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4700 I opened one of those rooms , and there was a man lying on the floor . I leaned over to try to see what I could do to minister to him in some way , do something for him . He may have been on a mattress or he may have been on the bare floor . No he was on the bare floor , because when I tried to move him , his skin came off . His skin was bloody and stuck to the floor and when I tried to lift him up it just peeled his skin off . He was in the last stages of syphilis . He died less than a week afterwards . Now that was my first introduction to what was badly needed in that institution .
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19.635427474975586 135 WikiText2
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4701 The CPS men objected to the mistreatment and abuse of patients and determined to improve conditions in the psychiatric wards . They wanted to show other attendants alternatives to violence when dealing with patients .
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91.7097396850586 35 WikiText2
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4702 Frank Olmstead , chairman of the War Resisters League observed :
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186.8549041748047 11 WikiText2
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4703 One objector assigned to a violent ward refused to take the broomstick offered by the Charge . When he entered the ward the patients crowded around asking , " Where is your broomstick ? " He said he thought he would not need it . " But suppose some of us gang up on you ? " The CO guessed they wouldn 't do that and started talking about other things . Within a few days the patients were seen gathering around the unarmed attendant telling him of their troubles . He felt much safer than the Charge who had only his broomstick for company .
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65.72517395019531 106 WikiText2
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4704 Outraged workers surveyed CPS men in other hospitals and learned of the degree of abuse throughout the psychiatric care system . Contacting church managers and government officials , the COs begin advocating for reforms to end the abuses . Conditions were exposed in institutions such as Cleveland State Hospital , Eastern State Hospital in Virginia and Hudson River State Hospital . One explained :
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161.00328063964844 64 WikiText2
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4705 And the governor came in and they cleaned out the hospital . I mean , they had hearings . We all had to appear in court and all that kind of stuff . And within a month or so , the hospital was completely changed . The superintendent was fired and the new superintendent was put in , and not only did they do our hospital , they did all the hospitals , mental hospitals in Virginia .
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32.21608352661133 78 WikiText2
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4706 The reformers were especially active at the Byberry Hospital in Philadelphia where four Friends initiated the The Attendant magazine as a way to communicate ideas and promote reform . This periodical later became The Psychiatric Aide , a professional journal for mental health workers . On May 6 , 1946 Life Magazine printed an exposé of the mental healthcare system based on the reports of COs . Another effort of CPS , Mental Hygiene Project became the National Mental Health Foundation . Initially skeptical about the value of Civilian Public Service , Eleanor Roosevelt , impressed by the changes introduced by COs in the mental health system , became a sponsor of the National Mental Health Foundation and actively inspired other prominent citizens including Owen J. Roberts , Pearl Buck and Harry Emerson Fosdick to join her in advancing the organization 's objectives of reform and humane treatment of patients .
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67.28986358642578 151 WikiText2
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4707 = = = Medical experiments = = =
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341.1919250488281 8 WikiText2
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4708 Draftees in Civilian Public Service became medical and scientific research test subjects in human medical experiments under the direction of the Office of Scientific Research and Development and the Surgeon General at medical institutions such as Harvard Medical School , Yale and Stanford Universities , and Massachusetts General Hospital . These experiments involved a range of research topics , sometimes endangering the health of the COs .
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45.17495346069336 67 WikiText2
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4709 Hepatitis : During the 1940s the cause , method of communication and treatment of infectious hepatitis was not well understood . Experimentation began with COs working at psychiatric hospitals and was expanded to a major research project with 30 to 60 test subjects at the University of Pennsylvania and Yale University . The men were inoculated with infected blood plasma , swallowed nose and throat washings and the human body wastes of infected patients , and drank contaminated water .
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65.18319702148438 80 WikiText2
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4710 As a young surgeon , C. Everett Koop was part of the research team at the University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine . He related his experience with CPS test subjects :
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52.78074645996094 32 WikiText2
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4711 And the first time I was introduced to this whole program when I as a young surgeon , was asked to do serial biopsies on their livers to see what the effect of the virus was in the production of the changes in the liver . And in that way , I got to know that a lot of these young men had no idea that the risk they were taking also included death . And some of those youngsters did die and it was a very difficult thing for me to be part of , because you know , you ’ re powerless , when you ’ re part of the big team .
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35.11407470703125 115 WikiText2
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4712 It couldn 't happen today . Internal Review Boards would not permit the use of a live virus in human subjects unless they really understood what was going to happen to them . And I doubt that even if they knew what the risk was , that an Internal Review Board in any academic institution would consent to that kind of experimental work .
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45.34274673461914 64 WikiText2
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4713 The hepatitis research was instrumental in determining a virus is responsible for the disease and that it is transmitted through human filth , serum and drinking water .
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84.54500579833984 28 WikiText2
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4714 Malaria : During the early 1940s , quinine was the chief anti @-@ malarial drug . Made from the bark of the South American cinchona tree , quinine was in short supply during the war , so scientists began searching for an alternative treatment . The test subjects allowed themselves to be bitten by malarial mosquitoes and when the fever reached its peak in three to four days , were given experimental treatments . At the University of Minnesota , twelve CPS men underwent tests to determine the recovery period for those infected with malaria . This research documented the debilitating effects of the disease and the amount of time required for a complete recovery .
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35.501731872558594 118 WikiText2
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4715 Common cold and atypical pneumonia : A hundred CPS men participated with tests such that they inhaled or drank throat washings from soldiers with colds and pneumonia . This research proved that colds and some types of pneumonia are cause by a virus , not bacteria .
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122.71528625488281 47 WikiText2
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4716 Minnesota Starvation Experiment : To study the effects of diet and nutrition , Dr. Ancel Keys of the University of Minnesota Laboratory of Physiological Hygiene placed 32 conscientious objectors on a controlled diet . For three months they were given a normal 3 @,@ 200 calories ( 13 @,@ 000 kJ ) diet . This was followed by six months of an 1 @,@ 800 calories ( 7 @,@ 500 kJ ) diet , fewer calories than provided by the famine diet experienced by the civilian population in wartime Europe . The research documented the men 's ability to maintain physical output and the psychological effects such as introversion , lethargy , irritability and severe depression . The study then followed the men 's long recovery as they returned to a normal diet and regained the weight lost during the experimentation .
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42.26274871826172 150 WikiText2
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4717 The study provided valuable insights into hunger and starvation and the results were made available to all major relief agencies concerned with postwar food and nutrition problems , helping to inspire the Marshall Plan .
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4718 = = Closure and impact = =
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492.2806701660156 7 WikiText2
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4719 Civilian Public Service men were released from their assignments and the camps closed during March 1947 , nineteen months after the end of the war in the Pacific . Reforms in the mental health system continued after the war . The experience of Mennonite COs was instrumental in creating regional mental health facilities in California , Kansas and Maryland .
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51.97463607788086 60 WikiText2
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4720 Lewis Hill , who was in CPS camp number 37 near Coleville , California , together with several other COs founded Pacifica Network and KPFA Radio in Berkeley , California , the world 's first listener @-@ sponsored radio station . Poets William Everson and William Stafford were both in CPS camps . Actor Francis ( Fritz ) William Weaver spent time in the Big Flats ( New York ) CPS Camp number 46 .
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217.0163116455078 77 WikiText2
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4721 Men from the historic peace churches volunteered for relief and reconstruction after their release from CPS . The 1947 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to American and British Friends Service Committees for their relief work in Europe after the war . Mennonite Central Committee redirected its effort from camp administration to relief and reconstruction in Europe after the war .
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76.19209289550781 60 WikiText2
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4722 Civilian Public Service created a precedent for the Alternative Service Program for conscientious objectors in the United States during the Korean and Vietnam Wars . Although the CPS program was not duplicated , the idea of offering men an opportunity to do " work of national importance " instead of military service was established .
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55.33406066894531 55 WikiText2
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4723 = Ireland =
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4724 Ireland ( / ˈaɪərlənd / ; Irish : Éire [ ˈeːɾʲə ] ; Ulster @-@ Scots : Airlann [ ˈɑːrlən ] ) is an island in the North Atlantic . It is separated from Great Britain to its east by the North Channel , the Irish Sea , and St George 's Channel . Ireland is the second @-@ largest island of the British Isles , the third @-@ largest in Europe , and the twentieth @-@ largest on Earth .
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28.16490936279297 89 WikiText2
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4725 Politically , Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland ( officially named Ireland ) , which covers five @-@ sixths of the island , and Northern Ireland , which is part of the United Kingdom , in the northeast of the island . In 2011 the population of Ireland was about 6 @.@ 4 million , ranking it the second @-@ most populous island in Europe after Great Britain . Just under 4 @.@ 6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just over 1 @.@ 8 million live in Northern Ireland .
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23.7432918548584 105 WikiText2
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4726 The island 's geography comprises relatively low @-@ lying mountains surrounding a central plain , with several navigable rivers extending inland . The island has lush vegetation , a product of its mild but changeable climate which avoids extremes in temperature . Thick woodlands covered the island until the Middle Ages . As of 2013 , the amount of land that is wooded in Ireland is about 11 % of the total , compared with a European average of 35 % . There are twenty @-@ six extant mammal species native to Ireland . The Irish climate is very moderated and classified as oceanic . As a result , winters are milder than expected for such a northerly area . However , summers are cooler than those in Continental Europe . Rainfall and cloud cover are abundant .
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46.54970169067383 142 WikiText2
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4727 The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Gaelic Ireland had emerged by the 1st century AD and lasted until the First World War . The island was Christianised from the 5th century onward . Following the Norman invasion in the 12th century , England claimed sovereignty over Ireland . However , English rule did not extend over the whole island until the 16th – 17th century Tudor conquest , which led to colonisation by settlers from Britain . In the 1690s , a system of Protestant English rule was designed to materially disadvantage the Catholic majority and Protestant dissenters , and was extended during the 18th century . With the Acts of Union in 1801 , Ireland became a part of the United Kingdom . A war of independence in the early 20th century was followed by the partition of the island , creating the Irish Free State , which became increasingly sovereign over the following decades , and Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom . Northern Ireland saw much civil unrest from the late 1960s until the 1990s . This subsided following a political agreement in 1998 . In 1973 the Republic of Ireland joined the European Economic Community while the United Kingdom , and Northern Ireland , as part of it , did the same .
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20.8949031829834 234 WikiText2
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4728 Irish culture has had a significant influence on other cultures , especially in the fields of literature . Alongside mainstream Western culture , a strong indigenous culture exists , as expressed through Gaelic games , Irish music , and the Irish language . The culture of the island also shares many features with that of Great Britain , including the English language , and sports such as association football , rugby , horse racing , and golf .
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24.07632827758789 78 WikiText2
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4729 = = Name = =
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650.6299438476562 5 WikiText2
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4730 Ireland consists of Old Irish Eriu + English land . Eriu derives from Proto @-@ Celtic * Iveriu ( compare Welsh Iwerddon ) , which is also the source of Latin Hibernia . Iveriu derives from a root meaning " fat , prosperous " .
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155.75607299804688 47 WikiText2
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4731 = = History = =
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4732 = = = Prehistoric Ireland = = =
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199.873779296875 8 WikiText2
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4733 During the last glacial period , and up until about 9000 years ago , most of Ireland was covered with ice , most of the time . Sea levels were lower and Ireland , like Great Britain , formed part of continental Europe . By 12 @,@ 000 BC , rising sea levels due to ice melting caused Ireland to become separated from Great Britain . Later , around 5600 BC , Great Britain itself became separated from continental Europe . The earliest evidence of human presence in Ireland is dated at 10 @,@ 500 BC . Until recently the earliest evidence of humans in Ireland were Mesolithic people who arrived by boat from Britain between 8000 BC and 7000 BC .
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28.46407127380371 126 WikiText2
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4734 From about 4500 BC , Neolithic settlers arrived introducing cereal cultivars , a housing culture ( similar to those of the same period in Scotland ) and stone monuments . A more advanced agriculture was to develop . At the Céide Fields , preserved beneath a blanket of peat in present @-@ day County Mayo , is an extensive field system , arguably the oldest in the world , dating from not long after this period . Consisting of small divisions separated by dry @-@ stone walls , the fields were farmed for several centuries between 3500 BC and 3000 BC . Wheat and barley were the principal crops imported from the Iberian Peninsula .
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66.5262451171875 119 WikiText2
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4735 The Bronze Age – defined by the use of metal – began around 2500 BC , with technology changing people 's everyday lives during this period through innovations such as the wheel , harnessing oxen , weaving textiles , brewing alcohol , and skilful metalworking , which produced new weapons and tools , along with fine gold decoration and jewellery , such as brooches and torcs . According to John T. Koch and others , Ireland in the Late Bronze Age was part of a maritime trading @-@ networked culture called the Atlantic Bronze Age that also included Britain , western France and Iberia , and that this is where Celtic languages developed . This contrasts with the traditional view that their origin lies in mainland Europe with the Hallstatt culture .
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52.19533157348633 134 WikiText2
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4736 = = = = Emergence of Celtic Ireland = = = =
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137.71812438964844 12 WikiText2
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4737 During the Iron Age , a Celtic language and culture emerged in Ireland . How and when the island of Ireland became Celtic has been debated for close to a century , with the migrations of the Celts being one of the more enduring themes of archaeological and linguistic studies . Today , there is more than one school of thought on how this occurred in Ireland .
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21.74081039428711 68 WikiText2
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4738 The long @-@ standing traditional view , once widely accepted , is that Celtic language , Ogham script and culture were brought to Ireland by waves of invading or migrating Celts from mainland Europe . This theory draws on the Lebor Gabála Érenn , a medieval Christian pseudo @-@ history of Ireland along with the presence of Celtic culture , language and artefacts found in Ireland such as Celtic bronze spears , shields , torcs and other finely crafted Celtic associated possessions . The theory holds that there were four separate Celtic invasions of Ireland . The Priteni were said to be the first , followed by the Belgae from northern Gaul and Britain . Later , Laighin tribes from Armorica ( present @-@ day Brittany ) were said to have invaded Ireland and Britain more or less simultaneously . Lastly , the Milesians ( Gaels ) were said to have reached Ireland from either northern Iberia or southern Gaul . It was claimed that a second wave named the Euerni , belonging to the Belgae people of northern Gaul , began arriving about the sixth century BC . They were said to have given their name to the island .
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59.34145736694336 207 WikiText2
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4739 A more recent theory , with broad support among archaeologists , is that Celtic culture and language arrived in Ireland as a result of cultural diffusion . This theory proposes that the Celticisation of Ireland may have been the culmination of a long process of social and economic interaction between Ireland , Britain and adjacent parts of Continental Europe .
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29.320566177368164 60 WikiText2
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4740 The theory was advanced in part because of lack of archeological evidence for large @-@ scale Celtic immigration , though it is accepted that such movements are notoriously difficult to identify . Some proponents of this theory hold that it is likely that there was migration of smaller groups of Celts to Ireland , with sufficiently regular traffic to constitute a " migration stream , " but that this was not the fundamental cause of Insular Celticisation . Historical linguists are sceptical that this method alone could account for the absorption of the Celtic language , with some saying that an assumed processional view of Celtic linguistic formation is ' an especially hazardous exercise ' . Genetic lineage investigation into the area of Celtic migration to Ireland has led to findings that showed no significant differences in mitochondrial DNA between Ireland and large areas of continental Europe , in contrast to parts of the Y @-@ chromosome pattern . When taking both into account a recent study drew the conclusion that modern Celtic speakers in Ireland could be thought of as European " Atlantic Celts " showing a shared ancestry throughout the Atlantic zone from northern Iberia to western Scandinavia rather than substantially central European .
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57.19035720825195 210 WikiText2
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4741 = = = Late antiquity and early medieval times = = =
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4742 The earliest written records of Ireland come from classical Greco @-@ Roman geographers . Ptolemy in his Almagest refers to Ireland as Mikra Brettania ( Little Britain ) , in contrast to the larger island , which he called Megale Brettania ( Great Britain ) . In his later work , Geography , Ptolemy refers to Ireland as Iouernia and to Great Britain as Albion . These " new " names were likely to have been the local names for the islands at the time . The earlier names , in contrast , were likely to have been coined before direct contact with local peoples was made .
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54.729312896728516 110 WikiText2
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4743 The Romans would later refer to Ireland by this name too in its Latinised form , Hibernia , or Scotia . Ptolemy records sixteen nations inhabiting every part of Ireland in 100 AD . The relationship between the Roman Empire and the kingdoms of ancient Ireland is unclear . However , a number of finds of Roman coins have been made , for example at the Iron Age settlement of Freestone Hill near Gowran and Newgrange .
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4744 Ireland continued as a patchwork of rival kingdoms but , beginning in the 7th century AD , a concept of national kingship gradually became articulated through the concept of a High King of Ireland . Medieval Irish literature portrays an almost unbroken sequence of High Kings stretching back thousands of years but modern historians believe the scheme was constructed in the 8th century to justify the status of powerful political groupings by projecting the origins of their rule into the remote past .
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47.58135986328125 83 WikiText2
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4745 The High King was said to preside over the provincial kingdoms that together formed Ireland . All of these kingdoms had their own kings but were at least nominally subject to the High King . The High King was drawn from the ranks of the provincial kings and ruled also the royal kingdom of Meath , with a ceremonial capital at the Hill of Tara . The concept only became a political reality in the Viking Age and even then was not a consistent one . Ireland did have a culturally unifying rule of law : the early written judicial system , the Brehon Laws , administered by a professional class of jurists known as the brehons . However , a united kingdom of Gaelic Ireland was never achieved .
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43.52096176147461 130 WikiText2
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4746 The Chronicle of Ireland records that in 431 AD Bishop Palladius arrived in Ireland on a mission from Pope Celestine I to minister to the Irish " already believing in Christ " . The same chronicle records that Saint Patrick , Ireland 's best known patron saint , arrived the following year . There is continued debate over the missions of Palladius and Patrick but the consensus is that they both took place and that the older druid tradition collapsed in the face of the new religion . Irish Christian scholars excelled in the study of Latin and Greek learning and Christian theology . In the monastic culture that followed the Christianisation of Ireland , Latin and Greek learning was preserved in Ireland during the Early Middle Ages in contrast to elsewhere in Europe , where the Dark Ages followed the decline of the Roman Empire .
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4747 The arts of manuscript illumination , metalworking and sculpture flourished and produced treasures such as the Book of Kells , ornate jewellery and the many carved stone crosses that still dot the island today . A mission founded in 563 on Iona by the Irish monk Saint Columba began a tradition of Irish missionary work that spread Celtic Christianity and learning to Scotland , England and the Frankish Empire on Continental Europe after the fall of Rome . These missions continued until the late Middle Ages , establishing monasteries and centres of learning , producing scholars such as Sedulius Scottus and Johannes Eriugena and exerting much influence in Europe .
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67.9354476928711 110 WikiText2
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4748 From the 9th century , waves of Viking raiders plundered Irish monasteries and towns . These raids added to a pattern of raiding and endemic warfare that was already deep @-@ seated in Ireland . The Vikings also were involved in establishing most of the major coastal settlements in Ireland : Dublin , Limerick , Cork , Wexford , Waterford , and also Carlingford , Strangford , Annagassan , Arklow , Youghal , Lough Foyle and Lough Ree .
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40.43479919433594 81 WikiText2
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4749 = = = Norman and English invasions = = =
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