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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeat-accumulate%20code	In computer science, repeat-accumulate codes (RA codes) are a low complexity class of error-correcting codes. They were devised so that their ensemble weight distributions are easy to derive. RA codes were introduced by Divsalar et al. In an RA code, an information block of length is repeated times, scrambled by an interleaver of size , and then encoded by a rate 1 accumulator. The accumulator can be viewed as a truncated rate 1 recursive convolutional encoder with transfer function , but Divsalar et al. prefer to think of it as a block code whose input block and output block are related by the formula and for . The encoding time for RA codes is linear and their rate is . They are nonsystematic. Irregular Repeat Accumulate Codes Irregular Repeat Accumulate (IRA) Codes build on top of the ideas of RA codes. IRA replaces the outer code in RA code with a Low Density Generator Matrix code. IRA codes first repeats information bits different times, and then accumulates subsets of these repeated bits to generate parity bits. The irregular degree profile on the information nodes, together with the degree profile on the check nodes, can be designed using density evolution. Systematic IRA codes are considered a form of LDPC code. Litigation over whether the DVB-S2 LDPC code is a form of IRA code is ongoing. US patents 7,116,710; 7,421,032; 7,916,781; and 8,284,833 are at issue. Notes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saurophthirus	Saurophthirus is an extinct genus of giant stem-group flea, and the only member of the family Saurophthiridae. The type species, S. longipes is found in early Cretaceous strata of Baissa, Siberia. Two other species S. exquisitus and S. laevigatus are from the Lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation of China. Description Body length of largest species, S. longipes is long. They are generally seen as transitional between more primitive stem-fleas such as Pseudopulicidae and Tarwinia and modern fleas.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACVR1C	The activin A receptor also known as ACVR1C or ALK-7 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACVR1C gene. ACVR1C is a type I receptor for the TGFB family of signaling molecules. ACVR1C transduces signals of Nodal. Nodal binds to ACVR2B and then forms a complex with ACVR1C. These go on to recruit the R-SMADs SMAD2 or SMAD3. Upon ligand binding, type I receptors phosphorylate cytoplasmic SMAD family transcription factors, which then translocate to the nucleus and interact directly with DNA or in complex with other transcription factors.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACVR1B	Activin receptor type-1B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACVR1B gene. ACVR1B or ALK-4 acts as a transducer of activin or activin-like ligands (e.g., inhibin) signals. Activin binds to either ACVR2A or ACVR2B and then forms a complex with ACVR1B. These go on to recruit the R-SMADs SMAD2 or SMAD3. ACVR1B also transduces signals of nodal, GDF-1, and Vg1; however, unlike activin, they require other coreceptor molecules such as the protein Cripto. Function Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I (I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with a cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling, and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. This gene encodes activin A type IB receptor, composed of 11 exons. Alternative splicing and alternative polyadenylation result in 3 fully described transcript variants. The mRNA expression of variants 1, 2, and 3 is confirmed, and a potential fourth variant contains an alternative exon 8 and lacks exons 9 through 11, but its mRNA expression has not been confirmed. Interactions ACVR1B has been shown to interact with ACVR2A, and ACVR2B
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap%20converter	The tap converter is a variation on the cycloconverter, invented in 1981 by New York City electrical engineer Melvin Sandler and significantly functionally enhanced in 1982 through 1984 by graduate students Mariusz Wrzesniewski, Bruce David Wilner, and Eddie Fung. Whereas the cycloconverter switches among a variety of staggered input phases to piece together an extremely jagged output signal, the tap converter synthesizes a much smoother signal by switching among a variety of (obviously synchronized) transformer output taps. Tap positions Both linear spacing and power-of-two-style Vernier spacing can be employed in establishing the tap positions, e.g., a four-tap transformer can provide taps at 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0 (linear) or 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, and 0.5 (Vernier). (The limitations of the Vernier—in this case, that the maximum obtainable amplitude is 0.9375—are less discernible as more taps are added.) Scott transformer By employing a Scott transformer input connection, in order to provide a quadrature phase, an even smoother output waveform can be obtained. Prototypes Prototypes of the device were constructed and field-tested under a variety of conditions—nominally as a variable-speed constant-frequency (VSCF) power source for military aircraft—and ornate computer models were constructed for exploring more ornery considerations, such as flux leakage, hysteresis, and practical thyristor characteristics. All of this work was performed at New York's Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art. Applications As of 2007, the tap converter remains uncommercialized but is used in several military applications due to the minimal output harmonics. See also Constant speed drive Electric motor Variable-frequency drive
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACVR1	Activin A receptor, type I (ACVR1) is a protein which in humans is encoded by the ACVR1 gene; also known as ALK-2 (activin receptor-like kinase-2). ACVR1 has been linked to the 2q23-24 region of the genome. This protein is important in the bone morphogenic protein (BMP) pathway which is responsible for the development and repair of the skeletal system. While knock-out models with this gene are in progress, the ACVR1 gene has been connected to fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva, a very rare progressive genetic disease characterized by heterotopic ossification of muscles, tendons and ligaments. It is a bone morphogenetic protein receptor, type 1. Function Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I ( I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling; and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. This gene encodes activin A type I receptor which signals a particular transcriptional response in concert with activin type II receptors. Signaling ACVR1 transduces signals of BMPs. BMPs bind either ACVR2A/ACVR2B or a BMPR2 and then form a complex with ACVR1. These go on to recruit the R-SMADs SMAD1, SMAD2, SMAD3 or SMAD6. Clinical significance Gain-of-function mutations in the gene ACVR1/ALK2 is responsible for the genetic disease fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva. The typical FOP
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C-Bus%20%28protocol%29	C-Bus is a communications protocol based on a seven layer OSI model for home and building automation that can handle cable lengths up to 1000 metres using Cat-5 cable. It is used in Australia, New Zealand, Asia, the Middle East, Russia, United States, South Africa, the UK and other parts of Europe including Greece and Romania. C-Bus was created by Clipsal Australia's Clipsal Integrated Systems division (now part of Schneider Electric) for use with its brand of home automation and building lighting control system. C-Bus has been briefly available in the United States but Schneider Electric has now discontinued sales in the United States. C-Bus is used in the control of domotics, or home automation systems, as well as commercial building lighting control systems. Unlike the more common X10 protocol which uses a signal imposed upon the AC power line, C-Bus uses a dedicated low-voltage cable or two-way wireless network to carry command and control signals. This improves the reliability of command transmission and makes C-Bus far more suitable for large, commercial applications than X10. C-Bus System The C-Bus System can be used to control lighting and other electrical systems and products automatically or via remote control and can also be interfaced to a home security system, AV products or other electrical items. The C-Bus system is available in a wired version and a wireless version, with a gateway available to allow messages to be sent between wired and wireless networks. The wired C-Bus system uses a standard category 5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable as its network communications cable and does not require end of line termination. Clipsal manufactures a specific category 5 cable for use within electrical distribution panels. This cable has a pink outer sheath which is rated to ensure adequate electrical isolation between the mains voltages found in distribution panels and the extra low voltage C-Bus. Outside of distribution panels standard category 5
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNAS%20complex%20locus	GNAS complex locus is a gene locus in humans. Its main product is the heterotrimeric G-protein alpha subunit Gs-α, a key component of G protein-coupled receptor-regulated adenylyl cyclase signal transduction pathways. GNAS stands for Guanine Nucleotide binding protein, Alpha Stimulating activity polypeptide. Gene This gene locus has a highly complex imprinted expression pattern. It gives rise to maternally-, paternally- and biallelically-expressed transcripts that are derived from four alternative promoters with distinct 5' exons. Some transcripts contain a differentially methylated region (DMR) within their 5' exons; such DMRs are commonly found in imprinted genes and correlate with transcript expression. An antisense transcript also exists, and this antisense transcript and one of the sense transcripts are paternally expressed, produce non-coding RNAs and may regulate imprinting in this region. In addition, one of the transcripts contains a second frame-shifted open reading frame, which encodes a structurally unrelated protein named ALEX. Products and functions The GNAS locus is imprinted and encodes 5 main transcripts: Gs-α (Gs-α long, P63092-1), biallelic A/B transcript (Gs-α short, P63092-2), biallelic: contains an alternate 5' terminal exon (A/B or Exon 1A) and uses a downstream start codon to have a shortened amino terminal region. STX16 deletion causes loss of methylation at the A/B exon, leading to PHP1B. XLαs (Extra long alpha-s, Q5JWF2), paternal ALEX (Alternative gene product encoded by XL-exon, P84996), may inhibit XLαs NESP55 (Neuroendocrine secretory protein 55, O95467), maternal antisense GNAS transcript (Nespas: neuroendocrine secretory protein antisense) Binds to the PRC2 complex. Abolition of expression causes abnormal methylation and imprinting loss. Alternative splicing of downstream exons is also observed, which results in different forms of the Gs-α, a key element of the classical signal transduction pathway linking receptor-li
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydatid%20of%20Morgagni	The hydatid of Morgagni can refer to one of two closely related bodily structures: Appendix of testis (in the male) Paraovarian cyst (in the female) Sexual anatomy Mammal reproductive system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramanujan%27s%20sum	In number theory, Ramanujan's sum, usually denoted cq(n), is a function of two positive integer variables q and n defined by the formula where (a, q) = 1 means that a only takes on values coprime to q. Srinivasa Ramanujan mentioned the sums in a 1918 paper. In addition to the expansions discussed in this article, Ramanujan's sums are used in the proof of Vinogradov's theorem that every sufficiently large odd number is the sum of three primes. Notation For integers a and b, is read "a divides b" and means that there is an integer c such that Similarly, is read "a does not divide b". The summation symbol means that d goes through all the positive divisors of m, e.g. is the greatest common divisor, is Euler's totient function, is the Möbius function, and is the Riemann zeta function. Formulas for cq(n) Trigonometry These formulas come from the definition, Euler's formula and elementary trigonometric identities. and so on (, , , ,.., ,...). cq(n) is always an integer. Kluyver Let Then is a root of the equation . Each of its powers, is also a root. Therefore, since there are q of them, they are all of the roots. The numbers where 1 ≤ n ≤ q are called the q-th roots of unity. is called a primitive q-th root of unity because the smallest value of n that makes is q. The other primitive q-th roots of unity are the numbers where (a, q) = 1. Therefore, there are φ(q) primitive q-th roots of unity. Thus, the Ramanujan sum cq(n) is the sum of the n-th powers of the primitive q-th roots of unity. It is a fact that the powers of are precisely the primitive roots for all the divisors of q. Example. Let q = 12. Then and are the primitive twelfth roots of unity, and are the primitive sixth roots of unity, and are the primitive fourth roots of unity, and are the primitive third roots of unity, is the primitive second root of unity, and is the primitive first root of unity. Therefore, if is the sum of the n-th powers of all the roots
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesicular%20transport%20adaptor%20protein	Vesicular transport adaptor proteins are proteins involved in forming complexes that function in the trafficking of molecules from one subcellular location to another. These complexes concentrate the correct cargo molecules in vesicles that bud or extrude off of one organelle and travel to another location, where the cargo is delivered. While some of the details of how these adaptor proteins achieve their trafficking specificity has been worked out, there is still much to be learned. There are several human disorders associated with defects in components of these complexes including Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The proteins Most of the adaptor proteins are heterotetramers. In the AP complexes, there are two large proteins (~100 kD) and two smaller proteins. One of the large proteins is termed β (beta), with β1 in the AP-1 complex, β2 in the AP-2 complex, and so on. The other large protein has different designations in the different complexes. In AP-1 it is named γ (gamma), AP-2 has α (alpha), AP-3 has δ (delta), AP-4 has ε (epsilon) and AP-5 has ζ (zeta). The two smaller proteins are a medium subunit named μ (mu ~50 kD) and a small subunit σ (sigma ~20 kD), and named 1 through 5 corresponding to the 5 AP complexes. Components of COPI (cop one) a coatomer, and TSET (T-set) a membrane trafficking complex have similar heterotetramers of the AP complexes. Retromer is not closely related, has been reviewed, and its proteins will not be described here. GGAs (Golgi-localising, Gamma-adaptin ear domain homology, ARF-binding proteins) are a group of related proteins (three in humans) that act as monomeric clathrin adaptor proteins in various important membrane vesicle traffickings, but are not similar to any of the AP complexes and will not be discussed in detail in this article. Stonins (not shown in the lead figure) are also monomers similar in some regards to GGA and will also not be discussed in detail in this article. PTBs are protein domains that include
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huisman%E2%80%93Olff%E2%80%93Fresco%20models	Huisman–Olff–Fresco models (HOF models) are a hierarchical set of 5 models with increasing complexity, designated for fitting unimodal species response curves on environmental gradient. A implementation of the model including extension for bimodal distributions exists as an R module downloadable from CRAN.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyby%20anomaly	The flyby anomaly is a discrepancy between current scientific models and the actual increase in speed (i.e. increase in kinetic energy) observed during a planetary flyby (usually of Earth) by a spacecraft. In multiple cases, spacecraft have been observed to gain greater speed than scientists had predicted, but thus far no convincing explanation has been found. This anomaly has been observed as shifts in the S-band and X-band Doppler and ranging telemetry. The largest discrepancy noticed during a flyby has been 13 mm/s. Observations Gravitational assists are valuable techniques for Solar System exploration. Because the success of such flyby maneuvers depends on the exact geometry of the trajectory, the position and velocity of a spacecraft during its encounter with a planet is continually tracked with great precision by the Deep Space Network (DSN). The flyby anomaly was first noticed during a careful inspection of DSN Doppler data shortly after the Earth flyby of the Galileo spacecraft on 8 December 1990. While the Doppler residuals (observed minus computed data) were expected to remain flat, the analysis revealed an unexpected 66 mHz shift, which corresponds to a velocity increase of 3.92 mm/s at perigee. Investigations of this effect at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), the Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and the University of Texas have not yielded a satisfactory explanation. No such anomaly was detected after the second Earth flyby of Galileo in December 1992, where the measured velocity decrease matched that expected from atmospheric drag at the lower altitude of 303 km. However, the drag estimates had large error bars, and so an anomalous acceleration could not be ruled out. On 23 January 1998 the Near Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft experienced an anomalous velocity increase of 13.46 mm/s after its Earth encounter. Cassini–Huygens gained around 0.11 mm/s in August 1999, and Rosetta gained 1.82 mm/s after its Earth flyby in March 2005.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/881%20%28number%29	881 (eight hundred [and] eighty-one) is the natural number following 880 and preceding 882. 881 is: a prime number a Paid Toll Free telephone number prefix in the USA the Port of Los Angeles Long Wharf, California State Historic Landmark #881 In astronomy, NGC 881 is an Sc type galaxy in the constellation Cetus. A bilingual play on words when text chatting in Mandarin Chinese or bilingually Mandarin Chinese and English. "881" is pronounced ba ba yi in Mandarin, and thus puns on "bye-bye." Probably an elaboration of the similar pun on "88" (ba-ba). See 88 (number). The international telephone dialing code for the Global Mobile Satellite System A musical comedy-drama film.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launch%20Vehicle%20Digital%20Computer	The Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC) was a computer that provided the autopilot for the Saturn V rocket from launch to Earth orbit insertion. Designed and manufactured by IBM's Electronics Systems Center in Owego, New York, it was one of the major components of the Instrument Unit, fitted to the S-IVB stage of the Saturn V and Saturn IB rockets. The LVDC also supported pre- and post-launch checkout of the Saturn hardware. It was used in conjunction with the Launch Vehicle Data Adaptor (LVDA) which performed signal conditioning from the sensor inputs to the computer from the launch vehicle. Hardware The LVDC was capable of executing 12190 instructions per second. For comparison, as of 2022, researchers at the University of California created a chip capable of running at 1.78 trillion instructions per second, 146 million times faster. Its master clock ran at 2.048 MHz, but operations were performed bit-serially, with 4 cycles required to process each bit, 14 bits per instruction phase, and 3 phases per instruction, for a basic instruction cycle time of 82 μs (168 clock cycles) for a simple add. A few instructions (such as multiply or divide) took several multiples of the basic instruction cycle to execute. Memory was in the form of 13-bit syllables, each with a 14th parity bit. Instructions were one syllable in size, while data words were two syllables (26 bits). Main memory was random access magnetic core, in the form of 4,096-word memory modules. Up to 8 modules provided a maximum of 32,768 words of memory. Ultrasonic delay lines provided temporary storage. For reliability, the LVDC used triple-redundant logic and a voting system. The computer included three identical logic systems. Each logic system was split into a seven-stage pipeline. At each stage in the pipeline, a voting system would take a majority vote on the results, with the most popular result being passed on to the next stage in all pipelines. This meant that, for each of the seven stages,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SimGear	SimGear is a group of libraries, which provide capabilities useful for simulations, visualizations, and even games building. SimGear is a relatively new project, and while quite a bit of code has been written in conjunction with the FlightGear project, the final interface and arrangements are still evolving. All the SimGear code is designed to be portable across a wide variety of platforms and compilers. Originally, it has been developed in support of the FlightGear project, but as development moved forward, it has become useful for other types of applications as well. SimGear is free software, licensed under the terms of the GNU LGPL. External links official website Documentation Computer libraries Free simulation software Video game development software
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfboard	Perfboard is a material for prototyping electronic circuits. It is a thin, rigid sheet with holes pre-drilled at standard intervals across a grid, usually a square grid of spacing. These holes are ringed by round or square copper pads, though bare boards are also available. Inexpensive perfboard may have pads on only one side of the board, while better quality perfboard can have pads on both sides (plate-through holes). Since each pad is electrically isolated, the builder makes all connections with either wire wrap or miniature point to point wiring techniques. Discrete components are soldered to the prototype board such as resistors, capacitors, and integrated circuits. The substrate is typically made of paper laminated with phenolic resin (such as FR-2) or a fiberglass-reinforced epoxy laminate (FR-4). Connections The grid system accommodates integrated circuits in DIP packages and many other types of through-hole components. Perfboard is not designed for prototyping surface mount devices. Before building a circuit on perfboard, the locations of the components and connections are typically planned in detail on paper or with software tools. Small scale prototypes, however, are often built ad hoc, using an oversized perfboard. Software for PCB layout can often be used to generate perfboard layouts as well. In this case, the designer positions the components so all leads fall on intersections of a grid. When routing the connections more than 2 copper layers can be used, as multiple overlaps are not a problem for insulated wires. Once the layout is finalized, the components are soldered in their designated locations, paying attention to orientation of polarized parts such as electrolytic capacitors, diodes, and integrated circuits. Next, electrical connections are made as called for in the layout. One school of thought advocates making as many connections as possible without adding extra wire. This is done by bending the existing leads on resistors, capaci
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixed/dual%20cycle	The dual combustion cycle (also known as the mixed cycle, Trinkler cycle, Seiliger cycle or Sabathe cycle) is a thermal cycle that is a combination of the Otto cycle and the Diesel cycle, first introduced by Russian-German engineer Gustav Trinkler, who never claimed to have developed the cycle himself. Heat is added partly at constant volume (isochoric) and partly at constant pressure (isobaric), the significance of which is that more time is available for the fuel to completely combust. Because of lagging characteristics of fuel this cycle is invariably used for Diesel and hot spot ignition engines. It consists of two adiabatic and two constant volume and one constant pressure processes. The dual cycle consists of following operations: Process 1-2: Isentropic compression Process 2-3: Addition of heat at constant volume. Process 3-4: Addition of heat at constant pressure. Process 4-5: Isentropic expansion. Process 5-1: Rejection of heat at constant volume. Bibliography Cornel Stan: Alternative Propulsion for Automobiles, Springer, 2016, , p. 48
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard%20Johnson%20%28electrical%20engineer%29	Howard Johnson is an electrical engineer, known for his consulting work and commonly referenced books on the topic of signal integrity, especially for high speed electronic circuit design. He served as the chief technical editor for Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet standardisation, and was recognized by the IEEE as an "Outstanding Contributor" to the IEEE P802.3z Gigabit Task Force. Johnson earned his Bachelor of Science in Electrical Engineering (1978), Masters of Electrical Engineering (1979), and PhD (1982) from Rice University. His dissertation was titled The design of DFT algorithms. Area of contribution Johnson has significantly raised awareness of analog effects at work in high speed digital electronic systems. In modern digital systems, it is common for digital designs to be subject to analog effects, even if they operate at a relatively low clock frequency. Circuits operating at lower clock rates can behave as high speed digital systems if there is sufficient high frequency content in the signal edges (when transitioning between digital logic levels) relative to the distance traveled across a printed circuit board. As a result of improvements in semiconductor process, faster edge rates of even "low technology" electronic components can be sufficient to make the system effectively high speed and thus subject to havoc caused by unanticipated analog effects. A good example is his illustration of the matrix of rising edges that result from different combinations of skin-effect and dielectric loss which illustrates PCB design problems one encounters at microwave frequencies. Johnson was also active in the development of two Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standards that govern Ethernet, IEEE 802.3 Fast Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 Gigabit Ethernet. Books and publications Johnson has written three books: High-Speed Digital Design: A Handbook of Black Magic (1993), Fast Ethernet: Dawn of a New Network (1995), High-Speed Signal
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optiarc	Optiarc is a brand of optical disc drives and solid-state drives. It is owned by a US-based Vinpower Digital, Inc. Initially Optiarc was established on April 3, 2006 as a joint venture between Sony (55% shares) and NEC (45% shares). The company, named Sony NEC Optiarc, focused on manufacturing optical disk drives primarily for the OEM desktop and notebook PC markets. On September 11, 2008, it was announced that Sony would take over NEC's 45% share, making Optiarc a wholly owned subsidiary of Sony, to be called Sony Optiarc. This took effect on December 5, 2008 In March 2013, Sony closed its Optiarc optical disc drive division, laying off about 400 employees globally. In 2017, an American company, Vinpower Digital, whose main business is manufacturing optical disc and other media duplicators for the commercial market, acquired the rights to the Optiarc brand and product line. The brand PioData is also owned by Vinpower Digital. Products Products were both DVD+/-R(W) and BD-ROM drives. Among other things, Sony Optiarc supplied the Blu-ray drives for the Sony PlayStation 3. The naming scheme for the drives is as follows: DDU stands for DVD-ROM, AD stands for DVD-RW, BR for BD-ROM and BC for BD Combo. A combo drive is a drive that only supports the newer format in reading and the predecessor in writing. The three digits that follow indicate the generation, the design (5.25" or slimline) and the speed class. The digit after that the equipment variant and the appended letter the interface. An AD-7243S is a 5.25" DVD-RW Drive with 24x speed when writing to DVD-R and DVD+R blanks. It also supports Labelflash. For Lightscribe, a "1" would be in the fourth position. The "S" indicates SATA. An “A” stands for PATA. However, the last Optiarc drives were no longer available with this legacy interface. See also Similar joint ventures Hitachi-LG Data Storage Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology Corporation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nallatech	Nallatech is a computer hardware and software firm based in Camarillo, California, United States. The company specializes in field-programmable gate array (FPGA) integrated circuit technology applied in computing. As of 2007 the company's primary markets include defense and high-performance computing. Nallatech was acquired by Interconnect Systems, Inc. in 2008, which in turn was bought by Molex in 2016. Background The company was founded by Allan Cantle ('Nalla' comes from 'Allan' spelled backwards) in 1993 and was backed by over £4 million of equity finance provided by Scottish Equity Partners and 3i. Cantle was the CEO for the firm, later moving into president and CTO roles. In 2005 Nallatech announced a Scottish group known as the FPGA High Performance Computing Alliance, to work on a supercomputer. Nallatech's direct sales team operates in two main geographic areas, one in the US and one in UK covering UK, Europe and rest of the world. The team in the USA (Nallatech, Inc.) sales office in Eldersburg, Maryland and headquartered in Camarillo, California. Nallatech is a member of the OpenPOWER Foundation. Products Nallatech was promoted for commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) FPGA technology applied in computing. According to David R. Martinez, Robert A. Bond, and M. Michael Vai, Nallatech systems are "based on a modular design concept in which the designer chooses the number of FPGAs, amount and type of memory, and other expansion cards to include in a system." Nallatech is also known for its motherboards with PCI cards which provide a "high throughput connection over which a host PC can provide and receive data and monitor system performance." On June 17, 2015, it released the 385A FPGA Accelerator Card, which includes the Altera Arria 10 / 1150 FPGA, PCI-Express form factor and works with most major servers, including IBM, HP and Dell. In March 2011 the company announced a miniaturization service for their FPGAs. In 2012, Nallatech has partnered with Al
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morus%20nigra	Morus nigra, called black mulberry (not to be confused with the blackberries that are various species of Rubus), is a species of flowering plant in the family Moraceae that is native to southwestern Asia, where it has been cultivated for so long that its precise natural range is unknown. The black mulberry is known for its large number of chromosomes. Description Morus nigra is a deciduous tree growing to tall by broad. The leaves are long by broadup to long on vigorous shoots, downy on the underside, the upper surface rough with very short, stiff hairs. Each cell has 308 chromosomes in total, and exhibits tetratetracontaploidy (44x), meaning that its genome contains seven chromosomes, and each cell has 44 copies of each. The fruit is a compound cluster of several small drupes that are dark purple, almost black when ripe, and they are in diameter. Black mulberry is richly flavoured, similar to the red mulberry (Morus rubra) rather than the more insipid fruit of the white mulberry (Morus alba). Mulberry fruit color derives from anthocyanins. Sometimes other mulberry species are confused with black mulberry, particularly black-fruited individuals of the white mulberry. Black mulberry may be distinguished from the other species by the uniformly hairy lower surface of its leaves. Cultivation and uses Black mulberries (Morus nigra) are thought to have originated in the mountainous areas of Mesopotamia and Persia (i.e. Armenian highlands). Black mulberry is planted, and often naturalised, west across much of Europe, including Ukraine, and east into China. Now they are widespread throughout Armenia, Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, India, Pakistan, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and Turkey. The fruit is edible and the tree has long been cultivated for this property. Both the tree and the fruit are known by the Persian-derived names toot (mulberry) or shahtoot (شاه توت) (king's or "superior" mulberry), or, in Arabic, as shajarat tukki. Often, jams and sherbet
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Party%20line%20%28telephony%29	A party line (multiparty line, shared service line, party wire) is a local loop telephone circuit that is shared by multiple telephone service subscribers. Party line systems were widely used to provide telephone service, starting with the first commercial switchboards in 1878. A majority of Bell System subscribers in the mid-20th century in the United States and Canada were served by party lines, which had a discount over individual service. During wartime shortages, these were often the only available lines. British users similarly benefited from the party line discount. Farmers in rural Australia and South Africa used party lines, where a single line spanned miles from the nearest town to one property and on to the next. History Telephone companies offered party lines beginning in the late 1800s, although subscribers in all but the most rural areas may have had the option to upgrade to individual line service at an additional monthly charge. The service was common in sparsely populated areas where subscribers were spread across large distances. An example is Australia where these were operated by the Government Postmaster General's Department. In rural areas in the early 20th century, additional subscribers and telephones, often numbering several dozen, were frequently connected to the single loop available. Party lines provided no privacy in communication. They were frequently used as a source of entertainment and gossip, as well as a means of quickly alerting entire neighbourhoods of emergencies such as fires, becoming a cultural fixture of rural areas for many decades. The rapid growth of telephone service demand, especially after WWII, resulted in many party line installations in the middle of the 20th century in the United States. This often led to traffic congestion in the telephone network, as the line to a destination telephone was often busy. Nearly three-quarters of Pennsylvania residential service in 1943 was party line, with users encouraged
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude%20Berge	Claude Jacques Berge (5 June 1926 – 30 June 2002) was a French mathematician, recognized as one of the modern founders of combinatorics and graph theory. Biography and professional history Claude Berge's parents were André Berge and Geneviève Fourcade. André Berge (1902–1995) was a physician and psychoanalyst who, in addition to his professional work, had published several novels. He was the son of the René Berge, a mining engineer, and Antoinette Faure. Félix François Faure (1841–1899) was Antoinette Faure's father; he was President of France from 1895 to 1899. André Berge married Geneviève in 1924, and Claude was the second of their six children. His five siblings were Nicole (the eldest), Antoine, Philippe, Edith, and Patrick. Claude attended the near Verneuil-sur-Avre, about west of Paris. This famous private school, founded by the sociologist Edmond Demolins in 1899, attracted students from all over France to its innovative educational program. At this stage in his life, Claude was unsure about the topic in which he should specialize. He said in later life: "I wasn't quite sure that I wanted to do mathematics. There was often a greater urge to study literature." His love of literature and other non-mathematical subjects never left him and we shall discuss below how they played a large role in his life. However, he decided to study mathematics at the University of Paris. After the award of his first degree, he continued to undertake research for his doctorate, advised by André Lichnerowicz. He began publishing mathematics papers in 1950. In that year two of his papers appeared, the short paper Sur l'isovalence et la régularité des transformateurs and the major, 30-page paper Sur un nouveau calcul symbolique et ses applications. The symbolic calculus which he discussed in this major paper is a combination of generating functions and Laplace transforms. He then applied this symbolic calculus to combinatorial analysis, Bernoulli numbers, difference equations,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%20solar%20model	The standard solar model (SSM) is a mathematical treatment of the Sun as a spherical ball of gas (in varying states of ionisation, with the hydrogen in the deep interior being a completely ionised plasma). This model, technically the spherically symmetric quasi-static model of a star, has stellar structure described by several differential equations derived from basic physical principles. The model is constrained by boundary conditions, namely the luminosity, radius, age and composition of the Sun, which are well determined. The age of the Sun cannot be measured directly; one way to estimate it is from the age of the oldest meteorites, and models of the evolution of the Solar System. The composition in the photosphere of the modern-day Sun, by mass, is 74.9% hydrogen and 23.8% helium. All heavier elements, called metals in astronomy, account for less than 2 percent of the mass. The SSM is used to test the validity of stellar evolution theory. In fact, the only way to determine the two free parameters of the stellar evolution model, the helium abundance and the mixing length parameter (used to model convection in the Sun), are to adjust the SSM to "fit" the observed Sun. A calibrated solar model A star is considered to be at zero age (protostellar) when it is assumed to have a homogeneous composition and to be just beginning to derive most of its luminosity from nuclear reactions (so neglecting the period of contraction from a cloud of gas and dust). To obtain the SSM, a one solar mass () stellar model at zero age is evolved numerically to the age of the Sun. The abundance of elements in the zero age solar model is estimated from primordial meteorites. Along with this abundance information, a reasonable guess at the zero-age luminosity (such as the present-day Sun's luminosity) is then converted by an iterative procedure into the correct value for the model, and the temperature, pressure and density throughout the model calculated by solving the equations of stellar
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial%20fusion%20power%20plant	Inertial Fusion Energy is a proposed approach to building a nuclear fusion power plant based on performing inertial confinement fusion at industrial scale. This approach to fusion power is still in a research phase. ICF first developed shortly after the development of the laser in 1960, but was a classified US research program during its earliest years. In 1972, John Nuckolls wrote a paper predicting that compressing a target could create conditions where fusion reactions are chained together, a process known as fusion ignition or a burning plasma. On August 8, 2021, the NIF at Livermore National Laboratory became the first ICF facility in the world to demonstrate this (see plot). This breakthrough drove the US Department of Energy to create an Inertial Fusion Energy program in 2022 with a budget of 3 million dollars in its first year. Design of a IFE power plant This kind of fusion reactor would consist of two parts: Targets which can be small capsules (<7 millimeter diameter) that contain fusion fuel. Although many kinds of targets have been tested including: cylinders, shells coated with nanotubes, solid blocks, hohlraum, glass shells filled with fusion fuel, cryogenically frozen targets, plastic shells, foam shells and materials suspended on spider silk. Drivers which are used to compress and create a shock wave that squeezes the target. This compression wave pushes the material down to the temperature and pressure where fusion occurs. Drivers that have been explored are solid-state lasers, excimer lasers, high velocity solid objects, X-rays, beams of ions (heavy ion fusion (HIF)) and beams of electrons. Net energy in ICF comes from getting fusion reactions to chain together in a process known as ignition. To get there we need to squeeze material to hot and dense conditions for long enough. But a key problem is that after a plasma becomes hot - it becomes hard to compress. The goal then is to avoid getting material hot until after it is compress
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platelet-derived%20growth%20factor%20receptor	Platelet-derived growth factor receptors (PDGF-R) are cell surface tyrosine kinase receptors for members of the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) family. PDGF subunits -A and -B are important factors regulating cell proliferation, cellular differentiation, cell growth, development and many diseases including cancer. There are two forms of the PDGF-R, alpha and beta each encoded by a different gene. Depending on which growth factor is bound, PDGF-R homo- or heterodimerizes. Mechanism of action The PDGF family consists of PDGF-A, -B, -C and -D, which form either homo- or heterodimers (PDGF-AA, -AB, -BB, -CC, -DD). The four PDGFs are inactive in their monomeric forms. The PDGFs bind to the protein tyrosine kinase receptors PDGF receptor-α and -β. These two receptor isoforms dimerize upon binding the PDGF dimer, leading to three possible receptor combinations, namely -αα, -ββ and -αβ. The extracellular region of the receptor consists of five immunoglobulin-like domains while the intracellular part is a tyrosine kinase domain. The ligand-binding sites of the receptors are located to the three first immunoglobulin-like domains. PDGF-CC specifically interacts with PDGFR-αα and -αβ, but not with -ββ, and thereby resembles PDGF-AB. PDGF-DD binds to PDGFR-ββ with high affinity, and to PDGFR-αβ to a markedly lower extent and is therefore regarded as PDGFR-ββ specific. PDGF-AA binds only to PDGFR-αα, while PDGF-BB is the only PDGF that can bind all three receptor combinations with high affinity. Dimerization is a prerequisite for the activation of the kinase. Kinase activation is visualized as tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor molecules, which occurs between the dimerized receptor molecules (transphosphorylation). In conjunction with dimerization and kinase activation, the receptor molecules undergo conformational changes, which allow a basal kinase activity to phosphorylate a critical tyrosine residue, thereby "unlocking" the kinase, leading to full enzymatic ac
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachykinin%20receptor	There are three known mammalian tachykinin receptors termed NK1, NK2 and NK3. All are members of the 7 transmembrane G-protein coupled receptor family and induce the activation of phospholipase C, producing inositol triphosphate (so called Gq-coupled). Inhibitors of NK-1, known as NK-1 receptor antagonists, can be used as antiemetic agents, such as the drug aprepitant. Binding The genes and receptor ligands are as follows: (Hökfelt et al., 2001; Page, 2004; Pennefather et al., 2004; Maggi, 2000) See also Substance P G protein coupled receptors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensitivity%20index	The sensitivity index or discriminability index or detectability index is a dimensionless statistic used in signal detection theory. A higher index indicates that the signal can be more readily detected. Definition The discriminability index is the separation between the means of two distributions (typically the signal and the noise distributions), in units of the standard deviation. Equal variances/covariances For two univariate distributions and with the same standard deviation, it is denoted by ('dee-prime'): . In higher dimensions, i.e. with two multivariate distributions with the same variance-covariance matrix , (whose symmetric square-root, the standard deviation matrix, is ), this generalizes to the Mahalanobis distance between the two distributions: , where is the 1d slice of the sd along the unit vector through the means, i.e. the equals the along the 1d slice through the means. For two bivariate distributions with equal variance-covariance, this is given by: , where is the correlation coefficient, and here and , i.e. including the signs of the mean differences instead of the absolute. is also estimated as . Unequal variances/covariances When the two distributions have different standard deviations (or in general dimensions, different covariance matrices), there exist several contending indices, all of which reduce to for equal variance/covariance. Bayes discriminability index This is the maximum (Bayes-optimal) discriminability index for two distributions, based on the amount of their overlap, i.e. the optimal (Bayes) error of classification by an ideal observer, or its complement, the optimal accuracy : , where is the inverse cumulative distribution function of the standard normal. The Bayes discriminability between univariate or multivariate normal distributions can be numerically computed (Matlab code), and may also be used as an approximation when the distributions are close to normal. is a positive-definite statistical d
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axillary%20nerve%20dysfunction	Axillary nerve dysfunction is any disorder caused by damage to the axillary nerve. The axillary nerve is a branch of the brachial plexus that innervates the deltoid and teres minor muscles. This nerve can be injured or damaged in a variety of ways - penetrating injury such as knife or gunshot wounds, surgical trauma, stretch injury (common after motor cycle accidents), and various metabolic or rheumatic conditions that may cause focal disruption of the blood supply to the nerve. Axillary nerve dysfunction is often medically investigated with electromyography, which can help localize the lesion to a particular portion of the nerve ..
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftEther%20Corporation	SoftEther Corporation is a Japanese software company. It was founded as an industry-academia-government venture in April 2004 by University of Tsukuba students, with the goal to develop the software of the same name, SoftEther VPN. The name indicated that a software emulates an Ethernet. Related software SoftEther The VPN software called SoftEther (SoftEther 1.0) was written by Daiyu Nobori, who became the Representative Director and Chairman of the new company. In 2003, the software's development was adopted as one of the projects of the Exploratory Youth program, sponsored by Information Technology Promotion Agency, Japan. "In addition to being highly evaluated by the project manager, there were 1 million downloads in three months after making it available at the website." The first SoftEther sales version was released in August 2004 called SoftEther CA, by Mitsubishi Materials Corporation, Japan. PacketiX VPN The second version of the software, released in December 2005, the name of the software was changed to PacketiX VPN 2.0 from SoftEther 2.0. In 2006, PacketiX VPN 2.0 won the "Software of the Year" award from the Information-Technology Promotion Agency. In 2010 March, PacketiX VPN 3.0 was released by Softether Corporation. Some functions were added to new version (as examples: support IPv6, 802.1Q VLAN, TLS 1.0). This version is compatible with PacketiX VPN 2.0. In 2013 July, PacketiX VPN 4.0 was released by SoftEther Corporation. In this version, some existent protocols support was added. UT-VPN In 2010 June, UT-VPN was released by SoftEther Corporation and University of Tsukuba. UT-VPN is an open source VPN software. UT-VPN has compatible as PacketiX VPN products of SoftEther Corporation. UT-VPN developed based on PacketiX VPN 3.0, but some functions was deleted. For example, the RADIUS client is supported by PacketiX VPN Server, but it is not supported by UT-VPN Server. SoftEther VPN In 2013 July, SoftEther VPN was released by SoftEther VPN Proje
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Row%20equivalence	In linear algebra, two matrices are row equivalent if one can be changed to the other by a sequence of elementary row operations. Alternatively, two m × n matrices are row equivalent if and only if they have the same row space. The concept is most commonly applied to matrices that represent systems of linear equations, in which case two matrices of the same size are row equivalent if and only if the corresponding homogeneous systems have the same set of solutions, or equivalently the matrices have the same null space. Because elementary row operations are reversible, row equivalence is an equivalence relation. It is commonly denoted by a tilde (~). There is a similar notion of column equivalence, defined by elementary column operations; two matrices are column equivalent if and only if their transpose matrices are row equivalent. Two rectangular matrices that can be converted into one another allowing both elementary row and column operations are called simply equivalent. Elementary row operations An elementary row operation is any one of the following moves: Swap: Swap two rows of a matrix. Scale: Multiply a row of a matrix by a nonzero constant. Pivot: Add a multiple of one row of a matrix to another row. Two matrices A and B are row equivalent if it is possible to transform A into B by a sequence of elementary row operations. Row space The row space of a matrix is the set of all possible linear combinations of its row vectors. If the rows of the matrix represent a system of linear equations, then the row space consists of all linear equations that can be deduced algebraically from those in the system. Two m × n matrices are row equivalent if and only if they have the same row space. For example, the matrices are row equivalent, the row space being all vectors of the form . The corresponding systems of homogeneous equations convey the same information: In particular, both of these systems imply every equation of the form Equivalence of the defin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary%20matrix	In mathematics, an elementary matrix is a matrix which differs from the identity matrix by one single elementary row operation. The elementary matrices generate the general linear group when is a field. Left multiplication (pre-multiplication) by an elementary matrix represents elementary row operations, while right multiplication (post-multiplication) represents elementary column operations. Elementary row operations are used in Gaussian elimination to reduce a matrix to row echelon form. They are also used in Gauss–Jordan elimination to further reduce the matrix to reduced row echelon form. Elementary row operations There are three types of elementary matrices, which correspond to three types of row operations (respectively, column operations): Row switching A row within the matrix can be switched with another row. Row multiplication Each element in a row can be multiplied by a non-zero constant. It is also known as scaling a row. Row addition A row can be replaced by the sum of that row and a multiple of another row. If is an elementary matrix, as described below, to apply the elementary row operation to a matrix , one multiplies by the elementary matrix on the left, . The elementary matrix for any row operation is obtained by executing the operation on the identity matrix. This fact can be understood as an instance of the Yoneda lemma applied to the category of matrices. Row-switching transformations The first type of row operation on a matrix switches all matrix elements on row with their counterparts on a different row . The corresponding elementary matrix is obtained by swapping row and row of the identity matrix. So is the matrix produced by exchanging row and row of . Coefficient wise, the matrix is defined by : Properties The inverse of this matrix is itself: Since the determinant of the identity matrix is unity, It follows that for any square matrix (of the correct size), we have For theoretical considerations, the r
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Institute%20for%20Public%20Health%20and%20the%20Environment	The National Institute for Public Health and the Environment ( or simply RIVM) is a Dutch research institute that is an independent agency of the Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sport. RIVM performs tasks to promote public health and a safe living environment by conducting research and collecting knowledge worldwide. The results are used to support the Government of the Netherlands in formulating its policy. RIVM's primary tasks are: research policy support national coordination intervention programmes provision of reliable information to the public and to professionals working in health care about infectious diseases, the environment, nutrition and safety. RIVM is located in Bilthoven, Utrecht and employs over 1,500 people, many of whom work in multidisciplinary fields. History RIVM was founded in 1910 when the Central Laboratory for Public Health was created. The present size of the institute is the result of a merger between three government institutes in 1984. RIVM has become a large, complex organisation with many different international links and a range of activities. During the Covid-19 pandemic, the RIVM was tasked with oversight of the disease and how the Dutch government would combat it. They RIVM instituted weekly counts of infected people within the nation's borders. The director of the Infectious Disease Control bureau, Jaap van Dissel, was charged with disease reduction efforts. By July 2021, the RIVM, which was a reference laboratory for the World Health Organization, recognized five types of COVID test technology: the PCR test the loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) test the antigen test the serological test the breathalyzer test On 13 August 2021, government announced with RIVM approval that "From 30 August social distancing will no longer be required at secondary vocational schools (MBOs), higher professional education institutions (HBOs) and universities." Organisation The RIVM organisation consists of three domains
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-loop%20unbundling	In the telephony business, sub-loop unbundling (SLU) is a type of unbundled access whereby a sub-section of the local loop is unbundled. In practice this often means the competitor placing a small street cabinet with a DSLAM, next to a telco local copper aggregation cabinet or serving area interface and using a 'tie cable' to connect to the last part of the local loop into customers' homes. Lyddington in Rutland was the first example of SLU in the UK when local provider Rutland Telecom unbundled the cabinet to offer VDSL broadband. Advantages The short range brings superior bit-rate performance, compared to normal local loop unbundling (LLU). The local loop can be accessed using shared metallic path or full metallic path facilities. In the latter, which was first deployed in the UK in the village of Lyddington by Rutland Telecom, the telco loses remote access to the part of the local loop between the cabinet and the customer's premises unless the SLU Operator allows IP-level access via their DSLAM. The street cabinet is connected to a point of presence on the national network using long-range wireless or fibre. Where fibre is used, the technology is often referred to as fibre to the cabinet (FTTC) Where VDSL or VDSL2 is used to deliver a service, competing SLU operators at the same site must adhere to tie cable length limitations to prevent interference. Other restrictions are in force to prevent interference with ADSL or ADSL2+ frequencies on the local loop from the serving exchange. In the UK the incumbent telco aggregation cabinets are known as Primary Connection Points (PCPs) and each one is assigned a CAL (Cabinet Assigned Loss) value based on its distance from the serving exchange. Telecommunications economics Local loop
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genealogical%20numbering%20systems	Several genealogical numbering systems have been widely adopted for presenting family trees and pedigree charts in text format. Ascending numbering systems Ahnentafel Ahnentafel, also known as the Eytzinger Method, Sosa Method, and Sosa-Stradonitz Method, allows for the numbering of ancestors beginning with a descendant. This system allows one to derive an ancestor's number without compiling the complete list, and allows one to derive an ancestor's relationship based on their number. The number of a person's father is twice their own number, and the number of a person's mother is twice their own, plus one. For instance, if John Smith is 10, his father is 20, and his mother is 21. In order to readily have the generation stated for a certain person, the Ahnentafel numbering may be preceded by the generation. This method's usefulness becomes apparent when applied further back in the generations: e.g. 08-146, is a male preceding the subject by 7 (8-1) generations. This ancestor was the father of a woman (146/2=73) (in the genealogical line of the subject), who was the mother of a man (73/2=36.5), further down the line the father of a man (36/2=18), father of a woman (18/2=9), mother of a man (9/2=4.5), father of the subject's father (4/2=2). Hence, 08-146 is the subject's father's father's mother's father's father's mother's father. The atree or Binary Ahnentafel method is based on the same numbering of nodes, but first converts the numbers to binary notation and then converts each 0 to M (for Male) and each 1 to F (for Female). The first character of each code (shown as X in the table below) is M if the subject is male and F if the subject is female. For example 5 becomes 101 and then FMF (or MMF if the subject is male). An advantage of this system is easier understanding of the genealogical path. The first 15 codes in each system, identifying individuals in four generations, are as follows: Surname methods Genealogical writers sometimes choose to present ancest
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraterpene	Tetraterpenes are terpenes consisting of eight isoprene units and have the molecular formula C40H64. Tetraterpenoids (including many carotenoids) are tetraterpenes that have been chemically modified, as indicated by the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups. Phytoene is biosynthesized via the head-to-head condensation of two GGPP molecules. One group of tetraterpenes, and possibly the most studied one, is the carotenoids pigments. Carotenoids have important biological functions, with roles in light capture, antioxidative activity and protection against free radicals, synthesis of plant hormones and as structural components of the membranes. Aside their biological relevance, carotenoids are also high-value compounds for the food and pharmaceutical industries. Carotenoids are biosynthesized by photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms; however, in photosynthetic organisms, they are essential components as accessory pigments for the light-harvesting reaction centers. Xanthophylls are another group of tetraterpene pigments distributed widely in nature.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calocybe%20gambosa	Calocybe gambosa, commonly known as St. George's mushroom, is an edible mushroom that grows mainly in fields, grass verges and roadsides. Deriving its common name from when it first appears in the UK, namely on St George's Day (23 April). It appears in March in Italy, a warmer country where it is also a popular mushroom to eat, and is known there as prugnolo. It is also popular in Northern Spain and Southern France, in the Basque Country region and its surroundings where it appears in April. In these regions it is usually eaten sautéed with egg or with bacon. It is considered a delicacy, especially when fried in butter. It was previously considered a part of the large genus Tricholoma and is still seen as T. gambosum in older texts. Taxonomy Initially described as Agaricus gambosus by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum, with its specific epithet derived from a Latin term for "club footed" in relation to its bulky stipe. It was later named Tricholoma gambosum by Paul Kummer in 1871, before being reclassified as Calocybe gambosa by Marinus Anton Donk in 1962. In Germany it is known as Maipilz, where it fruits in May. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek terms kalos "pretty", and cubos "head". In Denmark it is called Vårmousseron, appearing in spring—early May Description The cap measures from 5–15 cm (2 to 6 inches) in diameter and has a smooth texture and has ridges on it. The colour of the cap, stipe and flesh can range from white-creamy coloured to bright yellow. The sinuate gills are white and crowded. The flesh is thick and soft and has a mealy or cucumber smell. The spore print is white to pinkish white. The stubby stipe is bulky at the base. Care must be taken not to confuse it with the highly poisonous Inosperma erubescens, which grows in the same habitats. The latter has a more pungent fruity smell and bruises red. Entoloma sinuatum, also poisonous, has a rancid smell. Distribution and habitat Calocybe gambosa is common i
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACVR2A	Activin receptor type-2A is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACVR2A gene. ACVR2A is an activin type 2 receptor. Function This gene encodes activin A type II receptor. Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I (I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling; and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. Type II receptors are considered to be constitutively active kinases. Interactions ACVR2A has been shown to interact with: ACVR1B, INHBA, and SYNJ2BP.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directionality%20%28molecular%20biology%29	Directionality, in molecular biology and biochemistry, is the end-to-end chemical orientation of a single strand of nucleic acid. In a single strand of DNA or RNA, the chemical convention of naming carbon atoms in the nucleotide pentose-sugar-ring means that there will be a 5′ end (usually pronounced "five-prime end"), which frequently contains a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of the ribose ring, and a 3′ end (usually pronounced "three-prime end"), which typically is unmodified from the ribose -OH substituent. In a DNA double helix, the strands run in opposite directions to permit base pairing between them, which is essential for replication or transcription of the encoded information. Nucleic acids can only be synthesized in vivo in the 5′-to-3′ direction, as the polymerases that assemble various types of new strands generally rely on the energy produced by breaking nucleoside triphosphate bonds to attach new nucleoside monophosphates to the 3′-hydroxyl (−OH) group, via a phosphodiester bond. The relative positions of structures along strands of nucleic acid, including genes and various protein binding sites, are usually noted as being either upstream (towards the 5′-end) or downstream (towards the 3′-end). (See also upstream and downstream.) Directionality is related to, but different from, sense. Transcription of single-stranded RNA from a double-stranded DNA template requires the selection of one strand of the DNA template as the template strand that directly interacts with the nascent RNA due to complementary sequence. The other strand is not copied directly, but necessarily its sequence will be similar to that of the RNA. Transcription initiation sites generally occur on both strands of an organism's DNA, and specify the location, direction, and circumstances under which transcription will occur. If the transcript encodes one or (rarely) more proteins, translation of each protein by the ribosome will proceed in a 5′-to-3′ direction, and will exten
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity%20of%20a%20function	In mathematics, the elasticity or point elasticity of a positive differentiable function f of a positive variable (positive input, positive output) at point a is defined as or equivalently It is thus the ratio of the relative (percentage) change in the function's output with respect to the relative change in its input , for infinitesimal changes from a point . Equivalently, it is the ratio of the infinitesimal change of the logarithm of a function with respect to the infinitesimal change of the logarithm of the argument. Generalisations to multi-input-multi-output cases also exist in the literature. The elasticity of a function is a constant if and only if the function has the form for a constant . The elasticity at a point is the limit of the arc elasticity between two points as the separation between those two points approaches zero. The concept of elasticity is widely used in economics and Metabolic Control Analysis; see elasticity (economics) and Elasticity coefficient respectively for details. Rules Rules for finding the elasticity of products and quotients are simpler than those for derivatives. Let f, g be differentiable. Then The derivative can be expressed in terms of elasticity as Let a and b be constants. Then , . Estimating point elasticities In economics, the price elasticity of demand refers to the elasticity of a demand function Q(P), and can be expressed as (dQ/dP)/(Q(P)/P) or the ratio of the value of the marginal function (dQ/dP) to the value of the average function (Q(P)/P). This relationship provides an easy way of determining whether a demand curve is elastic or inelastic at a particular point. First, suppose one follows the usual convention in mathematics of plotting the independent variable (P) horizontally and the dependent variable (Q) vertically. Then the slope of a line tangent to the curve at that point is the value of the marginal function at that point. The slope of a ray drawn from the origin through the point is the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMP%20%28computer%20algebra%20system%29	Symbolic Manipulation Program, usually called SMP, was a computer algebra system designed by Chris A. Cole and Stephen Wolfram at Caltech circa 1979. It was initially developed in the Caltech physics department with contributions from Geoffrey C. Fox, Jeffrey M. Greif, Eric D. Mjolsness, Larry J. Romans, Timothy Shaw, and Anthony E. Terrano. SMP was first sold commercially in 1981, by the Computer Mathematics Corporation of Los Angeles, which later became part of Inference Corporation. Inference further developed the program and marketed it commercially from 1983 to 1988, but it was not a commercial success, and Inference became pessimistic about the market for symbolic math programs, and so abandoned SMP to concentrate on expert systems. SMP was influenced by the earlier computer algebra systems Macsyma (of which Wolfram was a user) and Schoonschip (whose code Wolfram studied). SMP follows a rule-based approach, giving it a "consistent, pattern-directed language". Unlike Macsyma and Reduce, it was written in C. During the 1980s, it was one of the generally available general-purpose computer algebra systems, along with Reduce, Macsyma, and Scratchpad, and later muMATH and Maple. It was often used for teaching college calculus. The design of SMP's interactive language and its "map" commands influenced the design of the 1984 version of Scratchpad. Criticism SMP has been criticized for various characteristics, notably its use of floating-point numbers instead of exact rational numbers, which can lead to incorrect results, and makes polynomial greatest common divisor calculations problematic. Many other problems in early versions of the system were purportedly fixed in later versions.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIGSAM	SIGSAM is the ACM Special Interest Group on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation. It publishes the ACM Communications in Computer Algebra and often sponsors the International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Computation (ISSAC). External links ACM Official SIGSAM web site ISSAC 2009, Seoul, Korea ISSAC 2008, ("RISC Linz"), Hagenberg, Austria ISSAC 2007, Waterloo, Ontario ISSAC 2006, Genoa ISSAC 2005, Beijing ISSAC 2004, Santander, Cantabria ISSAC 2003, Philadelphia ISSAC 2002, Lille ISSAC 2001, London, Ontario ISSAC 2000, St. Andrews ISSAC 1999, Vancouver ISSAC 1998, Rostock ISSAC 1997, Maui Association for Computing Machinery Special Interest Groups Computer algebra systems
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tidal%20heating	Tidal heating (also known as tidal working or tidal flexing) occurs through the tidal friction processes: orbital and rotational energy is dissipated as heat in either (or both) the surface ocean or interior of a planet or satellite. When an object is in an elliptical orbit, the tidal forces acting on it are stronger near periapsis than near apoapsis. Thus the deformation of the body due to tidal forces (i.e. the tidal bulge) varies over the course of its orbit, generating internal friction which heats its interior. This energy gained by the object comes from its orbital energy and/or rotational energy, so over time in a two-body system, the initial elliptical orbit decays into a circular orbit (tidal circularization) and the rotational periods of the two bodies adjust towards matching the orbital period (tidal locking). Sustained tidal heating occurs when the elliptical orbit is prevented from circularizing due to additional gravitational forces from other bodies that keep tugging the object back into an elliptical orbit. In this more complex system, orbital and rotational energy still is being converted to thermal energy; however, now the orbit's semimajor axis would shrink rather than its eccentricity. Moons of Gas Giants Tidal heating is responsible for the geologic activity of the most volcanically active body in the Solar System: Io, a moon of Jupiter. Io's eccentricity persists as the result of its orbital resonances with the Galilean moons Europa and Ganymede. The same mechanism has provided the energy to melt the lower layers of the ice surrounding the rocky mantle of Jupiter's next-closest large moon, Europa. However, the heating of the latter is weaker, because of reduced flexing—Europa has half Io's orbital frequency and a 14% smaller radius; also, while Europa's orbit is about twice as eccentric as Io's, tidal force falls off with the cube of distance and is only a quarter as strong at Europa. Jupiter maintains the moons' orbits via tides they raise on
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Record%20press	A record press is a machine for manufacturing vinyl records. It is essentially a hydraulic press fitted with thin nickel stampers which are negative impressions of a master disc. Labels and a pre-heated vinyl patty (or "biscuit") are placed in a heated mold cavity. Two stampers are used, one for each of side of the disc. The record press closes under a pressure of about 150 tons. The process of compression molding forces the hot vinyl to fill the grooves in the stampers, and take the form of the finished record. Vacuum molding In the mid-1960s, Emory Cook developed a system of record forming wherein the mold pressure was replaced by a vacuum. In this technique, the mold cavity was evacuated and vinyl was introduced in micro-particle form. The particles were then flash-fused instantaneously at a high temperature forming a coherent solid. Cook called this disc manufacturing technology microfusion. A small pressing plant in Hollywood also employed a similar system which they maintained fused the particles more evenly throughout the disc thickness calling their product polymax. Both claimed the resultant disc grooves exhibited less surface noise and greater resistance to deformation from stylus tip inertia than convention pressure molded vinyl discs.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersubband%20polariton	Intersubband transitions (also known as intraband transitions) are dipolar allowed optical excitations between the quantized electronic energy levels within the conduction band of semiconductor heterostructures. Intersubband transitions when coupled with an optical resonator form new, mixed-state photons. This mixing is referred to as an intersubband cavity-polariton. These transitions exhibit an anticrossing in energy with a separation known as vacuum-Rabi splitting, similar to level repulsion in atomic physics. Quantum cascade laser A cascading of intersubband transitions is the mechanism behind a quantum cascade laser which produces a monochromatic coherent light-source at infrared wavelengths. Color of metals Most metals reflect almost all visible light, due to the presence of free charges, and are therefore silvery in color or mirror-like. However, some metals like gold and copper are more reddish, and this is due to absorption from intersubband transitions that occur at blue wavelengths. See also Fluorescence (interband transitions)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonclassical%20light	Nonclassical light is light that cannot be described using classical electromagnetism; its characteristics are described by the quantized electromagnetic field and quantum mechanics. The most common described forms of nonclassical light are the following: Photon statistics of Nonclassical Light is Sub-Poissonian in the sense that the average number of photons in a photodetection of this kind of light shows a standard deviation that is less than the mean number of the photons. Squeezed light exhibits reduced noise in one quadrature component. The most familiar kinds of squeezed light have either reduced amplitude noise or reduced phase noise, with increased noise of the other component. Fock states (also called photon number states) have a well-defined number of photons (stored e.g. in a cavity), while the phase is totally undefined. Glauber–Sudarshan P representation The density matrix for any state of light can be written as: where is a coherent state. A classical state of light is one in which is a probability density function. If it is not, the state is said to be nonclassical. Aspects of that would make it nonclassical are: a negative value at any point; being more singular than a Dirac delta function. The matter is not quite simple. According to Mandel and Wolf: "The different coherent states are not [mutually] orthogonal, so that even if behaved like a true probability density [function], it would not describe probabilities of mutually exclusive states."
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food%20%26%20Water%20Watch	Food & Water Watch is a Washington, D.C.-based non-governmental organization group with an office also in Los Angeles, California, which focuses on corporate and government accountability relating to food, water, and corporate overreach. Resulting issue areas include stopping fossil fuels and fossil fuel extraction, regulating factory farms, advocating for renewable energy, fighting water privatization, stopping bad trade deals, increasing transparency in our food system, and standing up for human rights. The organization was founded by staff from Public Citizen in 2005. It was the first to break the news of the high rate of salmonella in US chicken processing plants in July 2006. It has also been critical of the growing bottled water industry for health and environmental concerns. On August 24, 2007, it announced success in its effort to get Starbucks Coffee to stop using milk originating from rBGH-treated cows. The organization does not take government or corporate donations. CharityWatch rates it an "A" grade. Campaigns "The Clean Energy Revolution": an anti-fracking march held during the 2016 Democratic National Convention. "Public Water for All": Food & Water Watch's program to oppose the privatization of public water utilities. Food & Water Justice Food & Water Justice is the organization's legal department, which files lawsuits and provides legal analysis to further the organization's campaigns. It has supported work opposing the use of pollution trading to solve environmental challenges as well as calls for more regulations of concentrated animal feeding operations. Food & Water Watch sued the USDA's Farm Service Agency in 2017 for “failing to adequately consider environmental impacts before supporting a loan guarantee for a poultry operation on Maryland’s Eastern Shore.” The organization's lawyers also backed the Environmental Protection Agency in a 2016 suit that challenged the agency's practice of making public the location of permitted concentr
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weil%27s%20criterion	In mathematics, Weil's criterion is a criterion of André Weil for the Generalized Riemann hypothesis to be true. It takes the form of an equivalent statement, to the effect that a certain generalized function is positive definite. Weil's idea was formulated first in a 1952 paper. It is based on the explicit formulae of prime number theory, as they apply to Dirichlet L-functions, and other more general global L-functions. A single statement thus combines statements on the complex zeroes of all Dirichlet L-functions. Weil returned to this idea in a 1972 paper, showing how the formulation extended to a larger class of L-functions (Artin-Hecke L-functions); and to the global function field case. Here the inclusion of Artin L-functions, in particular, implicates Artin's conjecture; so that the criterion involves a Generalized Riemann Hypothesis plus Artin Conjecture. The case of function fields, of curves over finite fields, is one in which the analogue of the Riemann Hypothesis is known, by Weil's classical work begun in 1940; and Weil also proved the analogue of the Artin Conjecture. Therefore, in that setting, the criterion can be used to show the corresponding statement of positive-definiteness does hold.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical%20equivalence%20theorem	The optical equivalence theorem in quantum optics asserts an equivalence between the expectation value of an operator in Hilbert space and the expectation value of its associated function in the phase space formulation with respect to a quasiprobability distribution. The theorem was first reported by George Sudarshan in 1963 for normally ordered operators and generalized later that decade to any ordering. Let Ω be an ordering of the non-commutative creation and annihilation operators, and let be an operator that is expressible as a power series in the creation and annihilation operators that satisfies the ordering Ω. Then the optical equivalence theorem is succinctly expressed as Here, is understood to be the eigenvalue of the annihilation operator on a coherent state and is replaced formally in the power series expansion of . The left side of the above equation is an expectation value in the Hilbert space whereas the right hand side is an expectation value with respect to the quasiprobability distribution. We may write each of these explicitly for better clarity. Let be the density operator and be the ordering reciprocal to Ω. The quasiprobability distribution associated with Ω is given, then, at least formally, by The above framed equation becomes For example, let Ω be the normal order. This means that can be written in a power series of the following form: The quasiprobability distribution associated with the normal order is the Glauber-Sudarshan P representation. In these terms, we arrive at This theorem implies the formal equivalence between expectation values of normally ordered operators in quantum optics and the corresponding complex numbers in classical optics.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojtek%20%28bear%29	Wojtek (1942 – 2 December 1963; ; in English, sometimes phonetically spelled Voytek and pronounced as such) was a Syrian brown bear (Ursus arctos syriacus) bought, as a young cub, at a railway station in Hamadan, Iran, by Polish II Corps soldiers who had been evacuated from the Soviet Union. In order to provide for his rations and transportation, he was eventually enlisted officially as a soldier with the rank of private, and was subsequently promoted to corporal. He accompanied the bulk of the II Corps to Italy, serving with the 22nd Artillery Supply Company. During the Battle of Monte Cassino, in Italy in 1944, Wojtek helped move crates of ammunition and became a celebrity with visiting Allied generals and statesmen. After the war he was mustered out of the Polish Army and lived out the rest of his life at the Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland. History In the spring of 1942 the newly formed Anders' Army left the Soviet Union for Iran, accompanied by thousands of Polish civilians who had been deported to the Soviet Union following the 1939 Soviet invasion of eastern Poland. At a railroad station in Hamadan, Iran, on 8 April 1942, Polish soldiers encountered a young Iranian boy who had found a bear cub whose mother had been shot by hunters. One of the civilian refugees in their midst, eighteen-year-old Irena (Inka) Bokiewicz, the great-niece of General Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski, was very taken with the cub. She prompted Lieutenant Anatol Tarnowiecki to buy the young bear, which spent the next three months in a Polish refugee camp established near Tehran, principally under Irena's care. In August, the bear was donated to the 2nd Transport Company, which later became the 22nd Artillery Supply Company, and he was named Wojtek by the soldiers. The name Wojtek is the nickname, diminutive form, or hypocorism of "Wojciech" (Happy Warrior), an old Slavic name still common in Poland. Wojtek initially had problems swallowing and was fed condensed milk from an old vodka bottl
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glauber%E2%80%93Sudarshan%20P%20representation	The Sudarshan-Glauber P representation is a suggested way of writing down the phase space distribution of a quantum system in the phase space formulation of quantum mechanics. The P representation is the quasiprobability distribution in which observables are expressed in normal order. In quantum optics, this representation, formally equivalent to several other representations, is sometimes preferred over such alternative representations to describe light in optical phase space, because typical optical observables, such as the particle number operator, are naturally expressed in normal order. It is named after George Sudarshan and Roy J. Glauber, who worked on the topic in 1963. Despite many useful applications in laser theory and coherence theory, the Sudarshan-Glauber P representation has the peculiarity that it is not always positive, and is not a bona-fide probability function. Definition We wish to construct a function with the property that the density matrix is diagonal in the basis of coherent states , i.e., We also wish to construct the function such that the expectation value of a normally ordered operator satisfies the optical equivalence theorem. This implies that the density matrix should be in anti-normal order so that we can express the density matrix as a power series Inserting the identity operator we see that and thus we formally assign More useful integral formulas for are necessary for any practical calculation. One method is to define the characteristic function and then take the Fourier transform Another useful integral formula for is Note that both of these integral formulas do not converge in any usual sense for "typical" systems . We may also use the matrix elements of in the Fock basis . The following formula shows that it is always possible to write the density matrix in this diagonal form without appealing to operator orderings using the inversion (given here for a single mode), where and are the amplitude and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACVR2B	Activin receptor type-2B is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ACVR2B gene. ACVR2B is an activin type 2 receptor. Function Activins are dimeric growth and differentiation factors which belong to the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) superfamily of structurally related signaling proteins. Activins signal through a heteromeric complex of receptor serine kinases which include at least two type I (I and IB) and two type II (II and IIB) receptors. These receptors are all transmembrane proteins, composed of a ligand-binding extracellular domain with cysteine-rich region, a transmembrane domain, and a cytoplasmic domain with predicted serine/threonine specificity. Type I receptors are essential for signaling; and type II receptors are required for binding ligands and for expression of type I receptors. Type I and II receptors form a stable complex after ligand binding, resulting in phosphorylation of type I receptors by type II receptors. Type II receptors are considered to be constitutively active kinases. This gene encodes activin A type IIB receptor, which displays a 3- to 4-fold higher affinity for the ligand than activin A type II receptor. Interactions ACVR2B has been shown to interact with ACVR1B and SYNJ2BP.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlieplexing	Charlieplexing (also known as tristate multiplexing, reduced pin-count LED multiplexing, complementary LED drive and crossplexing) is a technique for driving a multiplexed display, keypad or touchscreen, in which relatively few I/O wires from a microcontroller are woven in a diagonally-intersecting pattern to access a large number of I/O entities (e.g. LEDs for output or switches or micro-capacitors for input). Charlieplexing can be used in displays and resistive or projected capacitance keypads and touchscreens, using a simple array (shown). The diagram shows that eight inputs creates 16 intersections when used in an x/y array, but 28 intersections when used in a Charlieplexed array. When functioning as an LED display or mechanical keypad, the use of reversed pairs of LEDs or standard diodes at the intersections doubles the 8 input matrix size from 28 to 56. The method uses the tri-state logic capabilities of microcontrollers in order to gain efficiency over traditional multiplexing. Although it is more efficient in its use of I/O, a small amount of address manipulation is required when trying to fit Charlieplexing into a standard x/y array (as described later in this article). There are no problems if a diagonal array is used. The diagram shows a six I/O Charlieplexed array that is scalable to any size without difficulty. Other issues that affect standard multiplexing but are exacerbated by Charlieplexing are: a) consideration of current requirements and the forward voltages of the LEDs. b) a requirement to cycle through the in-use LEDs rapidly so that the persistence of the human eye perceives the display to be lit as a whole. Multiplexing can generally be seen by a strobing effect and skewing if the eye's focal point is moved past the display rapidly. Charlieplexing simulator To see how I/O states affect LEDS in various sizes and arrangements of a Charlieplex matrix, go to https://malcolmbinstead.github.io/charlieplexing/. In a real life situation, ho
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microtek	Microtek International Inc. () is a Taiwan-based multinational manufacturer of digital imaging products and other consumer electronics. It produces imaging equipment for medical, biological and industrial fields. It occupies 20 percent of the global imaging market and holds 450 patents worldwide. It is known for its scanner brands ScanMaker and ArtixScan. The company launched the world's first halftone optical film scanner in 1984, the world's first desktop halftone scanner in 1986, and the world's first color scanner in 1989. It has subsidiaries in Shanghai, Tokyo, Singapore and Rotterdam. It expanded its product lines into the manufacturing of LCD monitors, LCD projectors and digital cameras. History 1980-1985: Founding and incorporation In 1979, the Taiwanese government launched the Hsinchu Science and Industrial Park (HSIP) as a vision of Shu Shien-Siu to emulate Silicon Valley and to lure back overseas Taiwanese with their experience and knowledge in engineering and technology fields. Initially there were 14 companies, the first was Wang Computer (王氏電腦), by 2010 only six of the original pioneers remained: United Microelectronics Corporation (聯電), Microtek International, Inc. (全友), Quartz Frequency Technology (頻率), Tecom (東訊), Sino-American Silicon Products Inc. (中美矽晶) and Flow Asia Corporation (福祿遠東). Microtek (Microelectronics Technology) was co-founded in HSIP in 1980 by five Californian Taiwanese, three were colleagues who had worked at Xerox Bobo Wang (王渤渤), Robert Hsieh (謝志鴻), Carter Tseng (曾憲章) and two were colleagues from the University of Southern California, Benny Hsu (許正勳) and Hu Chung-hsing (胡忠信). They decided to set up root after Hsu was invited by HSIP Manager Dr. Irving Ho (何宜慈). In September 1983, the Allied Association for Science Parks Industries (台灣科學園區同業公會 abbr. 竹科) was established and Hsu was elected to be its first Chairman. Microtek first entered the industry in 1983, when scanners were little more than expensive tools for hobbyis
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaynes%E2%80%93Cummings%20model	The Jaynes–Cummings model (sometimes abbreviated JCM) is a theoretical model in quantum optics. It describes the system of a two-level atom interacting with a quantized mode of an optical cavity (or a bosonic field), with or without the presence of light (in the form of a bath of electromagnetic radiation that can cause spontaneous emission and absorption). It was originally developed to study the interaction of atoms with the quantized electromagnetic field in order to investigate the phenomena of spontaneous emission and absorption of photons in a cavity. The Jaynes–Cummings model is of great interest to atomic physics, quantum optics, solid-state physics and quantum information circuits, both experimentally and theoretically. It also has applications in coherent control and quantum information processing. Historical development 1963: Edwin Jaynes & Fred Cummings The model was originally developed in a 1963 article by Edwin Jaynes and Fred Cummings to elucidate the effects of giving a fully quantum mechanical treatment to the behavior of atoms interacting with an electromagnetic field. In order to simplify the math and allow for a tractable calculation, Jaynes and Cummings restricted their attention to the interaction of an atom with a single mode of quantum electromagnetic field. (See below for further mathematical details.) This approach is in contrast to the earlier semi-classical method, in which only the dynamics of the atom are treated quantum mechanically, while the field with which it interacts is assumed to behave according to classical electromagnetic theory. The quantum mechanical treatment of the field in the Jaynes–Cummings model reveals a number of novel features, including: The existence of Rabi oscillations between the states of the two-level system as it interacts with the quantum field. This was originally believed to be a purely quantum mechanical effect, although a semi-classical explanation for it was later provided in terms of linear d
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azriel%20Rosenfeld	Azriel Rosenfeld (February 19, 1931 – February 22, 2004) was an American Research Professor, a Distinguished University Professor, and Director of the Center for Automation Research at the University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland, where he also held affiliate professorships in the Departments of Computer Science, Electrical Engineering, and Psychology, and a talmid chochom. He held a Ph.D. in mathematics from Columbia University (1957), rabbinic ordination (1952) and a Doctor of Hebrew Literature degree (1955) from Yeshiva University, honorary Doctor of Technology degrees from Linkoping University (1980) and Oulu University (1994), and an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters degree from Yeshiva University (2000); he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree from the Technion (2004, conferred posthumously). He was a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994). Rosenfeld was a leading researcher in the field of computer image analysis. Over a period of nearly 40 years he made many fundamental and pioneering contributions to nearly every area of that field. He wrote the first textbook in the field (1969); was founding editor of its first journal, Computer Graphics and Image Processing (1972); and was co-chairman of its first international conference (1987). He published over 30 books and over 600 book chapters and journal articles, and directed nearly 60 Ph.D. dissertations. Rosenfeld's research on digital image analysis (specifically on digital geometry and digital topology, and on the accurate measurement of statistical features of digital images) in the 1960s and 1970s formed the foundation for a generation of industrial vision inspection systems that have found widespread applications from the automotive to the electronics industry. Rosenfeld was a ba'al koreh (Torah Reader) at Young Israel Shomrai Emunah of Greater Washington for many years until he moved to Baltimore in 2001. In honor of the memory of Rosenfeld, ICCV gives the bienn
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass%20chromatogram	A mass chromatogram is a representation of mass spectrometry data as a chromatogram, where the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents signal intensity. The source data contains mass information; however, it is not graphically represented in a mass chromatogram in favor of visualizing signal intensity versus time. The most common use of this data representation is when mass spectrometry is used in conjunction with some form of chromatography, such as in liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry or gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. In this case, the x-axis represents retention time, analogous to any other chromatogram. The y-axis represents signal intensity or relative signal intensity. There are many different types of metrics that this intensity may represent, depending on what information is extracted from each mass spectrum. Total ion current (TIC) chromatogram The total ion current (TIC) chromatogram represents the summed intensity across the entire range of masses being detected at every point in the analysis. The range is typically several hundred mass-to-charge units or more. In complex samples, the TIC chromatogram often provides limited information as multiple analytes elute simultaneously, obscuring individual species. Base peak chromatogram The base peak chromatogram is similar to the TIC chromatogram, however it monitors only the most intense peak in each spectrum. This means that the base peak chromatogram represents the intensity of the most intense peak at every point in the analysis. Base peak chromatograms often have a cleaner look and thus are more informative than TIC chromatograms because the background is reduced by focusing on a single analyte at every point. Extracted-ion chromatogram (EIC or XIC) In an extracted-ion chromatogram (EIC or XIC), also called a reconstructed-ion chromatogram (RIC), one or more m/z values representing one or more analytes of interest are recovered ('extracted') from the entire data set for a chrom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic%20discovery	Electronic discovery (also ediscovery or e-discovery) refers to discovery in legal proceedings such as litigation, government investigations, or Freedom of Information Act requests, where the information sought is in electronic format (often referred to as electronically stored information or ESI). Electronic discovery is subject to rules of civil procedure and agreed-upon processes, often involving review for privilege and relevance before data are turned over to the requesting party. Electronic information is considered different from paper information because of its intangible form, volume, transience and persistence. Electronic information is usually accompanied by metadata that is not found in paper documents and that can play an important part as evidence (e.g. the date and time a document was written could be useful in a copyright case). The preservation of metadata from electronic documents creates special challenges to prevent spoliation. In the United States, at the federal level, electronic discovery is governed by common law, case law and specific statutes, but primarily by the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (FRCP), including amendments effective December 1, 2006, and December 1, 2015. In addition, state law and regulatory agencies increasingly also address issues relating to electronic discovery. In England and Wales, Part 31 of the Civil Procedure Rules and Practice Direction 31B on Disclosure of Electronic Documents apply. Other jurisdictions around the world also have rules relating to electronic discovery. Stages of process The Electronic Discovery Reference Model (EDRM) is an ubiquitous diagram that represents a conceptual view of these stages involved in the ediscovery process. Identification The identification phase is when potentially responsive documents are identified for further analysis and review. In the United States, in Zubulake v. UBS Warburg, Hon. Shira Scheindlin ruled that failure to issue a written legal hold notice whenever li
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecotropism	Ecotropism or ecotropic (from eco – hearth and tropic – to turn towards) refers to the philosophy that for human culture to be healthy, it must exist as in an ecological niche and thereby relate appropriately with all the fields of forces of nature, organic and inorganic. The following form of the term has been used since 1990 in the publication of "Toward an Ecotropic Poetry", by John Campion and John Herndon. Ecotropism can also indicate that a pathogen, like a virus or a bacterium, has a narrow host range and can infect one or a small group of species or cell culture lines. See also Tropism, a list of tropisms Amphotropism, indicating a wide host range (), link to early ecotropic essay and ecotropic concepts
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic%20food%20environment	A food environment is the "physical presence of food that affects a person’s diet, a person’s proximity to food store locations, the distribution of food stores, food service, and any physical entity by which food may be obtained, or a connected system that allows access to food". The term toxic food environment was coined by Kelly D. Brownell in his book, Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry which describes American culture at the end of the 20th century as one that fosters and promotes obesity and unprecedented food consumption. In the United States, the food environment the citizens are encompassed in makes it far too hard to choose healthy foods, and all too easy to choose unhealthy foods. Some call this food environment "'toxic' because of the way it corrodes healthy lifestyles and promotes obesity". Brownell was a Yale professor and director of the Rudd Center for Food Policy and Obesity at Yale. He is now director of the World Food Policy Center of the Sanford School of Public Policy at Duke University. He uses the term “toxic” to describe unparalleled exposure to high-calorie, high-fat, heavily marketed, inexpensive, and readily accessible foods. The toxic environment is the result of ubiquity of unhealthy, processed foods, an increasingly sedentary lifestyle in which individuals spend more time watching TV and using computers than they spend exercising, the explosion of fast food restaurants, the enormous growth of portion sizes, the power of food advertising and marketing, and the junk food industry’s takeover of schools by selling unhealthy items in vending machines, cafeterias, and through school fundraisers. A main contributor to the notion of a toxic food environment is the marketing of it. Finding an advertisement that promotes “toxic” is not a difficult task. The Federal Trade Commission found, in 2008, that the food industry spent almost $10 billion per year on marketing food and beverages, including $1.6 billion toward children.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poset%20topology	In mathematics, the poset topology associated to a poset (S, ≤) is the Alexandrov topology (open sets are upper sets) on the poset of finite chains of (S, ≤), ordered by inclusion. Let V be a set of vertices. An abstract simplicial complex Δ is a set of finite sets of vertices, known as faces , such that Given a simplicial complex Δ as above, we define a (point set) topology on Δ by declaring a subset be closed if and only if Γ is a simplicial complex, i.e. This is the Alexandrov topology on the poset of faces of Δ. The order complex associated to a poset (S, ≤) has the set S as vertices, and the finite chains of (S, ≤) as faces. The poset topology associated to a poset (S, ≤) is then the Alexandrov topology on the order complex associated to (S, ≤). See also Topological combinatorics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical%20security%20parameter	In cryptography, a critical security parameter (CSP) is information that is either user or system defined and is used to operate a cryptography module in processing encryption functions including cryptographic keys and authentication data, such as passwords, the disclosure or modification of which can compromise the security of a cryptographic module or the security of the information protected by the module.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Core%20Multiplexing%20Technology	Core Multiplexing Technology is a term that appeared in some BIOSes. Details A subset of traditional applications are often difficult to parallelize and make use of additional CPU hardware available on the platform, restraining applications to use only one CPU. Core Multiplexing Technology would allow for a process to be split into multiple threads at compilation time and execution time by the introduction of speculative multithreading. Much in the same way a branch predictor allows for a processor to speculate on the outcome of a branch operation without actually performing the operation, speculative multithreading allows for the processor to speculate deeper, executing entire branches of code on an additional core. Most of the implementation is done in software, with the compiler rearranging code to take better use of a multithreaded platform, which allows Simultaneous multithreading (SMT) and Multicore systems (or a combination of the two) to take advantage of the technology. But, because the data dependencies of speculative multithreading, and the necessity to manage inter-thread dependent data, hardware implementation must be taken into consideration. Core Multiplexing Technology is thought to leverage Intel's Advanced Smart Cache technology of the upcoming Core 2 chips, which allows two cores to share a single L2 cache, and actively resize the cache between the two processors if one is idle, by allowing the two cores to share data to manage inter-thread dependent data. See also 3Server Apulet BINAC External Resources Intel Research on Speculative Multithreading Coverage of Core Multiplexing Technology BIOS Option BIOS
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20computer	A chemical computer, also called a reaction-diffusion computer, Belousov–Zhabotinsky (BZ) computer, or gooware computer, is an unconventional computer based on a semi-solid chemical "soup" where data are represented by varying concentrations of chemicals. The computations are performed by naturally occurring chemical reactions. Background Originally chemical reactions were seen as a simple move towards a stable equilibrium which was not very promising for computation. This was changed by a discovery made by Boris Belousov, a Soviet scientist, in the 1950s. He created a chemical reaction between different salts and acids that swing back and forth between being yellow and clear because the concentration of the different components changes up and down in a cyclic way. At the time this was considered impossible because it seemed to go against the second law of thermodynamics, which says that in a closed system the entropy will only increase over time, causing the components in the mixture to distribute themselves until equilibrium is gained and making any changes in the concentration impossible. But modern theoretical analyses shows sufficiently complicated reactions can indeed comprise wave phenomena without breaking the laws of nature. (A convincing directly visible demonstration was achieved by Anatol Zhabotinsky with the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction showing spiraling colored waves.) The wave properties of the BZ reaction means it can move information in the same way as all other waves. This still leaves the need for computation, performed by conventional microchips using the binary code transmitting and changing ones and zeros through a complicated system of logic gates. To perform any conceivable computation it is sufficient to have NAND gates. (A NAND gate has two bits input. Its output is 0 if both bits are 1, otherwise it's 1). In the chemical computer version logic gates are implemented by concentration waves blocking or amplifying each other in different wa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ODVA%20%28company%29	ODVA, Inc. (formerly Open DeviceNet Vendors Association, Inc.) was founded in 1995 and is a global trade and standard development organization whose members are suppliers of devices for industrial automation applications. To qualify for membership in ODVA, applicants must be an entity that makes and sells products using ODVA technologies. ODVA technologies include the Common Industrial Protocol or "CIP" - ODVA's media-independent, object-oriented protocol - along with ODVA's network adaptations of CIP - EtherNet/IP, DeviceNet, ControlNet, and CompoNet. ODVA has more than 15 technical working groups, overseen by its Technical Review Board, which develop and enhance ODVA's implementation specifications for its technologies. These specifications define how a product shall be designed in accordance with the specifications. ODVA maintains a conformance testing practice to validate that products designed using ODVA technologies comply with the specifications and interoperate in multivendor systems. ODVA also provides other services to its members to promote the adoption of ODVA technologies by industry. ODVA is a US 501(c)6 corporation incorporated in the state of Wisconsin. Its headquarters are in Ann Arbor, Michigan U.S. It also has conformance test service providers in North America, China, Germany, and Japan.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ax%E2%80%93Kochen%20theorem	The Ax–Kochen theorem, named for James Ax and Simon B. Kochen, states that for each positive integer d there is a finite set Yd of prime numbers, such that if p is any prime not in Yd then every homogeneous polynomial of degree d over the p-adic numbers in at least d2 + 1 variables has a nontrivial zero. The proof of the theorem The proof of the theorem makes extensive use of methods from mathematical logic, such as model theory. One first proves Serge Lang's theorem, stating that the analogous theorem is true for the field Fp((t)) of formal Laurent series over a finite field Fp with . In other words, every homogeneous polynomial of degree d with more than d2 variables has a non-trivial zero (so Fp((t)) is a C2 field). Then one shows that if two Henselian valued fields have equivalent valuation groups and residue fields, and the residue fields have characteristic 0, then they are elementarily equivalent (which means that a first order sentence is true for one if and only if it is true for the other). Next one applies this to two fields, one given by an ultraproduct over all primes of the fields Fp((t)) and the other given by an ultraproduct over all primes of the p-adic fields Qp. Both residue fields are given by an ultraproduct over the fields Fp, so are isomorphic and have characteristic 0, and both value groups are the same, so the ultraproducts are elementarily equivalent. (Taking ultraproducts is used to force the residue field to have characteristic 0; the residue fields of Fp((t)) and Qp both have non-zero characteristic p.) The elementary equivalence of these ultraproducts implies that for any sentence in the language of valued fields, there is a finite set Y of exceptional primes, such that for any p not in this set the sentence is true for Fp((t)) if and only if it is true for the field of p-adic numbers. Applying this to the sentence stating that every non-constant homogeneous polynomial of degree d in at least d2+1 variables represents 0, and usin
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRB2	Growth factor receptor-bound protein 2, also known as Grb2, is an adaptor protein involved in signal transduction/cell communication. In humans, the GRB2 protein is encoded by the GRB2 gene. The protein encoded by this gene binds receptors such as the epidermal growth factor receptor and contains one SH2 domain and two SH3 domains. Its two SH3 domains direct complex formation with proline-rich regions of other proteins, and its SH2 domain binds tyrosine phosphorylated sequences. This gene is similar to the sem-5 gene of Caenorhabditis elegans, which is involved in the signal transduction pathway. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding different isoforms have been found for this gene. Function and expression Grb2 is widely expressed and is essential for multiple cellular functions. Inhibition of Grb2 function impairs developmental processes in various organisms and blocks transformation and proliferation of various cell types. It is thus not surprising that targeted gene disruption of Grb2 in mice is lethal at an early embryonic stage. Grb2 is best known for its ability to link the epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase to the activation of Ras and its downstream kinases, ERK1,2. Grb2 is composed of an SH2 domain flanked on each side by an SH3 domain. Grb2 has two closely related proteins with similar domain organizations, Gads and Grap. Gads and Grap are expressed specifically in hematopoietic cells and function in the coordination of tyrosine kinase mediated signal transduction. Domains The SH2 domain of Grb2 binds to phosphorylated tyrosine-containing peptides on receptors or scaffold proteins with a preference for pY-X-N-X, where X is generally a hydrophobic residue such as valine (see ). The N-terminal SH3 domain binds to proline-rich peptides and can bind to the Ras-guanine exchange factor SOS. The C-terminal SH3 domain binds to peptides conforming to a P-X-I/L/V/-D/N-R-X-X-K-P motif that allows it to specifically bind to pr
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Lightning	Johnny Lightning is a brand of diecast model cars launched in 1969 by Topper Corporation (owner of the "Topper Toys" brand), similar to the hugely successful Mattel's Hot Wheels cars. Their claim to fame at that time was that they were extremely fast compared to other brands of die-cast cars. Their most important technology was to mold in a small hook under the front axle so that they could be propelled by a lever-driven catapult, far faster than could be obtained by either gravity, or battery powered "supercharger" devices. Al Unser Senior won the Indianapolis 500 in 1970 and 1971 in the "Johnny Lightning Special". Topper closed in 1973 and production of Johnny Lightning cars ceased for 23 years. The company made a total of 47 different models. In 1994 Thomas Lowe of Cassopolis, Michigan became aware of the abandoned trademark and secured the rights to the Johnny Lightning name for his Playing Mantis toy company. He made replicas of his favorite 10 original Johnny Lightning cars. His first customers were Walmart and Toys R Us. Playing Mantis produced the toy cars under the Johnny Lightning brand name from 1994 to June 2004. Over 600 different models, including replicas of all of the original 1969-71 cars, were produced over that time period. In 2004 Mr. Lowe sold Playing Mantis (including the Johnny Lightning brand) to RC2 Corporation, which in turn was bought by the Japanese toy company Tomy in 2011. Tomy discontinued the Johnny Lightning line of diecast cars in 2013. The brand continued to maintain a following by a loyal group of collectors. In early 2016 Round 2 LLC, a toy company owned by Thomas Lowe (who also owned Playing Mantis), revived and reintroduced Johnny Lightning vehicles to the toy market for a second time. Topper In 1969, Topper Corporation (owner of "Topper Toys" and other brands) introduced Johnny Lightning model cars and track sets in response to the growing 1:64 scale diecast market. New Jersey inventor and author Henry Orenstein owned To
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google%20Account	A Google Account is a user account that is required for access, authentication and authorization to certain online Google services. It is also often used as single sign-on for third party services. Usage A Google Account is required for Gmail, Google Hangouts, Google Meet and Blogger. Some Google products do not require an account, including Google Search, YouTube, Google Books, Google Finance and Google Maps. However, an account is needed for uploading videos to YouTube and for making edits in Google Maps. YouTube and Blogger maintain separate accounts for users who registered with the services before the Google acquisition. However, effective April 2011 YouTube users are required to link to a separate Google Account if they wish to continue to log into that service. Google Account users may create a publicly accessible Google profile, to configure their presentation on Google products to other Google users. A Google profile can be linked to a user's profiles on various social-networking and image-hosting sites, as well as user blogs. Third-party service providers may implement service authentication for Google Account holders via the Google Account mechanism. Security While creating a Google account, users are asked to provide a recovery email address to allow them to reset their password if they have forgotten it, or if their account is hacked. In some countries, such as the United States, the United Kingdom and India, Google may also require one-time use of a mobile phone number to send an account validation code by SMS text messaging or voice message when creating a new account. Google also offers a two-step verification option—for additional security against hacking—that requests a validation code each time the user logs into their Google account. The code is either generated by an application ("Google Authenticator" or other similar apps) or received from Google as an SMS text message, a voice message, or an email to another account. Trusted devices c
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylmalonyl-CoA%20mutase	Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (, MCM), mitochondrial, also known as methylmalonyl-CoA isomerase, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the MUT gene. This vitamin B12-dependent enzyme catalyzes the isomerization of methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA in humans. Mutations in MUT gene may lead to various types of methylmalonic aciduria. MCM was first identified in rat liver and sheep kidney in 1955. In its latent form, it is 750 amino acids in length. Upon entry to the mitochondria, the 32 amino acid mitochondrial leader sequence at the N-terminus of the protein is cleaved, forming the fully processed monomer. The monomers then associate into homodimers, and bind AdoCbl (one for each monomer active site) to form the final, active holoenzyme form. Structure Gene The MUT gene lies on the chromosome location of 6p12.3 and consists of 13 exons, spanning over 35kb. Protein The mature enzyme is a homodimer with the N-terminal CoA binding domain and the C- terminal cobalamin-binding domain. Function Methylmalonyl-CoA mutase is expressed in high concentrations in the kidney, in intermediate concentrations in the heart, ovaries, brain, muscle, and liver, and in low concentrations in the spleen. The enzyme can be found all throughout the central nervous system (CNS). MCM resides in the mitochondria, where a number of substances, including the branched-chain amino acids isoleucine and valine, as well as methionine, threonine, thymine and odd-chain fatty acids, are metabolized via methylmalonate semialdehyde (MMlSA) or propionyl-CoA (Pr-CoA) to a common compound - methylmalonyl-CoA (MMl-CoA). MCM catalyzes the reversible isomerisation of l‐methylmalonyl‐CoA to succinyl‐CoA, requiring cobalamin (vitamin B12) in the form of adenosylcobalamin (AdoCbl) as a cofactor. As an important step in propionate catabolism, this reaction is required for the degradation of odd-chain fatty acids, the amino acids valine, isoleucine, methionine, and threonine, and cholesterol, funneling metabo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin-transfer%20torque	Spin-transfer torque (STT) is an effect in which the orientation of a magnetic layer in a magnetic tunnel junction or spin valve can be modified using a spin-polarized current. Charge carriers (such as electrons) have a property known as spin which is a small quantity of angular momentum intrinsic to the carrier. An electric current is generally unpolarized (consisting of 50% spin-up and 50% spin-down electrons); a spin polarized current is one with more electrons of either spin. By passing a current through a thick magnetic layer (usually called the “fixed layer”), one can produce a spin-polarized current. If this spin-polarized current is directed into a second, thinner magnetic layer (the “free layer”), the angular momentum can be transferred to this layer, changing its orientation. This can be used to excite oscillations or even flip the orientation of the magnet. The effects are usually seen only in nanometer scale devices. Spin-transfer torque memory Spin-transfer torque can be used to flip the active elements in magnetic random-access memory. Spin-transfer torque magnetic random-access memory (STT-RAM or STT-MRAM) is a non-volatile memory with near-zero leakage power consumption which is a major advantage over charge-based memories such as SRAM and DRAM. STT-RAM also has the advantages of lower power consumption and better scalability than conventional magnetoresistive random-access memory (MRAM) which uses magnetic fields to flip the active elements. Spin-transfer torque technology has the potential to make possible MRAM devices combining low current requirements and reduced cost; however, the amount of current needed to reorient the magnetization is presently too high for most commercial applications, and the reduction of this current density alone is the basis for present academic research in spin electronics. Industrial development Sony Research Center published the first Japan Patent application for S.P.I.N.O.R. (Spin Polarized Injection Non-Vo
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution%20of%20ageing	Enquiry into the evolution of ageing, or aging, aims to explain why a detrimental process such as ageing would evolve, and why there is so much variability in the lifespans of organisms. The classical theories of evolution (mutation accumulation, antagonistic pleiotropy, and disposable soma) suggest that environmental factors, such as predation, accidents, disease, and/or starvation, ensure that most organisms living in natural settings will not live until old age, and so there will be very little pressure to conserve genetic changes that increase longevity. Natural selection will instead strongly favor genes which ensure early maturation and rapid reproduction, and the selection for genetic traits which promote molecular and cellular self-maintenance will decline with age for most organisms. Theories and hypotheses The beginning August Weismann was responsible for interpreting and formalizing the mechanisms of Darwinian evolution in a modern theoretical framework. In 1889, he theorized that ageing was part of life's program to make room for the next generation in order to sustain the turnover that is necessary for evolution. The idea that the ageing characteristic was selected (an adaptation) because of its deleterious effect was largely discounted for much of the 20th century, but a theoretical model suggests that altruistic ageing could evolve if there is little migration among populations. Weismann later abandoned his theory and after some time followed up with his "programmed death" theory. Natural selection is a process that allows organisms to better adapt to the environment, it is the survival of the fittest which are predicted to produce more offsprings. Natural selection acts on life history traits in order to optimize reproductive success and lifetime fitness. Fitness in this context refers to how likely an organism is to survive and reproduce. It is based on the environment and is also relative to other individuals in the population. Examples of lif
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicentric%20chromosome	A dicentric chromosome is an abnormal chromosome with two centromeres. It is formed through the fusion of two chromosome segments, each with a centromere, resulting in the loss of acentric fragments (lacking a centromere) and the formation of dicentric fragments. The formation of dicentric chromosomes has been attributed to genetic processes, such as Robertsonian translocation and paracentric inversion. Dicentric chromosomes have important roles in the mitotic stability of chromosomes and the formation of pseudodicentric chromosomes. Their existence has been linked to certain natural phenomena such as irradiation and have been documented to underlie certain clinical syndromes, notably Kabuki syndrome. The formation of dicentric chromosomes and their implications on centromere function are studied in certain clinical cytogenetics laboratories. Formation Most dicentric chromosomes are known to form through chromosomal inversions, which are rotations in regions of a chromosome due to chromosomal breakages or intra-chromosomal recombinations. Inversions that exclude the centromere are known as paracentric inversions, which result in unbalanced gametes after meiosis. During prophase of meiosis I, homologous chromosomes form an inversion loop and crossover occurs. If a paracentric inversion has occurred, one of the products will be acentric, while the other product will be dicentric. The dicentric chromatid is pulled apart during anaphase of meiosis I with such force that the chromosome breaks at random positions. These broken fragments result in deletions of genes that lead to genetically unbalanced gametes. This can have severe consequences, contributing to the development of genetic disorders such as Kabuki syndrome and Edwards syndrome. Irradiation Radiation is known to induce abnormalities in the nuclei of cells. Dicentric chromosomes were first detected in lymphocytes from blood smears of civil and military personnel who were assigned to deal with the aftermath
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindley%27s%20paradox	Lindley's paradox is a counterintuitive situation in statistics in which the Bayesian and frequentist approaches to a hypothesis testing problem give different results for certain choices of the prior distribution. The problem of the disagreement between the two approaches was discussed in Harold Jeffreys' 1939 textbook; it became known as Lindley's paradox after Dennis Lindley called the disagreement a paradox in a 1957 paper. Although referred to as a paradox, the differing results from the Bayesian and frequentist approaches can be explained as using them to answer fundamentally different questions, rather than actual disagreement between the two methods. Nevertheless, for a large class of priors the differences between the frequentist and Bayesian approach are caused by keeping the significance level fixed: as even Lindley recognized, "the theory does not justify the practice of keeping the significance level fixed'' and even "some computations by Prof. Pearson in the discussion to that paper emphasized how the significance level would have to change with the sample size, if the losses and prior probabilities were kept fixed.'' In fact, if the critical value increases with the sample size suitably fast, then the disagreement between the frequentist and Bayesian approaches becomes negligible as the sample size increases. Description of the paradox The result of some experiment has two possible explanations, hypotheses and , and some prior distribution representing uncertainty as to which hypothesis is more accurate before taking into account . Lindley's paradox occurs when The result is "significant" by a frequentist test of , indicating sufficient evidence to reject , say, at the 5% level, and The posterior probability of given is high, indicating strong evidence that is in better agreement with than . These results can occur at the same time when is very specific, more diffuse, and the prior distribution does not strongly favor one or the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction%20unit	The instruction unit (I-unit or IU), also called, e.g., instruction fetch unit (IFU), instruction issue unit (IIU), instruction sequencing unit (ISU), in a central processing unit (CPU) is responsible for organizing program instructions to be fetched from memory, and executed, in an appropriate order, and for forwarding them to an execution unit (E-unit or EU). The I-unit may also do, e.g., address resolution, pre-fetching, prior to forwarding an instruction. It is a part of the control unit, which in turn is part of the CPU. In the simplest style of computer architecture, the instruction cycle is very rigid, and runs exactly as specified by the programmer. In the instruction fetch part of the cycle, the value of the instruction pointer (IP) register is the address of the next instruction to be fetched. This value is placed on the address bus and sent to the memory unit; the memory unit returns the instruction at that address, and it is latched into the instruction register (IR); and the value of the IP is incremented or over-written by a new value (in the case of a jump or branch instruction), ready for the next instruction cycle. This becomes a lot more complicated, though, once performance-enhancing features are added, such as instruction pipelining, out-of-order execution, and even just the introduction of a simple instruction cache. See also Branch prediction and the branch prediction buffer Branch target predictor and the branch target buffer Branch delay slot Instruction scheduling Instruction selection Data dependency or data hazard Scoreboarding Very long instruction word (VLIW) Superscalar processor Opcode Analysis of Instruction parallelism, Instruction frequencies, Instruction mix Instruction path length or Instruction count
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetraspanin	Tetraspanins are a family of membrane proteins found in all multicellular eukaryotes also referred to as the transmembrane 4 superfamily (TM4SF) proteins. These proteins have four transmembrane alpha-helices and two extracellular domains, one short (called the small extracellular domain or loop, SED/SEL or EC1) and one longer, typically 100 amino acid residues (the large extracellular domain/loop, LED/LEL or EC2). Although several protein families have four transmembrane alpha-helices, tetraspanins are defined by conserved amino acid sequences including four or more cysteine residues in the EC2 domain, with two in a highly conserved 'CCG' motif. Tetraspanins are often thought to act as scaffolding proteins, anchoring multiple proteins to one area of the cell membrane. Tetraspanins are highly conserved between species. Some tetraspanins can have N-linked glycosylations on the long extracellular loop (LEL, EC2) and palmitoylations at a CXXC motif in their transmembrane region. There are 34 tetraspanins in mammals, 33 of which have also been identified in humans. Tetraspanins display numerous properties that indicate their physiological importance in cell adhesion, motility, activation, and proliferation, as well as their contribution to pathological conditions such as metastasis or viral infection. A role for tetraspanins in platelets was demonstrated by the bleeding phenotypes of CD151- and TSSC6-deficient mice, which exhibit impaired "outside-in" signalling through αIIbβ3, the major platelet integrin. it is hypothesized that tetraspanins interact with and regulate other platelet receptors. List of human tetraspanins See also List of human clusters of differentiation Relevance to parasite vaccines The schistosome worms make two tetraspanins: TSP-1 and TSP-2. TSP-2 antibodies are found in some people who seem to have immunity to schistosome infection (Schistosomiasis).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft-body%20dynamics	Soft-body dynamics is a field of computer graphics that focuses on visually realistic physical simulations of the motion and properties of deformable objects (or soft bodies). The applications are mostly in video games and films. Unlike in simulation of rigid bodies, the shape of soft bodies can change, meaning that the relative distance of two points on the object is not fixed. While the relative distances of points are not fixed, the body is expected to retain its shape to some degree (unlike a fluid). The scope of soft body dynamics is quite broad, including simulation of soft organic materials such as muscle, fat, hair and vegetation, as well as other deformable materials such as clothing and fabric. Generally, these methods only provide visually plausible emulations rather than accurate scientific/engineering simulations, though there is some crossover with scientific methods, particularly in the case of finite element simulations. Several physics engines currently provide software for soft-body simulation. Deformable solids The simulation of volumetric solid soft bodies can be realised by using a variety of approaches. Spring/mass models In this approach, the body is modeled as a set of point masses (nodes) connected by ideal weightless elastic springs obeying some variant of Hooke's law. The nodes may either derive from the edges of a two-dimensional polygonal mesh representation of the surface of the object, or from a three-dimensional network of nodes and edges modeling the internal structure of the object (or even a one-dimensional system of links, if for example a rope or hair strand is being simulated). Additional springs between nodes can be added, or the force law of the springs modified, to achieve desired effects. Applying Newton's second law to the point masses including the forces applied by the springs and any external forces (due to contact, gravity, air resistance, wind, and so on) gives a system of differential equations for the motion of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sextic%20equation	In algebra, a sextic (or hexic) polynomial is a polynomial of degree six. A sextic equation is a polynomial equation of degree six—that is, an equation whose left hand side is a sextic polynomial and whose right hand side is zero. More precisely, it has the form: where and the coefficients may be integers, rational numbers, real numbers, complex numbers or, more generally, members of any field. A sextic function is a function defined by a sextic polynomial. Because they have an even degree, sextic functions appear similar to quartic functions when graphed, except they may possess an additional local maximum and local minimum each. The derivative of a sextic function is a quintic function. Since a sextic function is defined by a polynomial with even degree, it has the same infinite limit when the argument goes to positive or negative infinity. If the leading coefficient is positive, then the function increases to positive infinity at both sides and thus the function has a global minimum. Likewise, if is negative, the sextic function decreases to negative infinity and has a global maximum. Solvable sextics Some sixth degree equations, such as , can be solved by factorizing into radicals, but other sextics cannot. Évariste Galois developed techniques for determining whether a given equation could be solved by radicals which gave rise to the field of Galois theory. It follows from Galois theory that a sextic equation is solvable in terms of radicals if and only if its Galois group is contained either in the group of order 48 which stabilizes a partition of the set of the roots into three subsets of two roots or in the group of order 72 which stabilizes a partition of the set of the roots into two subsets of three roots. There are formulas to test either case, and, if the equation is solvable, compute the roots in term of radicals. The general sextic equation can be solved by the two-variable Kampé de Fériet function. A more restricted class of sextics can be
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache%20Hadoop	Apache Hadoop () is a collection of open-source software utilities that facilitates using a network of many computers to solve problems involving massive amounts of data and computation. It provides a software framework for distributed storage and processing of big data using the MapReduce programming model. Hadoop was originally designed for computer clusters built from commodity hardware, which is still the common use. It has since also found use on clusters of higher-end hardware. All the modules in Hadoop are designed with a fundamental assumption that hardware failures are common occurrences and should be automatically handled by the framework. The core of Apache Hadoop consists of a storage part, known as Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), and a processing part which is a MapReduce programming model. Hadoop splits files into large blocks and distributes them across nodes in a cluster. It then transfers packaged code into nodes to process the data in parallel. This approach takes advantage of data locality, where nodes manipulate the data they have access to. This allows the dataset to be processed faster and more efficiently than it would be in a more conventional supercomputer architecture that relies on a parallel file system where computation and data are distributed via high-speed networking. The base Apache Hadoop framework is composed of the following modules: Hadoop Common – contains libraries and utilities needed by other Hadoop modules; Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) – a distributed file-system that stores data on commodity machines, providing very high aggregate bandwidth across the cluster; Hadoop YARN – (introduced in 2012) is a platform responsible for managing computing resources in clusters and using them for scheduling users' applications; Hadoop MapReduce – an implementation of the MapReduce programming model for large-scale data processing. Hadoop Ozone – (introduced in 2020) An object store for Hadoop The term Hadoop is o
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocol-based%20intrusion%20detection%20system	A protocol-based intrusion detection system (PIDS) is an intrusion detection system which is typically installed on a web server, and is used in the monitoring and analysis of the protocol in use by the computing system. A PIDS will monitor the dynamic behavior and state of the protocol and will typically consist of a system or agent that would typically sit at the front end of a server, monitoring and analyzing the communication between a connected device and the system it is protecting. A typical use for a PIDS would be at the front end of a web server monitoring the HTTP (or HTTPS) stream. Because it understands the HTTP relative to the web server/system it is trying to protect it can offer greater protection than less in-depth techniques such as filtering by IP address or port number alone, however this greater protection comes at the cost of increased computing on the web server. Where HTTPS is in use then this system would need to reside in the "shim" or interface between where HTTPS is un-encrypted and immediately prior to it entering the Web presentation layer. Monitoring dynamic behavior At a basic level a PIDS would look for, and enforce, the correct use of the protocol. At a more advanced level the PIDS can learn or be taught acceptable constructs of the protocol, and thus better detect anomalous behavior. See also Application protocol-based intrusion detection system (APIDS) Host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) Intrusion detection system (IDS) Network intrusion detection system (NIDS) Tripwire (software) – a pioneering HIDS Trusted Computing Group Trusted platform module Intrusion detection systems Web server management software es:PIDS ko:호스트 기반 침입 탐지 시스템 it:Protocol intrusion detection system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crooks%20fluctuation%20theorem	The Crooks fluctuation theorem (CFT), sometimes known as the Crooks equation, is an equation in statistical mechanics that relates the work done on a system during a non-equilibrium transformation to the free energy difference between the final and the initial state of the transformation. During the non-equilibrium transformation the system is at constant volume and in contact with a heat reservoir. The CFT is named after the chemist Gavin E. Crooks (then at University of California, Berkeley) who discovered it in 1998. The most general statement of the CFT relates the probability of a space-time trajectory to the time-reversal of the trajectory . The theorem says if the dynamics of the system satisfies microscopic reversibility, then the forward time trajectory is exponentially more likely than the reverse, given that it produces entropy, If one defines a generic reaction coordinate of the system as a function of the Cartesian coordinates of the constituent particles ( e.g. , a distance between two particles), one can characterize every point along the reaction coordinate path by a parameter , such that and correspond to two ensembles of microstates for which the reaction coordinate is constrained to different values. A dynamical process where is externally driven from zero to one, according to an arbitrary time scheduling, will be referred as forward transformation , while the time reversal path will be indicated as backward transformation. Given these definitions, the CFT sets a relation between the following five quantities: , i.e. the joint probability of taking a microstate from the canonical ensemble corresponding to and of performing the forward transformation to the microstate corresponding to ; , i.e. the joint probability of taking the microstate from the canonical ensemble corresponding to and of performing the backward transformation to the microstate corresponding to ; , where is the Boltzmann constant and the temperature of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Fairtrade%20Certification%20Mark	The 'International Fairtrede Certification Mark is an independent certification mark used in over 69 countries. It appears on products as an independent guarantee that a product has been produced according to Fairtrade political standards. The Fairtrade Mark is owned and protected by Fairtrade International (FLO), on behalf of its 25-member and associate member Fairtrade producer networks and labelling initiatives. For a product to carry the Fairtrade Mark, it must come from FLOCert inspected and certified producer organizations. The crops must be marketed in accordance with the International Fairtrade standards set by Fairtrade International. The supply chain is also monitored by FLOCert. To become certified Fairtrade producers, the primary cooperative and its member farmers must operate to certain political standards, imposed from Europe. FLO-CERT, the for-profit side, handles producer certification, inspecting and certifying producer organisations in more than 50 countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. In the Fair trade debate there are many complaints of failure to enforce these standards, with Fairtrade cooperatives, importers and packers profiting by evading them. As of 2006, the following products currently carry the Fairtrade Mark: coffee, tea, chocolate, cocoa, sugar, bananas, apples, pears, grapes, plums, lemons, oranges, Satsumas, clementines, lychees, avocados, pineapples, mangoes, fruit juices, quinoa, peppers, green beans, coconut, dried fruit, rooibos tea, green tea, cakes and biscuits, honey, muesli, cereal bars, jams, chutney and sauces, herbs and spices, nuts and nut oil, wine, beer, rum, flowers, footballs, rice, yogurt, baby food, sugar body scrub, cotton wool and cotton products. How it works The marketing system for Fairtrade and non-Fairtrade coffee is identical in the consuming countries, using mostly the same importing, packing, distributing and retailing firms. Some independent brands operate a virtual company, paying importers, p
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application%20protocol-based%20intrusion%20detection%20system	An application protocol-based intrusion detection system (APIDS) is an intrusion detection system that focuses its monitoring and analysis on a specific application protocol or protocols in use by the computing system. Overview An APIDS will monitor the dynamic behavior and state of the protocol and will typically consist of a system or agent that would typically sit between a process, or group of servers, monitoring and analyzing the application protocol between two connected devices. A typical place for an APIDS would be between a web server and the database management system, monitoring the SQL protocol specific to the middleware/business logic as it interacts with the database. Monitoring dynamic behavior At a basic level an APIDS would look for, and enforce, the correct (legal) use of the protocol. However at a more advanced level the APIDS can learn, be taught or even reduce what is often an infinite protocol set, to an acceptable understanding of the subset of that application protocol that is used by the application being monitored/protected. Thus, an APIDS, correctly configured, will allow an application to be "fingerprinted", thus should that application be subverted or changed, so will the fingerprint change. See also Intrusion detection system (IDS) Web application firewall (WAF) Intrusion detection systems es:APIDS ko:호스트 기반 침입 탐지 시스템
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed%20file%20library	A compressed file library (CFL) is designed to work as a virtual file system for programs, especially for video games. By compressing various game resources into one file, it is able to lower the number of file accesses. The resources can also be encrypted in the CFL. CFL is used by X-Forge, the multi-platform wireless 3D game engine developed by Fathammer Ltd. It is also used by IMVU for its 3D character models and accessories. See also Doom WAD, a similar file system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack%20surface	The attack surface of a software environment is the sum of the different points (for "attack vectors") where an unauthorized user (the "attacker") can try to enter data to, extract data, control a device or critical software in an environment. Keeping the attack surface as small as possible is a basic security measure. Elements of an attack surface Worldwide digital change has accelerated the size, scope, and composition of an organization's attack surface. The size of an attack surface may fluctuate over time, adding and subtracting assets and digital systems (e.g. websites, hosts, cloud and mobile apps, etc.). Attack surface sizes can change rapidly as well. Digital assets eschew the physical requirements of traditional network devices, servers, data centers, and on-premise networks. This leads to attack surfaces changing rapidly, based on the organization's needs and the availability of digital services to accomplish it. Attack surface scope also varies from organization to organization. With the rise of digital supply chains, interdependencies, and globalization, an organization's attack surface has a broader scope of concern (viz. vectors for cyberattacks). Lastly, the composition of an organization's attack surface consists of small entities linked together in digital relationships and connections to the rest of the internet and organizational infrastructure, including the scope of third-parties, digital supply chain, and even adversary-threat infrastructure. An attack surface composition can range widely between various organizations, yet often identify many of the same elements, including: Autonomous System Numbers (ASNs) IP Address and IP Blocks Domains and Sub-Domains (direct and third-parties) SSL Certificates and Attribution WHOIS Records, Contacts, and History Host and Host Pair Services and Relationship Internet Ports and Services NetFlow Web Frameworks (PHP, Apache, Java, etc.) Web Server Services (email, database, applications) Pub
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open%20Archival%20Information%20System	An Open Archival Information System (or OAIS) is an archive, consisting of an organization of people and systems, that has accepted the responsibility to preserve information and make it available for a Designated Community. The OAIS model can be applied to various archives, e.g., open access, closed, restricted, "dark", or proprietary. The term OAIS also refers, by extension, to the ISO OAIS Reference Model for an OAIS. This reference model is defined by recommendation CCSDS 650.0-B-2 of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems; this text is identical to = 57284 ISO 14721:2012. The CCSDS's purview is space agencies, but the OAIS model it developed has proved useful to other organizations and institutions with digital archiving needs. OAIS, known as ISO 14721:2003, is widely accepted and utilized by various organizations and disciplines, both national and international, and was designed to ensure preservation. The OAIS standard, published in 2005, is considered the optimum standard to create and maintain a digital repository over a long period of time. The information being maintained has been deemed to need "long term preservation", even if the OAIS itself is not permanent. "Long term" is long enough to be concerned with the impacts of changing technologies, including support for new media and data formats, or with a changing user community. "Long term" may extend indefinitely. The OAIS defines a long period of time as any length of time that might be impacted by changing technologies and the changing of "Designated Community," e.g., any group of consumers capable of understanding the information. This length of time can be indefinite. The archive defines the community and that definition is not fixed. The "O" in OAIS represents the "open way the standard was developed", and does not represent "open access", or the usage of the term open in the Open Definition or Open Archives Initiative. The "I" in OAIS represents "information", meaning data th
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode%20symbol	In computing, a Unicode symbol is a Unicode character which is not part of a script used to write a natural language, but is nonetheless available for use as part of a text. Many of the symbols are drawn from existing character sets or ISO/IEC or other national and international standards. The Unicode Standard states that "The universe of symbols is rich and open-ended," but that in order to be considered, a symbol must have a "demonstrated need or strong desire to exchange in plain text." This makes the issue of what symbols to encode and how symbols should be encoded more complicated than the issues surrounding writing systems. Unicode focuses on symbols that make sense in a one-dimensional plain-text context. For example, the typical two-dimensional arrangement of electronic diagram symbols justifies their exclusion. (Box-drawing characters are a partial exception, for legacy purposes, and a number of electronic diagram symbols are indeed encoded in Unicode's Miscellaneous Technical block.) For adequate treatment in plain text, symbols must also be displayable in a monochromatic setting. Even with these limitations monochromatic, one-dimensional and standards-based the domain of potential Unicode symbols is extensive. (However, emojis ideograms, graphic symbols that were admitted into Unicode, allow colors although the colors are not standardized.) Symbol block list There are , including the following symbol blocks: Alphanumeric variants (based on Latin characters in Unicode) Currency Symbols (U+20A0–U+20CF) General Punctuation (U+2000–U+206F) Letterlike Symbols (U+2100–U+214F) Number Forms (U+2150–U+218F) Phonetic symbols (including IPA) (various blocks) Superscripts and Subscripts (U+2070–U+209F) Enclosed variants Enclosed Alphanumeric Supplement (1F100–1F1FF) Enclosed Alphanumerics (U+2460–U+24FF) Enclosed Ideographic Supplement (1F200–1F2FF) Arrows Arrows (U+2190–U+21FF) Dingbats arrows (U+2794–U+27BF) Miscellaneous Symbols and Arrows (U+2B
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical%20operators%20and%20symbols%20in%20Unicode	The Unicode Standard encodes almost all standard characters used in mathematics. Unicode Technical Report #25 provides comprehensive information about the character repertoire, their properties, and guidelines for implementation. Mathematical operators and symbols are in multiple Unicode blocks. Some of these blocks are dedicated to, or primarily contain, mathematical characters while others are a mix of mathematical and non-mathematical characters. This article covers all Unicode characters with a derived property of "Math". Dedicated blocks Mathematical Operators block The Mathematical Operators block (U+2200–U+22FF) contains characters for mathematical, logical, and set notation. Supplemental Mathematical Operators block The Supplemental Mathematical Operators block (U+2A00–U+2AFF) contains various mathematical symbols, including N-ary operators, summations and integrals, intersections and unions, logical and relational operators, and subset/superset relations. Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols block The Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols block (U+1D400–U+1D7FF) contains Latin and Greek letters and decimal digits that enable mathematicians to denote different notions with different letter styles. The reserved code points (the "holes") in the alphabetic ranges up to U+1D551 duplicate characters in the Letterlike Symbols block. Letterlike Symbols block The Letterlike Symbols block (U+2100–U+214F) includes variables. Most alphabetic math symbols are in the Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols block shown above. The math subset of this block is U+2102, U+2107, U+210A–U+2113, U+2115, U+2118–U+211D, U+2124, U+2128–U+2129, U+212C–U+212D, U+212F–U+2131, U+2133–U+2138, U+213C–U+2149, and U+214B. Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A block The Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-A block (U+27C0–U+27EF) contains characters for mathematical, logical, and database notation. Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B block The Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B block (
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20artificial%20chromosome	A human artificial chromosome (HAC) is a microchromosome that can act as a new chromosome in a population of human cells. That is, instead of 46 chromosomes, the cell could have 47 with the 47th being very small, roughly 6–10megabases (Mb) in size instead of 50–250Mb for natural chromosomes, and able to carry new genes introduced by human researchers. Ideally, researchers could integrate different genes that perform a variety of functions, including disease defense. Alternative methods of creating transgenes, such as utilizing yeast artificial chromosomes and bacterial artificial chromosomes, lead to unpredictable problems. The genetic material introduced by these vectors not only leads to different expression levels, but the inserts also disrupt the original genome. HACs differ in this regard, as they are entirely separate chromosomes. This separation from existing genetic material assumes that no insertional mutants would arise. This stability and accuracy makes HACs preferable to other methods such as viral vectors, YACs, and BACs. HACs allow for delivery of more DNA (including promoters and copy-number variation) than is possible with viral vectors. Yeast artificial chromosomes and bacterial artificial chromosomes were created before human artificial chromosomes, which were first developed in 1997. HACs are useful in expression studies as gene transfer vectors, as a tool for elucidating human chromosome function, and as a method for actively annotating the human genome. History HACs were first constructed de novo in 1997 by adding alpha-satellite DNA to telomeric and genomic DNA in human HT1080 cells. This resulted in an entirely new microchromosome that contained DNA of interest, as well as elements allowing it to be structurally and mitotically stable, such as telomeric and centromeric sequences. Due to the difficulty of de novo HAC formation, this method has largely been abandoned. Construction methods There are currently two accepted models for the crea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane%20Poynter	Jane Poynter is an American aerospace executive, author and speaker. She is founder, co-CEO and CXO of Space Perspective, a luxury space travel company. She was co-founder and former CEO of World View Enterprises, a private near-space exploration and technology company headquartered in Tucson, Arizona. Poynter was also a founding member of the Biosphere 2 design team and a crew member from the original two-year mission inside the materially closed ecological system. Prior to World View, Poynter served as co-founder, Chairwoman and President of Paragon Space Development Corporation, a designer and manufacturer of hazardous environment life support equipment. Business ventures Space Perspective Space Perspective is a high-altitude flight tourism company, founded and incorporated in 2019 by Poynter and Taber MacCallum, with plans to launch its nine-person Spaceship Neptune crewed balloon from NASA Kennedy Space Center. On June 18, 2020, Space Perspective announced plans to balloon passengers to nearly above the Earth. The tickets are US$125,000 per seat. On 2 December 2020, Space Perspective closed its seed funding round. US$7 million of funding had been gathered. The company planned the first uncrewed test flight in the first half of 2021 and crewed operational flights by end of 2024. World View Enterprises World View Enterprises, doing business as World View, is a private American near-space exploration and technology company headquartered in Tucson, Arizona, founded with the goal of increasing access to and the utilization of the stratosphere for scientific, commercial, and economic purposes. World View was founded and incorporated in 2012 by a team of aerospace and life support veterans, including Biosphere 2 crew-members Poynter and Taber MacCallum, Alan Stern (the principal investigator of the New Horizons mission to Pluto), and former NASA astronaut Mark Kelly. The company designs, manufactures and operates stratospheric flight technology for a variety o
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%20banding	G-banding, G banding or Giemsa banding is a technique used in cytogenetics to produce a visible karyotype by staining condensed chromosomes. It is the most common chromosome banding method. It is useful for identifying genetic diseases (mainly chromosomal abnormalities) through the photographic representation of the entire chromosome complement. Method The metaphase chromosomes are treated with trypsin (to partially digest the chromosome) and stained with Giemsa stain. Heterochromatic regions, which tend to be rich with adenine and thymine (AT-rich) DNA and relatively gene-poor, stain more darkly in G-banding. In contrast, less condensed chromatin (Euchromatin)—which tends to be rich with guanine and cytosine (GC-rich) and more transcriptionally active—incorporates less Giemsa stain, and these regions appear as light bands in G-banding. The pattern of bands are numbered on each arm of the chromosome from the centromere to the telomere. This numbering system allows any band on the chromosome to be identified and described precisely. The reverse of G‑bands is obtained in R‑banding. Staining with Giemsa confers a purple color to chromosomes, but micrographs are often converted to grayscale to facilitate data presentation and make comparisons of results from different laboratories. The less condensed the chromosomes are, the more bands appear when G-banding. This means that the different chromosomes are more distinct in prophase than they are in metaphase. Advantage It is difficult to identify and group chromosomes based on simple staining because the uniform colour of the structures makes it difficult to differentiate between the different chromosomes. Therefore, techniques like G‑banding were developed that made "bands" appear on the chromosomes. These bands were the same in appearance on the homologous chromosomes, thus, identification became easier and more accurate. Types of banding Other types of cytogenic banding are listed below: See also Eukaryotic chrom
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein%20nitrogen%20unit	The protein nitrogen unit (PNU) measures the potency of the compounds used in allergy skin tests, and is equivalent to 0.01 microgram (µg) of phosphotungstic acid-precipitable protein nitrogen. Potency measurements depend on the measurement technique, so that results from different manufacturers cannot be reliably compared: as a result, PNUs are being replaced by bioequivalent allergy units (BAU), which are measured by skin testing using reference preparations of standard potency. Notes Medical technology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twinkle%20%28software%29	Twinkle is a free and open-source application for voice communications over Voice over IP (VoIP) protocol. Architecture It is designed for Linux operating systems and uses the Qt toolkit for its graphical user interface. For call signaling it employs the Session Initiation Protocol (SIP). It also features direct IP-to-IP calls. Media streams are transmitted via the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) which may be encrypted with the Secure Real-time Transport Protocol (SRTP) and the ZRTP security protocols. Since version 1.3.2 (September 2008), Twinkle supports message exchange and a buddy-list feature for presence notification, showing the online-status of predefined communications partners (provider-support needed). Supported audio formats G.711 A-law: 64 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate G.711 μ-law: 64 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate G.726: 16, 24, 32 or 40 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate GSM: 13 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate G.729: 8 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate iLBC: 13.3 or 15.2 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate Speex narrow band: 15.2 kbit/s payload, 8 kHz sampling rate Speex wide band: 28 kbit/s payload, 16 kHz sampling rate Speex ultra wide band: 36 kbit/s payload, 32 kHz sampling rate See also Comparison of VoIP software List of SIP software List of free and open-source software packages Opportunistic encryption
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicuticular%20wax	Epicuticular wax is a waxy coating which covers the outer surface of the plant cuticle in land plants. It may form a whitish film or bloom on leaves, fruits and other plant organs. Chemically, it consists of hydrophobic organic compounds, mainly straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons with or without a variety of substituted functional groups. The main functions of the epicuticular wax are to decrease surface wetting and moisture loss. Other functions include reflection of ultraviolet light, assisting in the formation of an ultra-hydrophobic and self-cleaning surface and acting as an anti-climb surface. Chemical composition Common constituents of epicuticular wax are predominantly straight-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons that may be saturated or unsaturated and contain a variety of functional groups, such as -hydroxyl, carboxyl, and -ketoyl at the terminal position. This broadens the spectrum of wax composition to fatty acids, primary alcohols, and aldehydes; if the substitution occurs at the mid-chain, it will result in β-diketones and secondary alcohols. Other major components of epicuticular waxes are long-chain n-alkanoic acids such as C24, C26, and C28. These waxes can be composed of a variety of compounds which differ between plant species. Wax tubules and wax platelets often have chemical as well as morphological differences. Tubules can be separated into two groups; the first primarily containing secondary alcohols, and the second containing β-diketones. Platelets are either dominated by triterpenoids, alkanes, aldehydes, esters, secondary alcohols, or flavonoids. However, chemical composition is not diagnostic of a tubule or platelet, as this does not determine the morphology. Paraffins occur in leaves of peas and cabbages, for example. Leaves of carnauba palm and banana feature alkyl esters. The asymmetrical secondary alcohol 10-nonacosanol appears in most gymnosperms such as Ginkgo biloba and Sitka spruce as well as many of the Ranunculaceae, Papaveraceae
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert%20symbol	In mathematics, the Hilbert symbol or norm-residue symbol is a function (–, –) from K× × K× to the group of nth roots of unity in a local field K such as the fields of reals or p-adic numbers. It is related to reciprocity laws, and can be defined in terms of the Artin symbol of local class field theory. The Hilbert symbol was introduced by in his Zahlbericht, with the slight difference that he defined it for elements of global fields rather than for the larger local fields. The Hilbert symbol has been generalized to higher local fields. Quadratic Hilbert symbol Over a local field K whose multiplicative group of non-zero elements is K×, the quadratic Hilbert symbol is the function (–, –) from K× × K× to {−1,1} defined by Equivalently, if and only if is equal to the norm of an element of the quadratic extension page 110. Properties The following three properties follow directly from the definition, by choosing suitable solutions of the diophantine equation above: If a is a square, then (a, b) = 1 for all b. For all a,b in K×, (a, b) = (b, a). For any a in K× such that a−1 is also in K×, we have (a, 1−a) = 1. The (bi)multiplicativity, i.e., (a, b1b2) = (a, b1)·(a, b2) for any a, b1 and b2 in K× is, however, more difficult to prove, and requires the development of local class field theory. The third property shows that the Hilbert symbol is an example of a Steinberg symbol and thus factors over the second Milnor K-group , which is by definition K× ⊗ K× / (a ⊗ (1−a), a ∈ K× \ {1}) By the first property it even factors over . This is the first step towards the Milnor conjecture. Interpretation as an algebra The Hilbert symbol can also be used to denote the central simple algebra over K with basis 1,i,j,k and multiplication rules , , . In this case the algebra represents an element of order 2 in the Brauer group of K, which is identified with -1 if it is a division algebra and +1 if it is isomorphic to the algebra of 2 by 2 matrices. Hilbert symbols over the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subcellular%20localization	The cells of eukaryotic organisms are elaborately subdivided into functionally-distinct membrane-bound compartments. Some major constituents of eukaryotic cells are: extracellular space, plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), peroxisome, vacuoles, cytoskeleton, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, nuclear matrix and ribosomes. Bacteria also have subcellular localizations that can be separated when the cell is fractionated. The most common localizations referred to include the cytoplasm, the cytoplasmic membrane (also referred to as the inner membrane in Gram-negative bacteria), the cell wall (which is usually thicker in Gram-positive bacteria) and the extracellular environment. The cytoplasm, the cytoplasmic membrane and the cell wall are subcellular localizations, whereas the extracellular environment is clearly not. Most Gram-negative bacteria also contain an outer membrane and periplasmic space. Unlike eukaryotes, most bacteria contain no membrane-bound organelles, however there are some exceptions (i.e. magnetosomes). Protein Subcellular Location Databases The experimentally determined subcellular locations of proteins can be found in UniProtKB, Compartments, and in a few more specialized resources, such as the lactic acid bacterial secretome database. There are also several subcellular location databases with computational predictions, such as the fungal secretome and subcellular proteome knowledgebase - version 2 (FunSecKB2), the plant secretome and subcellular proteome knowledgebase (PlantSecKB), MetazSecKB for protein subcellular locations of human and animals, and ProtSecKB for protein subcellular locations of all protists. See also Protein targeting Protein subcellular localization prediction.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular%20space	Extracellular space refers to the part of a multicellular organism outside the cells, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid. This is distinguished from intracellular space, which is inside the cells. The composition of the extracellular space includes metabolites, ions, proteins, and many other substances that might affect cellular function. For example, neurotransmitters "jump" from cell to cell to facilitate the transmission of an electric current in the nervous system. Hormones also act by travelling the extracellular space towards cell receptors. In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular (or sometimes extracellular space) means "outside the cell". This space is usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid (see extracellular matrix). The term is used in contrast to intracellular (inside the cell). According to the Gene Ontology, the extracellular space is a cellular component defined as: "That part of a multicellular organism outside the cells proper, usually taken to be outside the plasma membranes, and occupied by fluid. For multicellular organisms, the extracellular space refers to everything outside a cell, but still within the organism (excluding the extracellular matrix). Gene products from a multi-cellular organism that are secreted from a cell into the interstitial fluid or blood can therefore be annotated to this term". The composition of the extracellular space includes metabolites, ions, various proteins and non-protein substances (e.g. DNA, RNA, lipids, microbial products etc.), and particles such as extracellular vesicles that might affect cellular function. For example, hormones, growth factors, cytokines and chemokines act by travelling the extracellular space towards biochemical receptors on cells. Other proteins that are active outside the cell are various enzymes, including digestive enzymes (Trypsin, Pepsin), extracellular proteinases (Matrix me
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBIST	Programmable Built-In Self-Test (PBIST) is a memory DFT feature that incorporates all the required test systems into the chip itself. The test systems implemented on-chip are as follows: algorithmic address generator algorithmic data generator program storage unit loop control mechanisms PBIST was originally adopted by large memory chips that have high pin counts and operate at high frequencies, thereby exceeding the capability of production testers. The purpose of PBIST is to avoid developing and buying more sophisticated and very expensive testers. The interface between PBIST, which is internal to the processor, and the external tester environment is through the standard JTAG TAP controller pins. Algorithms and controls are fed into the chip through the TAP controller's Test Data Input (TDI) pin. The final result of the PBIST test is read out through the Test Data Output (TDO) pin. PBIST supports the entire algorithmic memory testing requirements imposed by the production testing methodology. In order to support all of the required test algorithms, PBIST must have the capability to store the required programs locally in the device. It must also be able to perform different address generation schemes, different test data pattern generation, looping schemes, and data comparisons. Work on most of programmable memory BIST approaches concerns the programmability of the memory test algorithm. The programmable memory BIST proposed has several advantages: • It enables programming both test algorithms and test data. • It implements test algorithm programmability at low cost, by extracting the different levels of hierarchy of the test algorithm and associating a hardware bloc to each of them, resulting on low cost hardware • It enables low-cost implementation of full-data programmability by adapting the transparent memory test approach in a manner that uses the memory under test for programming the test data. Part of the Built-in self-test. Electronic design aut
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison%20shyness	Poison shyness, also called conditioned food aversion, is the avoidance of a toxic substance by an animal that has previously ingested that substance. Animals learn an association between stimulus characteristics, usually the taste or odor, of a toxic substance and the illness it produces; this allows them to detect and avoid the substance. Poison shyness occurs as an evolutionary adaptation in many animals, most prominently in generalists that feed on many different materials. It is often called bait shyness when it occurs during attempts at pest control of insects and animals. If the pest ingests the poison bait at sublethal doses, it typically detects and avoids the bait, rendering the bait ineffective. In nature For any organism to survive, it must have adaptive mechanisms to avoid toxicosis. In mammals, a variety of behavioral and physiological mechanisms have been identified that allow them to avoid being poisoned. First, there are innate rejection mechanisms such as the rejection of toxic materials that taste bitter. Second, there are other physiologically adaptive responses such as vomiting or alterations in the digestion and processing of toxic materials. Third, there are learned aversions to distinctive foods if ingestion is followed by illness. A typical experiment tested food aversion learning in squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus), using several kinds of cues. Both species showed one-trial learning with the visual cues of color and shape, whereas only the marmosets did so with an olfactory cue. Both species showed a tendency for quicker acquisition of the association with visual cues than with the olfactory cue. All individuals from both species were able to remember the significance of the visual cues, color and shape, even after 4 months. However, illness was not necessarily prerequisite for food avoidance learning in these species, for highly concentrated but non-toxic bitter and sour tastes also induced r

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