovisioning, and a custom orchestrator that manages the whole process, Sky Italia has been able to efficiently manage costs for savings up to 80 percent. “Google offered us direct peering services between its infrastructure and the Sky data center,” says Ubertini. “Google preemptible virtual machines reduced our VM spending, but we needed a way to manage the moments when they might be unavailable. With Go Reply, we created an orchestration layer that let us use preemptible VMs and normal instances together and easily recover from preemptible VM shutdowns.” Instead of taking months, the hybrid transcoder processed the entire Sky Italia archive in just one week. On a day-by-day basis, the time required to catalog new video assets has also been significantly reduced. Taking the hybrid approach a step further, Sky Italia looked to the cloud to help manage the spikes in traffic coming at different times of the day and for special events. Video processing request volume can vary widely based on when new series are aired, when soccer matches are being played, or simply by day of the week. While the cloud offers virtually unlimited scalability to handle peaks and valleys as they arise, Sky Italia opted for a hybrid approach, keeping the baseline on-premises and scaling to the cloud as traffic requires. This solution offers on-demand, highly efficient scaling with reduced lead time for delivering VOD assets with high signal quality. At the same time, costs are kept well under control. Scoring a win for the business by moving software-defined encoding to the cloud The TV business is competitive, with new providers and new offers continually entering the market. Sky Italia has a market advantage by providing its subscribers with premium sports content in HD—especially soccer—as part of the traditional, set-top box subscription. But more and more subscribers are moving from TV decoders to the company’s mobile Sky Go and streaming NowTV services, which allow users to watch on computers, mobile devices, and smart TVs. The product team saw that it could help Sky Italia stay competitive on mobile by converting its premium soccer streams to HD. With the COVID-19 crisis adding uncertainty as to when the 2020/2021 Series A season would actually begin, they brought this idea to Gandino. He immediately saw that his team would need to move very quickly so that the business would be ready whenever the season started. In fact, by the time they got to work, the starting date had been announced, and they had less than two months to get the technology ready for the business to take it to market. Gandino explains, “We were asked to upscale our sports channels from SD to HD on NowTV and Sky Go mobile devices. Over the past two years, we’ve developed a solution that leverages Kubernetes to support our encoding stack. We created a software-defined encoding framework that allows us to deploy this encoding stack in the cloud, on-premises, wherever we want. After receiving this time-sensitive request from the business, we knew the only way to be able to deliver the project in time was to do it in the cloud.” Gandino’s team had two technical challenges to consider when defining the project. Sky Italia offers two types of sports channels to subscribers—linear channels that are available 24/7 and “pop-up” channels that are available for specific events. Working with Google Cloud engineers, his team decided to use VPNs to accommodate Sky Italia’s ingest to the cloud. Encoding the linear channels for the cloud was a straightforward solution, since the encoding stack was already in production on-premises using Kubernetes. Gandino says, “We process the same content in exactly the same way, twice basically, just to be able to provide better resilience to our customers.” The encoding stack is then deployed into two availability zones, and the streams flow to the encoding stacks. Then the channels are fed back to the content delivery network and delivered to viewers. “On-premises, when we experience a failure on the main encoders, it takes a few seconds for the backup encoders to kick in. As a result, mobile customers see a few seconds of black screen. Now, with the Google Cloud encoding solution, the switch is seamless because we already have a copy available and ready to deliver,” adds Gandino. Sky Italia took a different approach for the pop-up channels, which only go live for specific sports events. In order not to waste cloud and license resources for channels that were only live for special events, Gandino and his team developed an orchestrator that essentially creates those channels ad hoc when an event goes live. “We create the channel, we consume the feed, and we deliver it back on-premises only when there is an event. This is done to save money on Google Cloud consumption and software licenses,” says Gandino. Sky Italia not only met the deadline but also is saving about 90 percent of the cost of a traditional channel by creating pop-ups for special events, all while delivering HD quality to viewers.
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Discover the documents and requirements needed to drive in Italy.	en	/content/dam/tdh/static-resources/favicon/apple-icon-152x152.png	Italia.it	https://www.italia.it/en/italy/things-to-do/tutto-quello-che-ce-da-sapere-per-guidare-in-italia-regole-stradali-consigli-e-informazioni-utili	Mobility Everything you need to know about driving in Italy: road rules, tips and useful information Automobile Club d'Italia Automobile Club d'Italia 8 minutes Share Index Map What are the requirements and documents necessary for driving in Italy? To drive in Italy you must be at least 18 years of age and hold a valid driving licence. The basic documents vary, depending on the type of vehicle. The mandatory documents for a car from an EU country are: Registration certificate Driving licence Insurance policy. The mandatory documents for a car from a non-EU country, on the other hand, are: Registration certificate Driving licence issued by a foreign non-EU country International driving licence or sworn translation of the licence Green card or temporary border insurance policy, to be checked with your insurance company Sticker with the initials of the country you are travelling from. The same documents required for travelling by car apply for travelling by motorbike. On motorbikes it is mandatory to wear a UE approved helmet. If the motorbike has an Italian number plate, you must show your vehicle tax payment sticker. For camper vans, on the other hand, you must hold: Driving licence from an EU country If non-EU, international driving licence or a sworn translation of the licence Insurance - civil liability against third parties Vehicle registration card if EU; for non-EU, check whether you need a green card or temporary border insurance policy, and affix a sticker with the country's initials. Requirements for renting a vehicle in Italy Documents required for renting a car in Italy are: Driving licence from an EU country, held for at least one year If non-EU, international driving permit or a sworn translation of the licence Identity document Credit card in the driver's name. The advice is to always check whether there are any age limits for the driver. Many companies require drivers to be at least 21 or 23 years of age to rent a car in Italy, with a maximum age limit of between 65 and 75. It is almost always necessary to have had a driving licence for at least one year. Generic error What to keep in your car: car essentials Warning triangle, which must be positioned at least 50 metres from the rear of the car in the event of an emergency stop.Reflective jacket or high-visibility braces to be worn in the event of an accident or breakdown outside of built-up areas.Seat belts for the driver and passengers. When travelling with children under 1.50 metres tall, additional caution is required: they must sit in approved child seats. On motorbikes, if the driver is under 16 years of age, he cannot carry a passenger. Helmets are always compulsory. Persons over 16 years of age on a motorbike may carry a child over the age of 5, with a helmet. Generic error The main road rules to be followed in Italy In Italy, driving is on the right-hand side, and the vehicle must occupy the free lane furthest to the right of the carriageway, while the emergency lane is reserved for emergency and rescue vehicles. Always maintain an adequate safety distance. At roundabouts, priority should be given to those coming from the right, unless otherwise indicated. Pay attention to Italian road signs: green signs indicate motorways, blue ones are for suburban roads and white for urban roads. The speed limits in Italy Do not exceed the speed limits: 130 km/h on motorways, 110 km/h on main roads, 90 km/h on secondary and local roads, 50 km/h in built-up areas. Speed limits for newly-qualified drivers are the same for urban roads and secondary or local roads. Those who have held their licence for under three years, however, must observe special speed limits on motorways (100 km/h) and on main roads (90 km/h). For camper vans, the limits are: 50 km/h in built-up areas, 80 km/h outside of built-up areas, 100 km/h on motorways (if over 3.5 t and up to 12 t total laden mass), 50 km/h in built-up areas, 70 km/h outside of built-up areas, 80 km/h on motorways (if over 12 t total laden mass). For motorbikes and mini-cars up to 50 cc the maximum speed is 45 km/h. They are not allowed to drive on motorways, although this is possible for more powerful motorcycles. Now let's move on to sidelights: when should they be switched on? You must always keep your sidelights and dipped beams on outside of built-up areas. Dipped beams, on the other hand, should be used from half an hour after sunset to half an hour before sunrise or in the event of poor visibility. In tunnels, dipped beams are mandatory and parking is prohibited. Motorcyclists must also keep their sidelights and dipped beams on in built-up areas. Always stop at pedestrian crossings and do not drive in lanes reserved for public transport and in areas marked as ZTL (restricted traffic zones), i.e. in historic town centres, at the times indicated on the signs. If you are staying in a hotel within this area, report the registration plate number so that the managers can provide you with a permit. Generic error Beware of parking fines! Pay attention to the colour of the markings: the blue lines indicate paid parking, so go to a tobacconist for an hourly coupon or use the machines in or near the car parks. White lines mean that parking is free, and yellow lines indicate that spaces are reserved. Do not park in areas reserved for the disabled. These parking spaces are well marked with yellow lines and often have special signs. They are free of charge for those entitled to park and their carers, who can also park free of charge on the blue lines. Italy toll roads and motorways In Italy, most motorways, and some tunnels, are toll roads and are therefore chargeable. They are marked with green signs and the cost of the toll generally depends on the type of vehicle and the kilometres covered. Generic error How to pay tolls in Italy The payment system may vary from one motorway to another, although generally you collect a ticket at the turnstile when you enter the motorway, and pay either at the exit or at the end of the toll section. The fare is paid in cash or with credit or debit cards or prepaid cards. The Telepass (Italian toll tag) - an electronic toll payment system - is also available for foreigners. Generic error Tips for safe driving on Italian roads Wear prescription glasses if you are required to, and sunglasses when necessary, and remember to wear footwear and clothing that allow you to move freely. The use of mobile phones and electronic devices is prohibited, as is driving under the influence of drugs and/or psychotropic substances. Generic error Alcohol driving limit in Italy While there are no safe levels of alcohol consumption when driving, it is important to know that the permitted alcohol driving limit in Italy is 0.5 grams per litre and absolute 0 for new drivers (i.e. in the first three years after obtaining a licence) and professional drivers. This applies to all vehicles, including motorbikes. In the event of drink-driving, penalties for high blood alcohol levels may include fines (from 527 to 6,000 euros in 2022) and/or the suspension or revocation of the driving licence, depending on the blood alcohol level detected. The law identifies three thresholds: Blood Alcohol level up to 0.5 grams of alcohol per litre of blood Blood alcohol level above 0.5 g/l but not exceeding 0.8 g/l Blood alcohol level of more than 0.8 g/l but not more than 1.5 g/l Blood alcohol level exceeding 1.5 g/l. In the first two cases, the violation of the rule is punishable by an administrative penalty, while in the other two situations it is a criminal offence, sentenced by a court in monocratic composition, which provides, among other things, for the measure of detention. Generic error Transporting dogs and other pets in a vehicle Do you have your pet on board? If so, make sure it is carried safely, in the back seats or in special cages, which are compulsory if you are transporting more than one animal. Advice for transporting dogs in cars, and animals in general, calls for common sense: make sure the animal is accustomed to being in a car, and do not travel for very long periods. Plan for numerous stops, remember to leave the rear window open a little for ventilation, and pay attention to the protection/safety systems. Generic error What you should do in the event of an accident Accidents can happen, even when driving with the utmost caution. Don't panic: the Italian authorities will support you in the best possible way. In the meantime, wear a reflective vest or harness, then call the local police. To request ACI* roadside assistance, the toll-free number is 800.116.800, available 24 hours a day. Generic error What to do in the event of a road accident with casualties In this situation, calling for assistance is a priority. If you cause or witness an accident in which people or animals are injured, the driver is obliged to stop and provide assistance. The Single Emergency Number 112 (NUE 112) is the telephone number for calling the emergency services in all EU countries. There are 16 languages available. However, in Italy this number is not yet active in all regions and provinces. Therefore, the usual numbers may still be valid: 118 to request an ambulance; 112 for the Carabinieri (national gendarmerie of Italy); 113 Police or Traffic Police; 115 Fire Brigade. To find out more, you can visit the Driving in Italy section on the Automobile Club d’Italia website. Generic error STAY WITH US Continue living like an Italian Subscribe to the Newsletter so as not to miss places, events and experiences for experiencing the best side of Italy: the authentic one. EMAIL Invalid email address Save your favorite places Create an account or log in to save your wishlist Ops! An error occurred while sharing your content. Please accept profiling cookies to share the page.
3152	dbpedia	3	40	https://creative.sky/projects/la-famiglia/	en	Sky Creative	https://creative.sky/wp-…avicon-32x32.png	https://creative.sky/wp-…avicon-32x32.png	[ "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/Sky_Creative_PRIMARY_RGB-1.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_01_Hero_Desktop.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_01_Hero_Mobile.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_03-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_04-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_06-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_08-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_09-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_10-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/LaFamiglia_11-1200x675.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/DNWB_1.jpg", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/07/SkyProtect_01_Hero_Desktop.png", "https://creative.sky/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/BlockbusterAction_01_Hero_Desktop-2-1200x675.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2023-06-21T10:16:31+00:00		en	/wp-content/uploads/fbrfg/apple-touch-icon.png	Sky Creative -	https://creative.sky/projects/la-famiglia/	When Sky Italia needed a unique through-the-line campaign to promote Sky Q and WiFi together, we put family at the centre of the story. Why? Well, our primary objective was to communicate that Sky WiFi can meet the needs of every home. Even the busiest. While Sky Q has something to keep everyone happy. And it’s all in one place. Easy. We needed a warm and memorable campaign to spread the word and capture the hearts of Italian families. And we knew it would take a very special star to do that. A character that anyone could relate to. And it turned out that was a loveable little dog. So there we have it. A family. A sofa. And one adorable pup. Watch the story unfold here.
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"https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/t/70/assets/decor-usp-left.svg?v=122640681554239754971659082220", "https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/t/70/assets/decor-usp-right.svg?v=12851292929822550331659082219", "https://via.placeholder.com/345x235", "https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/files/ss_popup_masks_mb_808x310_crop_center.jpg?v=1717474539", "https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/files/nlp_completed_sm_808x620_crop_center.jpg?v=1663729024", "https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/files/ss_popup_masks_dt_790x.jpg?v=1717474540", "https://eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/files/SS_BrandMood_Desktop_800_1180.jpg?v=1654657986" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Explore all Sand & Sky Australian skin products made with natural Aussie botanicals to give your skin an instant boost with a mega glow and tighter pores!	en	//eu.sandandsky.com/cdn/shop/files/favicon_32x32_78cea5d3-c9c1-4caf-ad74-b9d12d3f5fc1_32x32.png?v=1614313242	Sand and Sky	https://eu.sandandsky.com/	Bringing A-Beauty to the world Embrace our uniquely 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3152	dbpedia	2	46	http://ulpower.news/sky-motors-di-vacchi-mirko-ulpowers-new-service-sales-and-service-point-in-italy	en	motors di Vacchi Mirko: ULPower’s new service point in Italy	http://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/sERVICE-POINT-skymotors2-e1667466802303.png	http://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/sERVICE-POINT-skymotors2-e1667466802303.png	[ "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/ULPower-news-Logo-horizonta-1-1024x111.jpg", "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/sERVICE-POINT-skymotors2-e1667466802303-641x445.png", "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Skymotors-people-scaled.jpg", "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/UL520T-PICTURE-e1617776185567-390x205.png", "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/foto-fuel-pressure-limits-390x205.png", "https://ulpower.news/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/Installation-manual-first-page--390x205.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Eddy" ]	2022-11-03T09:14:30+00:00	Meet Mirko Vacchi, owner of Sky motors . His workshop is located in Brescia in the north of Italy and	en	https://ulpower.news/wp-…d-icon-32x32.jpg	ULPower News	http://ulpower.news/sky-motors-di-vacchi-mirko-ulpowers-new-service-sales-and-service-point-in-italy	Meet Mirko Vacchi, owner of Sky motors . His workshop is located in Brescia in the north of Italy and is fully equipped to service all types of ultralight engines and aircraft. Mirko and his partner Laura also have vast experience with all the paperwork that is needed for aircraft registration. During his recent training at the factory in Belgium, Mirko explains how it all started for him: Just like the ULPower, he has his roots in the automotive industry. But his father passed on his passion for flying . At first he started with the maintenance of the engines of friends. Later on he was asked to customize the interior / exterior of ultralight aircraft . Back in 2008 he founded his own company and gradually gained more and more experience. Mirko is now a certified Rotax IRMT and is well known for his reliable service on Jabiru 4 and 6 cylinder engines and even has a mobile workshop to help out customers in the field. Sky motors is also a Zlin Savage authorized workshop. Next to being the Jabiru dealer in Italy, he also represents Alisport, FP-Propeller, Flybox instrumentation and Beringer Rims Brakes Mirko discovered ULPower Aero engines through one of his customers. After having studied the engines and having followed the training class, he is totally convinced that becoming a ULPower Service point is the next logical step .
3152	dbpedia	2	85	https://news.sky.com/money	en	Money blog: Blue Light discount anger as teachers added; pound falls for four straight weeks	https://e3.365dm.com/24/…g?20240809152328	https://e3.365dm.com/24/…g?20240809152328	[ "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-news-logo.svg?v=1", "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-news-logo-dark.svg?v=1", "https://news.sky.com/assets/ui-graphics/ui-liveblog-provider-logo.svg", "https://news.sky.com/assets/ui-graphics/ui-liveblog-provider-logo-dark.svg", "https://news.sky.com/assets/ui-graphics/ui-app-promo-apple-app-store.png", "https://news.sky.com/assets/ui-graphics/ui-app-promo-google-play.png", "https://news.sky.com/resources/apple-touch-icon.png", "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-spectrum-logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2024-01-02T13:19:00+00:00	Welcome to the Money blog, your place for personal finance and consumer news/tips. Today's posts include four weeks of falls for the pound and this week's Money Problem - you can submit yours (remember to leave contact details or we can't look into it) below.	en	/resources/favicon.ico?v=2	Sky News	https://news.sky.com/story/money-news-latest-inflation-mortgages-personal-finance-interest-rates-blog-13040934	Welcome to the Money blog, your place for personal finance and consumer news/tips. Today's posts include four weeks of falls for the pound and this week's Money Problem - you can submit yours (remember to leave contact details or we can't look into it) below. Heathrow blames £10 charge for passenger drop \| Asda chairman 'embarrassed' over decline \| Just Eat teams with card shop Heathrow says a drop in passenger numbers is down to a government scheme that charges non-visa connecting travellers £10 to pass through the airport. It said the electronic travel authorisation (ETA) had been "devastating for our hub competitiveness" - accounting for a 90,000 drop in passengers. The chairman of Asda says he is "embarrassed" by the supermarket's recent decline. The retail giant reported a 2.1% drop in like-for-like sales in the first half of the year. Asda has also lost market share since it was acquired by the Issa brothers in 2021. Lord Rose told The Telegraph he was "slightly embarrassed" and did not like "being second, third or fourth". Card Factory has teamed up with food delivery app Just Eat to offer customers the chance to get greetings cards delivered to their door as quickly as a takeaway. The partnership is live in 19 stores across the UK, including Liverpool, Manchester and London, and is set to be extended. Riots cause hospitality sales to plummet Rioting caused sales to plummet as much as 40% in areas where rallies, protests and riots were rumoured to take place last Wednesday, according to a hospitality association. Businesses reported footfall was down by as much as 75% in some locations, while sales fell by 10% across the country, UKHospitality said. Shops closed down, events were cancelled in city centres, and customers stayed away, working from home and cancelling day trips to coastal towns. "These figures are startling and show the enormous impact the riots, and threat of further disorder, have had on our high streets and communities," said Kate Nicholls, chief executive of UKHospitality. "Bustling, vibrant city centres were turned into ghost towns as the public stayed at home and businesses shut." Flooring company falls into administration - what are your rights? A flooring company which trades out of John Lewis has collapsed into administration, resulting in the loss of around 200 jobs. The Floor Room, a sister firm of Carpetright, closed concessions in 34 John Lewis shops on Friday and appointed administrators PwC. A message on the company's now-closed website confirms the company has ceased trading and will not complete outstanding orders. The accounting firm said management at the collapsed company had "exhausted options to secure further funding or a potential sale" prior to calling in administrators. Some 201 employees are losing their jobs as a result of the move. What are your rights? If you've paid for an unfulfilled order, or want to return an item, a lack of shops mean you have to file a claim with administrators PwC to join a list of creditors owed money – but there's no guarantee you'll get your money back. Credits and debits You can file a claim with your debit or credit card provider to recover lost funds: Credit card: If you bought any single item costing between £100-£30,000 and paid on a credit card, the card firm is liable if something goes wrong. If any purchase was less than £100, you may still be able to get your money back via chargeback; Debit card: Under chargeback, your bank can try to get your money back from The Floor Room's bank. However, be aware that this is not a legal requirement and it can later be disputed and recalled back. Battle to bring down inflation not over, BoE economist warns - with wage growth to blame The battle to bring down inflation is not over, a Bank of England ratesetter has warned, as she urges Britons not to be "seduced" into thinking the country is out of the woods. Catherine Mann, an external member of the BoE's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC), said she was still worried inflation could rise again despite it coming down to the 2% target. She told the Financial Times that pay growth (currently way above inflation at 5.7% with updated figures due this week) could pose a problem, with companies still expected to make increases to wages and prices. "That says to me right now I'm looking at a problem for next year," she told the newspaper. "There is an upwards ratchet to both the wage-setting process and the price process and... it may well be structural, having been created during this period of very high inflation over the last couple of years," she added. "That ratchet up will take a long time to erode away." Ms Mann was one of four members of the nine-strong MPC who voted to keep interest rates at 5.25% last month - and it sounds like she isn't likely to shift position ahead of September's rate decision. Waitrose to unveil new concept store - here's what's inside A revamped Waitrose store in north London will reopen soon with fancy new features - including a parmesan bay - as the upmarket grocer unveils its new store concept. The John Barnes store on Finchley Road has undergone a major six-week refurbishment and is set to reopen on 21 August. According to Retail Gazette, the store will have a number of new features including a new look and feel bakery, an in-branch baguette station and even a "dedicated parmesan bay". The supermarket chain said it would also be the first to have a hot wok counter serving ready-to-go meals. The John Barnes site is being used as a tester for its new concepts, it added. Poll suggests people back teachers getting Blue Light discount - but our comments section definitely doesn't On Friday we reported on teachers being given access to the Blue Light discount scheme - which appeared to elicit a backlash on social media... We had scores of reader comments - all but one onside with the backlash (see below). This morning, we asked our followers on LinkedIn for their view. The poll is still active, but the results so far suggest a level of support for teachers... The discrepancy between the way people are voting on LinkedIn and the comments here in the Money blog could be interpreted in several ways. Sky News could be followed by different demographics on the two platforms, or perhaps it is that those who feel most angry at something are far more likely to leave a comment. Whatever the explanation, here's a selection of comments that sum up the general feeling in our inbox... If you change it to key workers then you would have to open it to shop workers, waste disposal workers, plumbers and electricians. Dave Blue light is in the name. Shift workers who work long unsociable hours in a responsive role. Pure greed by the administrators of the scheme. Shawhome How long have teachers been an emergency service? I don't remember them being on the front line during COVID. I haven't seen them during the riots. Swiftrider Teaching is NOT an emergency service. I'm a carer to a child and get paid peanuts, no Blue Light card for me. Joseph Morgan As a gas emergency engineer who is safeguarding life and property who has an hour from the reported time to get to the gas escape... we get there quicker than the ambulance service and occasionally police but we can't get a Blue Light card. Just wondering why? Senseirick Teachers do a good job, but to actually class them as blue light is shameful. When was the last time a teacher went home and wept after loosing a patient or had to stand in a line behind a shield getting bricked by a mob? Or being shot at in a foreign land? Ianstu Farmers feed the nation, when will they be entitled to a Blue Light Card? Greatauntbleach An emergency service is available 24 hours a day. 365 days per year. Teachers are not. They are valuable in society, absolutely, but they are not an emergency service with a blue light. Joanna Clark Wow. 30 years as a prison officer, working very unsociable hours, getting abused, assaulted. Nowhere near the amount of time off that teachers get. Police, NHS, armed services deserve this, not teachers. Noslop17 We did have one correspondent backing teachers - and of course our inbox is still open if you want to share your view... Good to see teachers getting the Blue Light card as an essential service for children's future - and also what about teaching assistants, lunch supervision and school club staff. If schools shut, the whole country is affected, especially parents not working, during strikes or bad weather. Southwest lady Blue Light hits back Blue Light Card hit back on Friday, saying: "Teachers are not just educators; they are mentors, guides and inspirations that are helping shape the future for our children. They are fully deserving members of our blue light community." What kind of offers can a Blue Light card get you? There's too many to list but among the offers is 12% off at Fenty Beauty and 15% off at Bose. Users can also get a £30 gift card if they spend more than £1,000 at British Airways or a £110 voucher if they sell their car via Carwow. Or if getting fit is more your thing, you can get 50% off an annual subscription to the Body Coach. Pound falls for four straight weeks - here's what it means The pound last week completed its fourth consecutive weekly fall against the US dollar – something that will have worried British tourists heading to the US this summer. Since hitting a high for the year of $1.3044 on 17 July, sterling slipped to a low of $1.2662 last Thursday, but has since rallied to as much as $1.2782 this morning. Against the euro, the pound has traded similarly. It hit a peak of €1.1927 on 17 July but then fell to as low as €1.1584 last Thursday before rallying to as much as €1.1703 today. The reason for these reverses is pretty straightforward. Since the Bank of England cut interest rates on 1 August, for the first time since 2020, the markets have started to price in the prospect of at least one further interest rate cut between now and the end of the year. That obviously has implications for the pound. It is important to put this recent weakness into context. Until last month, sterling had been one of the best performing currencies globally so far this year, hitting its highest level for a year last month. That reflected the strength of the UK economy which, during the first half of this year, had been the best performing economy in the G7. So the recent weakness, such as it is, is really not that remarkable – and analysts still think, all other things being equal, that the "bull case" for sterling remains intact. Lots of new information on way for markets By Sarah Taaffe-Maguire, business reporter It looks set to be a quieter week on the markets compared with last week which started with a global market sell-off prompted by fears of the US economy being in recession and worries of tech company performance. But there'll be plenty of new information for investors to chew over as latest inflation, economic growth and employment data is released over the coming four days. As stock market values rebounded, so too did the benchmark oil price. A barrel of Brent crude now costs $80.09, greater than at any point last week, spelling more expensive fuel refilling for motorists. The pound has come off the highs against the dollar seen earlier in the summer. One pound now buys $1.2768. Similarly it is weaker against the euro with £1 equal to €1.1689. Both of the UK's major stock market indexes started the week up. The Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE) 100 index of most valuable companies on the London Stock Exchange rose 0.57%, while the larger and more UK-based FTSE 250 index was up 0.34%. Compensation for poor water service to double Compensation for customers experiencing poor service from their water providers is to more than double under new government proposals. The plans will see compensation paid in more circumstances - including automatic payments for people who are told to boil their water in certain areas or when firms miss scheduled appointments. Earlier this year, residents in the Devon town of Brixham were told to boil their water for eight weeks after the local supply was hit by a parasite outbreak. People affected by an incorrect notice telling them their supply will be interrupted could also see their payout rise from £20 to £50, while those being reimbursed for internal flooding from sewers could see a maximum payment of £2,000 rather than the current £1,000. It's hoped the proposals - which are now subject to an eight-week consultation - will "turn the tide on the destruction of our waterways", Environment Secretary Steve Reed said. 'I cancelled swimming lessons and they are keeping my money - do I have any rights?' Every Monday the Money team answers your Money Problems or consumer disputes. Find out how to submit yours at the bottom of this post. Today's question is... I had a frustrating issue with my kids' swimming lessons. We had to pay in advance, but when your child says they don't want to go any more, that's it, they don't go. I asked the club if we can get a refund for the remaining month that they won't attend but the club just say, 'Your child is eligible to come for the next four weeks.' Doesn’t seem quite fair. Richard Wallace, West Sussex Hi Richard, we can understand why this doesn't seem fair. You are trying to cancel with what sounds like a reasonable amount of notice and yet you're getting nowhere. This is a common occurrence and many readers will have been in a similar situation. The law says that you can cancel a service you've booked online or by phone (or by mail order) within a 14-day cooling-off period. This might be a cleaner or electrician or surveyor. This cooling-off period also applies if a business approached you away from their premises if the service costs £42 or more. The bad news in your case, though, is that the above does not apply to accommodation, delivery services, vehicle hire or - and this is the relevant one here - leisure or catering activities for specific dates. In these cases, you'd be relying on their being a generous cancellation policy - so you should check their T&Cs. It might not be a dead end, though. You should try to negotiate with them - it's generally accepted this can be done when a cancellation charge seems unfair or when a business is withholding more money than needed to cover their losses. Ask them if they're part of a trade association, which you could request help from in negotiating. Beyond this, they might be a member of an alternative dispute resolution (ADR) scheme. Again, it's worth asking. If not, you could choose a Trading Standards-approved ADR scheme yourself to approach. We suspect the sums involved here are not big enough for you to consider going to court - but if this was an avenue you wanted to explore here or in future, keep records of all the above steps. As a last resort you can take your case to the Small Claims Court in England and Wales - or use the respective legal routes in Scotland and Northern Ireland. Further help The Citizens Advice consumer helpline is a great resource - it's 0808 223 1133. You can also use an online form. If you're in Northern Ireland, contact Consumerline. This feature is not intended as financial advice - the aim is to give an overview of the things you should think about. Submit your dilemma or consumer dispute via: The form above - you need to leave a phone number or email address so we can contact you for further details; Email news@skynews.com with the subject line "Money blog"; WhatsApp us here. This content is provided by , which may be using cookies and other technologies. To show you this content, we need your permission to use cookies. You can use the buttons below to amend your preferences to enable cookies or to allow those cookies just once. You can change your settings at any time via the Privacy Options. Unfortunately we have been unable to verify if you have consented to cookies. To view this content you can use the button below to allow cookies for this session only. Be the first to get Breaking News Install the Sky News app for free
3152	dbpedia	3	26	https://www.comparitech.com/blog/vpn-privacy/sky-go-italia-vpn/	en	How to watch Sky Go Italia abroad (outside Italy) with a VPN	https://cdn.comparitech.…ky-Go-Italia.jpg	https://cdn.comparitech.…ky-Go-Italia.jpg	[ "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/x-icon.png", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/svg/contact-us-email.svg", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/How-to-watch-Sky-Go-Italia-online-1.jpg", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/2273.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/134407.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/810.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/507.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/11779.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/14231.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/pia-logo-long.jpeg", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/2273.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/2273.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/134407.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/134407.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/810.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/810.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/507.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/507.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/11779.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/featured-assets/11779.svg?v=1610974086", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Stephen-Cooper.jpg", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/x-icon.png", "https://cdn.comparitech.com/wp-content/themes/comparitech-2018/static/img/svg/contact-us-email.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Stephen Cooper" ]	2018-03-14T11:31:08+00:00	Want to watch Sky Go Italia while traveling abroad? We explain how to watch Sky Go Italia from anywhere and list the best VPNs for the job.	en	https://cdn.comparitech.…icon-1-32x32.jpg	Comparitech	https://www.comparitech.com/blog/vpn-privacy/sky-go-italia-vpn/	We know how frustrating it can be when you can’t watch your favorite sports on Sky Go Italia due to geographic limitations, especially if you’re on vacation or working abroad. Despite having a subscription at home, access to streaming videos is restricted when you’re outside Italy. However, we’ve discovered that using a VPN can easily bypass these restrictions. A VPN encrypts all internet traffic from your device and directs it through an intermediary server in a region of your choice. By connecting to an Italian VPN server, your actual IP address and location are masked, allowing you to access Sky Go Italia from anywhere and ensure a secure internet connection. After extensive testing of different VPNs, we’ve selected the top options for accessing Sky Go Italia from any location. Our detailed analysis of each VPN will give you an in-depth perspective, but we’ve also summarized our top picks for those with limited time. NordVPN Our top choice for Sky Go Italia. Operates a large network of servers that perform well with streaming. Unblocks Sky Go Italia and most other popular streaming sites. Comes with a 30-day money-back guarantee. TIP In our testing we found that the cheapest NordVPN plan (Standard) works perfectly for streaming. Surfshark Top budget recommendation. Expanding server network, great unblocking potential, and a true no-logs policy. IPVanish Good speeds and allows unlimited simultaneous connections. Secures your data with high-end encryption. ExpressVPN An extensive network of super-fast servers that are great for streaming. Unblocks most popular content. Excellent privacy and security. CyberGhost 10,000+ servers globally (approximately 200 in Italy). Unlimited bandwidth and strong security. Use on up to seven devices. 24/7 support. PrivateVPN Up and coming network that is growing in size. Servers geared for speed and reliability. Allows 10 simultaneous connections. Private Internet Access Servers in over 80 locations, Italy included. Fast, unthrottled connections. No-logs VPN with unlimited simultaneous connections. How to watch Sky Go Italia online abroad with a VPN Even if you’ve never used a VPN before, getting one set up is a very easy process. Just follow our step-by-step instructions below, and you’ll be able to access all your favorite content while outside Italy. Here’s how to watch Sky Go Italia online (from outside Italy): Firstly, sign up with a suitable VPN provider that can access Sky Go Italia. We particularly recommend NordVPN (don’t forget to make the most of the free trial if you only need a VPN for a short time). Next, download the appropriate VPN app for your device. Launch the VPN and select a VPN server in Italy, then hit connect. Open the Sky Go app (or your browser if you’re on a PC) on your registered device and log in. You should now be able to access everything as normal! If you’re finding any issues, try clearing your cookies and reloading the page, any further issues and you should contact your VPN’s customer support team for assistance. GET A 30-DAY FREE TRIAL OF NORDVPN NordVPN is offering a fully-featured risk-free 30-day trial if you sign up on this page. You can use the VPN rated #1 for Sky Go Italia with no restrictions for a month - perfect for short trips abroad. There are no hidden terms - just contact support within 30 days if you decide NordVPN isn't right for you, and you'll get a full refund. Start your NordVPN trial here. How we found the top Sky Go Italia VPNs There are plenty of VPNs on the market, but unfortunately, not all of them provide the same level of service, and not all of them will be able to access Sky Go Italia from abroad. We’ve taken the guesswork out of VPN selection by only recommending those providers that meet the following criteria: Multiple servers in Italy Fast speeds for uninterrupted video streaming Consistent ability to get around regional restrictions Ability to mask VPN activity Easy to use and good value for money This is just an overview. You can read a more detailed description of how we selected the VPNs in this list later in this article. For now, let’s take a closer look at the ones that made our list. Best VPNs for Sky Go Italia: at a glance We’ve compared the most important features of the top VPNs here. Prefer to read the in-depth reviews? Start with NordVPN – our #1 choice for Sky Go Italia. Best VPNs for Sky Go Italia The following VPNs consistently impress us during our on-going real-world testing. Here’s our list of the best VPNs to use with Sky Go Italia. 1. NordVPN Aug 2024 Unblocks Sky Go ItaliaTested Aug 2024 NordVPN is our top choice for unblocking Sky Go Italia from anywhere. It has 60+ servers in Italy and approximately 6,000 servers in 100+ other countries. This is a great VPN for video streaming and reliably accesses some of the toughest services to get into from abroad, such as Sky Go Italia and Netflix. It has dedicated servers for streaming, and you can even ask the knowledgeable support team for the best server for Sky Go Italia. Plus, you get a simultaneous connection allowance of 10 with NordVPN. Nord uses shared IP addresses, which means no one who tries to trace the users of a particular site could get back to you because lots of other people are using the same address at the same time. The mechanism that the company uses to map each response to each customer is called “network address translation.” This system acts as an excellent firewall because it makes it impossible for hackers to get to the real internet address of each customer. NordVPN also uses OpenVPN with a 256-bit AES encryption for data. You can install the NordVPN app on Windows, macOS, Android, and iOS devices. If you have a Linux computer, you will have to configure the VPN manually. The same goes for routers. However, in both cases, you will find very precise instructions on the NordVPN website. You can just protect your browser with the NordVPN browser extension, available for Chrome and Firefox. Pros: Blazing fast speeds to stream HD content without interruptions Operates over 60+ servers in Italy Easily access Sky Go, Italia, RaiPlay, and Netflix Italy from abroad Military-grade 256-bit encryption for great privacy DNS leak protection comes built-in Support staff are helpful and knowledgeable Cons: Server switching can be slow BEST VPN FOR SKY GO ITALIA:NordVPN is our first choice. Amazing speeds and works well with Sky Go Italia. Allows up to 10 simultaneous connected devices. Great privacy and security credentials. A 30-day money-back guarantee makes it risk-free. Read our full NordVPN review. NordVPN Coupon Up to 73% off + 3 months Free Get Deal > Discount applied automatically 2. Surfshark Unblocks Sky Go ItaliaTested Aug 2024 Surfshark is a great low-cost provider that operates servers in 100+ countries. It pegs decent speeds and is adept at unblocking geo-restricted content from abroad. It works with notoriously tough sites, including multiple Netflix libraries, Disney+, and Amazon Prime Video, so Sky Go should pose no issues, and you’ll be able to watch all your favorite home content while abroad. Surfshark also allows unlimited simultaneous connections, so it’s ideal for protecting the whole family. Surfshark doesn’t disappoint on security, either. It offers 256-bit AES encryption, perfect forward secrecy, a kill switch in all apps, and protection against leaks. Extras include split tunneling, multi-hop VPN, and automatic wifi protection. Surfshark never retains connection logs, it allows torrenting, and it even works well in China. Easy-to-use apps are available for Windows, Linux, macOS, iOS, Android, Amazon Fire TV, and Amazon Fire Stick. One of the best things about this VPN is there’s no connection limit, so you can use it on as many devices as you like. Pros: Wide server network covering 100+ countries Provides a secure, encrypted connection Fast, reliable speeds Kill switch on all platforms Unlimited simultaneous connections Cons: Occasional slower server BUDGET-FRIENDLY:Surfshark offers great value for money. It has an ample network of servers that are great at unblocking region-restricted content. Unlimited simultaneous connections and a 30-day money-back guarantee. Read our full Surfshark review. Surfshark Coupon Save 86% on a 2 year Starter plan + 3 months free Get Deal > Discount applied automatically 3. IPVanish unblocks sky go italiaTested Aug 2024 IPVanish stands out for allowing you to connect as many devices as you want at once. Not only this, it has a dozen servers in Milan, Italy, so you can continue watching Sky Go Italia while traveling abroad. With this VPN, you can expect good, steady speeds as well as the ability to access Netflix US while traveling abroad. Should you have any trouble with IPVanish, remember that a subscription includes 24/7 access to live chat and email support. With a zero-logs policy, this VPN offers strong privacy protection, which is further bolstered by 256-bit AES encryption. You’ll also find it has DNS leak protection and a kill switch feature. Secure all of your devices simultaneously via the IPVanish apps for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, and Amazon Fire TV. If you prefer, you can even set up IPVanish with your router, although this does require manual setup. Pros: Unlimited simultaneous devices per account Works with both Sky Go Italia and Netflix US Access to 24/7 support via live chat and email Zero-logs policy so you can stay anonymous Popular with Kodi users and torrenters Cons: No browser extensions are available Headquartered in the US, which is a Five Eyes member UNLIMITED DEVICES:IPVanish has a dozen servers in Italy and allows unlimited simultaneous connections. Good speeds for streaming and a high level of security thanks to encryption. 24/7 support. 30-day money-back guarantee. Read our full IPVanish review. IPVanish Coupon SAVE 83% on the 2 yr plan Get Deal > Discount applied automatically 4. ExpressVPN Unblocks Sky Go ItaliaTested Aug 2024 ExpressVPN is included in our list of Sky GO Italia VPNs because of its strong network that covers 100+ countries, including Italy. With the fast download speeds necessary for video streaming, ExpressVPN is an excellent choice for those who want to stream Sky Go Italia from overseas. We believe that ExpressVPN is one of the few services that have a proven track record of successful Sky Go access. ExpressVPN’s 24/7 online support can guide you toward the best server selection if you face any hurdles. This service excels at bypassing VPN detection systems globally, including the formidable Great Firewall of China. Security is another of ExpressVPN’s strengths. It uses 256-bit AES encryption for data and 4096-bit RSA encryption for session establishment, providing a secure internet connection for a variety of applications, including downloading. The VPN also features a ‘network lock’ or kill switch, which prevents your device’s applications from connecting to the internet if the VPN connection drops. ExpressVPN is available for a wide array of platforms, including Windows, macOS, Android, iOS, Amazon Fire TV Stick, Amazon Fire TV, and Linux. You can also install the VPN on certain routers, covering all your home devices, such as gaming consoles and set-top boxes. ExpressVPN allows eight simultaneous connections and a router installation is counted as a single connection! We’re of the opinion that this feature-rich VPN is a top contender for accessing Sky Go Italia overseas. Pros: Operates servers in Cosenza & Milan, great for streaming Italian shows abroad Reliably accesses Sky Go Italia Fast enough to play HD video without buffering Top-class security and privacy protection features DNS leak protection is included with all VPN server configurations Cons: Not as cheap as some other services Streaming servers aren’t labeled RELIABLE CHOICE:ExpressVPN reliably unblocks Sky Go Italia as well as most other streaming services. Exceptional speeds for buffer-free HD viewing, along with total security and privacy. 30-day money-back guarantee. Read our full ExpressVPN review. ExpressVPN Coupon SAVE: 49% + 3 months free Get Deal > Coupon applied automatically 5. CyberGhost unblocks sky go italiaTested Aug 2024 CyberGhost operates the largest server network in this list. In total, it has over 10,000 servers in 100+ countries, with over 200 of these located in Italy. Needless to say, this makes it easy to unblock Sky Go Italia regardless of your location. You can also expect absolutely no bandwidth throttling, as well as the ability to access Netflix US. Once signed up with CyberGhost, you’ll be able to secure as many as seven devices simultaneously. This is one of the safest VPNs you can use thanks to its 256-bit AES encryption, protection from DNS leaks, and automatic kill switch. Note that CyberGhost also operates a strict no-logs policy and has 24/7 support should you have any questions. CyberGhost provides apps for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, Linux, Amazon Fire TV, and Android TV. Browser extensions are also available for Chrome and Firefox, and you can configure it manually to work with select routers. Pros: 10,000+ servers worldwide (and over 200 in Italy) Unlimited bandwidth Live chat and email support available 24/7 Very strong security includes encryption and a no-logs policy Cons: Doesn’t work well in China Lack of advanced options might frustrate power users 200+ SERVERS IN ITALY:CyberGhost has 10,000+ servers. Unlimited bandwidth and strong security with a strict no-logs policy. Can be used on up to seven devices at the same time. 45-day money-back guarantee. Read our full CyberGhost review. CyberGhost Coupon SAVE 83% on the 2 year plan + 2 months free! Get Deal > Discount applied automatically 6. PrivateVPN Unblocks Sky Go ItaliaTested Aug 2024 PrivateVPN has servers in over 60 countries, including Italy. It’s one of the fastest VPNs we’ve tested and unblocks pretty much every video streaming site you can throw at it, including Sky Go. This Sweden-based service has excellent English-speaking support staff available via live chat on the website during European office hours and via email at other times. And the support team can tell you the best server to choose to get into Sky Go Italia. PrivateVPN offers each customer an allowance of ten simultaneous connections. You can install the PrivateVPN app on Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, and Amazon Fire operating systems. The VPN can also be configured manually on some routers and on Linux. Security features in the app include a kill switch and automatic wifi protection. 256-bit AES encryption, DNS leak protection, and a no-logs policy ensure no one can see your online activity. PrivateVPN offers a 30-day money-back guarantee to new subscribers. Pros: Operates servers in Arezzo and Milan that are geared for streaming Gaining a solid reputation for unblocking geo-restricted content, including Sky Go Italia Streaming speeds are good enough for HD Cons: Fewer servers to choose from than other providers higher on this list Live support is not quite 24/7 GREAT SPEEDS:PrivateVPN is a good family choice. Unblocks Sky Go Italia and allows up to 10 devices on the same account. Small network of servers but fast connections. 30-day money-back guarantee. Read our full PrivateVPN review. PrivateVPN Coupon Save 85% on a one year plan + 24-months free Get Deal > Discount applied automatically 7. Private Internet Access unblocks sky go italiaTested Aug 2024 Private Internet Access offers servers worldwide across more than 80 locations. This includes servers in Italy for unblocking and streaming Sky Go Italia. We’ve tested PIA’s speeds and found them to be as consistent as they are fast. You can expect unlimited bandwidth and, as a result, seamless streaming free from lag or buffering. You’ll also be able to connect all your devices at the same time. When you connect to a PIA server, your internet traffic is 256-bit AES encrypted. There’s also protection from DNS leaks and a kill switch feature. Needless to say, this secures your streaming (and browsing) experience, particularly if you’re traveling abroad and using public wifi. Some VPNs log your data and sell it to third parties. This is certainly not the case with PIA, which operates a strict no-logs policy. You can access PIA via apps for Windows, Mac, Android, iOS, Linux, and Amazon Fire TV. Chrome and Firefox browser extensions are also available to download. However, manual configuration is required if you want to use PIA with a router. Pros: Plenty of server locations, including Italy, for accessing Sky Go Italia Unlimited bandwidth means you won’t suffer lag or buffering Can be used on 10 devices at once via a single account Cons: Like many VPNs, it’s unable to bypass restrictions in China Not many extras, such as Double VPN servers NO BANDWIDTH THROTTLING:Private Internet Access offers servers in Italy and works with Sky Go Italia. Doesn’t throttle your bandwidth, so you can stream without interruption. Strict no-logs policy included. 30-day money-back guarantee. Read our full Private Internet Access review. Private Internet Access Coupon SAVE 82% on the 2 yr plan Get Deal > Discount applied automatically Testing methodology: How we found the best VPNs for streaming Sky Go Italia We know how frustrating it can be to travel abroad and find you no longer have access to the services for which you pay. Sky Go Italia content becomes region-locked due to copyright and licensing restrictions. It’s for this reason that you need a VPN to stream Sky Go Italia online from anywhere. Below, we detail our methodology for finding the best VPNs for doing exactly this. Servers in Italy: Let’s start with the obvious! A VPN must have servers in Italy in order to unblock Sky Go Italia. That’s because you need an Italian IP address in order to bypass restrictions. The more servers and IP addresses a VPN has in the country, the higher the chances you’ll be able to successfully unblock the platform. Speed: Many VPNs had to be ruled out due to their slow server speeds. We found not only the fastest VPNs but those that include unlimited bandwidth so you can stream Sky Go Italia online as much as you like. This is important when traveling abroad when you may be using public wifi and suffering from slow connections. Network size: It may be that you also want to stream the likes of Netflix US or BBC iPlayer. The VPNs recommended in this post provide servers in dozens of countries worldwide. This includes the likes of the US, UK, Australia, and Japan (and, of course, Italy!). Some have thousands of servers in total for even lower server loads. Security: We know that traveling abroad comes with some security risks. This is certainly the case if you’re connecting to public wifi hotspots. To protect you from hackers and snoopers, the best VPNs for Sky Go Italia encrypt your data. Some even include Double VPN servers so you can have an extra layer of protection. Privacy: A VPN should allow you to browse and stream anonymously. We’ve looked at some 140 VPN logging policies in order to find which VPNs best protect your privacy. Much of this comes down to whether they operate a strict no-logs policy. It also helps if a VPN provides an anonymous payment option such as Bitcoin. Ease of use: While all of the above features are very important, that doesn’t mean a VPN should be complicated to use. We’ve looked for those that have user-friendly apps as well as 24/7 live chat and email support. In all cases, signup and setup shouldn’t take more than a few minutes, even if you’re a VPN novice! Value for money: Some VPNs offer some or even all of the above but are simply too expensive. The best VPNs for watching Sky Go Italia offer the best value for money while still ticking all of the boxes. Better still, you can take advantage of a free trial or our VPN discount coupons to save even more off the price of a subscription. In order to find out whether a VPN offers the above (and more), we need to test it for ourselves. In doing this, we can better provide you with the information you need to make an informed decision. Be sure to take a look at our VPN testing methodology for more information on our full process. Accessing Sky Go Italia with a Free VPN Now you know that a VPN can get you into Sky Go Italia, you may be wondering whether you can use a free VPN to do so. Well, you might be able to, but it’s unlikely. Sky Go Italia is one of the most difficult video streaming sites to gain access to from abroad. Netflix has the industry’s attention as a difficult access system to beat, but actually, the Sky Go platform is even harder to trick. It takes a lot of work to get around regional restrictions, and not many companies have enough money to invest in the task. Many will tell you that no VPN can get into Netflix, which is not true. Almost none of them even mention Sky Go Italy because they know that they don’t stand a chance of getting you in from abroad. Very few reputable paid VPN services can get you into Sky Go Italia, which means no free VPN will be able to help you. Plus, free VPNs don’t offer anywhere near the levels of security and protection that paid providers do. Plus, you might find yourself at risk of having your data stored and sold to a third party. How to access Sky Go Italia You are allowed to connect two devices simultaneously to the Sky Go Italia service. This is in addition to your set-top box at home. You do need to register with Sky Go Italia even though the service is free for Sky Italy subscribers. On your first visit to the site, you need to set up a Sky ID. All you need to do in the ID creation field is enter your client code. This appears at the top of your Sky bill. If you don’t have Sky at home, the Sky Go website will lead you to a Sign-Up page to get a Sky dish installed. The first time you log in to the service, the computer or mobile device that you are on automatically gets registered as an allowed device. When you log in to the service from another computer or smartphone, that will be registered as your second allowed device. So, be very careful about going around to a friend’s house or borrowing someone else’s tablet to access Sky Go Italia because their computer or mobile device will have the right to access Sky Go Italia through your account for the rest of the month. You cannot deregister an allowed device. However, the registration lapses at the end of the month. So, remember to only access the service on two of your own devices at the beginning of each month. Otherwise, you will be locked out. On macOS, iOS, and Android, you have to download an app to watch videos. On Windows computers, you have to watch through your browser. However, the video player of Sky Go Italy only works with Internet Explorer 11 and above. Getting into Sky Go Italia is really quite complicated just because of the peculiar requirements over registered devices and the necessity of associating the service with your home Sky package. Trying to get into your Sky Go Italia account from outside of Italy makes everything even more complicated. Remember, very few VPNs can get into Sky Go Italia. Try any of the VPNs in our list risk-free. All of them offer refund periods to allow you to give them a spin. Another Italian TV service that you can access over the Internet, thanks to a VPN is Rai. Enjoy your travels, but take comfort in being able to access TV from back in Italy, wherever you are, thanks to a VPN.
3152	dbpedia	0	24	https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/2024/05/27/sky-stream-heads-to-italy/	en	Sky Stream heads to Italy	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…3/Sky-Stream.jpg	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…3/Sky-Stream.jpg	[ "https://cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/27201213/Sky-Stream.jpg", "https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/cropped-Julian-Grey-70x70.jpg", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/24131342/bttoweratnight-comp.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/03132859/Plex-Community-Lifestyle-TV.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/09122002/Foxtel-Remote.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/30170206/Wi-Fi-7_WhitePaper_Eero-1.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/17114127/White-Paper-Eliminating-the-STB-Blind-Spot.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/14105533/Eutelsat-Paris.jpg?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://i0.wp.com/cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/14105947/Warner-Bros.-Discovery.png?resize=40%2C40&ssl=1", "https://cdn.broadbandtvnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/30170206/Wi-Fi-7_WhitePaper_Eero-1-300x200.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Julian Clover" ]	2024-05-27T00:00:00	Sky Stream, the puck-sized streaming box, is launching on Sky Italia. Stream is the sister product to the Sky Glass integrated TV that runs on the Entertainment OS software. It will launch in Italy on June 3. Andrea Duilio , CEO of Sky Italia, said: “In a world where people have more and more choice,…	en	https://cdn.broadbandtvn…N-Logo-32x32.png	Broadband TV News	https://www.broadbandtvnews.com/2024/05/27/sky-stream-heads-to-italy/	Sky Stream, the puck-sized streaming box, is launching on Sky Italia. Stream is the sister product to the Sky Glass integrated TV that runs on the Entertainment OS software. It will launch in Italy on June 3. Andrea Duilio , CEO of Sky Italia, said: “In a world where people have more and more choice, almost half of consumers say they have difficulty deciding what to watch. Precisely for this reason Sky Glass was born which, with its cutting-edge operating system, allows you to solve this problem and save time. Today, with Sky Stream, we bring this innovative experience to any TV, giving everyone the opportunity to find the right content between the various apps, Sky and the main free-to-air channels in a simple and immediate way. Choosing what to see will be really easy for everyone.” In the Italian market Stream provides access to all Sky content from apps including Netflix, Disney+, Prime Video, DAZN, RaiPlay, Discovery+, Paramount+, Apple TV+ and Mediaset Infinity as well as the main free-to-air channels in a single interface. Functionality includes pausing Live TV and Restart including the FTA channels. Each member of the family has a personal playlist where they can collate their favourite content. The arrival of Sky Stream will be accompanied by a cross media campaign that will be released shortly.
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3152	dbpedia	3	4	https://imaginecommunications.com/customer-success-stories/sky-italia/	en	Customer Success Story	https://imaginecommunica…zed_2020-032.jpg	https://imaginecommunica…zed_2020-032.jpg	[ "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/06-2024_TotalTVBlog-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/06-2024_IPEverywhere-Part2HOW-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/05-2024_IPEverywhere-Part1Sports-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/imc-image-nav-monetize-tv-resource-1.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/ImagineComms-Customer-AlarabyTV-2023StudioFacility-03.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/imc-image-nav-make-tv-resource.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/SyMediaCustomerSuccessMenu.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/SkyHQ-ImaginePhoto-IMG950x550_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/MassimoBertolotti_SkyITL.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/Sky-Customer_DIVIDER1440x330_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/SkyControlRoom-ImaginePhoto-IMG950x550_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/Sky-NetworkSpeed-IMG950x550_2019-12_0.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/sky-italia-full-width-image-1.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/07/logo-1.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/themes/imagine-communications/images/ContactUs.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/themes/imagine-communications/images/support.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/09/imagine_running_man.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/Steve-Reynolds_2023_circleWEB_grey.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-08-12T20:46:57+00:00	Italy’s largest Pay-TV operator, Sky Italia, went hybrid SDI-IP to enable efficient, centralized monitoring of multiple sites and begin a disruption-free, managed transition to an all-IP infrastructure.	en	https://imaginecommunica…_man-144x144.png	Imagine Communications	https://imaginecommunications.com/customer-success-stories/sky-italia/	Sky Italia is the largest pay-TV operator in Italy and one of the largest in Europe, serving 4.73 million subscribers. The company distributes more than 150 channels, mainly via satellite, and its Sky Go brand of content is distributed to mobiles and tablets using OTT delivery. Sky Italia is owned by Sky, Europe’s leading entertainment company, serving more than 21 million customers across five countries: Italy, Germany, Austria, the UK and Ireland. When Sky (formerly BSkyB) acquired Sky Italia in 2014 and Sky Deutschland in 2015, the multinational, UK-headquartered PayTV giant decided to consolidate the new markets’ operations in Milan, tasking Sky Italia with handling all signal contribution for Sky Deutschland. Sky Italia supports more than 150 of its own channels from operations centers in Milan and Rome, where individual feeds and multiplexed streams are transported within and between the two locations. Faced with the additional burden of handling signal contribution between Milan and Munich, Sky Italia needed to migrate to a large-scale routing system. As the new routing system needed to be distributed across several locations (floors) within the Milan facility, Sky Italia decided to design the system around an IP switching core using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) IP switches. However, they also wanted the new implementation to connect to the legacy SDI systems within the Milan facility. The immediate goal was to leverage the speed and scalability benefits of IP, while achieving the same level of switching quality as they had experienced using a baseband router. In addition, Sky Italia planned to implement an IP-based disaster recovery system at their Rome location. In the longer term, as more production and broadcast equipment becomes IP-centric, Sky Italia’s plan is for all the video distribution components within their Milan facility to be IP-based, creating a fully virtualized audio/video routing ecosystem. They were ready to begin a managed transition to an all-IP infrastructure that minimizes disruption and preserves their existing workflows. Deployed in fully redundant 1+1 configurations, the IP3 routers are used to switch the SDI signals, while the Arista IP switches, also in 1+1 redundant configurations, switch the IP-encapsulated SDI streams. The IP3 routers feature integrated Platinum Uncompressed-over-IP (UCIP) modules, which encapsulate and de-encapsulate signals and move them between the SDI domain and the IP domain. In total, the first phase of Sky Italia’s new system can handle 640×640 IP streams in a main and backup network, connecting to a 128×128 SDI matrix in a non-blocking way. Also key to Sky Italia’s implementation is Imagine’s Selenio™ MCP processing, compression and IP networking platform, featuring 500 multichannel UCIP gateway cards. Both the Platinum and Selenio UCIP cards are modular “on-ramp/off-ramp” solutions that encapsulate SDI baseband signals into IP streams and vice versa. Sky Italia can use the UCIP modules to manage the synchronization of IP signals where they re-enter the HD-SDI world, eliminating network jitter and aligning perfectly to legacy sync signals. The modules are also able to synchronize its output time-base via PTP (SMPTE 2059), and can do full AES67 audio breakaway and re-combination of the audio signals from/to the SDI signals. The Magellan SDN Orchestrator controls the Platinum IP3 routers, i.e., the SDI signal flows within the Sky Italia infrastructure. Sky Italia can also use the Magellan SDN Orchestrator to control the stream-flows and mappings inside their IP network — providing the bandwidth management and Quality of Service (QoS) required to achieve professional broadcast performance. SDI and IP sources and destinations are kept in a single Magellan SDN Orchestrator database, and the gateways between the SDI infrastructure and the IP virtual matrix — as well as the allocation of bandwidth between the IP switches — are managed using tie-line control methods.
3152	dbpedia	3	67	https://www.skysports.com/more-sports/cycling/news/15264/10270403/what-is-the-giro-ditalia-everything-you-need-to-know	en	What is the Giro d'Italia? Everything you need to know...	https://e0.365dm.com/15/…g?20150511184053	https://e0.365dm.com/15/…g?20150511184053	[ "https://www.skysports.com/assets/Sky-Sports-Logo-transparent.svg", "https://e0.365dm.com/15/05/768x432/giro-ditalia-stage-three-generic_3302229.jpg?20150511184053", "https://e0.365dm.com/14/06/768x432/WATSON-00003833011_3151831.jpg?20141006174811", "https://e0.365dm.com/16/04/512x512/vincenzo-nibali-mikel-landa-team-sky-trentino_3453583.jpg", "https://e0.365dm.com/15/05/768x432/giro-ditalia-stage-18-generic_3309151.jpg?20150528184456", "https://e0.365dm.com/16/05/512x512/giro-ditalia-cycling-maglia-rosa_3460090.jpg", "https://e0.365dm.com/15/05/768x432/alberto-contador-giro-ditalia-stage-21_3310293.jpg?20150531165857", "https://e0.365dm.com/24/08/768x432/skysports-gss-get-sky-sports_6645158.jpg?20240802000330", "https://e0.365dm.com/24/03/768x432/skysports-now-tv_6494611.jpg?20240318213644", "https://e0.365dm.com/tvlogos/channels/Sky-Sports-Logo.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Matt Westby" ]	2016-05-06T01:00:00+00:00	The Giro d’Italia starts on Friday and will run until the end of May.	en	/favicon.ico?bypass-service-worker	Sky Sports	https://www.skysports.com/more-sports/cycling/news/15264/10270403/what-is-the-giro-ditalia-everything-you-need-to-know	The Giro d’Italia starts on Friday and will run until the end of May. But what exactly is the Giro and why does it matter? Here, we explain everything you need to know… What does Giro d'Italia mean? It basically means Tour of Italy, in Italian. Is it a big deal? Yes, it's a very prestigious race and one of cycling's three grand tours, the others being the Tour de France and the Vuelta a Espana. How long does it last? It is made up of 21 stages and takes place over roughly three weeks. It starts on Friday, May 6, and ends on Sunday, May 29. Is there a yellow jersey, like in the Tour de France? Yes, there is, but it's not yellow; it's pink. It is worn by the leader of the race and is the main prize for the eventual winner. The pink jersey is known in Italy as the maglia rosa. Where does the race go? The Giro often starts outside of Italy and this year the first three stages will be in the Netherlands. The rest of the race is in Italy - starting in the south and gradually heading north to the finish in Turin - except for stages 19 and 20, large parts of which are in France. Who won it last year and who is expected to win this year? Last year's race was won by Alberto Contador, but he isn't back to defend his title, so Vincenzo Nibali is the bookmakers' favourite. Nibali, who is Italian, won the race in 2014. Are Chris Froome, Sir Bradley Wiggins or Mark Cavendish racing? No. Froome is saving himself for the Tour de France in July, Wiggins rides for a team who do not qualify to race at the Giro, and Cavendish has opted not to take part. In fact, there is not a single Briton racing at this year's Giro. Which other riders should I look out for? The best sprinter in the world, Germany's Marcel Kittel, is taking part, as is Spain's Mikel Landa, who is one of the best climbers. Another Spaniard, Alejandro Valverde, should be challenging for overall victory, while Swiss legend Fabian Cancellara is also on the start line. How many teams and riders take part? Some 189 riders from 22 teams of nine start the race. The teams are the 18 teams belonging to cycling's top division, the UCI WorldTour, plus four invited teams from the second division. How long are the stages and when do they take place? The stages vary in length from 130km to more than 240km. However, there are also three time trials this year that are much shorter, at 9.8km, 10.8km and 40.5km. Because of the different distances, the stages start at varying times, roughly from 10am to 12.45pm BST. All of the stages are scheduled to finish at about 4.15pm BST. Should I be excited about the Giro? Yes, definitely. It is often a lot more exciting than the Tour de France and the racing is almost always close. It also takes place against some beautiful backdrops, such as the Alps.
3152	dbpedia	1	91	https://cafemom.com/parenting/206466-sun_moon_stars_baby_names	en	Parenting, Baby Names, Celebrities, and Royal News	https://cafemom.com/favi…icon-192x192.png	https://cafemom.com/favi…icon-192x192.png	[]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null			/favicons/favicon.ico		null
3152	dbpedia	2	93	https://forums.digitalspy.com/discussion/73472/sky-tv-is-world-wide-not-just-uk	en	sky tv is world wide not just uk.	https://us.v-cdn.net/602…KEED2HZAWEMF.jpg	https://us.v-cdn.net/602…KEED2HZAWEMF.jpg	[ "https://wc.vanillicon.com/v2/c57ce9b0d04cfe0615544b589d5abfcd.svg", "https://wd.vanillicon.com/v2/d90c9f1cf0df6b6e7f19ed10adee9f44.svg", "https://wc.vanillicon.com/v2/ca88e7f69a47ccc198a77ec993315704.svg", "https://w4.vanillicon.com/v2/4f17859436b37eabb5eab2e4d0b45522.svg", "https://forums.digitalspy.com/resources/emoji/smile.png", "https://wd.vanillicon.com/v2/d2c7342f56ee735547f68a0ba8b0c458.svg", "https://w0.vanillicon.com/v2/00eb787b6fe94b7158711e5bc320b1df.svg", "https://w4.vanillicon.com/v2/4f17859436b37eabb5eab2e4d0b45522.svg", "https://forums.digitalspy.com/resources/emoji/wink.png", "https://forums.digitalspy.com/resources/emoji/smile.png", "https://wc.vanillicon.com/v2/ca88e7f69a47ccc198a77ec993315704.svg", "https://us.v-cdn.net/6028689/uploads/userpics/885/nBSRF1YQIBT93.png", "https://w1.vanillicon.com/v2/19a9a10692573290fefcbb4f85dbfc19.svg", "https://wd.vanillicon.com/v2/d2c7342f56ee735547f68a0ba8b0c458.svg", "https://wd.vanillicon.com/v2/d2c7342f56ee735547f68a0ba8b0c458.svg", "https://wc.vanillicon.com/v2/c57ce9b0d04cfe0615544b589d5abfcd.svg", "https://w1.vanillicon.com/v2/19a9a10692573290fefcbb4f85dbfc19.svg", "https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/ame-prod-digitalspyuk-assets/forums/logo-footer-hearst.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "[Deleted User]" ]	2003-07-08T17:59:55+00:00	did u know sky tv is available across the world they have their own versions in new zealand,mexico,,, they have same name sky channels.and similar sky digital.	en	//s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/ame-prod-digitalspyuk-assets/forums/favicon.ico	Digital Spy	https://forums.digitalspy.com/discussion/73472/sky-tv-is-world-wide-not-just-uk	Originally posted by SCOTTWEBB did u know sky tv is available across the world they have their own versions in new zealand,mexico,,, they have same name sky channels.and similar sky digital. how is this .is it owned by rupert murdoch and has it in different countrys. it,s weird any way click on this.sky tv world scan down and see sky channels similar name similar logos. at top right/left hand corner it will say asia or atlantic or europe click on that scan down list click on sky and see the variations. wonder if they have similar/same progs as us. Originally posted by sumsungpc It makes you wonder why they don't homogenise the logos and graphics so that when Sky Sports UK show footage from Sky Sports Australia it looks the same, and when Sky News Australia show reports from their UK counterparts its all in the same style Originally posted by andyk22 dnog, Sky Austrilia is better known as Foxtel , a Sky News Australia does exsist though and also regually featuring Sky News from the UK. Also Direc TV in on the cards (Sky USA) , and Star TV (although this is a channel based network as it covers such a huge percentage of the worlds population it's reach can be considered the same as an actual TV platform , especially if the Chinese are kept happy - Hint CCTV9 news on Sky) Originally posted by Larry Scutta Sky TV new Zealand isn't connected with the Sky TV in the UK. Sky NZ isn't part of News Corporation, instead owned by a New Zealand newspaper and telephone company: http://www.skytv.co.nz/index.cfm?pageid=258 Until 1997 Sky NZ was a terrestrial UHF programme provider, it's a relative newcomer to satellite. The Japanese Sky is JSkyB, just like in the UK it's BSkyB INL's links with News Limited are long established. Early in 1964 Rupert Murdoch's News Limited made his first overseas newspaper investment - a 29.57 percent stake in the Wellington Publishing Company. The News Limited holding in INL has fluctuated over the years and is now just over 49 percent. Originally posted by Mark Ramsden I think you'll find it is by the back door. Sky TV (NZ) is 65% owned by Independant Newspapers Limited (INL) in fact as of 1 July it seems to be about all they own and as the following statement from their website states Dear old Rupert has a substantial intrest in them
3152	dbpedia	3	30	https://tekknikk.com/shop/satellite/sky-italia-cards-subscription-1-year/	en	Sky Italia Cards Subscription 1 year	https://tekknikk.com/wp-…rt-card-sky.jpeg	https://tekknikk.com/wp-…rt-card-sky.jpeg	[ "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Logo.png", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/smart-card-sky.jpeg", "https://admin.tvcorner.com/zc/principal/www/data/public/encarts_contenus/offres/sky-italie-calcio__encc_17__1.jpg", "https://admin.tvcorner.com/zc/principal/www/data/public/encarts_contenus/offres/sky-italie-calcio__encc_17__1.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/www.formuler.tv85182c04449ab48e44f8c4f6d811f356a60fc9e45mv2-500x379.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/www.formuler.tv38682c044513582f7de40449ca57905a3740f7621mv2-500x197.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/www.formuler.tv75982c0444b592f91f0eb4e4ca3735c05da0fd8ccmv2.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/www.formuler.tv99682c044b6bf6f0cf1a34300a7e399c5e538c6a5mv2-500x199.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/5_bein-media-server-advanced-satellite-media-server-receiver-type-3-500x486.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/4_bein-media-server-advanced-satellite-media-server-receiver-type-3.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/57-5-500x500.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/Logo.png", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/payment-methods.png", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/57-3-500x500.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/HTB1ZccKRVXXXXXeXXXXq6xXFXXXs-500x310.jpg", "https://tekknikk.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/1-22-500x427.jpg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	Sky Italia Cinema: CULT, Universal Diva, FOX Crime, FOX Crime HD, FOX Life HD, Horror Channel Info: FOX News, Sky News, Sky TG24, Sky TG24 Eventi, Sky TG24 Rassegne, Sky TG24 HD, CNN International, Sky TG24 Primo Piano Documentary: Dove TV, Discovery Travel Living, NAT GEO People, Crime & Investigation HD, Discovery Travel Living HD, SKY ARTE HD Entertainment: AXN, AXN HD, AXN	en		Tekknikk	https://tekknikk.com/shop/satellite/sky-italia-cards-subscription-1-year/	Subscription of 12 months to find most of the European and international channels in Italian without forgetting its option Calcio for lovers of Foot transalpine. Sky TV Sky Italy’s main channels The basic package of Sky Italy subscriptions, Sky TV brings together some forty Italian channels such as Fox Crime, Sky Uno, Extreme Sport … in high definition. The Premium Calcio Follow 7 of 10 Series A games on the Sky Sport 24 channels, Sky Sport Serie A, Sky Sport … Please note that in order to register and activate your Sky Italy subscription, you must provide us with the following:
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"https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=2000&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 1440w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=1440&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 1248w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=1248&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 960w, https://candt-com-production-cms.imgix.net/images/Screen-Shot-2019-10-15-at-10.34.55-AM.png?w=960&sat=-100&invert=false&bri=0&auto=compress%2Cenhance%2Cformat&dpr=1&ixlib=react-8.6.4 768w" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	null	A Modern Digital Experience For The Italian Media Platform	en	https://www.codeandtheor…-precomposed.png		https://www.codeandtheory.com/things-we-make/sky-italia	Code and Theory partnered with Sky Italia, the renowned broadcaster, to create a modern digital platform experience and publishing workflow. The challenge was to strengthen Sky Italia’s identity in the Italian news market. There was fierce competition in the digital space from several players with strong historical presence and years of brand legacy in Italy. Sky Italia were well known as a premium TV provider and in a strong period of audience growth for their digital properties. But they were still not as well known as a digital media outlet and their multiple properties needed to be more clearly connected to the master brand. Our task was to elevate the digital Sky Italia brand and experience globally, across their verticals — the news channel Tg24, Sky Sport and a new entertainment vertical, Tg24 Spettacolo. Given that the brand was known as a premium TV provider with quality content, our main priority was to increase awareness around their digital offering. User-centric design At the heart of our strategic approach was creating user-centric design. The key to this framework was understanding user behaviors and how they could help users more easily navigate across verticals to enjoy Sky’s full offering. By understanding user motivations, leaning into Sky’s core value proposition, and identifying tactical wins, we were able to create a holistic and rigorous strategic approach. These assumptions were vetted through in-depth user journeys to explore how all the elements could come together. This approach, in tandem with a flexible set of storytelling tools, allowed Sky Italia to bolster their ability to create engaging, user centric experiences. In order to strengthen their digital experience and create a global design system, we collaborated with the teams in Milan across a wide range of areas to reframe their existing processes, including editorial workflows, design systems, advertising integration and technical approach. Over an ambitious roll-out phase, we worked with their design, product and technical teams, and co-located in their Milan offices. We created a scalable design system with a phased approach, following a robust phase of definition. Iterative Experience Tactics We identified experience tactics that would help improve the user experience within the vertical pillars. These included solutions to improve storytelling, loyalty and retention, video, navigation and personalisation. Each one of these tactics was tested, iterated and implemented in an agile process to ensure we were designing the best experience for the user based on market, region and user type. Foundation and future In order to support the evolution of their digital business we provided a roll-out framework to bring life to future developments. The strategy was divided into quick wins, foundational and overhaul solutions. In the short term, we focused on high-impact, low-to-mid effort solutions within the existing structure of the site. We then turned to creating a solid foundation, getting to parity with new versions of existing parts of the sites that would define the foundation and start future processes. Finally, once the core functionalities were performing effectively, we began to focus on new features that would drive the strategic business initiatives and objectives forward. “Code and Theory enabled us to build a bold, new visual identity across our editorial properties while keeping strong brand recognition. Their structured approach at every step ensured collaboration across the business areas but also with a strong focus on the user. The outcome has been to create a scalable, impactful system that sets a new standard for our digital properties.” – Chei Amlani, Director of Product and Audience, Sky Italia
3152	dbpedia	3	47	https://identsandpresentation.com/italy/sky-uno/	en	Sky Uno Idents & Presentation	https://identsandpresent…-IANDP-32x32.png	https://identsandpresent…-IANDP-32x32.png	[ "https://identsandpresentation.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/logoip-3.svg", "https://identsandpresentation.com/skyuno2015/one-d.jpg", "https://identsandpresentation.com/skyuno2013/one-d.jpg", "https://identsandpresentation.com/skyunochristmas2015/dog-d.jpg", "https://identsandpresentation.com/links/logoipwhite.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2016-01-09T20:00:53+00:00	Sky Uno is an Italian entertainment television channel, based on the defunct reality television channel SKY Vivo, both owned and broadcast by Sky Italia. It	en	https://identsandpresent…-IANDP-32x32.png	Idents & Presentation	https://identsandpresentation.com/italy/sky-uno/	Sky Uno is an Italian entertainment television channel, based on the defunct reality television channel SKY Vivo, both owned and broadcast by Sky Italia. It broadcasts the Italian version of the shows X-Factor, Italia’s Got Talent, MasterChef and The Apprentice. The channel broadcasts in high-definition from 20 October 2011. Link to the Official Sky Uno Website Sky Uno 2015 Idents & Presentation Sky Uno updated its logo on 10 September 2015 in the new Sky Europe style. Its existing idents and presentation were updated accordingly. Sky Uno 2013 to 2015 Idents ^ Presentation Sky Uno updated its logo in November 2013. Its existing idents and presentation were updated accordingly. Sky Uno Christmas Idents & Presentation
3152	dbpedia	0	12	https://rocketreach.co/sky-italia-profile_b5c606b9f42e0c5b	en	Sky Italia Information	https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/sky-italia-39bb8965	https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/sky-italia-39bb8965	[ "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/logo/logo_updated.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/Comp_Starlayer1.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/Comp_Starlayer2.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/Comp_Starlayer3.svg", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/sky-italia-39bb8965", "https://d2gjqh9j26unp0.cloudfront.net/profilepic/83511ea53dc4ff33980113e916dc0036", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mixrank.com/profilepic/5791838666d2efa7935e0e334d809594", "https://d2gjqh9j26unp0.cloudfront.net/profilepic/75c966f5cae6e85a74f171e4dbe28b53", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mixrank.com/profilepic/e906fe127b353e58f1c964e1c61bb1fc", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mixrank.com/profilepic/074daab8ffc2813ae47befdcf0e1e74c", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mixrank.com/profilepic/49226fe1888db255b03e9783b89d0062", "https://s3.amazonaws.com/media.mixrank.com/profilepic/787fad65f35a163cb5b83e7eaa6557bc", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/profile_pic/adriano-pescetto-43e98621", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/deltatre-effc458c", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/gruppo-iren-8f0aadd5", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/datalogic-d14ecc15", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/enterpreneur-8b63b79d", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/italtel-35ff8943", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/unieuro-spa-75ae7951", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/bitron-51d57a0f", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/a2a-e51e6dc4", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/ima-group-48a43fe1", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/brembo-spa-a5ec2891", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/avio-aero-0678808c", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/bticino-3890c841", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/mediaset-5ab2a013", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/automobili-lamborghini-spa-29b0d39a", "https://d1hbpr09pwz0sk.cloudfront.net/logo_url/acf-fiorentina-c8282983", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/landing/landing-page-1-get-free-account-min.png", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/landing/landing-page-2-search-min.png", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/landing/landing-page-3-get-contact-min.png", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/LeadMining_UsersMostLikelyToRecommend_Nps.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/LeadCapture_Leader_Leader-Badge.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/LeadCapture_BestUsability_Total-Badge.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/LeadMining_BestRelationship_Total.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/talentculture2022.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/g2crowd.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/splashRR2018/rankings-icons/chromestore.svg", "https://static.rocketreach.co/images/logo/logo_watermark.svg" ]	[]	[]	[ "Sky Italia revenue", "Sky Italia overview", "Sky Italia summary", "Sky Italia profile", "Sky Italia address", "Sky Italia hq", "Sky Italia location", "Sky Italia phone", "Sky Italia funding", "Sky Italia email format", "Sky Italia emails", "Sky Italia company emails", "Sky Italia corporate emails", "Sky Italia business emails", "find Sky Italia emails", "find Sky Italia contacts" ]	null	[]	null	Sky Italia is a Broadcast Media Production and Distribution, Cable & Satellite, and Communications Infrastructure company_reader located in Milano, Lombardy with $2.6 billion in revenue and 4,904 employees. Find top employees, contact details and business statistics at RocketReach.	en	//static.rocketreach.co/images/favicons/apple-icon-57x57.png?v=2020120	RocketReach	https://rocketreach.co/sky-italia-profile_b5c606b9f42e0c5b	Sky Italia is a media and entertainment company launched in 2003 and is part of Sky Group, Europe’s leading entertainment company with 23 million customers that is controlled by Comcast NBCUniversal. Sky delivers its pay offer via satellite, Internet and on DTT. NOW is the OTT service that allows to watch Sky’s cinema, entertainment and sports content in streaming. With the channels TV8, Cielo and Sky Tg24 Sky is furthermore present on Free to Air digital terrestrial. In June 2020, Sky launched Sky Wifi, its ultra-broadband service that today reaches more than 3000 Italian cities. Sky Wifi was designed to meet the needs of the families and is optimized for streaming and the upload of contents, providing a stable and high-performing connectivity. Sky Q’s innovative technology offers – via satellite or via Internet – the most engaging viewing experience and integrates all Sky’s channels and content and those of the main streaming Apps in one place, creating a single viewing ecosystem for all TVs and Internet-connected devices. In addition to sports, news, entertainment and cultural content, Sky has also produced some of the most successful and original TV series in Italy and worldwide, including Gomorrah and The New Pope and Devils. The productive commitment will continue to grow, also thanks to the support of Sky Studios, with the arrival of new TV series, films and other Sky Original contents. The company promotes a responsible business and is committed to environmental protection through tangible projects on an international scale. Sky was the first Carbon Neutral media company in terms of direct emissions, and, through the Sky Zero campaign, Sky is committed to becoming the first net zero carbon media company by 2030. View Top Employees from Sky Italia
3152	dbpedia	3	10	https://news.sky.com/story/bskyb-completes-7bn-german-and-italian-deal-10382714	en	BSkyB Completes £7bn German And Italian Deal	https://e3.365dm.com/16/…g?20160705002643	https://e3.365dm.com/16/…g?20160705002643	[ "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-news-logo.svg?v=1", "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-news-logo-dark.svg?v=1", "https://e3.365dm.com/16/04/768x432/cegrab-20141113-160423-260-1-2048x1536_3452691.jpg?20160421071223", "https://e3.365dm.com/24/08/192x108/skynews-heathrow-airport-heathrow_6654939.jpg?20240812202852", "https://e3.365dm.com/24/07/192x108/skynews-southport-riots_6643489.jpg?20240731085936", "https://e3.365dm.com/24/08/192x108/skynews-boris-johnson-train_6654543.jpg?20240812104628", "https://news.sky.com/resources/sky-spectrum-logo.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2014-11-13T07:29:00+00:00	The owner of Sky News ditches the BSkyB name to become Sky as it completes its move into Europe.	en	/resources/favicon.ico?v=2	Sky News	https://news.sky.com/story/bskyb-completes-7bn-german-and-italian-deal-10382714	The owner of Sky News has completed a takeover deal costing nearly £7bn that makes the company a leader in five European pay-television markets. Unveiling plans to change its name to Sky to reflect its new geographical diversity, BSkyB said its corporate transformation would mean it now had 20 million customers across the UK, Ireland, Germany, Italy and Austria. Sky has taken full ownership of Sky Italia for £2.45bn, comprised of £2.07bn in cash and the transfer of its 21% stake in the National Geographic Channel to 21st Century Fox, Sky's largest shareholder. The British-based home entertainment company has also acquired an 89.71% stake in Sky Deutschland, its sister operation in Germany, at a cost of £4.44bn. Announced in July, the deal increases Sky's potential customer base from 30 million households to more than 97 million. The enlarged company will spend £4.6bn on programming and employ 31,000 staff across Europe. The group's name-change is subject to formal approval at next week's annual shareholder meeting. BSkyB said in July that it wanted to acquire the German operation in order to exploit the relative under-penetration of pay-TV in the country, and added on Thursday that there were 60 million households across Sky's five markets which had yet to take any pay-TV service. Group chief executive Jeremy Darroch said: "The three Sky businesses will be even better together. We have the opportunity to create a business that can lead and shape our industry in the future. "Customers will benefit as we launch exciting new services, bring them even more great TV and accelerate innovation across all of the markets in which we operate. "By joining together, we will share our strengths and expertise while retaining a strong identity in each country where we operate. "The opportunity ahead is substantial and we believe the new Sky will be good for customers, content creators and shareholders alike." The creation of Sky plc comes as competition intensifies in some of the company's key communications and entertainment markets, with BT challenging Sky's position as the dominant force in UK live sports broadcasting and Liberty Global, the owner of Virgin Media, expanding its presence across Europe.
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get a full gift set! Our experts will assist you in naming a star for someone special or for a memorable event. Learn more about naming a star now!	en	https://cdn.shopify.com/…png?v=1712309404	Star Registration	https://www.star-registration.com/	Guaranteed visibility Together with astronomers, we have developed our own algorithm to be able to name stars that never settle below the horizon. Good to know If you decide to name a star with us, you can rest assured that it will be clearly visible from your given country and even continent! We are Experienced Naming a star for someone is a unique gift, so everything should go smoothly. We have been naming stars since 2012 and all processes are carried out with the highest standards and efficiency. Choose an expert We are experts in naming stars since 2012 with over 10.000 positive reviews! Star Finder App Together with astronomers, mathematicians, and app developers, we created an app that calculates the position of your named star at any given time, no matter where in the world you are! Helpful information After buying a star, you can download our app. It will help you and the recipient of the gift to locate the named star at any given time and location. How is it possible to name a star? We are a star-naming company that has partnered up with the Star Register in order to make it possible to name stars in the night sky for private individuals. After you placed the order with us, we submit all the information about the star to the star registry and get your star named within a few hours. Good to know We are an official partner of the Star Register, that allows us to name stars for individuals. Can I name several stars? Yes, that's absolutely possible. One individual can name several stars in the night sky. There are no restrictions when it comes to naming a star. Good to know You can name multiple stars without any doubts. Each star registration will get its own entry in the register with a unique registration number. Discover the joy of naming a star with our renowned international star registry. Whether it's for a birthday, an anniversary, or to remember someone dear, naming a star after someone is a beautiful way to make a lasting mark in the sky. Many of our customers appreciate our straightforward and secure "name a star" process, choosing to mark life's significant occasions in this unique way. At Star Registration, we offer you the opportunity to immortalize someone’s name in the universe. Our internationally operating star registry ensures that each named star is recorded for posterity, making it a perfect gift that lasts beyond a lifetime. If you buy a star with us, each registration comes with a certificate that confirms the star’s new name and its coordinates in the sky. Imagine a serene evening picnic under the stars, where you and your loved one search the skies for a star named just for them. Our star naming package turns this into reality, offering a beautifully crafted certificate and a detailed sky map to locate your special star. This unique gift doesn’t just last a lifetime—it enhances every glance at the night sky, creating lasting memories. Perfect for celebrating milestones, it's an intimate gift that promises magical nights under the stars. Make any celebration unforgettable with a personalized star registration certificate. This unique document not only marks the naming of your own star in the night sky but also serves as a beautiful keepsake that can be cherished for years to come. Each certificate is custom-tailored to include the name of the star, its celestial coordinates, and the date of registration, and allows the customer to choose their own design, making it a truly personal gift.
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Météo24, BBC Arabic, France 24, EuroNews, Bloomberg TV, CNBC, CNN International, DW TV, Sky TG24 Primo Piano, i24 NEWS Discovery : Discovery Channel, Discovery Science, History, Nat GEO Wild HD, National Geographic Channel HD, RT Doc, Crime & investigation, SKY ARTE HD, Caccia e Pesca Entertainment : FOX Business, FOX HD, Gambero rosso HD, Sky Uno HD, Comedy Central, Food Network, Class Horse TV, Italia 2, La5, Media set extra, RealTime, Top Crime , Giallo, Spike, Italia 1 HD, Blaze, 20 Mediaset, Ginx eSports TV, Radio Zeta Radiovisione Kids : Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network, Cielo, Nick Jr, K2, Frisbee Music : MTV Music, Kiss TV, VH-1, Classical HD Sport : Eurosport HD, Eurosport 2 HD, Sky sport Uno HD, Sky sport football HD, Sky sport arena HD, Sky sport NBA HD, Sky sport Serie A, Sky Sport F1, Sky Sport 1 HD, Sky Sport 2 HD, Sky Sport 3 HD, Sky Sport 24 HD, Sky SPORT Moto GP, Roma channel, Sky Sport 10, Sky Sport 11, Sky Sport 4, Sky Sport 5, Sky Sport 6, Sky Sport 7, Sky Sport 8, Sky Sport 9, Motor trend, Sky Sport 12, Sky Sport Collection Horse races : Unire Sat Radios : RTL 102.5, Radio Italia TV HD, RDS Social TV HD, Radio Freccia HD Religion : Daystar, TV2000, Padre Pio TV, Telepace Other : DMAX Italia
3152	dbpedia	1	33	https://figuresinthesky.visualcinnamon.com/	en	Figures in the Sky	https://figuresinthesky.…esky_feature.jpg	https://figuresinthesky.…esky_feature.jpg	[]	[]	[]	[ "data", "visualization", "visualisation", "data visualization", "data visualisation", "information", "information visualization", "information visualisation", "dataviz", "datavis", "infoviz", "infovis", "collaboration", "data art" ]	null	[ "Nadieh Bremer - Visual Cinnamon" ]	null	How current & past cultures across the World have seen their myths and legends in the stars		img/favicon/favicon-192x192.png	Visual Cinnamon	https://figuresinthesky.visualcinnamon.com	How cultures across the World have seen their myths and legends in the stars No matter where you are on Earth, we all look up to the same sky during the dark nights. You might see a different section of it depending on your exact location, time & season, nevertheless the stars have fascinated humans across time and continents. Our own creativity combined with stories about local legends and myths have created a diverse set of different constellations. And even though the stars don't change, people have found many different shapes in the same sky. From humans, to animals, to objects, and even abstract concepts. The same sky, different figures Let's compare 28 different "sky cultures" to see differences and similarities in the shapes they've seen in the night sky. Ranging from the so-called "Modern" or Western constellations, to Chinese, Maori and even a few shapes from historical cultures such as the Aztecs. Take the star Betelgeuse. This red supergiant is one of the brightest stars in the night sky. In proper darkness, you can even see that it shines in a distinctly red color. It's part of one of the easiest to distinguish modern constellations known as Orion, named after a gigantic, supernaturally strong hunter from Greek mythology. The visualization below shows how Betelgeuse has been used by 17 cultures (out of the 28) to form constellations, each represented by a different color. The main shape of a long rectangle that is "tightened by a belt" in the center is clearly visible, with many lines of different constellations appearing side by side. These bright stars thus seem to form a distinctive figure. However, there are some fascinating alternates in there too; mostly humanoid shapes by the Egyptians, Navajo and Tupi. The separate constellation shapes of each culture can be found in a ring around the main circle. Click on any of the smaller circles to make it appear in the center. To get back to the default view showing all constellations simultaneously, click on the central star map. Sirius, said to literally mean "scorching", is quite an appropriate name However, if we instead focus on Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, no clear shape is shared across cultures. In Western culture it belongs to Canis Major, i.e. the Large Dog, and a dog shape can indeed be recognized. But other cultures have seen Sirius as part of an Eagle, Wolf and several more animals. Click on the sky map of Sirius below if you want to see it visualized in a bigger sky map with all of the separate constellations around it. The Big Dipper is actually part of a larger Western constellation known as Ursa Major, or Big Bear Perhaps the most universally recognized figure across all cultures is the first one that many people learn as a kid; the Big Dipper. Roughly 17 out of the 20 constellations that use Dubhe, the top right star, share practically the same "cooking pan" shape. And even though the shapes are almost the same, the actual figures that were seen differ quite a lot. From an Elk, a Caribou, to Carts, and even a "Group of organized thieves" by the Macedonians. Click on the sky map of Dubhe below if you want to see it visualized in a bigger sky map with all of the separate constellations around it. Below are several more famous or bright stars & constellations. For some of them, roughly the same shapes have been seen by cultures across the World, such as the half circle of the Corona Borealis constellation around Alphekka. Whereas others show quite the "chaos" of lines, see Mirphak for example. As with the previous two maps, you can click on each of the stars below to see it visualized in a bigger sky map that pops up. Brightness doesn't determine all Let's look at all 2168 unique stars that are included in at least one constellation across all sky cultures. The chart below shows the stars according to their brightness from left to right, and the number of constellations the star appears in from top to bottom. A general trend is visible: The brighter the star, the more constellations it's included in. This makes sense, since brighter stars just stand out more. Another thing that most likely plays a role is "good placement" around the ecliptic so it's visible in many regions of the Earth However, some stars stand out because they "rise" from the general mass; they are included in constellations more often than you'd expect based on their brightness. The main reason appears to be that they are often part of an easy to recognize "shape" of stars, such as Orion's belt, the Pleiades, and the Corona Borealis and Taurus constellations. And vice versa, several other stars are used less often than expected for their brightness. In these cases the star is often a bit of a loner. There is no group of close-by stars to form an easy to recognize shape with, such as Sirius and Canopus all the way on the right. NOTE \| Star colors, based on their actual visible colors, have been exaggerated/saturated for better visibility. The sizes of the stars are (not-linearly) scaled to the actual brightness of the stars (called absolute magnitude); how bright they would be if they were all placed the same distance from Earth. Because stars are all at widely different distances from the Earth, how bright a star appears to us is called the apparent magnitude. Sirius is about 25 times more luminous than the Sun, but Canopus is ~10,000 times more luminous! Take Sirius, the brightest star, it appears almost twice as bright to us as Canopus, the next brightest star. However, compared to the other stars we see at night it's actually not exceptionally bright. The reason it appears so bright to us, is because it's one of our closest neighboring stars (at 8.6 light-years). The full sky, different for each culture Try moving the sky horizontally... To get a sense of the different cultures, we can also look at all (still known) constellations of each. The Sky Map below shows almost the entire sky, only excluding a thin strip around both the poles. Right now it's revealing the Hawaiian (Starlines) constellations, but you can see a different set of shapes by selecting any of the other cultures below the Sky Map. Constellations in the night sky as seen by Hawaiian (Starlines) culture Number of Constellations — 13 Average number of ✩ per constellation — 7 Sky Cultures The constellation information for the cultures come from Stellarium, a free and extremely popular planetarium. There are 28 cultures included in these analyses and visuals. Especially for the more ancient cultures, only a few constellations are still known today. You can read a little more about each culture by hovering over the blocks. It's also possible to see all the constellations of the culture at once in the Sky Map above by clicking on a culture's name. Arabic Constellations — 49 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 11 The shapes of these constellations were greatly influenced by Greek astronomy. Particularly by the work of the Greek astronomer, Ptolemy, which was translated into Arabic in the 9th century. Arabic (Moon Stations) Constellations — 28 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 3.5 The Arabic Moon stations describe the 28 sky areas chosen in ancient Arabia to define the daily location of the moon during its lunar month trip around the sky. Each station is recognized by a star or a group of stars. Aztec Constellations — 5 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 8.5 For the ancient Aztecs, the knowledge of the night skies and stars movement had great importance for their calendars, agriculture and religious cycles. Sadly, a great part of this knowledge was lost as consequence of the Spanish conquest. Belarusian Constellations — 20 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 6 The folk constellations found in Belarus, a country in Eastern Europe. People in the villages have preserved their traditional knowledge about the stars and related beliefs through to the present time. Boorong Constellations — 28 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 8 The Boorong tribe from Australia pride themselves upon knowing more of Astronomy than any other tribe. Chinese Constellations — 318 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 4.5 Chinese constellations, known as "Xingguan", are typically smaller than the modern ones, but there are many many more. Dakota Constellations — 13 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 8.5 Dakota, Lakota and Nakota (also known as Sioux) are one of the groups of indigenous people of north-central United States and Canada. Egyptian Constellations — 28 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 9 Late Egyptian astronomy / astrology follows that of Greco / Roman culture. However there are differences in names. Hawaiian (Starlines) Constellations — 13 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 7 A recent adaptation based on the teachings of a Polynesian master navigator, it divides the sky into four evenly sized star lines. Indian Vedic Constellations — 28 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 2.5 In Hindu tradition the ecliptic is divided into 27 parts, which correspond with 27 asterisms known as the nakṣatra-s. Inuit Constellations — 11 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 3.5 The constellations of the arctic universe, although the specifics of Inuit constellations might differ from tribe to tribe. Japanese (Moon Stations) Constellations — 28 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 5 Most astronomical observation in Japan until the Meiji Restoration was closely tied to astrological purposes. Kamilaroi Constellations — 13 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 1 The Kamilaroi (also known as Gomeroi) and Euahlayi peoples are Australian Aboriginal cultural groups located in the northern part of New South Wales. Korean Constellations — 272 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 4.5 These constellations are based on the Cheon-Sang-Yeol-Cha-Bun-Ya-Zi-Do, the Korean Constellation map, which was carved on the stone in 1395. Macedonian Constellations — 19 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 4 These constellations are reconstructed based on the descriptions known to elderly inhabitants of Macedonian villages. Maori Constellations — 6 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 5.5 The Maori (New Zealand) constellations are similar to the Polynesian. Maritime themes are central to the Maori constellations and were used extensively in nautical navigation. Mongolian Constellations — 4 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 6.5 Mongolian constellations were inherited from contact with Alexander the Great and was largely influenced by Chinese civilization and Buddhist religion. Navajo Constellations — 8 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 16 The Navajo are the largest Native American tribe in the United States, extending across northeastern Arizona, southeastern Utah, and northwestern New Mexico. Norse Constellations — 6 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 6 Very few native Norse constellations have survived to this day. Being a seafaring nation, they probably had many. Ojibwe Constellations — 10 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 9.5 Ojibwe are one of the largest groups of indigenous people of North America (United States and Canada). Romanian Constellations — 39 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 9.5 Part of the Romanian constellations function as an "agrarian clock" for specific activities and tools used. Sami Constellations — 10 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 3.5 The Sami people are considered to be the native population of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland and West Russia (the Kola Peninsula). Sardinian Constellations — 11 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 6.5 The constellations of the ancient Sardinian cultures, from the Italian island in the Mediterranean Sea. Siberian Constellations — 3 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 6.5 A few constellations that are typical for the whole of Siberia. Tongan Constellations — 11 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 4.5 As in all Polynesian star lore, Tongan constellations descend from the practical application of nautical navigation. Tukano Constellations — 11 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 17 Tukano is the common name for a group of indigenous tribes who live around the northwestern region of Brazil, near Colombia and Venezuela. Tupi Constellations — 7 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 21.5 Tupi-Guarani is a name given to a family of languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of Brazil and other South American countries. Western \| Modern Constellations — 88 Avg. ✩ per constellation — 8 Western constellations are used internationally by modern astronomers. It has historical roots in Ancient Greek astronomy, with influences from Islamic astronomy (most of the traditional Western star names came from Arabic). The endless sky, binding us together The earliest written evidence for the existence of constellations comes from inscribed stones and clay writing tablets dating back to 3000 BC It is innately human to see and use the figures in the night sky. To dream, to tell stories, to navigate, and more. Some groups of relatively bright stars are so distinct that cultures from around the world, separated by vast oceans, have connected them into a constellation in almost the same way. It's our human imagination and cultural history that ascribes wildly different figures and meaning to the shapes though. From kings, to legendary & important animals to mythical gods and beings. So the next time you're outside during a dark but nice warm summer night, lie down in a patch of fluffy grass, look up and imagine your own shapes & figures from the pinpricks of twinkling lights above. You'll probably end up recognizing more shapes than you would've thought. If you enjoyed this project, please pass it on to others by sharing it on Twitter • LinkedIn • Facebook or elsewhere Created with ❤ by astronomer & dataviz lover Nadieh Bremer See more of her personal & professional works on Visual Cinnamon The data about the stars comes from the HYG star database. The constellation data comes from Stellarium, a free and open source planetarium + a lot of data cleaning, preparation & analysis to create this final piece. Go to this blog to read an in-depth write-up about the data preparation, design, coding & more.
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3152	dbpedia	0	3	https://imaginecommunications.com/customer-success-stories/sky-italia/	en	Customer Success Story	https://imaginecommunica…zed_2020-032.jpg	https://imaginecommunica…zed_2020-032.jpg	[ "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/06-2024_TotalTVBlog-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/06-2024_IPEverywhere-Part2HOW-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/05-2024_IPEverywhere-Part1Sports-THUMB-150x150.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/imc-image-nav-monetize-tv-resource-1.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/ImagineComms-Customer-AlarabyTV-2023StudioFacility-03.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/imc-image-nav-make-tv-resource.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/SyMediaCustomerSuccessMenu.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/SkyHQ-ImaginePhoto-IMG950x550_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/MassimoBertolotti_SkyITL.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/Sky-Customer_DIVIDER1440x330_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/SkyControlRoom-ImaginePhoto-IMG950x550_2019-12.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/Sky-NetworkSpeed-IMG950x550_2019-12_0.jpg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/08/sky-italia-full-width-image-1.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/07/logo-1.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/themes/imagine-communications/images/ContactUs.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/themes/imagine-communications/images/support.svg", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/2020/09/imagine_running_man.png", "https://imaginecommunications.com/app/uploads/Steve-Reynolds_2023_circleWEB_grey.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[]	2020-08-12T20:46:57+00:00	Italy’s largest Pay-TV operator, Sky Italia, went hybrid SDI-IP to enable efficient, centralized monitoring of multiple sites and begin a disruption-free, managed transition to an all-IP infrastructure.	en	https://imaginecommunica…_man-144x144.png	Imagine Communications	https://imaginecommunications.com/customer-success-stories/sky-italia/	Sky Italia is the largest pay-TV operator in Italy and one of the largest in Europe, serving 4.73 million subscribers. The company distributes more than 150 channels, mainly via satellite, and its Sky Go brand of content is distributed to mobiles and tablets using OTT delivery. Sky Italia is owned by Sky, Europe’s leading entertainment company, serving more than 21 million customers across five countries: Italy, Germany, Austria, the UK and Ireland. When Sky (formerly BSkyB) acquired Sky Italia in 2014 and Sky Deutschland in 2015, the multinational, UK-headquartered PayTV giant decided to consolidate the new markets’ operations in Milan, tasking Sky Italia with handling all signal contribution for Sky Deutschland. Sky Italia supports more than 150 of its own channels from operations centers in Milan and Rome, where individual feeds and multiplexed streams are transported within and between the two locations. Faced with the additional burden of handling signal contribution between Milan and Munich, Sky Italia needed to migrate to a large-scale routing system. As the new routing system needed to be distributed across several locations (floors) within the Milan facility, Sky Italia decided to design the system around an IP switching core using commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) IP switches. However, they also wanted the new implementation to connect to the legacy SDI systems within the Milan facility. The immediate goal was to leverage the speed and scalability benefits of IP, while achieving the same level of switching quality as they had experienced using a baseband router. In addition, Sky Italia planned to implement an IP-based disaster recovery system at their Rome location. In the longer term, as more production and broadcast equipment becomes IP-centric, Sky Italia’s plan is for all the video distribution components within their Milan facility to be IP-based, creating a fully virtualized audio/video routing ecosystem. They were ready to begin a managed transition to an all-IP infrastructure that minimizes disruption and preserves their existing workflows. Deployed in fully redundant 1+1 configurations, the IP3 routers are used to switch the SDI signals, while the Arista IP switches, also in 1+1 redundant configurations, switch the IP-encapsulated SDI streams. The IP3 routers feature integrated Platinum Uncompressed-over-IP (UCIP) modules, which encapsulate and de-encapsulate signals and move them between the SDI domain and the IP domain. In total, the first phase of Sky Italia’s new system can handle 640×640 IP streams in a main and backup network, connecting to a 128×128 SDI matrix in a non-blocking way. Also key to Sky Italia’s implementation is Imagine’s Selenio™ MCP processing, compression and IP networking platform, featuring 500 multichannel UCIP gateway cards. Both the Platinum and Selenio UCIP cards are modular “on-ramp/off-ramp” solutions that encapsulate SDI baseband signals into IP streams and vice versa. Sky Italia can use the UCIP modules to manage the synchronization of IP signals where they re-enter the HD-SDI world, eliminating network jitter and aligning perfectly to legacy sync signals. The modules are also able to synchronize its output time-base via PTP (SMPTE 2059), and can do full AES67 audio breakaway and re-combination of the audio signals from/to the SDI signals. The Magellan SDN Orchestrator controls the Platinum IP3 routers, i.e., the SDI signal flows within the Sky Italia infrastructure. Sky Italia can also use the Magellan SDN Orchestrator to control the stream-flows and mappings inside their IP network — providing the bandwidth management and Quality of Service (QoS) required to achieve professional broadcast performance. SDI and IP sources and destinations are kept in a single Magellan SDN Orchestrator database, and the gateways between the SDI infrastructure and the IP virtual matrix — as well as the allocation of bandwidth between the IP switches — are managed using tie-line control methods.
3152	dbpedia	2	89	https://www.satellites.co.uk/forums/threads/sky-italia-is-it-cracked-now.94613/	en	Sky Italia - Is it cracked now?	https://www.satellites.c…sUK_logo_192.png	https://www.satellites.c…sUK_logo_192.png	[ "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/assets/logo/SatsUK_logo1.png", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/assets/logo/SatsUK_logo1.png", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/avatars/m/186/186250.jpg?1515495144", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/avatars/m/256/256551.jpg?1374067610", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/avatars/m/175/175057.jpg?1650473757", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/avatars/m/176/176802.jpg?1374067494", "https://www.satellites.co.uk/data/avatars/m/176/176362.jpg?1471639805" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "joecasal" ]	2008-08-29T12:39:35+00:00	Hi to all, there are some CARD or PROGRAMMER for cloning the sky italia card for see all program? Have someone a tutorial for this operation? Tnx	en	/data/assets/logo/SatsUK_logo_192.png	SatsUK	https://www.satellites.co.uk/forums/threads/sky-italia-is-it-cracked-now.94613/	joecasal said: Hi to all, there are some CARD or PROGRAMMER for cloning the sky italia card for see all program? Have someone a tutorial for this operation? Tnx Not a chance with NDS encryption. Excuse me, but as your location is Italy, you can easily buy a subscription. I have been looking for months trying to buy a subscription at even higher price than what someone in Italy would pay. So I find it a bit odd asking to watch it for free when you can have it with just a phone call. I was reading another forum last night and there is a lively debate on there about this being true. Im not too savvy re encryptyion and such but there were downloads of files that were supposed to prove it. i dunno what they are but i downloaded them to see if I could make out what they are. Anyone who wants can have a look at them. Seems the BskyB share price took a big dive too when this was announced.
3152	dbpedia	3	8	https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/nba-sky-italia-tv-rights/	en	year rights extension with Sky Italia	https://www.sportspromed…BelinelliNBA.jpg	https://www.sportspromed…BelinelliNBA.jpg	[ "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/themes/sportsProMedia/assets/img/SP_logo.png", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/BelinelliNBA.jpg", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/liberty-media-f1-andretti-us-justice-department-doj-150x150.jpg", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/News-story-template-22-1-150x150.jpg", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Rabbitohs-NRL-1.jpg", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/themes/sportsProMedia/assets/img/SportsPro_white.png", "https://www.sportspromedia.com/wp-content/themes/sportsProMedia/AFZ/frontend/assets/img/ptss-white.png" ]	[]	[]	[ "" ]	null	[ "Tom Bassam" ]	2019-09-17T05:00:35+00:00	Infront gets North American basketball league’s Italian sponsorship brief.	en	https://www.sportspromed…pped-spicon.jpeg	SportsPro	https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/nba-sky-italia-tv-rights/	Sky Italia has signed a new four-year deal with the National Basketball Association (NBA) that sees the Italian pay-TV broadcaster retain its domestic broadcast rights and management of the league’s official local website. The deal gives Sky the rights to air more than 300 regular-season matches live, which will continue to be exploited on its dedicated NBA channel, Sky Sport NBA, which was created in 2018 as part of Sky’s change in distribution strategy. The broadcaster will show at least one league match per day, as well as highlights and analysis shows, including 48 weekend primetime matches. Michael Jordan sells Charlotte Hornets minority stake The pay-TV broadcaster also has the exclusive Italian rights to the whole range of NBA properties, including the annual NBA All-Star game, the play-offs, conference and overall finals matches. The deal also sees Sky retain the NBA’s Italian website, where it will host video highlights along with news, stats, scores, in-depth analysis and content produced specifically for that platform. Sky gained control of the NBA platform in 2016 taking over from the website of Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport. Sky’s dedicated NBA channel launched in 2018 as part of Sky Italia’s wider overhaul of its channels which saw a range of similar channels created. Marzio Perrelli, executive vice-president at Sky Sport, said: “Sky remains the point of reference for the many NBA fans in Italy and will ensure the usual exceptional coverage, with even more matches in primetime and an enhanced editorial quality.” The NBA has also announced a deal with Infront, that will see the agency’s Italian office market the league’s sponsorship rights in the country. Sky Italia has signed a new four-year deal with the NBA Sky Italia has signed a new four-year deal with the National Basketball Association (NBA) that sees the Italian pay-TV broadcaster retain its exclusive broadcast rights and management of the league’s official local website. The deal gives Sky the rights to air more than 300 regular-season matches live, which will continue to be exploited on its dedicated NBA channel, Sky Sport NBA, which was created in 2018 as part of Sky’s change in distribution strategy. The broadcaster will show at least one league match per day, as well as highlights and analysis shows, including 48 weekend primetime matches. The pay-TV broadcaster also has the exclusive Italian rights to the whole range of NBA properties, including the annual NBA All-Star game, the play-offs, conference and overall finals matches. The deal also sees Sky retain the NBA’s Italian website, where it will host video highlights along with news, stats, scores, in-depth analysis and content produced specifically for that platform. Sky gained control of the NBA platform in 2016 taking over from the website of Italian sports newspaper Gazzetta dello Sport. Sky’s dedicated NBA channel launched in 2018 as part of Sky Italia’s wider overhaul of its channels which saw a range of similar channels created. Marzio Perrelli, executive vice-president at Sky Sport, said: “Sky remains the point of reference for the many NBA fans in Italy and will ensure the usual exceptional coverage, with even more matches in primetime and an enhanced editorial quality.” The NBA has also announced a deal with Infront, that will see the agency’s Italian office market the league’s sponsorship rights in the country.

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