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4750 On 1 May 1169 , an expedition of Cambro @-@ Norman knights with an army of about six hundred landed at Bannow Strand in present @-@ day County Wexford . It was led by Richard de Clare , called Strongbow due to his prowess as an archer . The invasion , which coincided with a period of renewed Norman expansion , was at the invitation of Dermot Mac Murrough , the king of Leinster .
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4751 In 1166 , Mac Murrough had fled to Anjou , France , following a war involving Tighearnán Ua Ruairc , of Breifne , and sought the assistance of the Angevin king , Henry II , in recapturing his kingdom . In 1171 , Henry arrived in Ireland in order to review the general progress of the expedition . He wanted to re @-@ exert royal authority over the invasion which was expanding beyond his control . Henry successfully re @-@ imposed his authority over Strongbow and the Cambro @-@ Norman warlords and persuaded many of the Irish kings to accept him as their overlord , an arrangement confirmed in the 1175 Treaty of Windsor .
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4752 The invasion was legitimised by the provisions of the Papal Bull Laudabiliter , issued by Adrian IV in 1155 . The bull encouraged Henry to take control in Ireland in order to oversee the financial and administrative reorganisation of the Irish Church and its integration into the Roman Church system . Some restructuring had already begun at the ecclesiastical level following the Synod of Kells in 1152 . There has been significant controversy regarding the authenticity of Laudabiliter , and there is no general agreement as to whether the bull was genuine or a forgery .
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4753 In 1172 , the new pope , Alexander III , further encouraged Henry to advance the integration of the Irish Church with Rome . Henry was authorised to impose a tithe of one penny per hearth as an annual contribution . This church levy , called Peter 's Pence , is extant in Ireland as a voluntary donation . In turn , Henry accepted the title of Lord of Ireland which Henry conferred on his younger son , John Lackland , in 1185 . This defined the Irish state as the Lordship of Ireland . When Henry 's successor died unexpectedly in 1199 , John inherited the crown of England and retained the Lordship of Ireland .
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4754 Over the century that followed , Norman feudal law gradually replaced the Gaelic Brehon Law so that by the late 13th century the Norman @-@ Irish had established a feudal system throughout much of Ireland . Norman settlements were characterised by the establishment of baronies , manors , towns and the seeds of the modern county system . A version of the Magna Carta ( the Great Charter of Ireland ) , substituting Dublin for London and Irish Church for Church of England , was published in 1216 and the Parliament of Ireland was founded in 1297 .
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4755 From the mid @-@ 14th century , after the Black Death , Norman settlements in Ireland went into a period of decline . The Norman rulers and the Gaelic Irish elites intermarried and the areas under Norman rule became Gaelicised . In some parts , a hybrid Hiberno @-@ Norman culture emerged . In response , the Irish parliament passed the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1367 . These were a set of laws designed to prevent the assimilation of the Normans into Irish society by requiring English subjects in Ireland to speak English , follow English customs and abide by English law .
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4756 By the end of the 15th century central English authority in Ireland had all but disappeared and a renewed Irish culture and language , albeit with Norman influences , was dominant again . English Crown control remained relatively unshaken in an amorphous foothold around Dublin known as The Pale , and under the provisions of Poynings ' Law of 1494 , the Irish Parliamentary legislation was subject to the approval of the English Parliament .
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4757 = = = The Kingdom of Ireland = = =
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4758 The title of King of Ireland was re @-@ created in 1542 by Henry VIII , then King of England , of the Tudor dynasty . English rule of law was reinforced and expanded in Ireland during the latter part of the 16th century , leading to the Tudor conquest of Ireland . A near complete conquest was achieved by the turn of the 17th century , following the Nine Years ' War and the Flight of the Earls .
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4759 This control was further consolidated during the wars and conflicts of the 17th century , which witnessed English and Scottish colonisation in the Plantations of Ireland , the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Williamite War . Irish losses during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms ( which , in Ireland , included the Irish Confederacy and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland ) are estimated to include 20 @,@ 000 battlefield casualties . 200 @,@ 000 civilians are estimated to have died as a result of a combination of war @-@ related famine , displacement , guerrilla activity and pestilence over the duration of the war . A further 50 @,@ 000 were sent into indentured servitude in the West Indies . Some historians estimate that as much as half of the pre @-@ war population of Ireland may have died as a result of the conflict .
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4760 The religious struggles of the 17th century left a deep sectarian division in Ireland . Religious allegiance now determined the perception in law of loyalty to the Irish King and Parliament . After the passing of the Test Act 1672 , and with the victory of the forces of the dual monarchy of William and Mary over the Jacobites , Roman Catholics and nonconforming Protestant Dissenters were barred from sitting as members in the Irish Parliament . Under the emerging Penal Laws , Irish Roman Catholics and Dissenters were increasingly deprived of various and sundry civil rights even to the ownership of hereditary property . Additional regressive punitive legislation followed 1703 , 1709 and 1728 . This completed a comprehensive systemic effort to materially disadvantage Roman Catholics and Protestant Dissenters , while enriching a new ruling class of Anglican conformists . The new Anglo @-@ Irish ruling class became known as the Protestant Ascendancy .
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4761 An extraordinary climatic shock known as the " Great Frost " struck Ireland and the rest of Europe between December 1739 and September 1741 , after a decade of relatively mild winters . The winters destroyed stored crops of potatoes and other staples and the poor summers severely damaged harvests . This resulted in the famine of 1740 . An estimated 250 @,@ 000 people ( about one in eight of the population ) died from the ensuing pestilence and disease . The Irish government halted export of corn and kept the army in quarters but did little more . Local gentry and charitable organisations provided relief but could do little to prevent the ensuing mortality .
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4762 In the aftermath of the famine , an increase in industrial production and a surge in trade brought a succession of construction booms . The population soared in the latter part of this century and the architectural legacy of Georgian Ireland was built . In 1782 , Poynings ' Law was repealed , giving Ireland legislative independence from Great Britain for the first time since 1495 . The British government , however , still retained the right to nominate the government of Ireland without the consent of the Irish parliament .
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4763 = = = Union with Great Britain = = =
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4764 In 1798 , members of the Protestant Dissenter tradition ( mainly Presbyterian ) made common cause with Roman Catholics in a republican rebellion inspired and led by the Society of United Irishmen , with the aim of creating an independent Ireland . Despite assistance from France the rebellion was put down by British and Irish government and yeomanry forces . In 1800 , the British and Irish parliaments both passed Acts of Union that , with effect from 1 January 1801 , merged the Kingdom of Ireland and the Kingdom of Great Britain to create a United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland .
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4765 The passage of the Act in the Irish Parliament was ultimately achieved with substantial majorities , having failed on the first attempt in 1799 . According to contemporary documents and historical analysis , this was achieved through a considerable degree of bribery , with funding provided by the British Secret Service Office , and the awarding of peerages , places and honours to secure votes . Thus , the parliament in Ireland was abolished and replaced by a united parliament at Westminster in London , though resistance remained , as evidenced by Robert Emmet 's failed Irish Rebellion of 1803 .
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53.271751403808594 101 WikiText2
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4766 Aside from the development of the linen industry , Ireland was largely passed over by the industrial revolution , partly because it lacked coal and iron resources and partly because of the impact of the sudden union with the structurally superior economy of England , which saw Ireland as a source of agricultural produce and capital .
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4767 The Great Famine of the 1840s caused the deaths of one million Irish people and over a million more emigrated to escape it . By the end of the decade , half of all immigration to the United States was from Ireland . The period of civil unrest that followed until the end of the 19th century is referred to as the Land War . Mass emigration became deeply entrenched and the population continued to decline until the mid @-@ 20th century . Immediately prior to the famine the population was recorded as 8 @.@ 2 million by the 1841 census . The population has never returned to this level since . The population continued to fall until 1961 and it was not until the 2006 census that the last county of Ireland ( County Leitrim ) to record a rise in population since 1841 did so .
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4768 The 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of modern Irish nationalism , primarily among the Roman Catholic population . The pre @-@ eminent Irish political figure after the Union was Daniel O 'Connell . He was elected as Member of Parliament for Ennis in a surprise result and despite being unable to take his seat as a Roman Catholic . O 'Connell spearheaded a vigorous campaign that was taken up by the Prime Minister , the Irish @-@ born soldier and statesman , the Duke of Wellington . Steering the Catholic Relief Bill through Parliament , aided by future prime minister Robert Peel , Wellington prevailed upon a reluctant George IV to sign the Bill and proclaim it into law . George 's father had opposed the plan of the earlier Prime Minister , Pitt the Younger , to introduce such a bill following the Union of 1801 , fearing Catholic Emancipation to be in conflict with the Act of Settlement 1701 .
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4769 Daniel O 'Connell led a subsequent campaign , for the repeal of the Act of Union , which failed . Later in the century , Charles Stewart Parnell and others campaigned for autonomy within the Union , or " Home Rule " . Unionists , especially those located in Ulster , were strongly opposed to Home Rule , which they thought would be dominated by Catholic interests . After several attempts to pass a Home Rule bill through parliament , it looked certain that one would finally pass in 1914 . To prevent this from happening , the Ulster Volunteers were formed in 1913 under the leadership of Edward Carson .
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4770 Their formation was followed in 1914 by the establishment of the Irish Volunteers , whose aim was to ensure that the Home Rule Bill was passed . The Act was passed but with the " temporary " exclusion of the six counties of Ulster that would become Northern Ireland . Before it could be implemented , however , the Act was suspended for the duration of the First World War . The Irish Volunteers split into two groups . The majority , approximately 175 @,@ 000 in number , under John Redmond , took the name National Volunteers and supported Irish involvement in the war . A minority , approximately 13 @,@ 000 , retained the Irish Volunteers ' name , and opposed Ireland 's involvement in the war .
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4771 The Easter Rising of 1916 was carried out by the latter group together with a smaller socialist militia , the Irish Citizen Army . The British response , executing fifteen leaders of the Rising over a period of ten days and imprisoning or interning more than a thousand people , turned the mood of the country in favour of the rebels . Support for Irish republicanism increased further due to the ongoing war in Europe , as well as the Conscription Crisis of 1918 .
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4772 The pro @-@ independence republican party , Sinn Féin , received overwhelming endorsement in the general election of 1918 , and in 1919 proclaimed an Irish Republic , setting up its own parliament ( Dáil Éireann ) and government . Simultaneously the Volunteers , which became known as the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) , launched a three @-@ year guerrilla war , which ended in a truce in July 1921 ( although violence continued until June 1922 , mostly in Northern Ireland ) .
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4773 = = = Partition = = =
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4774 In December 1921 , the Anglo @-@ Irish Treaty was concluded between the British Government and representatives of the Second Dáil . It gave Ireland complete independence in its home affairs and practical independence for foreign policy , but an opt @-@ out clause allowed Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom , which it immediately exercised as expected . Additionally , an oath of allegiance to the King was to be taken . Disagreements over these provisions led to a split in the nationalist movement and a subsequent Irish Civil War between the new government of the Irish Free State and those opposed to the treaty , led by Éamon de Valera . The civil war officially ended in May 1923 when de Valera issued a cease @-@ fire order .
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4775 = = = = Independence = = = =
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4776 During its first decade , the newly formed Irish Free State was governed by the victors of the civil war . When de Valera achieved power , he took advantage of the Statute of Westminster and political circumstances to build upon inroads to greater sovereignty made by the previous government . The oath was abolished and in 1937 a new constitution was adopted . This completed a process of gradual separation from the British Empire that governments had pursued since independence . However , it was not until 1949 that the state was declared , officially , to be the Republic of Ireland .
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32.36851501464844 104 WikiText2
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4777 The state was neutral during World War II , but offered clandestine assistance to the Allies , particularly in the potential defence of Northern Ireland . Despite their country 's neutrality , approximately 50 @,@ 000 volunteers from independent Ireland joined the British forces during the war , four being awarded Victoria Crosses .
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4778 The Abwehr was also active in Ireland . German intelligence operations effectively ended in September 1941 when police made arrests on the basis of surveillance carried out on the key diplomatic legations in Dublin , including that of the United States . To the authorities , counterintelligence was a fundamental line of defence . With a regular army of only slightly over seven thousand men at the start of the war , and with limited supplies of modern weapons , the state would have had great difficulty in defending itself from invasion from either side in the conflict .
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4779 Large @-@ scale emigration marked most of the post @-@ WWII period ( particularly during the 1950s and 1980s ) , but beginning in 1987 the economy improved , and the 1990s saw the beginning of substantial economic growth . This period of growth became known as the Celtic Tiger . The Republic 's real GDP grew by an average of 9 @.@ 6 % per annum between 1995 and 1999 , in which year the Republic joined the euro . In 2000 , it was the sixth @-@ richest country in the world in terms of GDP per capita .
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4780 Social changes also occurred in this time , most markedly with the decline in authority of the Catholic Church . The financial crisis that began in 2008 dramatically ended this period of boom . GDP fell by 3 % in 2008 and by 7 @.@ 1 % in 2009 , the worst year since records began ( although earnings by foreign @-@ owned businesses continued to grow ) . The state has since experienced deep recession , with unemployment , which doubled during 2009 , remaining above 14 % in 2012 .
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4781 = = = = Northern Ireland = = = =
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4782 Northern Ireland was created as a division of the United Kingdom by the Government of Ireland Act 1920 and until 1972 it was a self @-@ governing jurisdiction within the United Kingdom with its own parliament and prime minister . Northern Ireland , as part of the United Kingdom , was not neutral during the Second World War and Belfast suffered four bombing raids in 1941 . Conscription was not extended to Northern Ireland and roughly an equal number volunteered from Northern Ireland as volunteered from the south . One , James Joseph Magennis , received the Victoria Cross for valour .
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4783 Although Northern Ireland was largely spared the strife of the civil war , in decades that followed partition there were sporadic episodes of inter @-@ communal violence . Nationalists , mainly Roman Catholic , wanted to unite Ireland as an independent republic , whereas unionists , mainly Protestant , wanted Northern Ireland to remain in the United Kingdom . The Protestant and Catholic communities in Northern Ireland voted largely along sectarian lines , meaning that the Government of Northern Ireland ( elected by " first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post " from 1929 ) was controlled by the Ulster Unionist Party . Over time , the minority Catholic community felt increasingly alienated with further disaffection fuelled by practices such as gerrymandering and discrimination in housing and employment .
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4784 In the late 1960s , nationalist grievances were aired publicly in mass civil rights protests , which were often confronted by loyalist counter @-@ protests . The government 's reaction to confrontations was seen to be one @-@ sided and heavy @-@ handed in favour of unionists . Law and order broke down as unrest and inter @-@ communal violence increased . The Northern Ireland government requested the British Army to aid the police , who were exhausted after several nights of serious rioting . In 1969 , the paramilitary Provisional IRA , which favoured the creation of a united Ireland , emerged from a split in the Irish Republican Army and began a campaign against what it called the " British occupation of the six counties " .
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4785 Other groups , on both the unionist side and the nationalist side , participated in violence and a period known as the Troubles began . Over 3 @,@ 600 deaths resulted over the subsequent three decades of conflict . Owing to the civil unrest during the Troubles , the British government suspended home rule in 1972 and imposed direct rule . There were several unsuccessful attempts to end the Troubles politically , such as the Sunningdale Agreement of 1973 . In 1998 , following a ceasefire by the Provisional IRA and multi @-@ party talks , the Good Friday Agreement was concluded as a treaty between the British and Irish governments , annexing the text agreed in the multi @-@ party talks .
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4786 The substance of the Agreement ( formally referred to as the Belfast Agreement ) was later endorsed by referendums in both parts of Ireland . The Agreement restored self @-@ government to Northern Ireland on the basis of power @-@ sharing in a regional Executive drawn from the major parties in a new Northern Ireland Assembly , with entrenched protections for the two main communities . The Executive is jointly headed by a First Minister and deputy First Minister drawn from the unionist and nationalist parties . Violence had decreased greatly after the Provisional IRA and loyalist ceasefires in 1994 and in 2005 the Provisional IRA announced the end of its armed campaign and an independent commission supervised its disarmament and that of other nationalist and unionist paramilitary organisations .
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4787 The Assembly and power @-@ sharing Executive were suspended several times but were restored again in 2007 . In that year the British government officially ended its military support of the police in Northern Ireland ( Operation Banner ) and began withdrawing troops . On 27 June 2012 , Northern Ireland 's deputy first minister and former IRA commander , Martin McGuinness , shook hands with Queen Elizabeth II in Belfast , symbolising reconciliation between the two sides .
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4788 = = Politics = =
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4789 Politically , the island is divided between the Republic of Ireland , an independent state , and Northern Ireland ( a constituent country of the United Kingdom ) . They share an open border and both are part of the Common Travel Area .
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4790 Both the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom are members of the European Union , and as a consequence there is free movement of people , goods , services and capital across the border .
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4791 = = = Republic of Ireland = = =
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4792 The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary democracy based on the British model , with a written constitution and a popularly elected president who has mostly ceremonial powers . The government is headed by a prime minister , the Taoiseach , who is appointed by the President on the nomination of the lower house of parliament , the Dáil . Members of the government are chosen from both the Dáil and the upper house of parliament , the Seanad . Its capital is Dublin .
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4793 The Republic today ranks amongst the wealthiest countries in the world in terms of GDP per capita and in 2012 was ranked the seventh most developed nation in the world by the United Nations ' Human Development Index . A period of rapid economic expansion from 1995 onwards became known as the Celtic Tiger period , was brought to an end in 2008 with an unprecedented financial crisis and an economic depression in 2009 .
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4794 = = = Northern Ireland = = =
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4795 Northern Ireland is a part of the United Kingdom with a local executive and assembly which exercise devolved powers . The executive is jointly headed by the first and deputy @-@ first minister , with the ministries being allocated in proportion with each party 's representation in the assembly . Its capital is Belfast .
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4796 Ultimately political power is held by the UK government , from which Northern Ireland has gone through intermittent periods of direct rule during which devolved powers have been suspended . Northern Ireland elects 18 of the UK House of Commons ' 650 MPs . The Northern Ireland Secretary is a cabinet @-@ level post in the British government .
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4797 Along with England , Wales and Scotland , Northern Ireland forms one of the three separate legal jurisdictions of the UK , all of which share the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom as their court of final appeal .
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4798 = = = All @-@ island institutions = = =
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4799 As part of the Good Friday Agreement , the British and Irish governments agreed on the creation of all @-@ island institutions and areas of cooperation .
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